Chapter12TheSecondWarfor

IndependenceandtheUpsurgeofNationalism,

1812–1824

I.OntoCanadaoverLandandLakes

• Warof1812:• Regulararmyill-trained,ill-disciplined,andscattered• Hadtobesupplementedbyevenmorepoorlytrainedmilitias• Somegeneralsweresemi-senileheirloomsfromRevolutionaryWar

– Canada:• ImportantbattlegroundbecauseBritishforceswereweakestthere(seeMap12.1)

Map 12-1 p227

I.OntoCanadaoverLandandLakes(cont.)

– Canada:• America'soffensivestrategypoorlyconceived• MissedbynotcapturingMontreal• Insteadledathree-prongedinvasion• InvadingforcesfromDetroit,Niagara,&LakeChamplainweredefeatedsoonaftercrossingCanadianborder

– Bycontrast:• British&Canadiansdisplayedgreatenergy• QuicklycapturedAmericanfortMichilimackinac

I.OntoCanadaoverLandandLakes(cont.)

– Americanslookedforsuccessonwater– Americannavydidmuchbetterthanarmy– AmericancraftwerebetterthanBritishships• e.g.,USSConstitutionhadthickersides,heavierfirepower,&largercrews

I.OntoCanadaoverLandandLakes(cont.)

• ControlofGreatLakeswasvital:– EnergeticAmericanofficerOliverHazardPerrymanagedtobuildafleet

– Perry'svictoryonLakeErieinfusednewlifeintoAmericancause

– RedcoatswereforcedfromDetroitandFortMaldenandthenbeatenatBattleofThames(October1813)

I.OntoCanadaoverLandandLakes(cont.)

• Despitesuccesses,Americansbylate1814werefarfrominvadingCanada:– ThousandsofredcoatveteransbegantopourintoCanadafromContinent

–With10,000troops,Britishpreparedforwarin1814againstNewYork,alonglake-riverroute

– Lackingroads,invadersforcedtobringsuppliesoverLakeChamplainwaterway

I.OntoCanadaoverLandandLakes(cont.)

• Americanfleet,commandedbyThomasMacdonough,challengedBritish:– DesperatebattlefoughtnearPlattsburghonSeptember11,1814

– ResultsofAmericanvictoryweremomentous:• Britisharmyforcedtoretreat• MacdonoughsavedupperNewYorkfromconquest• AffectedconcurrentnegotiationsofAnglo-AmericanpeacetreatyinEurope

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II.WashingtonBurnedandNewOrleansDefended

• AsecondBritishforceof4,000landedinChesapeakeBayareainAugust1814.

• MarchingtowardWashington,theydispersed6,000militiamenatBladensburg.

• Setbuildingsonfire,incl.Capitol&WhiteHouse.

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II.WashingtonBurnedandNewOrleansDefended(cont.)

• AmericansatBaltimore,however,heldfirm:• BritishhammeredFortMcHenry,butunabletotakecity

• FrancisScottKeyinspiredtowrite“TheStar-SpangledBanner”

• AthirdBritishassaultin1814,aimedatNewOrleans,menacedentireMississippiValley:• AndrewJackson,freshfromvictoryatBattleofHorseshoeBend(seeMap12.5),incommand

II.WashingtonBurnedandNewOrleansDefended(cont.)

• Jacksonhad7,000soldiersholdingdefensivepositions.

• 8,000Britishsoldiersblunderedbadly:– LaunchedfrontalassaultonJanuary8,1815• Sufferedmostdevastatingdefeatofentirewar• Lostover2,000killedandwoundedin½hour• AnastonishingvictoryforJacksonandhismen

• NewsofAmericanvictoryinBattleofNewOrleanswasgreatencouragement.

II.WashingtonBurnedandNewOrleansDefended(cont.)

• Jacksonbecameanationalhero.• PeacetreatysignedatGhent,Belgium:– EndedwartwoweeksbeforeBattleofNewOrleans

– U.S.A.foughtforhonorasmuchasmaterialgain– BattleofNewOrleansrestoredthathonor– BritishretaliatedwithdevastatingblockadealongAmerica'scoast

III.TheTreatyofGhent

• TsarAlexanderIofRussiaproposedmediationin1812:• Hisproposalbrought5AmericanpeacemakerstoBelgiancityofGhentin1814

• GroupheadedbyJohnQuincyAdams• Confidentfromearlymilitarysuccesses,BritishinitiallydemandedaneutralizedIndianbufferstateinGreatLakesregion,controlofGreatLakes,&asubstantialpartofMaine

III.TheTreatyofGhent(cont.)

