The effect of engaging consumers through stories

Written by Lasse Goud (11147385)

Date of submission: 24 – 06 -2016 Qualification: Msc Business Administration - Marketing Institution: Amsterdam Business School Thesis Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Ed Peelen

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Statement of originality

This document is written by Student Lasse Goud who declares to take full responsibility for

the contents of this document. I declare that the text and the work presented in this document

is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have

been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the

supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

Signature:

Lasse Goud

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Acknowledgement

Herewith I would like to take the opportunity to thank the people who supported me in

writing this master thesis. Firstly I would like to thank my supervisor Ed Peelen, who has

been of great value in the process of creating this document. Secondly, I would like to thank

Zwitersland Toerisme for granting me access to their online community in order to collect

responses. Last but not least my thanks goes out to friends and family who have been a great

mental support in writing this master thesis.

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Table of Contents

1   Introduction  ..............................................................................................................................  7  

2   Literature  review  ......................................................................................................................  9  

2.1   Storytelling  in  the  marketing  context  ........................................................................................  9  

2.2   The  role  of  firm-­‐originated  storytelling  ...................................................................................  10  

2.3   The  elements  of  firm-­‐originated  storytelling  ...........................................................................  11  

2.4   Storytelling  as  a  marketing  tool  in  the  tourism  industry  .........................................................  12  

2.5   Customer  engagement  and  its  dimensions  .............................................................................  13  

2.6   The  effect  on  the  cognitive  and  affective  components  of  attitude  ..........................................  18  

2.7   The  effect  of  factual  information  on  cogitive-­‐based  attitude  change  .....................................  23  

2.8   Purchase  intention  ...................................................................................................................  25  

3   Conceptual  Model  ...................................................................................................................  27  

4   Method  ...................................................................................................................................  28  

4.1   Procedure  and  experimental  conditions  ..................................................................................  28  

4.2   Measures  .................................................................................................................................  28  

4.3   Manipulation  check  .................................................................................................................  29  

5   Results  ....................................................................................................................................  30  

5.1   Indicator  level:    Preliminary  steps  ............................................................................................  31  

5.1.1   Descriptive  analysis  ..........................................................................................................  31  

5.1.2   Reliability  analysis  ............................................................................................................  32  

5.1.3   Correlation  matrix  ............................................................................................................  33  

5.2   Construct  level:  Testing  Hypotheses  ........................................................................................  34  

6   Discussion  &  Conclusion  ..........................................................................................................  43  

6.1   Theoretical  and  practical  implications  .....................................................................................  43  

6.2   Limitations  ...............................................................................................................................  47  

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7   References  ..............................................................................................................................  48  

8   Appendix  ................................................................................................................................  53  

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Abstract

This study investigates how storytelling affects the psychological process in which

customer engagement, attitude- and behavioural change take place for the tourism industry.

Customer engagement consists of affective, cognitive, social and behavioural elements, which

are measured through 5 dimensions (identification, enthusiasm, attention, absorption,

interaction) on a 25-item scale. Little research is done on how these elements are affected by

storytelling, their impact on the cognitive- and affect-based attitude, and how the attitude

types consequently influence the intention to travel. Moreover, the advantage of using factual

information without a story is also investigated. The difference in subjective knowledge for

the two information types (story and fact) and the effect of subjective knowledge on the

attitude towards the destination are measured.

An experimental survey was conducted on a sample of 212 participants. The outcomes

clarify that storytelling influences the affect-based attitude via the affective components of

customer engagement (enthusiasm and absorption). Moreover, it shows that the intention to

travel is affected by the affect-based attitude, whereas the cognitive-based attitude has an

insignificant effect on the intention to travel. Additionally this study shows that factual

information causes a greater increase in subjective knowledge than storytelling. Nevertheless,

subjective knowledge does not influence the attitude towards the destination.

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1 Introduction

Stories are as old as mankind and have always fascinated people (Lundqvist, Liljander,

Gummerus, & van Riel, 2013). Marketing through storytelling is gaining popularity,

especially in the tourism and hospitality industry (P. Tussyadiah, Park, & R. Fesenmaier,

2010). While the power of stories has been studied widely, little empirical evidence exists on

the impact of stories on consumer responses and it deserves more attention in brand

management literature (Lundqvist, Liljander, Gummerus, & van Riel, 2013). Why is

storytelling becoming so popular and how can its effectiveness be explained?

For this study another concept is used to come up with a possible explanation for the

effectiveness of storytelling. This is the concept of customer engagement, which is recently

gaining more attention by marketing scholars (So K. K., King, Sparks, & Wang, 2014).

Over the past years a growth in the range of new media channels has occurred, which

enables companies more easily to connect with their customers beyond the purchase (So,

King, & Sparks, 2014). Nevertheless, this growth in new media channels leads to an

information overload for the consumer, which eventually makes it more challenging for

marketers to connect with their customers. MSI (2010, p. 4) stated that ‘‘many firms see

customer engagement as a route for creating, building, and enhancing customer firm

relationships and (ultimately) improving business performance’’.

New ways of interaction with the customer have to be developed in order for

companies to stand out. A possible way to accomplish this is by offering relevant and/or

inspiring content, which is aimed at the customers’ needs. The increase of companies

applying content marketing as part of their relationship marketing strategy shows that

companies recognize the importance of it in re-connecting with their customers (Wang, Qiao,

& Peng, 2015). Yet, there is a lack of understanding about the influence of content marketing

on customer engagement and other constructs. This is vital since proactive consumer

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engagement is a concept that influences the relationship between customer and company, and

has shown to affect the purchase intention (Wang, Qiao, & Peng, 2015).

Previous studies have been investigating the effect of storytelling on behavioral

intention towards a travel product (Akgün, Halit , Ayar, & Ebru , 2015; Hsiao, Lu, & Lan,

2013). Those studies discovered that empathy and attitude are mediators in the relationship

between storytelling and the behavioural intention. This study will build on the findings of

those former studies, by adopting consumer engagement and measure its effect on attitude and

the behavioral intention towards a travel destination. This was done through an experimental

survey. Additionally, knowledge is added as a variable to our research in order to understand

the potential benefit of factual information (non-narrative) over storytelling on the attitude

and intention to travel. This is addressed with the following research question:

How do storytelling and factual information affect the attitude and intention to travel towards

a destination through customer engagement and knowledge?

Firstly, the literature review will provide a theoretical background for this study.

Secondly, a conceptual model will visually present the constructs. Next, the methodology is

described followed by the results. Lastly, the implications and limitations of the study are

discussed.

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2 Literature review

2.1 Storytelling in the marketing context Content marketing is becoming more important nowadays for companies in attracting

and retaining customers. According to Pulizzi (2012) companies need to start acting more like

media companies in order to stand out in an environment where the consumer is exposed to an

overload of information. Nevertheless media companies create content with the intent of

making money directly from it, whereas non-media company content does not have a focus on

gaining profit directly from the content, but indirectly from attracting and retaining customers

(Pulizzi, 2012). Compared to traditional vehicles, which are mainly focussed on short-term

achievements, content marketing is used to generate a positive behaviour from a customer or

prospect of the brand (Pulizzi, 2012; P. Kotler and G. Armstrong, 2009, in Liu & Chia-yen

Wu, 2011). Building relationships with current and potential consumers triggers them to

become an advocate of the business (R. T. Rust, K. N. Lemon, and D. Narayandas, 2005, in

Liu & Chia-yen Wu, 2011). This is more important than ever in a world where buyers have

gained more control (C. Li and J. Bernoff, Groundswell, 2008, in Liu & Chia-yen Wu, 2011).

Guber (2007) indicated that the challenge for firm-originated stories is entering the hearts of

the listener in order to touch their emotions. Even though our minds are open, the heart is

being protected, as we are aware of its power to move us. Words and ideas that engage the

listeners’ emotions are the base of stories. Therefore, storytelling is a noteworthy tool within

content marketing to study.

