The Mosslands School

History Department

GCSE Revision Guide:

The Development of

Germany, 1919 - 1991

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Weimar Germany, 1919 – 1929

The Impact of World War One

Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated his throne on November 9th 1918. Two days later, the

German government signed an armistice with Britain, France and the USA. WW1

had a huge impact on Germany:

• The Kaiser’s government had collapsed; Germany was now a republic

• Over 2 million Germans had died during the war

• Germany was close to bankruptcy

• There were serious food shortages

• There were serious political divisions between socialists and communists on

the one hand and other groups on the right wing

The new government decided to hold elections in January 1919. Because of chaos

and violence in Berlin, the Reichstag met in the city of Weimar, which gave its

name to the new German republic. The new constitution was written by August

1919, making Germany one of the most democratic countries in the world:

• All men and women over the age of 20 could vote

• The Reichstag was elected via proportional representation

• The President controlled the armed forces and appointed the Chancellor. The

President could also suspend the constitution in an emergency using Article

48

This new constitution proved to have a number of flaws. Proportional

representation meant that coalition governments were often weak and unstable.

Most Germans had no experience of democracy, and both left and right-wing

parties attempted to overthrow the Weimar government. The president could

also abuse Article 48, which was too vague.

The Treaty of Versailles

The peace treaty that concluded World War One was decided by the victors –

Britain, France and the USA. Germany was not allowed to take part in the

negotiations and was given a diktat – they could either sign or face the re-start of

WW1.

The main terms of the Treaty, signed in June 1919 were:

• War guilt – Article 231 of the

Treaty said that Germany accepted

complete responsibility for causing

WW1

• Reparations – Germany had to pay

for damage caused by the war,

totalling £6.6. billion

• Loss of land – Germany lost 10% of

its population and 13% of its

territory and the Rhineland was

demilitarised

• Armed forces – reduced to just

100,000 men, 6 battleships, no

submarines and no air force

Armistice

A ceasefire agreement

to end the fighting in a

war while a formal

peace treaty is

negotiated

Republic

A country ruled by an

elected president, rather

than a hereditary

monarch like the Kaiser

Reichstag

The German parliament

Constitution

The set of laws which

set out the government’s

structure and powers

Democratic

A country in which

citizens exercise power

by electing their

government

Proportional

Representation

System that allocated

seats in the Reichstag

based on the proportion

of votes gained by each

political party

government

Coalition

A government made up

of multiple parties

because no party has an

overall majority

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The Treaty was a shock to most Germans, who had hoped for more lenient terms

since the Kaiser had abdicated. They felt humiliated and unfairly treated. The left-

wing coalition parties, including the Social Democrats, were never really able to

counter the ‘stab in the back’ propaganda of the right-wing parties. The army

claimed that it was the politicians’ fault – the ‘November Criminals’ of November

1918.

Opposition to the Government

The Weimar government faced threats from both left and right-wing groups

during its early years:

• Spartacist Revolt (January 1919) – The German Communist Party tried to

lead a communist revolution. This echoed the recent Bolshevik revolution in

Russia in 1917. President Ebert recruited army veterans known as the

Freikorps who brutally crushed the revolt

• Kapp Putsch (March 1920) – Freikorps members led by D Wolfgang Kapp

seized power in Berlin. The Weimar government fled and the army was

reluctant to crush the revolt but a general strike destroyed the revolt.

• Munich Putsch (November 1923) – The fledgling Nazi Party, led by Adolf

Hitler, tried to seize power by starting a revolution in Munich, a right-wing

city in Southern Germany. Hitler hoped that the Bavarian government would

join him. On November 9th Hitler and General Ludendorff led a march into

Munich, but it was crushed by police and the army and 16 Nazis were killed.

Economic Problems

Germany’s economy had suffered from

inflation and high reparations

payments since the end of WW1. In

1922, the Weimar government

announced that it could not pay its

reparations bill. This led to 1923

becoming a year of economic crisis.

French and Belgian soldiers occupied

the Ruhr in January 1923. This area

produced 80% of Germany’s coal, iron

and steel. In response, the Weimar

government ordered German workers

to carry out a campaign of passive

resistance.

To pay the striking workers in the Ruhr,

the government printed more and

more money. This led to hyperinflation:

Date Price of a loaf of bread

January 1918 0.6 marks

January 1923 250 marks

September 1923 1.5 million marks

November 1923 201 million marks

Ludendorff

One of Germany’s

leading generals during

WW1. Became a hero

during the ‘Ludendorff

Offensive’ of 1918

Inflation

An increase in prices

due to a lack of

confidence in a

currency’s stability

The Ruhr

Major industrial area in

North-West Germany,

close to the border with

France

Passive Resistance

Peaceful resistance by

refusing to cooperate. In

the Ruhr, this meant

workers going on strike

Hyperinflation

Rapid and out of control

inflation

Revision Task

How fair was it to

blame the Weimar

Government for

signing the Treaty of

Versailles in June

1919?

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During the crisis, German savings became worthless and starvation and

malnutrition were common. People’s savings were destroyed. However, not

everyone was so badly affected. Landowners could pay off mortgages and farmers

benefited from rises in food prices.

