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THE HISTORY, EVOLUTION, AND PROFILE OF

PERSONAL WATERCRAFT

A Report by the Personal Watercraft Industry Association

January 2006

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Evolution of the Personal Watercraft..................p.2 Today’s PWC can accommodate three people, and feature state-of-the-art, environmentally-friendly engine technology.

II. New Technology............................................p.4Personal watercraft today are 75 percent quieter and up to 90 percent cleaner than pre-1998 models.

III. Environmental Impacts....................................p.6In every environmental assessment conducted by the National ParkService since 2002 the conclusion is the same—personal water-craft present no significant environmental impact.

IV. Safety ........................................................p.12Personal watercraft manufacturers support mandatory boatingsafety education for all PWC operators.

V. Conclusion ..................................................p.16

THEN NOW

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This publication has been created to describe the history andtechnological evolution of personal watercraft, or PWC, whichare small boats more commonly known by the manufacturers’brand names: JET SKI®, WaveRunner®, Sea-Doo®, or AquaTrax®.This document explains how, in an effort to meet consumerdemands in the past decade, personal watercraft have evolvedfrom the single-person stand-up vessels of years gone by to inno-vative, multi-passenger family boats offering state-of-the-art fea-tures and functions. Additionally, and contrary to false rhetoric,this publication describes in detail the enhancements made toPWC engine and design technology since the 1998 model yearthat have catapulted today’s PWC into one of the most envi-ronmentally-friendly motorized recreational vessels on thewater.

In 2000, a handful of national parks were unfortunately forcedto prohibit the use of PWC because of alleged harmful envi-ronmental impact, despite evidence to the contrary. Today, 15of these parks have completed environmental assessment stud-ies and every one has concluded PWC present no significantunique environmental impact compared to other boats. The pre-ferred rule is consistent in all 15 parks – PWC should no longerbe banned.

More information can be found at www.pwia.org or by callingPWIA at 202-737-9768.

I. EVOLUTION OF THE PERSONAL WATERCRAFT(PWC)

The personal watercraft (PWC) conceptoriginated in the 1960s, combining theelements of self-power, small size and amaneuverable, active vessel.

Bombardier Recreational Products,known for its Ski-Doo® snowmobiles,introduced a personal watercraft slightlyresembling what we know today as aPWC in the late 1960s, with limited suc-cess. This craft is credited for being thefirst sit-down style PWC. In the early1970s, Kawasaki Motors Corp. U.S.A.introduced the JET SKI® watercraft, thefirst commercially successful standupPWC.

There are currently four major companiescurrently active in the personal watercraftmarket. In the mid-1980s, Kawasaki's JETSKI® watercraft was joined by YamahaMotor Corp. U.S.A. Their product line ofthe WaveRunner® model created a mar-ket shift from the stand-up to the sit-downstyle PWC with one- and two-personcapacity. Shortly thereafter, BombardierRecreational Products re-joined the mar-ket with their Sea-Doo® line. Most recent-ly, in 2002, American Honda began sell-ing its version of a PWC, the AquaTrax®.

Along the way, two-person sit-down craftquickly took over from the single personstand-up model. Today, three-person fam-ily models are the most popular. Multi-person family craft currently make upapproximately 99 percent of personalwatercraft sales.

PWC popularity grew very rapidly in theearly 1990s and what was once a smallportion of the recreational boating mar-ket became the fastest growing sport inthis category. Simultaneously, the PWCindustry was for a time the fastest grow-ing segment of the marine business.

Personal Watercraft Sales

U.S. sales of PWC peaked in 1995 withapproximately 200,000 units sold. Salesof personal watercraft declined from1996 through 2001, but began to leveloff in 2002 with sales of 79,300 units.The industry saw sales in 2004 of morethan 79,500 units.

According to the National MarineManufacturers Association, there wereapproximately 1.48 million PWC ownedin 2004. The average retail price of aPWC in 2004 was $9,226. Since themid-1990s, sit-down style, multi-passen-ger watercraft have made up around 99percent of all PWC sales, with three-person family models being the fastestgrowing segment. According to the 2000National Survey on Recreation and theEnvironment (NSRE), approximately 20million Americans ride personal water-craft each year.

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PWC owners spend millions on the sportannually. In addition to purchasing thevessel, they spend money on boatingregistration fees, launch fees, trailers,fuel, insurance, clothing, accessories,food, travel, and watercraft-orientedvacations.

Employment in the PWCIndustry

Nearly 6,000 people are employed inthe United States by PWC manufacturersin at least 11 states. Other financialimpacts of the sport include employmentin more than 2,000 retail businessesservicing and selling PWC, aftermarketand related small businesses manufac-turing components and accessories, cor-porate tax revenues from PWC-relatedbusinesses, local and state sales taxes,and gas tax revenues.