The extant literature on marketing contains a large extent of information about the

traditional vehicles, yet little research is done on businesses applying storytelling (Liu &

Chia-yen Wu, 2011). Stories are able to promote positive features of a product or service,

without being perceived as a commercial (Lundqvist, Liljander, Gummerus, & van Riel,

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2013). Nevertheless, little emperical research is conducted on the effects they have on

consumer responses in a business setting.

2.2 The role of firm-originated storytelling Previous researchers claim that storytelling helps companies to inform current and

prospective customers what the company is about and what can be expected from it (Jensen,

1999, in Ågren & Ölund, 2007). Nevertheless, informing the consumer can not be seen as

sufficient enough in creating a favorable attitude towards the brand. Good stories are able to

create positive associations and can embrace the core values of a company better than

traditional communication vehicles (Lundqvist, Liljander, Gummerus, & van Riel, 2013).

Consumers that are exposed to a story express high levels of emotional enthusiasm, which

could possibly develop into an emotional connection with the brand (Lundqvist, Liljander,

Gummerus, & van Riel, 2013). Therefore the biggest challenge for companies nowadays is

not the mere creation of valuable and compelling content, but the creation of engaging content

(Pulizzi, 2012). This thesis suggests that storytelling can be applied as a tool to enhance the

engagement and subsequently affect the attitude towards a company.

The impact of storytelling on customers’ behaviour can be explained with ‘the

transportation into a narrative world’, which describes ‘‘the process of becoming fully

engaged in a story’’ (Green & Brock 2000, 2002 in Green, Brock & Kaufman, 2004, p. 312).

The transported individual, whom has the feeling to be departed from reality and entered the

imagined world of a story, is in this particular state more prone to attitude change (Green &

Clark, 2013). According to Green and Clark (2013, p.477) narratives are experienced through

‘‘high levels of cognitive and affective engagement, and may form vivid mental images’’.

Immersion into a story reduces counterarguing, increases connection with the character,

increases perceptions of realism and heightenes the emotional experience (Green & Clark,

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2013). This demonstrates that narrative transportation in a firm-originated story can be seen as

one of the causes for an individual to change their attitude towards a brand or product.

2.3 The elements of firm-originated storytelling Previous research on stories has found that a story included several elements. First of

all, a story should always include a beginning, a middle and an end (Aristotle, 1987, in Chiu,

Hsieh, & Kuo, 2012). The beginning leads to a problem and creates a climax, which is tackled

with the use of a resolution at the end of the story (Freytag. 1863, in Casebeer, 2008)

Additionally, a narrative should include characters and a lesson learned (Aristotle, 1987, in

Chiu, Hsieh, & Kuo, 2012). It presents product information in a more conversation-like

approach than factual information (Peracchio & Meyers-Levy, 1997).

Chiu, Hsieh, and Kuo (2012) stated four elements that contribute to a good brand

story. These elements are authenticity, conciseness, reversal and humor and can be used to

engage readers in product evaluations and have shown to positively affect brand attitude and

purchase intention. Fog, Budtz, and Yakaboylu (2005) also stated four important elements

that a story should contain, namely a message, conflict, plot and characters. The authors

mention that the elements are necessary to ensure that the content can be recognized as a

story. It is stated that the message should cultivate positive associations with the brand, the

conflict should be resolved after putting the reader out of tune for a moment, the plot should

maintain audience interest, and the characters should include a hero and an adversary.

According to Peracchio and Escalas (2008) a plot should contain something unusual or

unexpected, which Fog, Budtz, and Yakaboylu (2005) describe as the ‘conflict element’.

Akgün, Halit , Ayar, and Ebru (2015) have recently studied the components of

storytelling and the effect these elements have on travel intentions in the tourism industry.

This study revealed that 3 elements, namely perceived aesthetics, narrative structure and self-

reference, evoke reader empathy and change in attitude towards the product.

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Similar research by Hsiao, Lu, & Lan (2013) on this topic exposed that perceived aesthetics

(of all three elements) has the most significant total effect on intention. Making a story visible

through photos, layout design and audio, and good aesthetics can have an impact on the

attraction of the stories.

2.4 Storytelling as a marketing tool in the tourism industry Research shows that vacations are evaluated more favourably when they are described

through a narrative instead of a list of features (Adaval & Wyer, 1998). Therefore it is no

surprise that travel companies are becoming more aware of storytelling as a marketing tool

(Hsiao, Lu, & Lan, 2013). In 2009, about 30 percent of US travelers used travel-related blogs

before making travel plans (US Trave Association, 2009 in Hsiao, Lu & Lan, 2013). Even

though this does not inidicate whether they were influenced by stories, it does proof that

creating good content is valuable.

A travel product is an experience good (McIntosh, 1972 in Hsiao, Lu, & Lan, 2013),

hence it is more difficult to promote its features. This limitation could be minimized through

the use of storytelling, as it enhances the perceived quality of the travel product by giving the

consumer a better impression.

Previous studies show that empathy is a mediator in the relationship between

storytelling and attitude in the tourism industry. Nevertheless customer engagement, which is

recently gaining more attention by marketing scholars, would be a valuable variable to

investigate. Narratives are experienced through high levels of cognitive and affective

engagement and heighten the emotional experience (Green & Clark, 2013). Therefore, the aim

of this study is to understand how customer engagement is affected by storytelling and how

the impact of this effect changes the attitude and intention to travel towards a destination.

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2.5 Customer engagement and its dimensions According to Vivek, Beatty and Morgan (2012. p. 127) customer engagement refers to

‘‘individuals who interact with the brand, without necessarily purchasing it or planning on

purchasing it, or on events and activities engaged in by the consumer that are not directly

related to search, alternative evaluation, and decision making involving brand choice’’.

Customer engagement is, as the MSI (2010, p. 4) states, ‘‘a behavioural manifestation toward

a brand or firm beyond the purchase’’.

Non-transactional behaviors are becoming more important (Verhoef, Reinartz, &

Krafft, 2010). So, King and Sparks (2014, p. 2) describe this non-transaction behavior as ‘‘a

customers’ personal connection to a brand as manifested in cognitive, affective, and

behavioral actions outside of the purchase situation’’. A relationship can be easily build in an

online environment that engages a customer that has not bought a product yet. It can motivate

consumers to do something beyond what is required in the contract. Having frequent

interactions with both current and potential customers could strengthen the emotional

investment the consumer has in the brand (Chaffey, 2007, in Sashi, 2012). It is very likely that

by using the correct tools these interactions will positively influence the emotional bond

between consumer and brand.

According to Roderick, Ilic, Juric, and Hollebeek (2013) the concept of customer

engagement focuses on interactive consumer experiences. Nevertheless, many definitions

have been used to describe the concept. Table 1 by Vivek S. D., Beatty, Vivek, and Morgan

(2014) includes a set of definitions that describe CE and has been partialy extended to show

the 4 elements through which CE can be manifested, namely cognitively, affectively, socially

and behaviorally (Vivek, Beatty, & Morgan, 2012) :

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Authors: Definition: Object/Term Used: Component:

Vivek, Beatty, and Morgan (2012, p. 133)

The intensity of an individual’s participation in and connection with an organization’s offerings and/or organizational activities, which either the customer or the organization initiate.

Consumer engagement Behavioral

Mollen and Wilson (2010, p. 922)

The customer’s cognitive and affective commitment to an active relationship with the brand as personified by the Web site or other computer-mediated entities designed to communicate brand value. It is characterized by the dimensions of dynamic and sustained cognitive processing and the satisfying of instrument value and experiential value.

(Online or computer-mediated entities) Customer engagement

Cognitive and affective

Sashi (2012, p. 267)

It embodies interactive consumer experiences where ICTs such as social media act as tools that can enable and facilitate these experiences. The level of consumer engagement is calculative and affective commitment to an active relationship with a firm or the firm’s online community.