Economic and Political Reform under Stresemann

Germany started to recover from the crises of 1923 due to the policies of Gustav

Stresemann. His policies were so successful that 1923 – 1929 is known as the

‘golden years’ of the Weimar Republic. He acted promptly and decisively when he

became Chancellor in 1923:

• He called off passive resistance in the Ruhr

• He ended hyperinflation by replacing the old currency with a new one, the

Rentenmark

• He refused to print more money and instead cut government spending,

increased taxes and reduced salaries

Stresemann’s reforms ensured that:

• Germany was allowed to enter into deals with other countries to reduce

reparations and receive loans, like the Dawes Plan of 1924 with the USA

• Germany was allowed to join the League of Nations in 1926

• Germany enjoyed a period of relative political stability until 1929 in which

extreme political parties like the Nazis were less popular

However, Stresemann recognised that these reforms were fragile. In 1929, he

described Germany’s economic recovery as ‘dancing on a volcano’ because it

would collapse if America demanded repayment of loans.

Improved Foreign Relations

Stresemann mostly succeeded in restoring Germany’s position as a world power

by 1929:

• The Locarno Pact of 1925 ensured that France and Belgium would never

threaten Germany’s western borders. However, Stresemann made no

promises about Germany’s eastern border.

• Joining the League of Nations in 1926 showed that Germany was once again

respected as a major power. Stresemann received the Nobel Peace Prize.

• The 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact, signed by most major powers including

Germany, renounced war as a means of settling disputes.

• The 1929 Young Plan reduced reparations by 2/3, extended the payment

period (to 1988!) and persuaded Britain and France to remove their troops

from the Rhineland

Gustav Stresemann

Leading Weimar

politician, served as

Chancellor in 1923 and

foreign minister until

1929

Revision Task

How far had

Stresemann solved

Germany’s problems

by his death in 1929?

Remember to

consider the Treaty

of Versailles and his

‘dancing on a

volcano’ remark

Revision Task

How far can the

problems of 1919 –

1920 be blamed on

the Treaty of

Versailles?

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The Rise of the Nazi Party and its Consolidation of

Power, 1929 – 1934

Reasons for Nazi Support

After Hitler was released from prison in 1924 he decided that the Nazis must gain

power legally, rather than through a putsch. He significantly reorganised the

party:

• The Hitler Youth was set up in 1926

• The Nazis made huge efforts to improve their performance in elections

through propaganda and public speaking training

• The SS was created to provide protection for Hitler

However, in spite of this, the Nazis won only 19 seats in the 1924 Reichstag

elections and 17 seats in 1928. Ordinary Germans were happy with Stresemann

and the Social Democrats’ leadership. If Hitler was going to win power, something

drastic would have to change in Germany.

The Wall Street Crash of October 1929 plunged the world into a Great

Depression. Germany depended heavily on American loans and suffered when

these were recalled by US banks:

• Unemployment rose dramatically, from 900,000 in 1929 to nearly 6 million

in 1933

• Banks collapsed, causing many to lose their savings (again)

• Many people could not pay their mortgage and became homeless

• Losing faith in the Weimar Republic, many Germans turned to extreme

political parties like the Nazis and Communists – the Nazis won 230 seats in

the 1932 elections and the Communists won 79

Hitler becomes Chancellor

Hitler’s position was now very strong. He challenged Hindenburg in the 1932

Presidential election and came second, with 13.4 million to votes to Hindenburg’s

19.4 million. Some of the reasons for this Nazi success were:

• Hitler’s own political and public speaking ability. He played on German fears

of unemployment and Communism

• Nazi promises of work and bread ‘arbeit und brot’ were exactly what many

unemployed Germans wanted to hear

• Hitler promised to overthrow the unpopular Treaty of Versailles

• The SA’s violent campaigning did much to intimidate Hitler’s opponents

• The Social Democrats and the Communists outnumbered the Nazis in the

Reichstag, but refused to cooperate with each other

President Hindenburg was forced to make Hitler Chancellor of Germany on

January 31st 1933. Franz von Papen, a right-wing politician and a friend of

Hindenburg did a deal with Hitler. In return for being made vice-Chancellor, Papen

persuaded the President that Hitler could be controlled. Only 3 ministers in the

government of 12 were Nazis. However, Hitler soon proved that he could not be

controlled so easily.

Putsch

German word for a

revolution or takeover

Wall Street Crash

Crash in the American

stock market that led to

a worldwide depression.

Wall Street is the New

York home of the US

stock exchange

SA

The Nazis’

stormtroopers,

sometimes called

brownshirts. Led by

Ernst Rohm, they acted

as the Nazis’ private

army

Revision Task

Was Hitler’s deal

with Papen the most

important factor in

him becoming

Chancellor in January

1933? Why?

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Steps to Dictatorship

Although Hitler was in a relatively weak position in January 1933, he had become

the Fuhrer (supreme leader) of Germany by August 1934. The Nazis took a

number of steps to consolidate (strengthen) their power:

• Step 1 - The Reichstag Fire

The Reichstag building caught fire and burned down on 27th February 1933. A

Dutch Communist, van der Lubbe was arrested. Hitler persuaded the President to

pass an Emergency Decree which suspended freedom of speech, gave control of

the police to the Nazis and restricted the activities of the Communists and Social

Democrats.

• Step 2 – The March elections

Having disrupted their opponents and undermined the rule of law, the Nazis won

their best ever election results on March 5:

Votes Seats in Reichstag

Communist Party 4.8 million 81

Social Democratic Party 7.2 million 120

Centre Party 5.5 million 92

National Party 3.1 million 52

Nazi Party 17.3 million 288

Others 1.4 million 14

Although the Nazis were largest party, they still did not have an outright majority.