– Americansflatlyrejectedthesetermsandtalksstalemated:• BritishreversesinupperNewYorkandBaltimoremadeLondonmorewillingtocompromise• EnglandalsopreoccupiedwithredraftingmapofEuropeatCongressofVienna(1814-1815)andeyeingstill-dangerousFrance

– TreatyofGhent,signedonChristmasEve,1814wasessentiallyanarmistice.

IV.FederalistGrievancesandtheHartfordConvention

• NewEnglandextremistsproposedsecessionoratleastseparatepeacewithBritain:– HartfordConvention:• Massachusetts,Connecticut,&RhodeIslandsentfulldelegations• NewHampshire&Vermontsentpartialdelegations• 26menmetinsecrecyfor3weeks—Dec.15,1814toJan.5,1815—todiscussgrievances• Onlyafewdelegatesadvocatedsecession

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IV.FederalistGrievancesandtheHartfordConvention(cont.)

• HartfordConventionwasnotradical.• Convention'sfinalreportwasmoderate:

• DemandsreflectedFederalistfearsthatNewEnglandwasbecomingsubservienttoSouth&West• DemandedfinancialassistancefromWashingtontocompensateforlosttrade• Proposedconstitutionalamendmentsrequiring2/3voteinCongressbeforeanembargocouldbeimposed,newstatesadmitted,orwardeclared

IV.FederalistGrievancesandtheHartfordConvention(cont.)

• Delegatessoughttoabolish3/5clause• Tolimitpresidentstosingleterm• Toprohibitelectionoftwosuccessivepresidentsfromsamestate–thisaimedat“Virginiadynasty”

– ThreeenvoyscarrieddemandstoWashington:• ArrivedjustasnewsofNewOrleansvictoryappeared• HartfordConventionwasdeathofFederalistparty• Federalistsneveragainabletomountsuccessfulpresidentialcampaign(seeMap12.2)

Map 12-2 p231

V.TheSecondWarforAmericanIndependence

• Warof1812asmallwar:– 6,000Americanskilledorwounded

• Globallyunimportant,warhadhugeconsequencesforUnitedStates:– OthernationsdevelopednewrespectforAmerica'sprowessthankstoPerry&Macdonough

– Indiplomaticsense,conflictcouldbecalled2ndWarforAmericanIndependence

V.TheSecondWarforAmericanIndependence(cont.)

• Sectionalismdealtblackeye.• Federalistsweremostconspicuouscasualty.• Warheroesemerged—JacksonandHarrison—bothlaterbecamepresident.• AbandonedbyBritish,Indiansforcedtomaketermsasbesttheycould.• Ineconomicsense,warbredgreaterU.S.independenceviaincreasedmanufacturing.

V.TheSecondWarforAmericanIndependence(cont.)

• Canadianpatriotismincreasedbywar.• ManyfeltbetrayedbyTreatyofGhent:• AggrievedbyfailuretosecureIndianbufferstateorevenmasteryofGreatLakes• Rush-Bagotagreement(1817)betweenBritain&U.S.A.limitednavalarmamentonGreatLakes• Borderfortificationslaterremoved• UnitedStatesandCanadacametoshareworld'slongestunfortifiedboundary—5,527miles

VI.NascentNationalism

Mostimpressiveby-productofwarwasheightenednationalism(nation-consciousnessornationaloneness):• Americamaynothavefoughtwarasonenation,butitemergedasonenation• WashingtonIrvingandJamesFenimoreCooperattainedinternationalfameasAmericanwriters• RevisedBankofUnitedStatesapprovedbyCongressin1816• NewnationalcapitalbegantoriseinWashington

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VI.NascentNationalism(cont.)