Consumer engagement process

Social, cognitive, affective and behavoiral

Brodie et al. (2011b, p. 260)

“[A] psychological state that occurs by virtue of interactive, cocreative customer experiences with a focal agent/object (e.g., a brand) in focal service relationships.”

Customer engagement Social and behavioral

Hollebeek (2011, p. 790)

The level of a customer’s motivational, brand-related and context-dependent state of mind characterized by specific levels of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral activity in brand interactions. It includes the themes of immersion, passion, and activation.

Customer–brand engagement

Cognitive, affective, behavioral and social

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Gambetti, Graffigna, and Biraghi (2012, p. 668)

Customer-brand engagement appears as a multi-dimensional concept combining such elements as attention, dialogue, interaction, emotions, sensorial pleasure, and immediate activation aimed at creating a total brand experience with consumers.

Advertising/media engagement but referred to as customer–brand engagement

Social, behavioral, affective, cognitive

Van Doorn et al. (2010, p. 254)

Customer engagement behaviors go beyond transactions and are defined as a customer’s behavioral manifestations that have a brand or firm focus, beyond purchase, resulting from motivation drivers.

Consumer engagement behaviors

Behavioral and cognitive

Higgins and Scholer (2009, p. 112)

A state of being involved, occupied, fully absorbed, or engrossed in something (i.e., sustained attention), generating the consequences of a particular attraction or repulsion force.

Strength of engagement Affective

Table 1 Vivek s. D., Beatty, Vivek, & Morgan (2014)

The following broad definition by Roderick, Ilic, Juric, and Hollebeek (2013) was

slightly adjusted in order to cover many of the definitions that were used in previous literature

and defines consumer engagement and its 4 elements (Vivek, Beatty, & Morgan, 2012):

‘‘’Consumer engagement involves specific interactive experiences between consumers

and the brand, and/or other members of the community. Consumer engagement is a context-

dependent, psychological state characterized by fluctuating intensity levels that occur within

dynamic, iterative engagement processes. Consumer engagement is a multidimensional

concept comprising cognitive, emotional, social and/ or behavioral dimensions, and plays a

central role in the process of relational exchange where other relational concepts are

engagement antecedents and/or consequences in iterative engagement processes within the

brand community’’ (Roderick, Ilic, Juric, & Hollebeek, 2013, p. 3)

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This definition clarifies that customer engagement involves experiences between a

brand and its’ customers. An example of this experience could be a story. Moreover, this

definition includes the cognitive, emotional, social and/or behavioral elements of customer

engagement. These elements are used as a base to understand how customer engagement

should be measured. The scale that will be used within this study touches upon all these

dimensions. Nevertheless, this scale and its relation with the elements will be discussed in

further detail later. Storytelling as an experience involves high levels of cognitive engagement

and affects emotions (Green & Clark, 2013). Therefore it can be assumed that storytelling

could influence the elements of customer engagement and, through this affect, the attitude and

intention of the customer. Moreover, the engaged customer develops an emotional

attachement to the organisation (Gallup consulting, 2010, in Sashi, 2012; Roderick, Ilic, Juric,

& Hollebeek, 2013). Hence, creating emotions through storytelling could strengthen the

relationship with the company on an emotional level as well. Nevertheless, as

aforementioned, an appropriate scale containing validated dimensions should be used to

measure the effect of storytelling on the 4 elements (cognitive, affective, social and

behavioral) of customer engagement.

Schaufeli, Salanova, Vincente, and Bakker (2002, p. 74) study employee engagement,

which is defined as ‘‘a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind’’ and represents 3

dimensions, namely vigor, dedication, and absorption. Vigor is labelled as having high levels

of energy and being resilient in the face of difficulties. Dedication is described as feelings of

‘‘significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge’’ (Schaufeli, Salanova, Vincente,

& Bakker, 2002, p. 74). Absorption occurs when someone is fully engrossed in an activity and

time pases quickly. One loses track of the world around him/her and has difficulties ending

the activity. Customer engagement is similar to employee engagement. Nonetheless, it

includes a ‘‘strong behavioral focus’’ (So, King, & Sparks, 2014, p. 306). Moreover, the

social element of customer engagement is not measured with this scale. Therefore other

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studies made an effort to measure customer engagement and included dimensions that signify

the behavioral and social aspect.

Vivek, Beatty and Morgan (2012) developed and validated a 10-item CE scale, which

is able to measure CE on 3 dimensions, namely conscious attention, enthused participation

and social connection. When comparing the dimensions of CE-scale to the EE-scale it shows

that enthused participation shows similarities with vigour, because a certain kind of energy

arises when being engaged. Dedication and social connection are the dimensions that focus on

the social element of customer engagement. Also conscious attention and absorption concern

high involvement in completing the task, without being disrupted.

The CE-scale can be used to develop effective engagement strategies, by addressing

the various venues the firm considers to use (Vivek S. D., Beatty, Vivek, & Morgan, 2014).

Nevertheless, So, King, and Sparks (2014) also developed and validated a measurement 25-

item CE scale, which can be seen as an extension of the 10-item scale and consists of 5

factors: identification, enthusiasm, attention, absorption, and interaction. This scale is in line

with the aforementioned definition, since it measures all 4 elements of customer engagement

(cognitive, affective, social and behavioural). Enthusiasm and absorption cover the affective

aspect of customer engagement (Harmon-Jones, Price & Gable, 2012; Higgins & Scholer,

2009). Identification and attention are considered to be the cognitive components of the

customer engagement (So, King, & Sparks, 2014). Interaction, which is the last dimension on

this scale, covers the behavioral and social aspect of customer engagment (Vivek S. , 2009).

These dimensions will be discussed in further detail later.

The 25-item scale is ‘‘a useful tool for practitioners to gain insight into customer

psychological behavioural connections with their brands beyond the service consumption

experience’’ (So, King, & Sparks, 2014, p. 304). The effectiveness of marketing strategies can

be measured by surveying customers prior to and after a certain marketing strategy with the

items on the CE scale (So, King, & Sparks, 2014).

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2.6 The effect on the cognitive and affective components of attitude Vivek, Beatty, and Morgan (2012, p. 133) describe customer engagement as ‘‘the

intensity of an indivual’s participation in and connection with an organization’s offerings or

organizaiton activities, which either the customer or the organization initiates’’. As

aforementioned in the definition, customer engagement can be manifested either cognitively,

affectively, behaviorally or socially (Vivek, Beatty, & Morgan, 2012) . Cognitive and

affective elements include experiences and feelings, and the behavioral and social elements

embrace the participation of both current and potential customers.

This thesis will focus on the effect of all the dimensions of customer engagement on

the affective, cognitive and consequently the behavioral elements of the attitude towards a

destination. San Martin and Rodriguez Del Bosque (2008, p. 274) state that through

storytelling a ‘‘mental representation of a tourist destination is formed on the basis of

individuals’ belief about the place (cognitive image), as well as their feelings towards it

(affective image) ’’.

A study by Millar and Tesser (1986) demonstrated that affective components lead to

affectively driven behavior and cognitive components lead to cognitively driven behaviors.

Hence, affect and cognition are two distinguishable components of attitude (Breckler &

Wiggins, 1989). Breckler and Wiggins (1989, p. 253) define affect as ‘‘emotional responses

and feelings engendered by an attitude object’’ and cognition or evaluation is described as

‘‘thoughts, beliefs, and judgments about an attitude object’’. Previous research indicates that

narratives elecit stronger emotional reactions, compared to content-equivalent information

(Kopfman, Smith, Ah Yun, & Hodges, 1998 ; McQueen & Kreuter, 2010). A study by

McQueen and Kreuter (2010) showed that a narrative video increased the engagement, which

as aformentioned could reduce counterarguing (Green & Clark, 2013) and is therefore more

likely to increase the attitude. Moreover, respondents reading statistical evidence messages

produce a higher number of thoughts than respondents who are exposed to a narrative

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(Kopfman, Smith, Ah Yun, & Hodges, 1998). Hence, the narrative and the factual information

will presummably differ in the impact they have on the affect-based and the cognitive-based

attitude. Nevertheless, these elements of attitude will be affected differently through the 5

dimensions of customer engagement.