However, Hitler now took two more steps:

• Banned the Communist party from taking their seats in the Reichstag

• Did a deal with the Centre Party and the National party to form a coalition

• Step 3 – The Enabling Act

Hitler used his majority and a combination of bribery and intimidation to force the

Reichstag to pass the Enabling Act, which gave him the power to make laws

without the approval of the Reichstag.

• Step 4 – The Night of the Long Knives

By 1934, Hitler had become worried about the ambition of Ernst Rohm, the leader

of the SA. Rohm was more left-wing than Hitler and wanted to merge the German

army with the SA. On the night of 30th June, Hitler ordered the SS to arrest and

murder Rohm and other potential rivals to Hitler. Heinrich Himmler’s SS now took

over the role of the SA.

• Step 5 – Death of Hindenburg

The President died in August 1934. Hitler now made himself Fuhrer, which

included the role of commander of Germany’s armed forces. On 19th August, all

German soldiers swore an oath of loyalty to Hitler. Germany was now a total

dictatorship.

Emergency Decree

Passed by Hindeburg

using Article 48

emergency powers on

28th Feb. Used as the

legal basis for

imprisoning enemies of

the Nazis and abolishing

many freedoms, e.g.

freedom of speech

Outright majority

A party receiving more

votes than all of the

other political parties

combined

SS

Began as Hitler’s

bodyguard, grew into

the Nazis’ elite political

and military force

Fuhrer

Hitler combined the

roles of Chancellor and

President into one,

calling himself ‘Fuhrer’

or supreme leader

Revision Task

Which of these steps

was most important

in Hitler’s

consolidation of

power? Explain your

answer.

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Creation of the Police State

The Nazi dictatorship was based on

• Full power in the hands of Hitler, who ruled by decree

• Only one political party allowed (the Nazis)

• Lives of German people controlled by gleichschaltung, propaganda and a

police state

1. Gleichschaltung

The Nazis concentrated all power in their hands in Berlin by abolishing regional

governments, banning trade unions, forcing young people to join the Hitler Youth

and ordering professionals to join Nazi associations

2. Police State

Under Heinrich Himmler, The SS took control of Germany’s police forces and

courts. Himmler created the Gestapo under the control of Heydrich. This had the

power to arrest people without trial and put them in concentration camps. The

Gestapo became feared for their ruthlessness and secrecy.

3. Propaganda

The Nazi propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, ensured that most Germans had

very few opportunities to hear any opposition to the Nazis. Goebbels controlled

radio stations, newspapers, books and films, banning anything which disagreed

with Nazi ideas. The 1936 Berlin Olympics were used as propaganda, as were the

annual Nuremberg Rallies, which attracted over 100,000 people.

Over 17 million German men were conscripted into the German armed forces

during WW2 and fought with bravery and loyalty – giving some measure of the

success of Nazi leadership and propaganda.

Rule by decree

Hitler could pass laws

without consulting the

Reichstag thanks to the

Enabling Act and the

Emergency Decree

Gleichschaltung

German word meaning

the coordination or

centralisation of power

Gestapo

Nazi secret police led

by Reinhard Heydrich,

part of the SS

Concentration camps

Brutal camps set up to

punish political

prisoners. Later used to

house Jews and other

‘undesirables’ during

the Holocaust

Revision Task

Was terror or

propaganda a more

valuable tool for the

Nazis in controlling

Germany? Explain

your answer.

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Life under the Nazis, 1933 – 1939

Economic Control

Hitler had three aims for the German economy after 1933:

1. Reduce unemployment

2. Expand and rearm Germany’s army, navy and air force

3. Make Germany self-sufficient (known as autarky) and not too dependent on

foreign trade

Hitler put Dr Hjalmar Schacht in charge of the German economy from 1934 to 36.

Schact had a number of successes:

• Reduced unemployment from 6 million in 1933 to 1 million in 1935. Schacht

achieved this by:

o Conscripting hundreds of thousands of young Germans into the armed

forces

o Manipulating the figures so that Jews and women were not counted as

unemployed

o Drafting hundreds of thousands of workers into factories to produce

war materials

o Spending money on public works like hospitals, schools and autobahns.

From 1935, it was compulsory for all men aged 18-25 to spend 6 months

in the National Labour Service (RAD)

In 1936, Hitler replaced Schacht with Hermann Goering. Goering created a Four

Year Plan to prepare Germany for war and focus on autarky. However, by 1939,

Germany was still importing 1/3 of her raw materials. Goering famously remarked

that, “In the decisive hour it would not be a question of how much butter

Germany has but how many guns”.

The reduction in unemployment was not accompanied by a rise in living standards.

Prices went up, as did the number of hours worked. This meant that workers had

less money to spend.

Index of Wages (1936 = 100)

Wholesale Prices (1919 = 100)

Wages as a percentage of national income

1928 125 140 62%

1933 88 93.3 63%

1936 100 104.1 59%

1938 106 105.8 57%

Nazi Control of German Workers

Trade unions were banned in 1933 and replaced by the German Labour Front

(DAF). All workers had to join the DAF, which:

• Set levels of pay and working hours for all workers

• Fined workers who did not follow its instructions

• Created Beauty of Labour (SDA) to improve working conditions such as

ventilation, provision of hot meals and health and safety.

• Created Strength through Joy (KDF) which organised leisure activities for

workers, such as cheap holidays, entertainment and sport. The idea was to

make longer working hours acceptable through improved conditions.