The Personal WatercraftConsumer

Today's personal watercraft are afford-able family boats with clean, quiet, fuel-

efficient engines and no exposed pro-pellers. Manufacturers have respondedto customers' desire for environmentally-friendly recreation, and have createdcleaner, quieter and more versatile per-sonal watercraft.

Additionally, PWC manufacturers havefocused their new model designs ontoday's consumer base — families —thus, continuing to perfect and producemore of the three-person models. Thesemodels now account for more than 75percent of today’s PWC market. Recentdata shows the average purchaser of anew PWC in the last five years is 41years old. About 85 percent are male,71 percent are married, 69 percenthave owned a powerboat prior to theirmost recent PWC purchase, and 66 per-cent have taken or completed college-level course work. Forty-two percent ofthose PWC owners have owned water-front property, and over 60 percenthave access to a home on the water,whether it is their primary home or thehome of a close friend or relative.Today's consumer is likely more diversewith the broader selection of models cur-rently available, which appeal to manydifferent people.

2004 U.S. PWC Sales

PWC Sold: 79,500

Total Retail Value: $733,454,700

Average Unit Cost: $9,226

PWC Owned: 1,480,000

Source: NMMA Recreational BoatingStatistical Abstract, 2004

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Who is the Average PWC Customer?

• 41 years of age

• 71% married

• 69% previous boat owners

• 66% college educated

Source: Survey by Bowe Marketing ResearchConsultants

In 2001, Leisure Trends Group, a nationalconsumer research firm, surveyed con-sumer attitudes towards personal water-craft. Ninety-three percent of the respon-dents had positive attitudes towards thesafety of personal watercraft, particularly ifthe vessels were operated properly.

Surveys have also found that the mostcommon ways PWC are used (over 80percent) involve rides with family andfriends, short cruises, towing skiers,exploring, and entertaining friends.

II. NEW TECHNOLOGY

Personal watercraft manufacturers areconstantly investing in research anddevelopment, leading to new technologythat improves their product lines. Since1998, PWC have evolved substantially tomeet consumer demands. Today’s PWCare larger, seat up to three people, offerstorage space, and are capable of tow-ing a water skier. They are alsoequipped with new, environmentally-friendly engine technology.

Since personal watercraft were invented,these vessels have been equipped withthe same two-stroke engine technologythat powers marine outboard motors. Itwas only in the past decade that marineengine designs changed dramatically.Today, many PWC are fuel-injected andthe vast majority of units sold featurestate-of-the-art four-stroke engines.

Cleaner and Quieter

PWC manufacturers are meeting andexceeding Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) standards for emissionsrequirements. Furthermore, all PWCproduct lines have always complied withall applicable federal and state soundand emissions requirements.

In California, manufacturers are requiredto go above and beyond EPA standardsand also comply with the emissions stan-dards of the California Air ResourcesBoard (CARB). Technological enhance-ments made to PWC engines have result-ed in one of the most environmentally-friendly motorized vessels on the water.

Most of today's personal watercraft uti-lize four-stroke, direct-injection and cata-lyst two-stroke technology allowing up to90 percent fewer emissions than modelsmanufactured in 1998. Traditional, obso-lete technology two-stroke engines inPWC have evolved into high technologycatalyzed, direct-injection and four-stokeengines. The older carbureted two-strokesare less efficient because it flushes out orscavenges its cylinders and refills with amixture of air and fuel after each com-bustion. This process leads to higheremissions and less fuel efficiency.Because of these inefficiencies, newdirect-injection two-stroke designs weredeveloped that scavenge the cylinderswith pure air containing no fuel at all.The fuel is then directly injected into thecylinder after the exhaust port is closed.

Beginning with the 2003 model year, allPWC manufacturers produced modelswith four-stroke engines, universally rec-

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ognized as the cleanest and most fuel-effi-cient engines on the water. Today, thesefour-stroke engines account for the major-ity of sales and are ever gaining in pop-ularity.

In addition, hull insulation, exhaust sys-tem sophistication, materials selection,and other muffling technologies haveresulted in personal watercraft that are70 percent quieter than models producedin the late 1990s.

No Exposed Propeller

PWC engines drive a jet pump that drawswater from the bottom of the craft into animpeller, which pressurizes the water andforces it out a nozzle at the rear of thecraft. There is no exposed propeller. This“jet” of pressurized water propels andsteers the craft when the throttle isengaged.