1. Identification

A strong consumer-company relationship can help the customer satisfy their important

self-definitional needs (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003). Hultman, Skarmeas, Oghazi, and

Behesthi (2015) reveal in their study that tourists ascribe distinct personalty characteristic to

destinations, which is defined as tourist-destination identification. According to the authors,

the personality of a destination makes the tourist identify him/herself with the destination and

leads to promotion and revisit intentions. A study by McQueen and Kreuter (2010) showed

that participants were more likely to identify with cancer survivors when being exposed to a

story. Moreover, exposure to stimulus materials that contain brand personality and elicit

identification have a signifincant impact on the attitude towards the brand (Freling & Forbes,

2013 ; Shen & Chiou, 2009). So, King, and Sparks (2014, p. 310) state that identification is a

‘‘cognitive component that justifies consumers’ engagement behaviors’’. This is in line with

the statement by Currás-Pérez, Bigné-Alcañiz, and Alvarado-Herrera (2009), which confirms

that C-C identification is a purely cognitive variable. Therefore the process of identification is

most likely to affect the cognitive-based attitude. This brings us to the the following

hypotheses:

H1a: Storytelling elicits a higher level of identification with the destination than factual

information.

H1b: Identification with the destination increases the cognitive-based attitude towards the

destination more than the affect-based attitude.

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2. Enthusiasm

Enthusiasm is the high level of energy that arises when exposed to a focal engagement

object (So, King, & Sparks, 2014). Vivek S. (2009, p. 60) describes enthusiasm as ‘‘strong

excitement or zeal about the focus of engagement’’. As mentioned before, consumers that are

exposed to a story express high levels of emotional enthusiasm, which could possibly develop

into an emotional connection with the brand (Lundqvist, Liljander, Gummerus, & van Riel,

2013). This dimension is similar to the dimensions of dedication and vigor, which are used by

Schaufeli, Salanova, Vincente, and Bakker, (2002). Harmon-Jones, Price and Gable (2012)

state that enthusiasm is an affective state, which narrows the cognitive scope. Therefore, it is

very likely that enthusiasm will impact the affective component of attitude. Enthusiastic

consumers are highly excited about getting in contact with the product or service. The idea of

visiting a destination after being exposed to a story is expected to influence their affect-based

attitude towards this destination. The following hypotheses are constructed on the

abovementioned findings:

H2a: Storytelling elicits a higher level of enthusiasm for the destination than factual

information.

H2b: Enthusiasm for the destination increases the affect-based attitude towards the

destination more than the cognitive-based attitude.

3. Attention

Engaged customers have a higher interest in information that is related to the brand

(So, King, & Sparks, 2014). Higgins and Scholer (2009) mention that engaged consumers are

in a state of sustained attention. If an unpleasant task needs to be completed it is more likely

for people to turn their attention away, which will subsequently lower their level of

engagement (Higgins & Scholer, 2009). Consumers are more likely to pay attention when for

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example being exposed to information about a tourist destination they are engaged with. The

attention can possibly be created through the use of storytelling. Stories can be used to

facilitate the information processing and capture the attention of the consumer, which will

make the person more likely to get a better understanding and recall (Kreuter, et al., 2010).

Attention can be generated through sensational value, but could possibly influence the

cognitive forces to appear afterwards (Donohew, Lorch, & Palmgreen, 1998). As the story

grabs the attention, more thinking could occur about the negative and the positive aspects of

the destination. The following hypotheses are based on the foregoing literature:

H3a: Storytelling elicits a higher level of attention towards the destination than factual

information.

H3b: Attention towards the destination increases the cognitive-based attitude towards the

destination more than the affect-based attitude.

4. Absorption

Higgins and Scholer (2009, p. 102) define engagement as ‘‘a state of being involved,

occupied, fully absorbed, or engrossed in something’’. This type of absorption is similar to the

concept of ‘flow’, which is the experience of being engaged in an activity that brings

energetic focus, creative concentration and peak enjoyment (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

Absorption embodies an effortless concentration in which a person loses self-consciousness,

has little to no realization of time and experiences an intrinsic enjoyment. When a transported

individual enters a story, he/she feels the departure from reality and is more prone to attitude

change (Green & Clark, 2013). Absorption could eventually lead to a level of attraction to, or

repulsion from a focal engagement object (Higgins & Scholer, 2009). The strength of

absorption within engagement is aligned with how we affectively value something (Higgins &

Scholer, 2009). Hence, the affect-based attitude towards the destination can be affected

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through absorption, when the destination is used as the focal engagement object. The

following hypotheses were developed:

H4a: Storytelling elicits a higher level of absorption with the destination than factual

information

H4b: Absorption with the destination increases the affect-based attitude towards the

destination more than the cognitive-based attitude.

5. Interaction

According to So, King and Sparks (2014, p. 309) interaction is ‘‘a customer’s online

and offline participation with the brand or other customers outside of purchase’’. Interaction

is also one of the dimensions on the 10-item scale by Vivek (2009). In this study interaction is

described as ‘‘interchange of ideas, thoughts, and feelings with other people about the

engaged consumer’s participation and the focus of engagement’’ (Vivek S. , 2009, p. 61).

Vivek (2009, p. 61) ascribes a higher level of engagement to an increase in the exchange of

‘‘experiences, thoughts and feelings with others’’. People are more likely to interact by

sharing information about the brand with others after being engaged. A lot of information that

is stored in the memory is episodic (Fournier, 1998; Schank, 1990, in Woodside, Sood, &

Miller, 2008) and it is therefore easier to recall a story about the brand, which makes it easier

to share as well. Vivek (2009, p. 61) also mentions that ‘‘interaction plays a more significant

role in cases where engagement generates social benefits’’. This is in line with the tourist-

destination identification, which is mentioned before as part of identification. The more a

person identifies with a destination, the more likely it will become that a person uses the

destination in dialogue with others. These dialogues can concern either thoughts and ideas or

feelings. Having frequent interactions with both current and potential customers could

strengthen the emotional investment the consumer has in the brand (Chaffey, 2007, in Sashi,

23

2012). Hence, it is very likely that the consumer will share his/her feelings after being

exposed to the information, which presumably increases the affect-based attitude to a higher

extend. These findings are hypothesized as follows:

H5a: Storytelling elicits a higher level of interaction than factual information.

H5b: Interaction increases the affect-based attitude towards the destination more than the

cognitive-based attitude.

There has been a rise of interest in the concept of customer engagement since the upcoming of

social media, which has led us to a search for approaches that have an effect on the

engagement of the customer (Sashi, 2012). A study by Hsiao, Lu, and Lan (2013) shows that

storytelling has an impact on purchase intention. Nevertheless this influence of storytelling is

mediated through reader empathy and attitude and little is known about other constructs

(Hsiao, Lu, & Lan, 2013; Akgün, Halit , Ayar, & Ebru , 2015). This provides the opportunity

to study the effectiveness of engaging content on attitude which could be accomplished

through storytelling.

2.7 The effect of factual information on cogitive-based attitude change The aforementioned hypotheses predict that storytelling elicits higher outcomes for each

of the dimensions of customer engagement than factual information does. Moreover it is

expected that eventually it is more likely that the affect-based attitude will be influenced by

engagement through storytelling.

Former research on storytelling is mainly biased towards the advantages of storytelling

and little research is conducted on the positive effect of factual information. Therefore this

study will consider a possible advantage of using factual information over storytelling.