Autarky

Hitler and Goering’s

policy of making

Germany as self-

sufficient as possible, to

avoid the possibility of

starvation during

wartime

Hjalmar Schacht

Former head of the

Reichsbank (Bank of

Germany), Schacht was

a well-respected

economist around the

world

Autobahns

German motorways

National Labour

Service

Compulsory labour

force that gave men

military-style training

German Labour Front

Nazi alternative to trade

unions; set up to let

them control German

workers

Revision Task

How successfully did

the Nazis solve

Germany’s economic

problems after 1933?

Explain your answer.

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Nazi Policies towards German Women

The Nazi’s attitude to women can be summarised as ‘kinder, kuche, kirche’

(children, kitchen, church). Hitler said that the woman’s world was “her husband,

her family, her children and her home”. The Nazis put these beliefs into practice:

• The number of female university students had been halved by 1936

• Newly-married couples were given an interest-free loan of 1,000 marks

provided the women gave up her job. The loan was reduced by 1/4 for each

child that they had

• The Motherhood Cross was awarded for having 4, 6 and 8 children

respectively

• The birth rate (number of births per 1,000 women) rose from 58.9 in 1933 to

84.8 in 1939. However, this may also have been due to the end of the Great

Depression.

• Makeup, lipstick and smoking were discouraged. Hairstyles were meant to be

traditional – in plaits. However, Goebbels’ wife often smoked in public and

Hitler’s mistress, Eva Braun, smoked and wore makeup.

Despite the Nazis’ plans, the number of women in work had increased by 1938 as

Germany started preparing for war.

Nazi Policies towards German Young People

“The whole purpose of education is to create Nazis” – Nazi Minister of Education

in 1934

Nearly all teachers were members of the National Socialist Teachers’ League and

36% of teachers joined the Nazi Party. Jews and left-wing teachers were sacked.

Teachers were greeted with a Nazi salute at the start of lessons. Lessons and

textbooks were changed to reflect Nazi beliefs and values. History and biology

lessons gave the Nazi interpretation of the Treaty of Versailles, the evils of

communism and racial superiority. In addition, the amount of time given to PE

was substantially increased.

Boys and girls received a different education – more science and history for boys,

more domestic science for girls.

Schools for future Nazi leaders were also created:

Napolas For boys 10-18 who were entering the armed forces, especially the Waffen-SS

Adolf Hitler Schools Intended to train future members of the Nazi government

Order Castles A finishing school for young Nazis in their early 20s. Strict entrance requirements, including 6 years at an Adolf Hitler School.

However, standards of education and achievements at these non-standard

schools were disappointing to normal German grammar schools.

As well as schools, the Hitler Youth Movement, set up in 1925, gained 7 million

members by 1939. The Deutsches Jungvolk was set up for boys aged 10-14 and

the League of German Maidens was created for girls. The main aim of the Hitler

Youth was to indoctrinate young Germans and make them loyal Nazis. The

National Socialist

Teachers’ League

Although most teachers

joined, they may not

have shared the Nazis’

beliefs and values

Waffen-SS

The army wing of the

SS, seen as elite soldiers

Hitler Youth

Nazi replacement for

normal youth and sports

clubs

Indoctrinate

Brainwash through

education and

propaganda

Revision Task

Did the Nazis

completely transform

the lives of German

women? How would

different women

have felt about these

changes?

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conduct of Waffen-SS divisions in WW2 suggests that the Hitler Youth had some

success in achieving these aims.

Nazi Treatment of Jews, 1933 – 1939

Hitler and the Nazis saw Jews as an inferior race, a major threat to Germany and

part of a world conspiracy to destroy Germany. Hitler blamed the Jews for defeat

in 1918, communism, the failure of the Weimar Republic and all political ideas

that he despised.

Anti-semitism started relatively cautiously under the Nazis. In 1933, there was a

one-day boycott of Jewish businesses and Jews were banned from civil service

and teaching jobs. However, by 1935, Hitler was in a stronger position. The

Nuremberg Laws were passed, which:

• Deprived Jews of German citizenship (the vote, healthcare, welfare, etc)

• Banned marriages between Jews and non-Jews

The SS now took over the boycotts of Jewish businesses and Jews were ordered to

add ‘Israel’ or ‘Sarah’ to their name.

Nazi anti-semitism came to a head in November 1938. A Jewish student shot dead

a German diplomat in Paris and the Nazi government used this as a reason to

launch a whole-scale attack on Germany’s Jews on Kristallnacht, November 9th

1938.

• 7,500 Jewish-owned shops were destroyed

• 191 synagogues were burned

• Hundreds of Jews were killed (historians disagree on the exact amount)

• 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps

In the aftermath of Kristallnacht, the Jewish community was fined 1 billion marks.

Jews were banned from cinemas, theatres and swimming pools and children were

excluded from schools. The final act of the 1930s was to remove Jews from

Germany’s economic life:

• Jewish property was taken over by the state

• Jews were not allowed to work and were sacked without compensation or

pensions

Overall, over 400,000 Jewish refugees had left Germany by 1939.

Anti-Semitism

Anti-Jewish persecution

Boycott

Refusing to use a

business or service

Kristallnacht

Literally ‘night of

broken glass’. Shocked

Germans with its

violence and ferocity

Synagogue

Jewish place of worship

Revision Task

Which group did the

Nazis have a bigger

impact on: workers,

women or young

people?

Revision Task

Why had 400,000

Jews left Germany by

1939? At what point

do you think they

might have decided

to leave? Why?