Steering Enhancement

All boats, including PWC, requirepower to steer. Each PWC manufactur-er tells users to apply throttle to steer. Inaddition, all new sit-down PWC areequipped with technology that assiststhe operator in turning the vessel by con-tinuing to supply thrust or activatingsmall fins while the watercraft is decel-erating. However, an operator can turnmore sharply if the throttle is appliedwhile turning the handlebars.

Speed-Limiting Systems

The development and incorporation ofnew-technology engines and the sophis-ticated engine management systems thataccompany today’s PWC have allowedfor new features to be added to person-al watercraft. One such system limitsengine speed, thus reducing the maxi-mum speed of the vessel. All PWIA mem-ber companies produce vessels with thisfeature.

Additional Features

In addition to engine and designenhancements, many PWC modelstoday include added comfort and con-venience features that were not offeredpreviously on personal watercraft. Suchfeatures now include tow hooks, board-ing steps, GPS units, side mirrors,increased storage, reverse throttle, andengine cut-off lanyard cords that attachto the operator’s wrist or life jacket. Theengine cut-off lanyards automatically

Environmentally-friendly PWC 4-stroke engine.

PWC jet nozzle – noexposed propeller

Traditional power-boat propeller

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turn off the PWC’s engine in the eventthe operator falls off.

III. ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS

As a result of remarkable technologicaladvancements, today’s PWC are amongthe most environmentally-friendly motor-ized boats on the water. Compared tothose models manufactured before 1998,modern PWC are up to 90 percentcleaner and 70 percent quieter. In fact,individual scientific studies conducted in15 separate National Park Service (NPS)units over the past three years all con-

clude that PWC present no unique impactcompared to other motorized boats, andits use should be allowed.

Air Quality

Through new technology, personal water-craft manufacturers now offer greatlyreduced exhaust emissions as well as out-standing fuel efficiency. Marine engines,including outboards and PWC, are sub-ject to regulation by the EPA and theCalifornia Air Resources Board (CARB).Emissions have been rapidly declining inrecent years, due largely to the EPA stan-dards that became effective in early1999 and CARB standards that becameeffective with the 2001 model year.1,2

Under the EPA standards, outboard andPWC hydrocarbon + NOx emissions for93 kW engines must be reduced from abaseline of approximately 150 g/kW-hrin the 1998 model year to 46.1 g/kW-hrin the 2006 model year. This constitutesapproximately a 75 percent reduction.The CARB standards are three-tiered, andrequire 93 kW engines to comply with (a)the 46.1 g/kW-hr level by the 2001model year; (b) a 36.9 g/kW-hr level in2004; and (c) a 16.1 g/kW-hr level in2008. This constitutes approximately a90 percent reduction. With the onset ofthe CARB and EPA emissions regulations,new technologies already in developmenthave accelerated to be used in PWCapplications. The PWC companies havebeen rapidly converting from carburetedtwo-stroke engine models to models usingcatalysts, direct-injection two-stroke, and

PWC cockpit with rear-view mirrors

PWC storage

1 EPA, “Emission Standards for New Gasoline Marine Engines,” EPA420-F-96-012, August 1996.2 California Air Resources Board (CARB), “California Regulations for 2001 and Later Model Year Spark-Ignition Marine Engines,”

Regulatory Action #99-1022-05S, October 22, 1999.6

four-stroke engines. Because of manufac-turing and distribution efficiencies, mostnew PWC units meet the more stringentCARB standards.

The new direct-injection two-stroke enginesbeing installed in PWC use nearly 50 per-cent less oil, and provide up to a 75 per-cent reduction in hydrocarbon + NOxemissions as well as improved fuel econo-my. It is expected that as the technologymatures emissions reductions will be evengreater. Four-stroke PWC also offer quiet,fuel-efficient operation and greatlyreduced exhaust emissions. These enginesare a proven technology, similar in designto those used in automobiles and motorcy-cles, but optimized for marine use.

In addition to four-stroke and direct-injec-tion two-stroke engines, personal water-craft manufacturers are also utilizing vari-able oil injection and catalyst systems.These systems greatly reduce exhaustemissions, smoke and oil consumption.3

The following chart demonstrates the sig-nificant reductions in emissions PWCmanufacturers have achieved.