• Armyexpandedtotenthousand• Navyfurthercovereditselfwithvictoryin1815whenitbeatpiraticalplunderersofNorthAfrica

VII.“TheAmericanSystem”

• Nationalismmanifesteditselfinmanufacturing:– PatrioticAmericanstookprideinfactories– BritishtriedtocrushU.S.factoriesinmarketplace– Tariffof1816—Congresspassedfirsttariff:• Primarilyforprotection,notrevenue• Rateswere20to25%ofvalueofdutiableimports• Highprotectivetrendstarted

VII.“TheAmericanSystem” (cont.)

NationalismhighlightedbyHenryClay'splanfordevelopingprofitablehomemarket:•HisAmericanSystem:• Strongbankingsystemprovideeasycredit• Protectivetariffforeasternmanufacturing• Networkofroadsandcanals,especiallyinOhio,wouldmeetgreatneedforbettertransportation

SpendingforthisplanconflictedwithRepublicanconstitutionalscruples.

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VI.“TheAmericanSystem” (cont.)

Congressvotedin1817todistribute$1.5milliontostatesforinternalimprovements:•PresidentMadisonvetoedmeasureasunconstitutional•Individualstateshadtofundtheirownconstruction,incl.ErieCanal,completedin1825•Jeffersonian-Republicansrejecteddirectfederalsupportforintrastateinternalimprovements•NewEnglandstronglyopposeditbecausewouldfurtherdrainawaypopulationandcreatecompetingstatesinWest

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VIII.TheSo-CalledEraofGoodFeelings

• JamesMonroenominatedforpresidencyin1816:– LasttimeaFederalistwouldrun–Monroeanexperienced,levelheadedexecutive– EmergingnationalismcementedbyMonroe'sgoodwilltourin1817

– Bostonnewspaperannounced“EraofGoodFeelings”

VIII.TheSo-CalledEraofGoodFeelings(cont.)

• EraofGoodFeelings:– ConsiderabletranquilityandprosperitydidexistinearlyMonroeyears

– Butalsoatroubledtime:• Extensivedebateovertariff,thebank,internalimprovements,andsaleofpubliclands• Sectionalismwasgrowing• Debateoverslaverywasgrowing

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IX.ThePanicof1819andtheCurseofHardTimes

• 1819economicpanicdescended:– Deflation,bankruptcies,bankfailures,unemployment,&overcrowdeddebtor'sprisons

– Factorscontributingtocatastrophe:• Over-speculationoffrontierland• WesthardhitwhenBankofUnitedStatesforcedwesternbankstoforecloseonfarmmortgages

IX.ThePanicof1819andtheCurseofHardTimes(cont.)

• Panicof1819:– Hitpoorerclasseshard– SowedseedofJacksoniandemocracy– Calledattentiontoinhumanityofimprisoningdebtors

– Agitationagainstimprisonmentfordebtresultedinremediallegislationinmanystates

X.GrowingPainsoftheWest

• TheWest:– 9statesjoinedoriginalthirteenbetween1791&1819

– TokeepbalancebetweenNorth&South,stateswereadmittedalternately,freeandslave

– Continuationofgeneration-oldmovementwest:• Landwascheap• Eagernewcomersfromabroad• TobaccoexhaustedlandinSouth

X.GrowingPainsoftheWest(cont.)

• OthercausesofgrowingWest:– Acuteeconomicdistressduringembargoyears– IndiansinNorthwestandSouthcrushedbyGeneralsHarrisonandJackson

– NewhighwaysimprovedlandroutestoOhioValley(e.g.,CumberlandRoad,1811)

– 1811firststeamboatonwesternwatersheraldedneweraofupstreamnavigation

X.GrowingPainsoftheWest(cont.)

• Weststillweakinpopulationandinfluence:– Alliedwithothersectionstogaininfluence– LandActof1820helpedwithaccesstoland:• Canbuy80acresatminimumof$1.25anacreincash

–Westdemandedgovernmentfundtransportationandslowlyreceivedit

–WestalsofrustratedbyBankofU.S.resistancetoeasycredit

XI.SlaveryandtheSectionalBalance• North-SouthtensionsoverWestrevealedin1819.

• Missouripetitionedforstatehood:– Tallmadgeamendment—• NomoreslavescouldbebroughtintoMissouri• Gradualemancipationofchildrenborntoslavesalreadythere

XI.SlaveryandtheSectionalBalance(cont.)

