The Scientific Revolution

Science from Copernicus to Newton

Origins of the New Science

Basis of the Scientific Revolution:

• 1.  Conflicting classical sources (Aristotle, Ptolemy, Galen)

• 2.  Examination / focus of Renaissance artists on nature

• 3.  Development of technical skills

• 4.  Use of mathematics to understand nature

Forces influencing science • 1.  Aristotelian Philosophy:  provided a

starting point – Matter made of four elements (earth, wind, water

and fire) • 2.  Neo-Platonism:  revival of Platonic

philosophy – emphasis on mathematics

• 3.  Mystical / alchemy:  metaphysical (spiritual / moral) explanation of the world – Paracelsus:  doctor / alchemist who believed that

disease could be diagnosed and treated with ingested medicine

• 4.  Natural Philosophy:  attempt to explain the natural world

Characteristics of the Scientific Revolution• Europeans began to challenge classical thought • Materialistic:  all matter made up of the same

material & subject to the same laws • Mathematical:  use calculation to replace common

sense – measurable, repeatable phenomena – People began to understand the mathematical nature of

the universe

• Science boils down to the mathematical relationship

• Development of scientific institutions began; Labs, universities, journals, language, careers

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

• Polish monk, mathematican and astronomer.

• Presented first serious challenge to Ptolemy’s geocentric universe.

• In On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres he proposed heliocentric theory

• Avoided persecution through death

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

• Built Europe’s first modern astronomical laboratory

• Discovered a supernova and comet.

• Believed all other planets revolved around the sun while the earth remained stationary.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)• Supported

Heliocentric and states that revolutions are elliptical (German) – Developed a

mathematical formula as proof

– Developed three laws of planetary motion

Laws of Planetary Motion

• 1. All planets revolve around he sun in elliptical orbits.

• 2. The velocity of the planet varies according to its distance from the sun (closer = faster, further = slower)

• 3. set out mathematical formula to explain the physical relationship among the moving planets and the sun.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Asserted that planets are made of roughly same material as the Earth

• Wrote The Starry Messenger (1610)

• A Dialog Between the Two Great Systems of the World (1632)

• Challenged biblical view of the heavens

Galileo and the Church

• In 1632, Brought before the Roman Inquisition for teaching “Copernicanism”

• Church was prepared to tolerate hypothesis (not fact). Galileo forced to recant.

• Tried and found guilty of heresy, house arrest; Dialogue was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)• Used experimental philosophy = physics • Start with the natural world and then try to

explain it • Natural philosophy began with an idea and

applied it to nature • Used math to create models based on nature -

used formulas • Expressed observations in numeric language • Math was a precise language that allowed for

replication, collaboration and the creation of new knowledge

• Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687)

Laws of Universal Gravitation

• 1.  Law of motion - every object is at rest or motion and continues until some force affects the object

• 2.  Rate of change of motion is in proportion to the force which affects the object

• 3.  To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction

Discoveries in Anatomy

• Andreas Vesalius: – Galen (Classical source) established classical

beliefs regarding anatomy and physiology.

More accurate anatomical sketches  

• William Harvey: – Blood circulates throughout the body in a

continuous loop – Previously believed that there were two

circulation systems – Heart as a pump

Discoveries in Chemistry

• Robert Boyle– supported atomic view of matter -

chemistry – Boyle's Law:  relationship between

pressure and gas – Promoted the use to experimental

technology

The Scientific Method

• Use of observation and data collection to prove or disprove a hypothesis had been used by various researchers for centuries (especially the Arabs)

• Scientists such as Copernicus and Galileo revive the use of these techniques in Europe.

• Later scientists build upon their methods toward a more codified scientific method.

Francis Bacon

• Challenged Aristotle’s reliance on deductive reasoning.

• codification of the Scientific Method (inductive empirical experimentalism)

• The Advancement of Learning (1605)

Rene Descartes

• Jesuit education; Schooled in Aristotelian philosophy

• Disagreed with the basis of Aristotelian philosophy

• Embraced Skepticism (people who use doubt as the basis of knowledge)

• Rejected absolute construct of knowledge, knowledge based on probability

• Constructed knowledge based on doubt, but reaffirmed the value of deductive reasoning.

• Used "proofs" to support philosophical learning • Could only accept that which you could prove

– "I think, therefore I am"

Rene Descartes• Cartesian dualism:  Mind and matter are separate,

so to is the physical world from intellectual constructs (basis for science)             – Example:  Ontological proof of god: – One could only accept God if you could prove it

exists – Descartes knew that he was not perfect – Only a perfect individual could place that

concept in ones mind – Therefore perfection must exist – What is perfection, existence without limits =

God – proof for God based upon doubt, if you doubt it

then it must exist at some level • Contrast it to Aristotelian proof:  Causality • believed that humans could more completely

understand their world by using abstract principles • Believed in that nature operated based on a

Mechanical set of laws

Blaise Pascal

• Scientist who studied probability and mathematics.

• He had concerns about science’s influence on faith.

• Wrote Pensees, reflections on faith and science.

Scientific Societies

• As the importance of science grew, scientific societies formed to promote research and share knowledge.

• Many had gov’t connections and support: reflecting the growing influence of central governments,

• Rome (1603), Florence (1657), England (Royal Society, 1662), France (French Academy, 1666), Prussia (Berlin Academy, 1701)