Direct-injection and catalyst-equippedPWC have been in production since1999. In 2002, three PWC manufactur-ers introduced models powered by four-stroke engines; with the 2003 modelyear, all manufacturers offered four-strokemodels, making the personal watercraftfleet one of the cleanest and quietest onthe water.4 For the 2003 model year,Kawasaki introduced a four-stroke modelcompliant with CARB 2008 emissionstandards (the most stringent in the coun-try requiring 90 percent emissions reduc-tion), five years ahead of schedule.5

Water Quality

The primary water quality concern thathas been identified regarding two-strokeengines is the discharge of unburnedgasoline and gasoline additives fromthese conventional carbureted enginetypes as well as the spilling of such com-ponents during refueling.6 The EPA hasconfirmed that studies showing mostunburned gasoline and gasoline addi-tives emitted from carbureted two-strokemarine engines evaporate from the waterwithin the first hour and 15 minutes afterbeing released.7 More specifically, at anair temperature of 86 degreesFahrenheit, which approximates a mini-mum daily temperature during the sum-mer peak use period, 84 percent of theunburned gasoline/additive mix releasedinto the water evaporated within 75 min-utes.8 Water quality testing conducted inOrange County, California, at Donner

3 Cameron, Kevin, “Fichtoid,” Personal Watercraft Illustrated, December 2000.4 Yamaha USA and Bombardier/Sea-Doo Press Releases, July 2001.5 Kawasaki Press Release, January 7, 2003.6 67 Fed. Reg. 56,790-91 (September 5, 2002).7 Revelt, Jean M., The Effects of Marine Engine Exhaust Emissions on Water Quality, Summary of Findings of Various Research Studies (EPA

1994). 8 Ibid. 7

Lake in California, and on Canandaiguaand Keuka Lakes in New York further con-firm the EPA’s findings. 9, 10, 11, 12

Moreover, the progression by manufac-turers to four-stroke and two-stroke direct-injection PWC engines to meet therequirements of the EPA 2006 and CARB2008 emission standards is occurringmore rapidly than the EPA estimated.Sales of these newer models overtookconventional two-stroke PWC in 200213

and comprised 80 percent of units soldby 2004. As a result, the amount ofunburned fuel released will continue todecline rapidly, achieving a reduction ofapproximately 90 percent from the 1998baseline levels by 2012.

Lake Mead National Recreation Area inNevada is one of the largest and mostpopular motorized recreational boatinglakes in the country, and upon completingan environmental assessment study andpublic rulemaking process in 2003, theNPS concluded that continued PWC usewould not impair water resources.

In conjunction with NPS, the U.S.Geological Survey (USGS) conductedwater quality samplings and took meas-urements from a number of high-use boat-ing areas on Lakes Mead and Mohave todetermine the impact of two-strokeengines on water quality. The measure-ments were taken in June 1999, duringthe height of the boating season, andessentially represented the 1998 “base-

line” condition. The tests showed thatconcentrations of key unburned fuel com-ponents benzene, toluene, ethyl benzeneand xylene (BTEX) were present in surfacewater samples but at levels substantiallybelow any federal or state water stan-dards. The highest value measured forbenzene was 1.25 ug/l (micrograms perlitre), which is substantially lower than themaximum contaminant level for drinkingwater of 5 ug/l established by the EPA.14

The measured values for the three otherBTEX compounds were from two to fourorders of magnitude below the EPA max-imum contaminant levels.15

Thus, the data corroborates the NPS con-clusion that there is no potential for thebuildup of concentrations of BTEX com-pounds from PWC use that could impairthe aquatic systems in Lake Mead andLake Mohave.16 It is important to considerthat this test analyzed the impact of theolder two-stroke technology. Today’s high-tech fuel-injected two-strokes, as well asthe four-stroke designs increasingly usedin PWC, produce up to 90 percent feweremissions than the older technologiesused in this 1999 test.

The USGS sampling data also showed thepresence of the gasoline additive methyltertiary butyl ether (MTBE). While this con-taminant has been of concern at severalreservoirs in California, the federal gov-ernment has not established standards ormaximum contaminant levels for MTBE.However, the EPA has adopted an advi-

9 Orange County Water District, Jet Jam ’97 Water Quality Testing. August 27, 1997.10 Alpha Analytical, Inc. Analytical Report, Deloro Water Co./Donner Lake Division. July 7, 1999.11 Canandaigua Lake, NY, City of Canandaigua, 1999. 12 Landre, Peter and Barkley, Amy, Keuka Lake Water Quality Testing Program. Keuka Lake Association. Hammondsport, NY, 2000.13 Ehlert Powersports Business,2002 Market Data Book, p. 25-26.14 40 C.F.R. § 141.61. 15 United States Geological Service, Water Resources Data, Nevada, Water Year 1999 (Report NV-99-1), p.108. 16 67 Fed. Reg. 56,790 (September 5, 2002).8

sory level of 20-40 ug/l for drinkingwater. The highest sample measured byUSGS was 4.16 ug/l, well below the EPAadvisory level. Indeed, it is below eventhe most stringent potential benchmark –the secondary maximum contaminantlevel of 5.0 ug/l for drinking water inCalifornia. Once again, given the reduc-tion in PWC engine emissions (as well asemissions from other marine engines) atLake Mead since the sample was taken in1999, this result is unlikely to be repeat-ed, much less exceeded. Many stateshave either banned MTBE, or are consid-ering doing so. In addition, the EPA is con-sidering banning MTBE in the nearfuture.17

Sound

PWC are no louder than other motorboats,and in many instances are quieter. Thereare two components creating the soundheard from PWC: (1) the engines duringnormal operation of the PWC; (2) thewater splashing against the hull and res-onating.