• RoarofangerfromslaveholdingSoutherners:– SawTallmadgeamendmentasthreattosectionalbalanceandwholefutureofslavery

– IfCongressabolishedpeculiarinstitutioninMissouri,itmightdosoinolderstatesofSouth.

• AfewNorthernersprotestedevilsofslavery:– Determinedtopreventitsspreadintoterritories

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XII.TheUneasyMissouriCompromise

• Claybrokedeadlockwiththreecompromises.• Congress:– AdmittedMissouriasslavestate– AdmittedMaineasfreestate• KeptbalancebetweenNorthandSouth

– Prohibitedslaverynorthof36°30'line—southernboundaryofMissouri(seeMap12.3).

Map 12-3 p237

XII.TheUneasyMissouriCompromise(cont.)

• MissouriCompromiselasted34years:– VitalformativeperiodinyoungRepublic– Preservedcompactofstates– ExposeddivisiveissueofslaveryinWest–MissouriCompromiseandPanicof1819shouldhavehurtMonroe'sreelectionin1820

–MonroereceivedeveryelectoralvoteexceptonebecauseFederalistssoweak

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XIII.JohnMarshallandJudicialNationalism

• SupremeCourtbolsterednationalism.• McCullochv.Maryland(1819)strengthenedU.S.governmentatexpenseofstates:–MarylandattemptedtodestroybranchofBankofUnitedStatesbyimposingtaxonitsnotes

–Marshalldeclaredbankconstitutionalusingdoctrineofimpliedpowersorlooseconstruction• IncreasedfederalauthoritywhenhedeniedrightofMarylandtotaxthebank

XIII.JohnMarshallandJudicialNationalism(cont.)

• Cohensv.Virginia(1821)gaveMarshallanotheropportunitytodefendfederalpower:– CohenbrothersconvictedbyVirginiacourtsofillegallysellinglotterytickets

– TheyappealedconvictiontoSupremeCourt– Courtupheldconviction–MarshallassertedrightofSupremeCourttoreviewdecisionsofstatecourtsinallquestionsinvolvingpowersoffederalgovernment

XIII.JohnMarshallandJudicialNationalism(cont.)

• Gibbonsv.Ogden(1824)– NewYorkstategrantedmonopolyofwaterbornecommercebetweenNY&NJtoaprivateconcern

–MarshallassertedConstitutionconferredonCongressalonecontrolofinterstatecommerce(seeArt.I,Sec.VIII,Para.3)

– Struckblowatstates'rightswhileupholdingsovereignpowersoffederalgovernment

XIV.JudicialDikesAgainstDemocraticExcesses

• Marshallalsoprotectedpropertyrights.• NotoriouscaseofFletcherv.Peck(1810):

• Georgialegislaturegranted35millionacresinYazooRivercountry(Mississippi)toprivatespeculators• Nextlegislaturecanceledcorrupttransaction• Courtdecreedgrantacontract&Constitutionforbidsstatesfrom“impairing”contracts(Art.I.Sec.X,para.1)• Protectedpropertyrightsagainstpopularpressures

XIV.JudicialDikesAgainstDemocraticExcesses(cont.)

• FletcherenabledCourttoassertrighttovoidstatelawsconflictingwithfederalConstitution.

• DartmouthCollegev.Woodward(1819):– CollegesuedwhenNewHampshirechanged

chartergrantedtocollegebykingin1769

XIV.JudicialDikesAgainstDemocraticExcesses(cont.)

• DartmouthCollegev.Woodward(cont.):–Marshallruledoriginalchartermuststand– ItwasacontractandConstitutionprotectedcontractsagainststateencroachments

– Dartmouthdecisionsafeguardedbusinessesfromdominationbystates

– Createdfutureproblemwhencorporationsescapedneededpubliccontrol

XIV.JudicialDikesAgainstDemocraticExcesses(cont.)

– IfMarshallwasMoldingFatherofConstitution,DanielWebsterwasExpoundingFather:• Expoundednationalisticphilosophy• Challengedstates'rightsandnullification

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XIV.JudicialDikesAgainstDemocraticExcesses(cont.)