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Life During the Second World War, 1939 - 1945

Changing Conditions on the Home Front

For most Germans on the home front, WW2 can be divided into three stages:

1. 1939 – 1941 – Early successes

2. 1942 – 1943 – Increasing difficulties

3. 1944 – 1945 – Total war and defeat

During the early years of the war, the Wehrmacht conquered huge swathes of

territory in France, Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. Germans called this territory

Lebensraum. Huge amounts of food and raw materials like iron and coal flooded

back to Germany and some German families started migrating to new lives in

Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary.

However, the failure to defeat Britain in 1940 and Hitler’s decision to invade the

USSR in 1941 meant that a long war was likely. Rationing was introduced in

August 1939, leading to a limited and bland diet.

An increasing number of Germans,

particularly women, were

encouraged to return to work. To

bolster the number of workers, the

Nazis sent slave labour back to

Germany from occupied territories

and prisoner of war camps. 7 million

non-Germans were working in

Germany by 1945.

From 1942, the RAF was able to

launch heavy bombing raids on German cities. Particularly heavy raids were

launched against the Ruhr region, Germany’s industrial heartland.

Particularly notable raids were:

• Hamburg, July 1943 – 45,000 civilians were killed, 10 square miles were

destroyed and 900,000 civilians fled the city in terror

• Dresden, February 1945 – 25,000 people were killed in one night of fire-

bombing

By the end of WW2, at least 500,000 Germans had been killed by bombing and

most German cities had been ruined.

Goering’s introduction of Total War led to more unhappiness for Germans, as

non-essential services were closed down, including hairdressers and sports clubs.

There was also the trauma caused by receipt of the news of the death of a loved

one or friend in the Wehrmacht.

Opposition to the Nazis

Over 14,000 Germans were sentenced to death for opposing the Nazis and

thousands more ended up in concentration camps. The three main sources of

opposition to the Nazis during WW2 were:

1. Christians

Home Front

Phrase showing that

civilians at home still

played a part in the war

Wehrmacht

German armed forces

Rationing

Restrictions on the

amount of food and

other essentials that can

be bought

Total War

Every civilian and

resource in a country is

directed towards

winning the war

Confessional Church

Alternative to the Nazi-

supported Protestant

Reich Church

Revision Task

Make a list of

changes that

ordinary Germans

experienced during

WW2 compared to

1933-1939. What

were the three

biggest changes?

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Opposition from churches was from individuals, rather than large groups. Martin

Niemoller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer were leaders in the Confessional Church.

Niemoller spent 8 years in concentration camps and was lucky to survive the war.

Bonhoeffer was executed in 1945.

2. Youths

The White Rose Movement in Munich was mostly comprised of university

students. After the demonstration against Nazi policies in 1943, a number of

members, including Sophie Scholl, were arrested, tortured and executed.

The Edelweiss Pirates also attacked Hitler Youth groups and sheltered deserters

from the army. In 1944, some of its leaders were executed for their role in the

assassination of the leader of the Cologne Gestapo.

3. The Army

The most serious opposition came from the army. Although most officers took

their oath of loyalty very seriously, Operation Valkyrie, in July 1944, by Colonel

von Stauffenberg came close to succeeding. A bomb planted in Hitler’s bunker

injured, but failed to kill the Fuhrer and an attempted coup was crushed by the SS

in Berlin. 200 conspirators were brutally executed and other were persuaded to

commit suicide.

Overall, Hitler’s Nazi regime remained in power until the bitter end of the war and

many German soldiers fought to the death to protect their leaders. Internal

opposition to the Nazis was mostly a failure.

The Treatment of Jews, 1939 – 1945

The start of WW2 saw an horrific escalation in the Nazis’ anti-Semitic persecution,

which took place in stages:

1. The Einsatzgruppen spread out through newly-conquered territory in eastern

Europe and executed over 500,000 Jews wherever they found them

2. Jews in Poland, Czechoslovakia and elsewhere were herded into ghettos

where thousands more died from inadequate food, disease and freezing

temperatures

3. In January 1942, the Wannsee Conference decided to exterminate all Jews

within the borders of the Third Reich. This was known as the Final Solution.

4. Extermination camps were built in eastern Europe. By the spring of 1942,

camps like Auschwitz-Birkenau and Treblinka were gassing millions of Jews.

This horrific persecution became known as the Holocaust. It should be noted that

many other groups, including gypsies, homosexuals and prisoners of war were

also sent to concentration and extermination camps.

Oath of Loyalty

Sworn by all

Wehrmacht officers in

August 1934

Einsatzgruppen

‘Single purpose group’,

dedicated to the mass

murder of Jews

Ghettos

Walled-off sections of a

city where all Jews were

sent. None were

permitted to leave.

Wannsee Conference

Held on the outskirts of

Berlin in Jan 1942.

Attended by Eichmann

and Heydrich, among

others

Revision Task

Place youths,

Christians and the

army in order of how

serious a threat they

were to the Nazis.

Explain your answer.

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The Impact of Defeat, 1945 – 1949

Hitler committed suicide on April 30th 1945. Germany surrendered on 8th May.

Many Germans faced forced expulsion from the territory they had emigrated to

during the war. 11 million Germans became refugees, forced to return to

occupied Germany with nowhere to live.

Life was harsh for the survivors. Millions lived in temporary, sub-standard

housing, starvation was common, inflation was rampant and there were

shortages of most essential goods.