The personal watercraft industry hasreduced engine sound pressure levels upto 70 percent since 1998. These reduc-tions have been achieved, in part, by low-ering the sound made as well as the pitchof the engine. Loudness of sound is a quan-tifiable term, measured in decibels (dBA).Pitch is a measurement of the frequencythat the sound wavelength vibrates.Methods employed by manufacturers to

absorb or block the wavelengths of soundgreatly lessen both the loudness and thepitch attributed to personal watercraft.18

To reduce sound levels, the newest modelsof personal watercraft utilize air intake res-onators with multiple maze-like chambers.These chambers eliminate a direct path forthe sound waves to escape.19 The res-onators employ several different lengthtubes attached to the exhaust pipe. Assound waves pass into these tunnels, theybounce back and cancel out incomingidentical but opposite “crest” waves.20

Baffles are also used for counter frequencyand to quiet vibration.

Manufacturers also employ noise-absorb-ing materials between the liner and thehull, so the boat is quieter and moredurable. Additionally, some manufacturershave increased the thickness of thecrankcase wall to muffle noise and vibra-tion. Rubber is also used as paddingaround the jet pump dampers to absorbthe shock loads and quell driveline noise.21

Critics of PWC claim that PWC repeated-ly leave the water, leading to increasedsound and annoyance levels. The majori-ty of today’s PWC do not leave the waterat all, let alone with any frequency. This isin large part due to the design: newermodels are longer, wider, heavier, andhave additional seating capacity. Becauseof these features, newer models leave thewater much less regularly than older craft.Three-person PWC -- which account formore than 75 percent of new sales -- can

17 65 Fed. Reg. 16,094 (March 24, 2000).18 Personal Communication, Harry Klemm, Group K, Mohave, Arizona, 2001.19 Yamaha Watercraft. “The Yamaha Sound Suppression System and the Yamaha Platinum Plus System” Brochure, 1999.20 Bombardier Recreational Products, “Bombardier Announces Quieter Watercraft for 1999,” Press Release, 1997.21 Kawasaki Motor Corporation. “Kawasaki Marine Engine New Technology for Year 2000 and Beyond,” Press Release,

2000. 9

weigh as much as three times more thanfirst generation single-person, stand-upmodels and are much less apt to leave thewater.

The sound created from water hitting thehull is a considerable portion of the overallsound of any running watercraft. In 1994,the International Council of MarineIndustry Associations (ICOMIA) MarineEnvironment Committee (IMEC) tested thesound levels of boats without the enginerunning to quantify the level of sound gen-erated by the water splashing against thehull of the boat as it moves through thewater. The IMEC test results showed that aPWC towed by a 150 meter (492 feet)rope without the engine running measured68 dBA when measured from 25 meters(82 feet) at a speed of 70 k/mh(44mph).22 When tested with a runningengine at full throttle, the sound of theengine plus the sound of water hitting thehull registered between 72 and 78 dBA,well below the SAE J3423 standard of 86dBA, measured from 50 feet at full speed.The U.S. Coast Guard recommends statesadopt 86 dBA as a maximum sound-level.

Objective, scientifically-based sound testinghas always found PWC sound levels com-parable to other motorboats. In sound leveltesting conducted on Lake Powell (GlenCanyon National Recreation Area on theUtah/Arizona border) the test data indicat-

ed that the maximum sound levels of PWCwere actually lower than the maximumsound levels of other motorized vessels. Inparticular, the levels for PWC at 82 feetwere approximately 68 to 76 dBA, where-as the levels for other motorized vessels at82 feet were approximately 64 to 86 dBA.The National Park Service standard forsound levels is 82 dBA at 82 feet, and theNPS has correctly recognized that unal-tered pre-1998 PWC and current PWC arecapable of meeting that standard, as wellas the more stringent standard of 75 dBAas measured from the shore, regardless ofoperation (SAE J1970)24, which is calledfor in the National Marine ManufacturersAssociation’s Model Noise Act.25

Independent, unbiased sound testing con-ducted for the Tahoe Regional PlanningAuthority and the New Jersey State Policehave found similar results.26, 27

Additional sound testing was conducted inFrance by the International Council ofMarine Industry Associations in 2003.These tests were conducted to confirm thatPWC could comply with recently enactedEuropean Union regulations, and used thesame PWC available for purchase in theU.S. The test results found PWC sound lev-els were between 70–73 dBA when meas-ured from 82 feet with the PWC travelingat 44 mph. These latest test results are con-sistent with U.S. test results, and continueto confirm PWC manufacturers have made

22 ICOMIA Marine Environment Committee. “Powered Recreational Craft Sound Level Test Report - Lake X, Florida, 1994.”

May, 1995.