Previous studies show that affect precedes cognition in attitude formation when affective

24

means of persuasion are used; whereas cognition precedes affect when cognitive means of

persuasion are used (Edwards, 1990). A study by Kopfman, Smith, Ah Yun, and Hodges

(1998) demonstrates that statistical evidence messages produce more thoughts than narrative

messages. Aligned with this theory, it can be assumed that factual information is a cognitive

mean of persusassion and influences the cognitive-based attitude to a greater extend. Hence,

other factors should be taken into account to explain an alternative affect of factual

information on the cognitive-based attitude. The attitude towards an organization is affected

by the knowledge one has about the organisation, which is a cognitive variable (Morgan,

Stephenson, Harrison, Affi, & Long, 2008). It is very likely that people who are exposed to

factual information will show an increase in knowledge, given that they become more

educated about the organisation.

Previous research shows that knowledge can be measured in two different ways, either

subjectively (individuals perceived knowledge) or objectively (knowledge stored in memory)

(Brucks, 1985). This study will only cover the subjective knowledge given that the two videos

contain different information, which will give an unreliable representation of the increase in

objective knowledge. Nevertheless, subjective knowledge is likely to increase after being

exposed to a video that contains factual information. People could feel more knowledgeable

after receiving facts, which eventually is assumed to affect their cognitive attitude.

The following was hypothesized in order to investigate how factual information,

through the construct of subjective knowledge, could be a greater influencer of the cognitive

attitude than storytelling:

H6a: Factual information elicits a higher level of subjective knowledge than storytelling.

H6b: High levels of subjective knowledge increases the cognitive-based attitude towards the

destination more than the affect-based attitude.

25

2.8 Purchase intention As aforementioned, Hsiao, Lu, and Lan (2013) reveal that empathy and attitude towards

the brand indirectly mediate the relationship between storytelling and behavioural intention

towards a travel product. Nevertheless, these former studies completely focus on the effect of

empathy that arises from storytelling to explain intention, whereas other relational constructs

should also be studied (Hsiao, Lu, & Lan, 2013)

With regard to engagement, a study by Wang, Qiao, and Peng (2015) has revealed that

there is a positive relationship between the evaluative valence of proactive engagement and

purchase intention. Additionally, it is suggested that ‘‘the evaluative aspect of the emotional

process links engagement with purchase intention’’ (Wang, Qiao, & Peng, 2015, p. 197).

Correspondingly, other studies found that affect and feelings have a higher impact on

behavior, sometimes even leading to ‘‘twice the variance toward conative attitude’’ (Morris,

Woo, Geason, & Kim, 2002, p.14 ; Farley & Stasson, 2003). Moreover, Vivek S. , Beatty,

Dalela, and Morgan (2014) mentioned patronage intent as a relationship outcome of customer

engagement. Hence, it can be assumed that customer engagement influences the customers’

intentions towards purchasing a travel product. This is in line with a study by Merchant, Ford,

and Sargeant (2010) on charitable organizations’ storytelling, which proofs the effect of story

content on both emotions and purchase intentions. Furthermore, a study by Chiu, Hsieh, and

Kuo (2012) also shows that a brand story has a positive impact on brand attitude and purchase

intention. Nevertheless, research needs to be conducted on how customer engagement affects

the attitude and thereafter the behavioural intention, when stories are used. When looking at

the dimensions it can be assumed that stories have a greater impact on attitude. This could

give an additional explanation for the effectiveness of stories on behavioural intention to

travel to a destination. Therefore the following hypothesis is investigated:

26

H7: Affect-based attitude towards the destination has a higher effect on behavioural intention

to travel than a cognitive-based attitude

27

3 Conceptual Model The hypotheses that derived from our literature review are visualized trough the

connecting lines in the following conceptual model:

Figure 1 Conceptual Model

28

4 Method

4.1 Procedure and experimental conditions A quantitative online experiment was conducted in which the participants were

randomly assigned to one of two groups (storytelling vs. factual). The sample included both

community members of a Swiss destination management organization, but was also

distributed through snowball sampling. This created a sample that consisted of people that

already had a certain degree of engagement towards the country and people who did not. The

first group (fact group) was exposed to a short video providing factual information about

Switzerland. The second group (storytelling group) was exposed to a video that included the

elements of a story.

The factual video described the same destination, namely Switzerland. Nevertheless it

did not include the aforementioned elements of a story. The factual information presented

revelatory facts about Switzerland. A pre-test was conducted in order to make sure that the

information did not include the elements of a story.

Both groups also received a number of questions after the experiment to ensure the

internal validity. In this way confounding variables were recognized that could cause a

variation in the dependent variable, which gave the opportunity to filter the results at a later

stage. Examples of such factors could be an excessive pre-existing preference for Switzerland.

4.2 Measures Customer engagement was measured according to the 5 dimensions of the 25-item

customer engagement scale: identification, enthusiasm, attention, absorption and interaction.

This gave a clear view on how customer engagement was affected by the story compared to

factual information. Every dimension contains measurable items that were measured with a 7-

point Likert scale. Nevertheless, the items had to be modified in order to measure the

engagement with a destination instead of a brand.

29

Moreover items were created that tested the construct of knowledge. The items of

knowledge were, just as the components of customer engagement, measured on a 7-point

Likert scale in order to assure that all outcomes could be easily compared.

Subsequently, attitude was measured on a cognitive and affective level. Cognitive and

affective responses were measured on a bipolar evaluative continuum anchored at both ends

(Kim & Stepchenkova, 2015). Within this experiment deviation from the neutral or zero point

on the 7-point semantic differential scale was used to measure whether a cognitive or an

affective attitude effect had appeared for the items on the scale.

The intention of travelling towards Switzerland is a dependent variable. The effect on

this variable was expected to be different for the affect-based attitude towards Switzerland

than for the cognitive-based attitude. The intention to travel was measured with the purchase

intent scale developed by Hsiao, Lin, Wang, Lu, and Yu (2010). Nevertheless, the items were

partly modified in order to measure the purchase intention towards a destination.

4.3 Manipulation check A pre-test was conducted in order to test whether the treatments were measuring the

correct information type; either storytelling or factual information. A sample of 13

participants participated in the pre-test, in which the two videos were shown and questions

were asked that measured the elements of storytelling on a 7-point Likert scale. Seven

participants were exposed to the factual video and six participants where exposed to the story

video. A mean variable was computed for all the scales.

An independent samples t-test was conducted in order to compare the means of the

two treatments. There was a difference between the story (M = 4.98, SD = 1.19) and the

factual video (M = 3.87, SD = 1.17). This means that the story video scored higher on the

story elements than the factual video. Therefore, the videos were appropriate for use in the

main study. Nevertheless, the difference between these two videos was not significant. This

30

is due to the small sample size (N = 13). Hence, it was decided to retain the manipulation

check in the main study.

An increase in mean difference was observed for the results of the manipulation check

in the main study. The mean of the story video was higher (M = 5.04, SD = 0.85) than the

mean of the factual video (M = 3.82, SD = 1.03). The difference between these two videos

appeared to be significant t(210) = 9.399, p<0.01. Therefore, it can be concluded that the story

video did clearly include the elements of a story, whereas the factual video did this to a

significantly lesser extent.

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5 Results In this chapter all the results that were collected from the experiment are analyzed.

Firstly, preliminary steps were taken through a descriptive analysis, frequency check, and a

reliability analysis. Secondly, a correlation analysis was done and the hypotheses were tested.

Lastly, a check for mediation was conducted as a supplemental analysis of the main study.

5.1 Indicator level: Preliminary steps

5.1.1 Descriptive analysis

All data was collected through an online experiment that started on the 30th of April

2016 and was closed on the 16th of May 2016. 216 participants completed the survey.

Moreover, after cleaning the data, 4 outliers were detected by calculating the Z-score for the

total means of all items (Field, 2003). The variables cognitive-based attitude had 2 outliers

and some outliers were detected in the manipulation questions. The participants with outliers

were deleted, which resulted in a sample of 212 participants. 103 out of the 212 respondents

(48.6%) were exposed to the first treatment, which was a video containing merely factual

information. 109 out of the 212 respondents (51.4%) were exposed to the second treatment,

which was a video that included a story. In the factual treatment, 95% had never seen the

video before, whereas in the story treatment 73% had never seen the video before.