Leading Nazis were found guilty of war crimes at Nuremberg. The Allies worked to

de-nazify Germany, removing all ex-Nazis from positions of power and re-

educating the German population. The Nazi party was made illegal and all traces

of propaganda were removed.

Initially, the Allies started to de-industrialise their occupied zones. However, with

Germany suffering from mass unemployment and starvation, Britain found itself

paying more to support Germans than it was receiving in reparations. Britain,

France and the USA therefore decided that their only realistic option for dealing

with their zones was to revive the German economy.

Third Reich

What the Nazis called

their German empire.

Hitler planned for it to

last 1,000 years.

De-industrialise

Destroying heavy

industry to remove the

threat of future

rearmament. Weapons,

chemical and electrical

factories were

destroyed.

Revision Task

Describe the impact

of Germany’s defeat

in 1945 on ordinary

citizens. Make a list

of the key changes.

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West and East Germany between 1949 and 1991

The Division of Germany

The ‘Big 3’ met in Yalta in February 1945 and again after Germany’s surrender in

Potsdam in July ’45. They decided that Germany was to be divided into 4 occupied

zones controlled by Britain, the USA, the USSR and France. Although Berlin was

inside the USSR zone, it would also be divided into 4 zones. This caused problems

later on.

The Big 3 also agreed to put Nazi war criminals on trial at Nuremberg.

West Germany and East Germany officially came into existence in 1949, after the

conclusion of the Berlin Blockade crisis.

Official Name Currency Politics Leader

West Germany

Federal German Republic

Deutschmark Democratic &

capitalist Konrad

Adenauer

East Germany

German Democratic

Republic Ostmark

One-party dictatorship and

Communist Walter Ulbricht

Life in the ‘two Germanies’ quickly became very different under the influence of

Britain and the USA (W. Germany) and the USSR (E. Germany). Britain and the

USA wanted to rebuild the West as a barrier against the Communist Eastern Bloc.

Stalin wanted to extract reparations from the East and force its people into

Communist rule.

West Germany

Supported by the USA and Britain, West Germany became a wealthy country

under the leadership of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (1949 – 1963). Adenauer’s

three aims for West Germany were:

1. Restore the West German economy and undo damage caused by WW2

2. Work for an independent Germany and end the Allied occupation

3. Restore democracy and ‘denazify’ West Germany

Adenauer was mostly successful in these aims. The West German ‘economic

miracle’ of the 1950s produced full employment, high productivity and very low

inflation. The economic miracle had a number of causes:

• $1.3 billion investment from the USA as part of Marshall Aid

• Demand from the Korean War (1950-53) for industrial equipment

• The ECSC created a surge in trade between European countries

• High levels of tax (50% for the wealthy) paid for welfare and new homes

• Investment and research led to growth of reliable and prestigious brands

like Mercedes, Volkswagen and Leica (cameras)

West Germany also became more democratic, with power distributed among the

states (Lander) and the chancellor elected by the Reichstag. However, complete

denazification proved impossible and some former Nazis were given jobs in the

civil service and courts.

By 1955, West Germany was a member of NATO, although some British and

American troops remained in occupation.

The Big 3

The leaders of Britain

(Winston Churchill),

USA (Franklin

Roosevelt) and the

USSR (Josef Stalin)

Nuremberg Trials

Leading Nazis,

including Hermann

Goering were put on

trial for war crimes.

Some were executed.

Eastern Bloc

Communist countries of

Eastern Europe,

controlled by the USSR

Economic Miracle

Rapid growth of the W.

German economy in the

1950s, leading to

unprecedented living

standards and rates of

growth

Marshall Aid

Money from the USA’s

Marshall Plan in 1948

to fix damage caused by

WW2 and restrict the

spread of Communism

in Europe

ECSC

European Coal and

Steel Community,

created by Treaty of

Rome in 1953

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East Germany

East Germany faced problems from the very beginning. It had 1/3 of the West’s

population and only 20% of the West’s industrial output. At first, Stalin had little

interest in rebuilding the economy of his former enemy. Poor living and working

conditions encouraged East Germans to flee. Although the border with West

Germany was closed in 1952, thousands continued to escape through Berlin.

182,000 East Germans escaped in 1952 alone.

To control East Germany, Walter Ulbricht used the Stasi. Ulbricht was General

Secretary of the Unity (Communist) Party – in effect, the East German dictator.

The Stasi recruited informants to spy on their fellow Germans. By 1980, 25% of

East Germans were spying for the Stasi!

Ulbricht’s economic policies was disastrous for East Germany. The collectivisation

of farming led to food shortages and rationing. Industrialisation was also difficult

because Silesia, the East’s main industrial base, was given to Poland in 1945.

By 1961, so many East Germans were escaping to the West through Berlin that

Ulbricht persuaded Khrushchev to authorise construction of the Berlin Wall.

Thousands were shot or arrested while trying to escape over the wall.

Despite this, East German became the most prosperous country in the Eastern

Bloc. Ulbricht’s New Economic System of 1963 led to increased production and

his successor, Erich Honecker built more housing for workers and increased

religious toleration from 1971 onwards.

Divided Germany by the 1960s

By the 1960s, the West German ‘economic miracle’ was plain for all to see. West

Berlin in particular was a centre of consumerism – modern, well-stocked shops,

thriving cafes and restaurants, packed theatres and nightclubs.

In the East, although everyone was fed and housed by the state, and education

and healthcare were provided for all, it was a much lower standard of living.

Consumer goods like cars and washing machines were often unavailable unless

you joined a long waiting list. Buildings were still derelict after WW2 and life was

drab and unexciting.