23 SAE J34 establishes test procedures for the U.S. Coast Guard that measure sound levels from a non-shoreline location of

boats operating full throttle at a distance of 82 feet (25 meters).

24 SAE J1970 establishes the procedure for measuring the sound level of pleasure motorboats at a position on the shore under

conditions other than stationary mode operation.

25 NMMA Model Noise Act

26 Tahoe Regional Planning Authority. “Environmental Noise Analysis, Lakeland Village Watercraft.” Brown-Buntin Associates,

Inc. September 1992.

27 New Jersey State Police. “Boat Noise Tests Using Static and Full Throttle Measurement Methods.” Noise Unlimited Inc.

November 1995.10

remarkable advances in sound reduction,making PWC among the quietest vesselson the water today.

Wildlife

Waterfowl:According to a series of studies by theFlorida Fish and Wildlife ConservationCommission, personal watercraft have nogreater significant impact on waterfowlthan other motorized boats. A compari-son of the flush distances, or minimum dis-tance, required to disturb nesting birds,caused by personal watercraft and a two-stroke powered motorboat found person-al watercraft are “relatively quiet to thepoint where [PWC] noise is not the factor,which causes the birds to flush….A fastmoving motorboat heading directly at thebirds…should produce a flushingresponse similar to that of a PWC beingoperated in a similar manner.”

Most importantly, only one out of 11species in the study exhibited a largerflushing distance to the PWC than themotorboat. Five species flushed at fartherdistances when approached by themotorboat than by the PWC, and 11species showed no significant differencein flushing distances based on the hulltype of the boat approaching.Researchers suggest a single buffer zonefor all watercraft should be developed toprotect nesting waterfowl. Species type is

more important than boat type whendetermining boundaries that should notbe crossed by humans.28

Similarly, a separate study in Floridafound an average greater flush distancein response to humans on foot than toapproaching motorboats or canoes. As aresult, the researchers recommended set-ting back distances for all human activityof 100 meters (328 feet) for wading birdsand 180 meters (590 feet) for extremelyskittish species such as skimmers andterns. The researchers also cited a reportthat found no significant effect on breed-ing success due to disturbance by boatsor other methods.29

PWC have also been mentioned as a fac-tor in the decline of the loon population inthe Northern United States. However,there has been no comprehensive studyon the plight of the loon, or the effect ofboating and development on its popula-tions. For instance, Sutcliffe (1979) iscited in one article as reporting a 50 per-cent decline in the loon population inNew Hampshire from 1929-1979, priorto any PWC use!30

It is actually the loss of nesting habitat,increased human interaction, andincreased predation by urban animalssuch as raccoons that have led to thedecrease of many populations of birdsaround the country. In terms of mortality,there are very few reports of waterfowl

28 Rodgers, James A., Jr. and Schwikert, Stephen T., “Buffer Zone Distances to Protect Foraging and Loafing Waterbirds fromDisturbance by Personal Watercraft and Outboard-Powered Boats.” Conservation Biology, Volume 16, No. 1, February2002.

29 Rodgers, James and Smith, Henry. Wildlife Research Laboratory, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. “Set-

Back Distances to Protect Nesting Bird Colonies from Human Disturbance in Florida.” 1994.

30 Ballestero, Thomas, PhD., P.E., P.H. “Impact of Motor Boat and Personal Watercraft on the Environment: Bibliography.”Environmental Research Group, University of New Hampshire. August 1, 1990. 11

death directly from motorboats, and nostudies cite personal watercraft as thecause of waterfowl mortality.31

The regulation of one type of vessel doesnot address the overall issue that humandevelopment. In fact, one study foundloons are disturbed more by human activ-ity on lakes with no boating versus lakeswith watercraft.32

Marine Mammals:In addition to loons, some critics haveclaimed PWC are a threat to manatees,dolphins, or other marine mammals.However, marine mammal injuries orfatalities attributable to PWC are non-existent. For example, the FloridaDepartment of Environmental Protection,Bureau of Protected SpeciesManagement reported that a review ofover 25 years of manatee mortalityrecords indicated no PWC have everbeen implicated in a manatee death orinjury.33 In fact, because of the lack of anexposed propeller, which could present aprop-related injury to a startled dolphinor manatee, PWC are regularly used bymarine mammal research organizationssuch as Sea World, Mote MarineLaboratory, and the Harbor BranchOceanographic Institute.