–Marshall'snationalisticdecisionsshapedU.S.history:• ButtressedfederalUnion• Createdstablenationalenvironmentforbusiness• Checkedexcessesofelectedstatelegislatures• ShapedConstitutionalongconservative,centralizinglinescountertoemergingdemocraticspiritofera• Throughhim,Hamiltonianspartlytriumphed

XV.SharingOregonandAcquiringFlorida

• Anglo-AmericanConvention(1818):– PermittedU.S.A.toshareNewfoundlandfisherieswithCanada

– FixedvaguenorthernlimitsofLouisianaalong49thparallelfromLakeoftheWoods(Minn.)toRockyMountains(seeMap12.4)

– Providedfor10-yearjointoccupationofOregonCountry,withoutsurrenderofrightsorclaimsofeitherAmericaorBritain

Map 12-4 p242

XV.SharingOregonandAcquiringFlorida(cont.)

• SemitropicalSpanishFlorida:– AmericansalreadyclaimedWestFlorida,ratifiedbyCongressin1812

– BulkofFloridaremainedunderSpanishrule(seeMap12.5)

– UprisingsinSouthAmericaforcedSpaintoremovetroopsfromFlorida

– JacksonsecuredcommissiontoenterSpanishterritory

Map 12-5 p242

XV.SharingOregonandAcquiringFlorida(cont.)

– Exceedinghisinstructions,JacksonsweptacrossFloridaattackingIndians&anywhoassistedthem

–MonroeconsultedcabinetandallwantedtodisciplineJackson,exceptJohnQuincyAdams

• FloridaPurchaseTreaty(1819):– AlsoknownasAdams-OnisTreaty:• SpaincededFlorida&claimstoOregoninexchangeforTexas

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XVI.TheMenaceofMonarchyinAmerica

• AutocratsofEurope:– Statedworldmustbemadesafefromdemocracy– SmotheredrebellionsinItaly(1821)&Spain(1823)– Americanswerealarmed:• IfEuropeansinterferedinNewWorld,Republicanismwouldsufferirreparableharm• PhysicalsecurityofUnitedStates,motherofdemocracy,wouldbeendangered

XVI.TheMenaceofMonarchyin America(cont.)

• Russia'spushfromAlaskabeganwhentsarin1821claimedjurisdictionover100milesofopenseato51°(mostofBritishColumbia)• RussiahadtradingpostsasfarasSanFranciscoBay• AmericanfearedthatRussiawouldblockaccesstoCalifornia,prospectiveU.S.windowtoPacific

XVII.MonroeandHisDoctrine

• EnglandwantedU.S.A.toissueajointpledgeassertingterritorialintegrityofNewWorld.

• Adamsconcludedaself-denyingalliancewithBritainwouldhamperAmericanexpansionanditwasunnecessary.

• HesuspectedEnglandwouldblockanyEuropeaninterventioninSouthAmerica.

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XVII.MonroeandHisDoctrine(cont.)

• MonroeDoctrine(1823):– InannualmessagetoCongress,MonroeissuedsternwarningtoEurope:• (1)noncolonizationand(2)nonintervention• RegardingRussia'sadvanceinNorthwest,heproclaimederaofcolonizationover• Hewarnedagainstforeignintervention,esp.insouth

• EuropeanpowersoffendedbutcoulddolittlebecauseofBritishnavy.

XVIII.Monroe'sDoctrineAppraised

• RussiarelentedevenbeforeDoctrinereleased• Russo-AmericanTreaty(1824):– FixedRussia'ssouthernlineat54°40'—presentsouthtipofAlaskapanhandle(seeMap12.6)

• MonroeDoctrinemightmoreaccuratelybecalledSelf-DefenseDoctrine:–Monroeconcernedaboutsecurityofhisowncountry,notLatinAmerica

Map 12-6 p246

XVIII.Monroe'sDoctrineAppraised(cont.)

–MonroeDoctrinehasneverbeengreaterthanAmerica'spowertoejectatrespasser

– Itwasneverlaw—domesticorinternational–MerelypersonalizedstatementofpolicybyPresidentMonroe

– Expressedthepost-1812nationalismthenenergizingUnitedStates

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