Key Leaders of West and East Germany, 1949 - 1991

West East

Konrad Adenauer – 1949 - 1963 Walter Ulbricht – 1949 - 1971

Ludwig Erhard – 1963 – 1966 Erich Honecker – 1971 - 1989

Willy Brandt – 1969 – 1974

Helmut Kohl – 1982 - 1998

Stasi

East German secret

police. Spied on,

arrested and tortured

suspected ‘enemies of

the party’

Collectivisation

Government policy of

confiscating farmers’

land and giving it to

state-controlled farmers

‘collectives’

New Economic System

Ulbricht’s decision to

reduce state control of

workers and industrial

production in 1963

Consumerism

The belief that

happiness can be

improved by buying

goods and services in

ever increasing amounts

Revision Task

Draw a table with

two columns to

describe the

differences between

East and West

Germany after 1949.

Add an explanation

of why each

difference existed.

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Cold War Relations, 1945 - 1991

Although they had been allies during WW2, tension grew between the USA and

the USSR after 1945. The USA and Britain believed that Stalin had broken his

promises from Potsdam and simply taken over most of Eastern Europe, installing

Communist governments. Churchill said that an “Iron Curtain” now divided

Europe.

US President Truman took n tough anti-communist line which was called the

Truman Doctrine. The Marshall Plan was part of Truman’s plan to halt the growth

of Communism. However, Stalin thought that giving $1.3 billion to West Germany

was a betrayal of the promises he had been made at Potsdam.

The Berlin Blockade

By 1948, Berlin was a ‘flashpoint’ in the ongoing ‘Cold War’ between East and

West. West Berlin was an island of capitalism and democracy in the heart of

Communist East Germany.

Stalin’s unhappiness about the Marshall Plan and the introduction of the

Deutschmark into West Berlin led him to blockade the city in June 1948, to try to

force Britain and America to surrender their half of the city:

• Road and rail links into W. Berlin were blocked, but the three air corridors

were left open

• Power was cut to W. Berlin from power plants in E. Germany

• Stalin offered food and fuel for anyone who would move to E. Berlin

Britain and America refused to hand over their zone of the city. Instead, they

organised an airlift to bring in essential supplies by plane. Although Stalin doubted

that it would work, the airlift was a success:

• Planes took off from W. German airfields every 30 seconds for 11 months

– 278,000 flights in total

• 2.3 million tons of supplies were brought in, costing more than $200

million

• A new airport was constructed by W. Berliners to reduce congestion at

the other two airports

• Only 2% of West Berliners were tempted into moving to the East

Stalin realised that his blockade had failed and called it off in April 1949. He did

not want to risk a full-scale war with the West, partly because the USA had the

atomic bomb.

The consequences of the blockade were significant for the two Germanies:

• Two separate German countries were now created

• Berlin became a symbol of resistance against the spread of Communism

• The USA was committed to supporting West Germany

• A ‘Cold War’ had now begun

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

In the aftermath of the Berlin Blockade, the USA and Britain created NATO (North

Atlantic Treaty Organisation), an alliance of 11 member nations who promised to defend

each other if any of them were attacked.

Truman Doctrine

American policy of

containing

Communism – not

allowing it to spread

further

Air corridors

Three air routes from

West Germany to West

Berlin, allowing

military and civil planes

to reach W. Berlin

Revision Task

Describe the causes

and consequences of

the Berlin Blockade

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Although West Germany was on the front line, it did not join NATO until 1955. A

new W. Germany army, the Bundeswehr was also created in 1955. Despite

Konrad Adenauer’s policy of denazification, one of Hitler’s leading generals, von

Manstein, was released from prison to supervise the new army. By 1961, there

were 350,000 soldiers in the Bundeswehr.

In response to West Germany joining NATO, The USSR created the Warsaw Pact

in 1955. By now, the USSR also had atomic weapons and Europe was firmly

divided into two hostile alliances.

The Berlin Wall

East Germany was been concerned about its citizens fleeing to the West

throughout the 1950s. Although the border between East and West Germany was

heavily fortified, it was still easy for E. Germans to simply walk into West Berlin

and travel to the West.

Walter Ulbricht and Nikita Khrushchev were worried about West Berlin for a

number of reasons:

1. High living standards in the West made Communism look poor by

comparison

2. West Berlin was seen as a base for capitalist spies

3. West Berlin was the main escape route for the ‘brain drain’

4. Khrushchev had declared in 1961 that all Berlin belonged to E. Germany

As a result, the East German government started construction of the ‘anti-fascist

protective wall’ around West Berlin in August 1961. It was a 155 km stone wall,

topped with barbed wire and gun positions. There were specially constructed

crossing points into East Berlin, such as the famous ‘Checkpoint Charlie’.

The wall came to symbolise the tension between East and West Germany.

Thousands were killed trying to escape the East. US President Kennedy’s visit to

West Berlin boosted morale, but the USA was powerless to remove the wall.

Kennedy famously remarked that “a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war”.

The Berlin Wall had some benefits for East Germany:

• The ‘brain drain’ was slowed significantly, leading to higher standards of

living

• More people settled down and accepted their life in the East

• More attractive careers in technical professions became available

Willy Brandt & Ostpolitik

Until 1969, the official policy of West Germany was to refuse to have diplomatic

relations with any country that recognised East Germany. Because most countries

wanted to trade with the West, the GDR became very isolated.

