The Transformation of Physical Education: 1900-1939

Chapter 10

Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Physical Education: 20th Century Reform Social development objectives Adoption of sports by physical education The development of play theory

19th Century Physical Education Early physical educators focused on health

Backgrounds were doctors and educatorsCoursework in hygiene, physiology, and

instruction in fitness activities Activities included gymnastics and

calisthenics

20th Century General Education

Physical education: valued part of curriculum Social development objectives emphasized Transformation: began with “athletics are

educational” movement (1906-1916) Concluded with “sports for all” (1917-1939) Traditional health and fitness objectives

subjugated to social development objectives Result of external forces more than philosophical

reorientation

External Forces

Physical educators capitalized on sports Reformed philosophy in to accommodate sports Determined effort by APEA

Put athletics into education, education into athletics

Athletic competition and intramural sports challenged gymnastics and calisthenics

By 1930: most instructional activities devoted to sports and intramural programs

Harvard-Princeton Football Game, 1913

Physical Education and Athletic Changes Before 1906 physical education taught by faculty Athletics governed by athletic associations

Controlled by students and alumni No national governing body to oversee athletics

Abuses caused faculty intervention High school: control achieved by merging athletics

and physical education Athletic directors and coaches hired

Physical Education and Coaching Teaching done by coaches Shift away from health focus Teachers trained by educators, not health

experts Most physical educators women Men preferred coaching

1900-1920: no coursework offered in coaching 1919: George Huff developed first degree program in

coaching (University of Illinois)

Merging of Athletics and Physical Education

Varsity athletic competition dominates physical education

1906-1916: college presidents assumed responsibility for athletic programs

1917-1939: “Sports for All” Final stage in transformation of physical education

National organizations charged with increasing sports participation

Athletics, Physical Education, and Crisis Most states passed legislation mandating

physical education in schools College physical education departments

established rapidly Few physical education professors Coaches became physical educators 1929 survey: 23 had formal training in physical

education Most had been successful athletes or coaches

Athletics, Physical Education, and Crisis Qualified physical educators were concerned

with low standards Jesse Feiring Williams

Sport and physical education became permanently tied together Educators still argued over emphasis Still confused about their educational missions

Development of Play Theory Herbert Spencer

Play as expending excess energy Karl Groos

Humans played as preparation for life Play behavior was instinctual

G. Stanley Hall Influential psychologist early 20th century Childhood as rehearsal for the evolution

Play is fundamental to development of species

Play Theory

Luther Gulick: influential physical educatorEmphasized benefits of play for

development of private and social self John Dewey: influential philosopher and

educational theoristBelieved that mind/body were integrated

Play Theory: Dewey

Body produced experiences that shaped individual

Play: important activity in educational process Ultimate goal of Dewey’s system: education

for democratic citizenship Dewey and others helped introduce social

games and social play as significant Physical education incorporated these ideas into

educational programs

Play and Physical Education

Play received support at the city levelPlayground movement began in large cities1890s: Chicago, Boston, N.Y.

Play theory received growing support Gymnastics, science-based programs

preferred by many until 1910s By 1915: Play and sport became focus

Play in Physical Education, 1900–1915Supporters argued for play over gymnastics Henry Curtis: team games developed group

awareness, loyalty, and leadership Luther Gulick

Used biological rationale to promote play Sports teach one to survive Sport activities arose because of a need to

practice these skills

Summary of Play

Developed health and vigor Character

loyalty, sportsmanship, friendliness, leadership

Democracy through group cooperation Moral and ethical values Educational because it is “instinctive”

Ball Game on School Playground, 1910

The New Physical Education: 1915–1930 Physical education incorporated new

theories of psychology and other sciences Behavioristic and psychosocial

objectives/ideas Three individuals especially important:

Clark HetheringtonThomas D. WoodRosalind Cassidy

Clark Hetherington

Divided physical education into four areas (1910) Organic, psychomotor, character, intellect

Four areas blended to produce five objectives Physical training Social adjustment Response powers (early motor learning theory) Character development Improve thinking (cognition)

Clark Hetherington

Argued for educational and social objectives over health objectives

Successfully argued that physical education is essential for education

Most physical educators eventually embrace play, games, dance, and sport

Quantification of Physical Education Measurement of motor ability and physical

efficiency Attempts to link physical ability and mental

ability Assessment of physical fitness