The gender division within the experiment was 38.7% male and 62.3% female. The

majority of the respondents were Dutch (85.4%). Other nationalities that were represented are

Belgium (7.5%), Swiss (2.4%), German (1.4%), Norwegian (0.9%), Surinamese (0.9%),

Bosnian (0.5%), Iraqi (0.5%) and Serbian (0.5%). The Netherlands also showed to be the

current country of residence for most respondents (88.7%), followed by Belgium (7.5%),

Switzerland (2.8%) and England (0.9%).

32

Exactly 50% of the respondents were aged between 20 and 39 years old. Another age group

that was well represented in the experiment is the group of people between 40 – 59 years old

(35.8%), followed by 60 – 69 (9.4%), 70+ (3.8%) and younger than 20 (0.9%).

30.7% of the respondents travel abroad 2 times per year, followed by 20.8% who

travel abroad 1 time per year, 17.9% 3 times, 11.8% 4 times, 6.6% 5 times and 2.4% 6 times.

About 8.8% travels abroad 7 times or more per year. Of the 212 respondents, 29.7% has

travelled between 1-5 times to Switzerland in the past 10 years and 27.8% has travelled to

Switzerland more than 10 times. 26.9% has not travelled to Switzerland in the past 10 years

and 15.6% has travelled between 5 - 10 times. This shows that the majority did travel to

Switzerland in the past 10 years at least 1 time.

More than half of the respondents (57.5%) felt a personal connection with Switzerland

and 14.2 % felt somewhat personally connected with Switzerland. 28.3 % did not feel any

personal connection with the country. From these results it can be concluded that the majority

of respondents somehow felt that they had a personal connection with the country.

No counter-indicative items were used in this experimental survey. We continue with a

reliability analysis.

5.1.2 Reliability analysis

The next step is to test the consistency of the findings by performing a reliability

analysis. Similarly to the previous preliminary steps, the two treatment groups were analyzed

separately, in order to test whether the two groups had the same structure.

The Cronbach’s Alpha values for the factual treatment group ranged from 0.66 to 0.94. Only

two variables, namely cognitive- and affect-based attitude, showed a Cronbach’s Alpha that

was lower than 0.7 (Field, 2003) and the total Cronbach’s Alpha for these variables could not

be raised to a value higher than 0.7 by deleting any items. However, the Cronbach’s Alpha for

all other variables was very high ranging between 0.87 and 0.94.

33

The Cronbach’s Alpha for the storytelling treatment group ranged from 0.60 to 0.95. Here we

observe again that the Cronbach’s Alpha for cognitive- and affect-based attitude did not

surpass the threshold of 0.7. Nevertheless, it was possible to raise the affect-based attitude to

0.70 by deleting one item. Hence, this item was deleted.

According to Field (2003) the bear minimum for an Alpha is 0.5. Therefore we

decided to continue with the few variables that did not have a Cronbach’s Alpha that

exceeded 0.7. The resemblance of the Cronbach’s Alpha of the two-treatment groups

indicates that the two groups have a similar structure.

The Shapiro-Wilk test checked the normality of the data (Field, 2003). Apart from

identification and interaction for the factual treatment group and cognitive-based attitude for

both groups, all other variables appeared to differ significantly from normality. This might be

an indication for the absence of normality. Nevertheless, through further analysis of the QQ-

plots and the histograms we were able to see that the normality did not deviate drastically

from normal. Moreover, according to Central Limit Theorem the sample is normally

distributed when the sample is large (N > 30) (Field, 2003). Therefore we assume that the data

meets the assumptions for parametric tests, since the sample includes 212 participants.

5.1.3 Correlation matrix Table 1 represents the correlation matrix for the variables, including the newly

computed variable for affect-based attitude (after item deletion). We can see that many

significant correlations were found. With regard to our hypotheses this Table shows that there

is no significant correlation between information type and three dimensions of customer

engagement, namely identification (r = -0.01, p > 0.05), attention (r = 0.11 p > 0.05) and

interaction (r = 0.05, p > 0.05). However, the two remaining dimensions of customer

engagement, namely enthusiasm (r = -0.15, p < 0.05) and absorption (r = -0.21, p < 0.01)

show a significant correlation. In search for support of the relationship between information

type and knowledge we can also see that there is a very significant relationship between these

34

variables (r = 0.44, p < 0.01). Moreover, the relationship between knowledge and the

cognitive- (r = 0.17, p < 0.01) and affect-based attitude (r = 0.12, p < 0.05) also shows to be

significant. Lastly, we also observe that the cognitive- (r = 0.26, r < 0.01) and the affect-based

attitude (r = 0.32, p < 0.01) correlate significantly with the intention to travel. Hypothesis

testing will provide more information about the relationships between these variables.

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Information Type 0.49 0.5 1

2. Identification 4.29 1.38 -0.01 1

3. Enthusiasm 4.69 1.43 -.15* .78** 1

4. Attention 4.43 1.45 0.11 .80** .72** 1

5. Absorption 4.16 1.45 -

.21** .63** .73** .62** 1

6. Interaction 3.83 1.48 0.05 .78** .67** .82** .63** 1 7. Knowledge 4.23 1.68 .44** .47** .44** .53** .34** .53** 1 8. Cognitive-based attitude 2.18 0.36 -0.06 .25** .27** .19** .25** .25** .17** 1

9. Affect-based attitude 2.36 0.49

-.17** .38** .38** .30** .39** .32** .12* .53** 1

10. Intention to travel 3.33 0.99 0.09 .65** .61** .72** .52** .71** .54** .26** .32** 1 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).

         

       

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).        

       

 Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations & Correlations

5.2 Construct level: Testing Hypotheses

Construct 1

Firstly, we compared the means of the different treatments for the 5 dimensions of

customer engagement. A test of homogeneity of variance showed that the samples were

homogenous for all these variables. Table 2 shows the results for the effect of information

type on both the dimensions of customer engagement and knowledge.

Treatment M SD t df Sig. (1-tailed)

Identification Story 4.31 0.14 0.186 210 0.43

Fact 4.27 0.31

Enthusiasm Story 4.90 0.13 2.139 210 0.02

Fact 4.50 0.15

35

Attention Story 4.28 0.14 −1.552 210 0.07

Fact 4.59 0.14

Absorption Story 4.46 0.13 3.118 210 0.00

Fact 3.85 0.15

Interaction Story 3.90 0.14 -656 210 0.26

Fact 3.76 0.14

Knowledge Story 3.52 0.15 -7.032 210 0.00

Fact 4.98 0.15

Table 3 Indepedent t-test CE Dimensions & Knowledge

The first dimension that was tested is identification. An independent t-test was applied

in order to find the difference between the means of the two treatment groups. The

independent samples t-test showed that there was no significant difference in means when

comparing the two treatments t(210) = 0.186, p > 0.05. Two additional tests were conducted

in which for the first test only female cases were selected and for the second test only

participants older than 40 years old were selected. This was done, since the factual video had

a youthful male character and the story video had an older female character. It could be the

case that the participants identify themselves more easily with a character that is similar to

their own. Nevertheless, this was not the case, as the difference between means for both tests

was not significant. Therefore, hypothesis 1a is not supported.

The second dimension of customer engagement is enthusiasm. The difference between

means within the two treatments for this variable was significant t(210) = 2.139, p < 0.05. The

independent t-test showed that there was a higher level of enthusiasm for the storytelling

treatment (M = 4.9, SE = 0.13) than for the factual treatment (M = 4.5, SE = 0.15). Hence,

hypothesis 2a is supported.

The third dimension of customer engagement is attention. After running an

independent t-test the results showed that the difference between these two treatments was not

significant t(210) = -1.552, p > 0.05. Consequently, we will reject hypothesis 3a.