In the 1960s, Willy Brandt tried to find ways of improving relations between East

and West. He called his policy Ostpolitik (‘eastern policy’). Some of Brandt’s actions

included:

• 1971 Berlin Accord with the USSR – both sides accepted the division of

Berlin as permanent

• Brandt knelt in sorrow at the Holocaust memorial in the Warsaw ghetto

Bundeswehr

West German armed

forces. By the 1970s, it

was the second largest

armed force in Europe,

with over 500,000 men.

Warsaw Pact

Military alliance

consisting of the

Communist countries of

the Eastern Bloc.

Brain Drain

Migration of skilled

workers from East

Germany to a better life

in the West

Willy Brandt

West German foreign

minister from 1966 and

Chancellor from 1969 -

1974

Ostpolitk

Brandt’s policy of

improving relations

between East and West

Germany

Revision Task

Describe the causes

and consequences of

the Berlin Wall crisis

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• 1972 Basic Treaty between West and East Germany – both countries

agreed to exchange diplomatic missions, respect each other’s

independence and increase trade

Brandt received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971 in recognition of his efforts.

Ostpolitik led to improved relations between West and East Germany, although

Brandt was also criticised for seemingly accepting the permanent division of the

two countries.

The most notable effects of Ostpolitik were:

• Both East and West joined the United Nations in 1973

• Travel and communications were easier and trade increased

• East Germany was able to participate in more international sporting events

Revision Task

Draw a chart to show

how the relationship

between East and

West Germany

worsened or

improved, 1945 –

1972. Explain why

these changes

occurred.

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Co-operation and Reconciliation

Glasnost and Perestroika

By the 1980s, the USSR was struggling to maintain its superpower status for a

number of reasons:

• Its economy could not keep up with the USA

• Soviet technology was failing – the Chernobyl nuclear disaster was a very

public example of this

• A disastrous, lengthy war in Afghanistan was draining Soviet lives, money

and morale

Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet Premier in 1985. To solve the USSR’s problems,

he introduced two new policies:

1. Glasnost – political freedom

2. Perestroika – economic freedom

Gorbachev also made it clear that he would no longer use the Red Army to prop up

Communist governments in eastern Europe. This was the end of the so-called

Brezhnev Doctrine.

These changes led to the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe by 1989. In

particular, the new, non-Communist government in Hungary dismantled the Iron

Curtain in March 1989 and allowed any eastern European to travel to the West.

Although Erich Honecker wanted to preserve East Germany’s harsh Communist

regime, it seemed as though its days were numbered.

Fall of the Berlin Wall

Honecker claimed in January 1989 that the Berlin Wall would last for another 50

years. However, Gorbachev withdrew 200,000 Soviet troops from East Germany

to save money. This left Honecker’s Communist government without support.

Large protests broke out against Communism in October 1989, which the Stasi did

nothing to stop. On 18th October, Honecker resigned. When his replacement,

Krenz, asked for help from the USSR, he was told that he was on his own. The

following month was a turning point:

• On 4th November, 1 million people joined a protest on the streets of East

Berlin

• On 6th November, 500,000 people protested in Leipzig, demanding an end

to Communist rule, chanting “Germany – one fatherland”

• On 9th November, with no options left, the East German government

opened the borders with the West. Thousands of people marched to the

Berlin Wall and pulled it down.

• Hundreds of thousands of East Germans started to migrate to the West

Brezhnev Doctrine

The USSR’s policy of

crushing revolts against

communism using their

‘Red Army’

Revision Task

‘Germany would

have been reunified

regardless of the

events of November

1989’. Explain why

you might agree with

this view

Revision Task

Explain why

Gorbachev was

forced to make

reforms in the USSR

in 1985

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The Role of Helmut Kohl

Helmut Kohl, the West German Chancellor (1982 – 1998) now took centre stage.

He was keen to reunite the two Germanies, as East Germany could not afford to

keep losing people, and West Germany could not afford to accommodate them.

However, Kohl faced some obstacles to reunification:

• East and West Germany were completely different societies – a capitalist

democracy with a strong economy and a communist dictatorship with a

weak economy

• Reunification could only happen if it was supported by the USA and the

USSR

• There was some opposition in West Germany because of worries about

the cost of reunification

Kohl took advantage of West Germany’s enormous wealth to overcome these

obstacles. He:

• Gave huge loans to bail out the bankrupt East German government

• Gave 133 billion Deutschmarks in loans to the USSR to persuade

Gorbachev to back reunification

• Allowed East Germans to exchange their almost worthless Ostmarks for

valuable Deutschmarks at a 1:1 exchange rate

These policies persuaded all parties to give their support to reunification.

The Reunification of Germany

The two German currencies were merged in March 1990. A treaty of unification

was signed in August 1990. The ‘Two Plus Four’ talks took place on October 2nd

and German reunification formally took place on October 3rd, which became an

annual holiday – German Unity Day.

Despite the success of reunification, some problems remained:

• The old East Germany continued to need massive subsidies to survive.

The cost was massive and highly unpopular in the West

• Huge migration from East to West took place after reunification. This

caused unemployment of up to 8% in some parts of the old West

Germany, which were not used to such social problems.

Two Plus Four Talks

Negotiations between

West and East Germany

(‘two’) and the USA,

USSR, France and

Britain (‘four’) which

agreed to German

reunification

Revision Task

Draw a table showing

the long-term and

short-term causes of

German

reunification. Plan an

essay which discusses

which side was more

significant in the

reunification of

Germany

Subsidies

Money given by a

government to keep

prices low