DYNASTIES, CONQUEST, AND

FAITHThe Rise of Islam

THE CALIPH When Mohammad died unexpectedly

in 632, Abu Bakr, one of his first followers in Mecca, became caliph

A caliph was the head of state, military commander, chief judge, and religious leader

He ruled an empire but also made pronouncements on religious doctrine

The Islamic government was a theocracy, a government ruled by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as being divinely guided

THE CALIPHATE Because it was ruled by a

caliph, the theocratic Islamic Empire was referred to as a caliphate

While the caliphs began to behave more like hereditary rulers, there was no clear line of succession

The lack of clear succession caused a great deal of trouble down the road

THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali The last of the four, Ali, was

assassinated and was succeeded by his son, Hasan

But under pressure from a prominent family in Mecca, Hasan relinquished his title, making way for the establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty

This dynasty would enlarge the Islamic Empire dramatically, but it would also intensify conflict with the Byzantine and Persian Empires for almost a century

THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY The capital was moved to Damascus,

Syria, although Mecca remained the spiritual center

Arabic became the official language of government

Conquered subjects were “encouraged” to convert to Islam in order to establish a common faith throughout the empire

Those who chose not to convert were forced to pay a tax (jizya)

EXPANSION The Islamic Empire grew enormously

under the Umayyads, extending as far as northern African and into Spain, where they ruled the southern Iberian peninsula from the city of Córdoba

Attacked Constantinople numerous times but failed to overthrow Byzantine regime

Charles Martel, a Frankish leader, stopped the Muslim advance towards Paris

The Islamic Empire never flourished in Europe beyond parts of Spain and southern Italy

SUCCESSES BUT PROBLEMS Despite successes (the Dome of the

Rock was built in Jerusalem and Córdoba was one of the richest cities in Europe), problems with succession started to emerge

Eventually, the Muslims split into two camps, Shi’ite and Sunni

SHI’ITE (SHIA ISLAM) AN SUNNI ISLAM Shi’ite (Shia) Islam holds that

Mohammad’s son-in-law, Ali, was the rightful heir to the empire, based on Mohammad’s comments to Ali

Sunnis, in contrast, though they hold Ali in high esteem, do not believe that he and his hereditary line are the chosen successors

Sunnis believe that the leaders of the empire should be drawn from a broad base of the people

DECLINE As the Shia began to assert

themselves more dramatically, the Umayyad Dynasty went into decline, and ultimate demise

Against the forces of Abu al-Abbas (a descendent of Mohammad’s uncle who was supported by the descendents of Ali, the Shia, and the Mawali – non-Arab Muslims, the Umayyad Empire was defeated

It was replaced by the Abbasid Dynasty around 750 in all areas except Spain

THE ABBASID DYNASTY

From 750 to 1258 Until the Islamic Empire was defeated

by the Mongols Had ups and downs but experienced a

golden age, from the early to mid-ninth century, during which the arts and sciences flourished

Built a magnificent capital at Baghdad, which became one of the great cultural centers of the world

The Abbasids built a magnificent capital at Baghdad, which became one of the great cultural centers of the world

TRADE

The empire was built around trade Merchants introduced the unique idea of

credit to the empire’s trade mechanisms to free them of the burden – and the danger – of carrying coins

Merchants also developed a system of itemized receipts and bills, innovations that were later used in Europe and elsewhere

MANUFACTURING

Manufacturing played an important role in the expansion of the Islamic Empire

Steel was produced for use in swords

ISLAMIC ADVANCEMENTS IN MEDICAL AND MATHEMATICS FIELD

Mohammad al-Razi published a massive medical encyclopedia, unlike anything compiled before it

Islamic mathematicians expanded the knowledge they had learned from India; their contributions are noteworthy in algebra

LEARNING THE ART OF PAPER The Abbasid army had the good fortune to

defeat the Tang Chinese army during the Battle of Talus River in 751 CE

Fight for control of the Silk Road trading posts in Central Asia

Though relatively unimportant (Muslims won), Chinese prisoners of war were carrying paper money

Abbasids figured out how to make paper and could continue one of their most important activities – stocking libraries and universities with scholarship from all over the world

LOCATION AT CROSSROADS Location of Muslim empire at the

crossroads of Europe and Asia allowed to monopolize trade routes

Cosmopolitan cities of the Islamic caliphs thrived on trade, international scholars, and expansion, both military and cultural

PRESERVATION OF GREEK AND ROMAN LEARNING Despite the hostility between the

European and Islamic worlds, the Islamic Empire is credited with playing a significant role in preserving Western culture (like the Byzantines)

Muslims encountered the classic writings of ancient Athens and Rome, including those of Plato and Aristotle, and translated into Arabic

CRUSADES AND REDISCOVERY Muslims and Christians

battled for control of the Levant (present-day Israel, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and points north and south) during the Crusades

Europe found its own history among the other treasures preserved in Arabic libraries and museums

OFTEN TOLERANT Muslims were often tolerant of the local

customs of the areas they conquered – although Christians and Jews were often persecuted in the Levant

And though a theocracy, its more flexible approach contributed to rapid growth of adherents to Islam

SUFIS Sufis, Islamic mystics, were its most

effective missionaries Sufis stressed a personal relationship with

Allah This made Islam highly adaptable to

different circumstances By allowing, and even encouraging,

followers to practice their own ways to revere Allah, and by tolerating others who placed Allah in the framework of other beliefs, Sufis succeeded in converting large numbers of people to Islam

WOMEN AND ISLAM The Qu’ran, the sacred book of Islam,

established between 651 and 652, somewhat changed the status of women

While women remained subservient to men and under their direction and control, women began to be treated with more dignity, had some legal rights, and were considered equal before Allah

If a man divorced his wife, he would have to return her dowry (the money and property from her father that she brought with her into the marriage)

Infanticide was strictly forbidden

But men were permitted to have as many as four wives, as long as they were able to support them and treated them equally

Yet women had to be faithful to one man because land was passed through males and the identity of a boy’s father could not be questionable

And legally, a woman’s testimony in court was given only half the weight of a man’s testimony

And women were veiled in public – although this custom began in Mesopotamia and Persia, Islamic society adopted and adapted it

Over time, Islamic society became more structured and more patriarchal

A woman’s primary duty was singular: to be loyal and to care for her husband and family

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL STRUGGLES The Islamic empire regularly endured

internal struggles and civil wars, often arising from differences between Sunni and Shia sects and from ethnic differences between diverse groups in a rapidly expanding Muslim world

Turkish slaves, or mamluks, revolted and established a new capital at Samarra in central Iraq, while other groups carved out pieces of the empire

A new Shia dynasty in northern Iran and constant threats from the Seljuk Turks, a nomadic Sunni group, also contributed to the empire’s falling apart

And like the Romans weakened by internal problems, the Abbasids had external foes: the Persians, Europeans, and Byzantines

But it would be their most distant enemy, the Mongols, who defeated them

The Mongols destroyed the city of Baghdad in 1258