36

The next dimension of customer engagement is absorption. There was a strong significant

difference between the treatments for this variable t(210) = 3.118, p > 0.01. The results of the

independent t-test showed that there was a higher level of absorption for the storytelling

treatment (M = 4.46, SE = 0.13) compared to the factual treatment (M = 3.85, SE = 0.15).

Thus, hypothesis 4a is supported.

The last dimension of customer engagement is interaction. The independent t-test was

used again. The results of the test presented no significant difference between the factual

treatment and the storytelling treatment t(210) = -0.656, p > 0.05. Hence, hypothesis 5a is not

supported.

The next step in the testing of hypothesis is the knowledge variable. A test of

homogeneity of variance showed that the samples were homogenous for this variable as well.

Moreover this variable is continuous and was therefore analyzed in a similar way as the

dimensions of customer engagement, using an independent t-test. The test showed that the

differences between the storytelling treatment (M = 3.52, SE = 0.15) and the factual treatment

(M = 4.98, SE = 0.15) was very significant t(210) = -7.032, p < 0.01. This means that

hypothesis 6a is supported.

Construct 2

The dimensions of customer engagement can either increase the cognitive- or the

affect-based attitude. In this case the effect of one variable on two other variables is analyzed.

The dimensions were divided for each dimension into people who scored high on this specific

dimension and people who scored low. In this way, we were able to understand whether the

specific dimension was the reason for the difference in attitude. Dividing the variable into two

groups turned the continuous variable into a categorical variable. A Manova was applied

instead of a regression analysis, since our hypotheses concerned the effect of 1 independent

variable on 2 dependent variables. The partial eta squared, as a result of the Manova, explains

the proportion of variance of a variable that is not explained by the other variable in the

37

Manova (Field, 2003). In order to run a Manova the predictor variable has to be categorical.

Therefore dummy variables were created for each of the dimensions of customer engagement.

This was also done for the knowledge variable. A value of 1 was given to cases that scored

between 1 and 4 on the 7-point likert scale and a value of 2 was given to cases that scored

between 4 and 7. In this way, we were able to divide the sample into meaningful groups for

each of the dimensions. The Manova provides us with a partial eta square, which explains the

proportion of the variance of a variable that is not explained by other variables (Field, 2003).

The effect sizes are interpreted following Cohen’s (1988) standards. A partial eta square

between 0.01 and 0.06 is a small effect, between 0.06 – 0.14 is a medium effect and higher

than 0.14 is a large effect. Table 3 shows the outcomes of the Manova for the dimensions of

customer engagement and the knowledge variable (Cohen, 1988).

Variable Dependent

Variable

df Mean

Square

F Sig. Partial Eta

Squared

Identification Cognitive 1 0.52 4.11 0.04 0.02

Affect 1 3.89 17.28 0 0.08

Enthusiasm Cognitive 1 0.54 4.3 0.04 0.02

Affect 1 1.73 7.35 0.01 0.03

Attention Cognitive 1 0.62 4.98 0.03 0.02

Affect 1 1.37 5.77 0.02 0.03

Absorption Cognitive 1 0.98 7.95 0.01 0.04

Affect 1 5.94 27.60 0 0.12

Interaction Cognitive 1 1.22 9.98 0.00 0.05

Affect 1 4.07 18.14 0 0.08

Knowledge Cognitive 1 0.41 3.27 0.08 0.01

Affect 1 0.46 1.89 0.17 0.01

Table 4 Manova effect sizes

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The first dimension that was investigated is identification. 38.7% of the sample did not

feel any identification towards Switzerland after seeing the video, whereas 31.1% did identify

him or herself with the destination after seeing video. According to the Manova, identification

has a significant effect on the cognitive-based attitude and the affect-based attitude.

Nevertheless, the affect-based attitude seems to explain the variance better than the cognitive-

based attitude. No support was found for the hypothesis; since identification seems to affect

the affect-based attitude to a greater extend than the cognitive-based attitude. Therefore we

reject hypothesis 1b.

The second dimension of customer engagement is enthusiasm. 31.3% showed no

enthusiasm after being exposed to the video and 68.9% did feel enthusiastic after exposure.

Both types of attitude showed to be significant. Support for hypothesis 2b could be found in

the fact that enthusiasm shows to have a greater impact on the affect-based attitude than the

cognitive-based attitude. Nevertheless, the effect sizes were small and did not deviate much

from each other. Thus, we partially support hypothesis 2b.

The third dimension that we analyzed was attention. 37.3% of the participants did not

have an increase in attention towards the destination and 62.7% of the participants did show

an increase in attention towards the destination. The effect sizes of attention on the cognitive-

based and affect-based attitude are both significant. However, similarly to enthusiasm, the

effect sizes were small and did not deviate much. Nevertheless, we reject hypothesis 3b, given

that the effect of attention on the cognitive-based attitude was smaller than on affect-based

attitude.

The next dimension is absorption. Of all respondents 42% did not feel absorbed when

seeing the video, whereas 58% did experience absorption. Both attitude types were

significantly affected by absorption. However, we can see that absorption has a much higher

effect on the affect-based attitude compared to the cognitive-based attitude. Hence, hypothesis

4b is strongly supported.

39

The last dimension of customer engagement is interaction. Interaction did not increase

for the majority of the respondents (54.7%) and it did increase for 45.3% of them. Interaction

is significantly affecting both cognitive- and affect-based attitude. Nevertheless, the effect of

interaction on the attitude types showed a medium sized effect on the affect-based attitude,

whereas the effect on the cognitive-based attitude is small in size. Therefore, hypothesis 5b is

supported.

Next, the effect of knowledge on the attitude towards the destination is analyzed. 58%

of the participants felt more knowledgeable after exposure to one of the videos, whereas 42%

did not experience an increase in knowledge at all. Additionally, the effect of knowledge on

the attitude types showed not to be significant. No support for the hypothesis was found, since

none of the attitude types were affected, which makes it impossible to compare them.

Consequently, hypothesis 6b is rejected.

Construct 3

The final construct in the conceptual model concerns the effect of the attitude towards

the destination on the behavioural intention to travel towards this destination. A regression

analysis was executed, due to the fact that both variables were continuous. The model showed

that the affect-based attitude had a significant effect on the behavioural intention to travel (β =

0.257, p = 0.01), opposed to cognitive-based attitude that had an insignificant effect on the

intention to travel (β = 0.124, p > 0.05). Consequently we support hypothesis 7.

5.3 Supplementary mediation analysis

Supplementary analysis is executed in order to understand whether the dimensions of

customer engagement have a mediating role in the relationship of information type and

attitude. Only enthusiasm and absorption were analyzed of the dimensions of customer

engagement, since these were the only variables that correlated with both the information type

and the attitude.

40

The total effect of information type on the attitude types (table 4 and 5) is compared to

the direct effect. Table 4 shows that the total effect of information type on the affect-based

attitude is significant. This is not the case for the total effect of information type on the

cognitive-based attitude (Table 5).

Affect-based attitude B SE t P LLCI ULCI

Total effect of information type on

affect-based attitude

-0.17 0.07 -2.52 0.01 -0.3001 -0.0366

Table 5 Total effect affect-based attitude

Cognitive-based attitude B SE t P LLCI ULCI

Total effect of information type on

cognitive-based attitude

-0.04 0.05 -0.83 0.41 -0.1372 -0.0562

Table 6 Total effect cognitive-based attitude

The PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2012) was used to test for mediation. Firstly, the

dimension of enthusiasm was studied. The findings of the effect of information type on

cognitive- and affect-based attitude, with enthusiasm as a possible mediator, are shown in

Table 6 and 7. The total effect of information type on affect-based attitude (table 4) shows to

be significant (B = -0.17, p < 0.05). This indicates that the information type has an effect on

the affect-based attitude. Nevertheless, we have to look at the direct effect of information type

on the affect-based attitude in order to find out whether enthusiasm has a mediating role (table

5). Full mediation if the direct effect is insignificant. This appeared to be the case (B = -0.12,

p = 0.07) and provides support for the mediating role of enthusiasm between the information

type and the affect-based attitude.