Seagrasses:Studies confirm PWC are not a threat toseagrasses. The only comprehensive testevaluating personal watercraft impact onseagrasses (conducted in 1997 in theFlorida Keys) indicates personal watercraftuse, as recommended by the manufactur-ers, does not affect seagrass beds or waterturbidity, and does not cause scarring ofthe grassbeds.34 Because PWC are pow-ered by a water jet utilizing a shieldedimpeller, it cannot damage submergedaquatic vegetation in the manner that hasbeen attributed to propeller driven vessels.

IV. SAFETY

The personal watercraft industry is commit-ted to ensuring the safety of its productsand devotes substantial resources towardspromoting safe riding behavior.

According to U.S. Coast Guard statistics,99.99 percent of all PWC are operatedaccident free. The Coast Guard reportedin 2004 that “the number of reportedinjuries involving PWC use continued ona downward trend and has decreasedevery year since 1996.”35

31 Ibid.32 Ibid.33 Letter from David W. Arnold, Chief of the Bureau of Protected Species Management, Florida Department of Environmental

Protection, to U.S. Representative David Weldon. March 16, 1999.34 Continental Shelf Associates, Inc., Effects of Personal Watercraft Operation on Shallow-Water Seagrass Communities in the

Florida Keys, 1997. 35 USCG 2004 Boating Statistics, Executive Summary.12

PWC Accident Statistics Have ShownTremendous Improvement

The chart above demonstrates that PWCaccident, injury and fatality rates haveseen no significant statistical increase; infact, they are at their lowest levels sincewidespread popularity of PWC began inthe late 1980s.

In 1991:• 99.6 percent of PWC in use were not

involved in an accident of any kind.• There were an estimated 305,915

PWC in use in the United States.36

• There were 1,513 reported PWC acci-dents nationwide, resulting in an acci-dent ratio of 4.95 per 1,000.

• There were 708 reported injuries and26 reported fatalities; the nationalinjury/fatality rate was 2.31/0.09per 1,000 PWC.37


involved in an accident of any kind.

• There were an estimated 600,000PWC in use in the United States.38


• There were 1,338 reported injuriesand 56 reported fatalities; the nation-al injury/fatality rate was 2.23/0.09per 1,000 PWC.39


involved in an accident of any kind.• There were an estimated 1.8 million

PWC in the United States.40


• There were 1,614 reported injuriesand 66 reported fatalities; the nation-al injury/fatality rate was 1.37/0.06per 1,000 PWC.41


involved in an accident of any kind.• There were an estimated 1.48 million

PWC in the United States.42

• There were 1,767 PWC accidentsreported nationwide, resulting in areported accident ratio of 1.12 per1,000.

• There were 1,424 reported injuriesand 50 reported fatalities; the nation-al injury/fatality rate dropped to alow of 0.64/0.04 per 1,000 PWC.43

36 National Marine Manufacturers Association, “Facts and Figures.”37 United States Coast Guard Boating Statistics – 1991.

38 National Marine Manufacturers Association, “Facts and Figures.”

39 United States Coast Guard Boating Statistics – 1994.


41 United States Coast Guard Boating Statistics – 1999.


43 United States Coast Guard Boating Statistics – 2004. 13

PWIA Model Legislation

The most common cause of boating acci-dents involves operator inexperience,excessive speed and operator inattention.To address these concerns, PWIA hassupported mandatory education for allPWC operators. By the end of 2002, 35states had enacted PWIA-endorsedmandatory education for PWC users insome form. In each of these states, PWCaccident rates have significantlydeclined.

PWIA has actively lobbied states to adoptits model legislation endorsed by theNational Association of State BoatingLaw Administrators (NASBLA).44

Florida:The Sunshine State is among the leadingstates for PWC registrations and hasenacted comprehensive PWC laws inrecent years, which mirror many of

PWIA’s recommendations. As a result,while PWC registrations have increasedin Florida by over 50 percent since1995, PWC accidents have declined by67 percent (from 508 to 169) over thatsame period of time, a ten year low.45

Florida’s PWC laws include the followingprovisions:46

• Mandatory boater safety education forall boaters (including PWC) under 22years of age.

• Each person operating or riding on apersonal watercraft must wear anapproved Type I, II, III, or V life jacket.Inflatable personal floatation devicesare prohibited.

• The operator of a personal watercraftmust attach the engine cutoff switchlanyard (if equipped by the manufac-turer) to his/her body, clothing, orPFD.

• PWC may not be operated from ahalf-hour after sunset to a half-hourbefore sunrise.

• Maneuvering a PWC by weavingthrough congested vessel traffic, jump-ing the wake of another vessel unrea-sonably close, or when visibilityaround the vessel is obstructed, orswerving at the last possible momentto avoid collision is classified as reck-less operation of a vessel (a firstdegree misdemeanor).

44 PWIA Model Legislation.45 Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission “2004 Boating Accident Statistics.”46 http://myfwc.com/boating/safety/law_summary.htm

PWIA’s model legislation includes thefollowing provisions:

• Mandatory minimum age require-ment (16)

• Mandatory education for all oper-ators

• Mandatory personal floatationdevice and wetsuit use

• Mandatory use of lanyard enginecutoff device if so equipped

• PWC must be operated in a rea-sonable and prudent manner

• Daylight only time restrictions

14

• A person must be at least 14 years ofage to operate PWC.

• It is unlawful for a person to knowing-ly allow a person under 14 years ofage to operate a personal watercraft(a second-degree misdemeanor).

• PWC liveries must provide on-the-water demonstration and a check-rideto evaluate the proficiency of renters.

• PWC liveries must not rent to anyoneunder the age of 18 years of age.

• PWC liveries must display safety infor-mation on proper operation of aPWC. The information must include:propulsion, steering and stoppingcharacteristics of jet pump vessels; thelocation and content of warninglabels; how to re-board a PWC; theapplicability of the Navigational Rulesto PWC operation; problems with see-ing and being seen by other boaters;reckless operation; and noise, nui-sance, and environmental concerns.

Other states have enacted similar safetyand education legislation and have alsoseen positive results. Some examples are:

Connecticut: Since mandatory education was institutedin Connecticut in 1992, the state hasgraduated more than 200,000 students.As a result, while PWC registrations havetripled in recent years, the rate of acci-dents has declined.47

Pennsylvania: Since the year 2000, PWC operatorshave had to attend a mandatory eight-hour education course before beingallowed to operate a PWC inPennsylvania. Starting in 2000, therehas been a dramatic drop in PWC acci-dents and injuries. The state’s annualboating accident report lists the numberof reported recreational boating acci-dents for 2004. Officials recorded 14PWC accidents in 2004, compared to36 in 1999. These dramatic reductions,causing the lowest figures since 1992,occurred during a time when thousandsof new PWC were registered in the state.The analysis also reports the year 2004was the twelfth straight year that therewere no fatalities involving a PWC.48

Utah: Mandatory education became requiredfor all PWC operators between 12 and17 years of age in 1996. Since 1998,there has been a steady decline in PWC-related accidents. In 1998, there were atotal of 56 PWC-specific accidents, 54 in1999, 45 in 2000, and 33 in 2001.Meanwhile, PWC registrations increasedfrom 9,917 in 1998 to 11,854 in2001.49

47 Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, Boating Division.48 Pennsylvania Fish & Boat Commission’s "2000 Pennsylvania Boating Accident Analysis."49 Utah Division of Parks and Recreation.

Since Florida enacted its PWC law:

50% increase in PWC population;67% decrease in accidents

15

Wisconsin: Since mandatory education was institut-ed in Wisconsin in 1991, PWC acci-dents have decreased by 68 percent.50

A number of factors must be consideredwhen comparing PWC accidents amongstates, including the existence of manda-tory PWC education, number of PWCregistered in the state, and the length ofthe boating season.

V. CONCLUSION

The personal watercraft industry hasmade tremendous PWC improvements inrecent years. The facts in this documentclearly illustrate there is no justificationfor singling out PWC when it comes tomanagement decisions on our nations’waters. PWIA strongly supports regula-tory efforts that apply to all recreationalmotorized vessels equally in order toensure all motorized watercraft usersmay safely enjoy equal access toAmerica’s public waterways.

For more information, please call PWIAat 202-737-9768 or visit www.pwia.org.

50 Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.16

American Honda Motor Co., Inc. AquaTrax

www.hondamotorcycle.com/watercraft/

BRP US, Inc.Sea-Doo

www.seadoo.com

Kawasaki Motors Corp., U.S.A. JET SKI

www.kawasaki.com

Yamaha Motor Corporation, U.S.A.WaveRunner

www.yamaha-motor.com

PWIA MEMBERS:

Personal WatercraftIndustry Association

www.pwia.org

[email protected]

444 North Capitol Street, N.W. • Suite 645Washington, DC 20001

Tel. 202-737-9768 • Fax 202-628-4716

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