Secondly, the mediating role of enthusiasm on the cognitive-based attitude was

analyzed. The total effect of information type on the cognitive-based attitude shows not to be

significant (B = -0.04, p > 0.05). Therefore, no support can be provided for a mediating effect

of enthusiasm between information type and the cognitive-based attitude.

41

Affect-based attitude B SE t P LLCI ULCI

Direct effect of information type on

affect-based attitude

-0.12 0.06 -1.85 0.07 -0.24 -0.0079

Table 7 Direct effect on affect-based attitude (enthusiasm)

Cognitive-based attitude B SE t P LLCI ULCI

Direct effect of information type on

cognitive-based attitude

-0.01 0.05 -0.27 0.79 -0.11 -0.0816

Table 8 Direct effect on cognitive-based attitude (enthusiasm)

The second dimension that was analyzed for mediation is absorption. The results that

were provided by the PROCESS macro are presented in Table 8 and 9. Compared to the total

effect, the direct effect of information type on affect-based attitude becomes insignificant

when absorption is added (B = -0.09, p > 0.05). This explains the mediating role of absorption

in the relationship of information type and the affect-based attitude.

Similarly to enthusiasm, absorption is not mediating between the information type and

the cognitive-based attitude (B = -0.00, p > 0.05).

Affect-based attitude B SE t P LLCI ULCI

Direct effect of information type on

affect-based attitude

-0.09 0.06 -1.43 0.15 -0.2163 -0.0345

Table 9 Direct effect on affect-based attitude (absorption)

Cognitive-based attitude B SE t P LLCI ULCI

Direct effect of information type on

cognitive-based attitude

-0.00 0.05 -0.07 0.94 -0.0997 -0.0927

Table 10 Direct effect on the cognitive-based attitude (absorption)

42

Figure 2 Mediation of enthusiasm and absorption between information type and affect- & cognitive-based attitude

43

6 Discussion & Conclusion In this chapter the implications are discussed from a managerial and an academical

perspective. Furthermore, the limitations and suggestions for future research are provided.

6.1 Theoretical and practical implications Previous studies have been investigating the effect of storytelling on behavioral

intention towards a destination (Akgün, Halit , Ayar, & Ebru , 2015; Hsiao, Lu, & Lan, 2013).

This study functions as an extension of those former studies, by adopting customer

engagement as a construct by measuring its effect on attitude and subsequently the behavioral

intention towards a travel destination. Former research has shown that storytelling involves

high levels of cognitive engagement and affects emotions (Green & Clark, 2013).

Nevertheless, customer engagement consists of several dimensions, which can all be affected

differently after being exposed to a story. These dimensions are the affective, cognitive, social

and behavioral components of customer engagement.

This study proofs that a story only touches upon the pure affective dimensions of

customer engagement, namely enthusiasm and absorption. A story could elicit strong

emotional reactions, compared to content-equivalent information (Kopfman, Smith, Ah Yun,

& Hodges, 1998 ; McQueen & Kreuter, 2010). Two other dimensions of customer

engagement, identification and attention, are mainly cognitive components of customer

engagement (Donohew, Lorch, & Palmgreen, 1998; So, King, & Sparks, 2014). These

components are not affected by storytelling. Another dimension of customer engagement is

interaction. This dimension is both a social and behavioral component of customer

engagement (Higgins and Scholer, 2009, p.112). Nevertheless, this study also proofs that

storytelling does not have an effect on this dimension.

According to these results it cannot be claimed that storytelling causes full customer

engagement, as it only affects a number of components. Hence, storytelling cannot be applied

as a tool to fully engage the customer with the destination, given that it does not affect the

44

social, behavioral and cognitive components. Nevertheless, managers could apply storytelling

in order to reach the purely affective components engagement towards the destination.

An additional variable that was investigated is knowledge, given that previous

research on storytelling is mainly biased towards the advantages of storytelling and little

research was conducted on the positive effect of factual information. Edwards (1990) stated

that affect precedes cognition when affective means are used. This is proven by our study, as

the factual treatment had a larger impact on knowledge than the video that included a story.

From a managerial perspective, this could mean that storytelling should only be applied in

cases where the aim is to elicit specific emotions, whereas factual information should be used

to increase the knowledge of the customer.

Moreover, former studies have claimed that affective components lead to affect-driven

behavior and cognitive components lead to cognitive-driven behaviors (Millar & Tesser,

1986). Therefore, Breckler and Wiggins (1989) stated that affect and cognition are two

distinguishable components. However, this study proofs that the dimensions of customer

engagement can influence both the cognitive- and the affect-based attitude. Each dimension

has an impact on both attitude types. Nevertheless, there is a difference between the effect

sizes of these interactions. The affective components of customer engagement, absorption and

enthusiasm have an impact on how we affectively value something and can help to develop an

emotional connection with a brand (Higgins & Scholer, 2009; Lundqvist, Liljander,

Gummerus, & van Riel, 2013). This study justifies the theory, given that both components

influence the affect-based attitude more than the cognitive-based attitude. Furthermore, a

supplementary analysis on mediation showed that these dimensions have a mediating role

between the information type and the affect-based attitude. Hence, it can be asserted that

creating enthusiasm and absorption is a necessary phase in the formation of an affect-based

attitude through storytelling.

45

According to former studies, identification and attention are dimensions of customer

engagement that affect the cognitive forces (So, King, & Sparks, 2014; Donohew, Lorch, &

Palmgreen, 1998). As aforementioned, this study does not only proof that both attitude types

are affected, but it also presents that identification and attention have a stronger impact on the

affect-based attitude than the cognitive-based attitude. This contradicts the theory that

supported a cognitive-attitude change to occur for these dimensions.

Interaction, which is the 5th dimension of customer engagement, is expected to

strengthen the emotional investment the consumer has in the brand (Chaffey, 2007, in Sashi,

2012). Within this study we proof that the affect-based attitude is also affected to a greater

extent than the cognitive-based attitude when it comes to a destination.

Additionally, previous studies have shown that the attitude towards an organization is

affected by knowledge, which is a cognitive variable (Morgan, Stephenson, Harrison, Affi, &

Long, 2008). Therefore, knowledge was expected to increase thoughts in the process of

attitude formation. Nevertheless, this study opposes previous studies, as the knowledge

variable did not impact the cognitive- or the affect-based attitude. Hence, it can be stated that

even though factual information does impact the knowledge formation, it does not influence

the attitude towards the destination. The managerial implications for this are that information

could be used to increase the knowledge of the customer, when this is the aim. Nevertheless,

it is not expected to change the cognitive- and the affect-based attitude towards a destination.

All things considered it can be asserted that the components of customer engagement

have an impact on the attitude towards the destination. However, they have a bigger impact on

the affect-based attitude than the cognitive-based attitude. The final part of this study

concerns the effect on intention to travel. Wang, Qiao and Peng (2015, p. 197) stated that the

“evaluative aspect of the emotional process links engagement with the purchase intention’’.

Correspondingly, other studies claim that affect and feeling have a higher impact on behavior

(Morris, Woo, Geason, & Kim, 2002 ; Farley & Stasson, 2003). The results of this study are

46

in line with former research. An affect-based attitude has an impact on the intention to travel,

whereas the cognitive-based attitude shows no affect whatsoever.

In short, this study provides answers to the effect of storytelling on customer

engagement. It shows that a storyline can possibly influence the affective components of

customer engagement. These components also mediate the relationship with the affect-based

attitude. Subsequently, the affect-based attitude has a positive effect on the intention to travel.

Therefore, managers within the travel industry should focus on reaching the affective

components of customer engagement, since this has an effect on the intention to travel.

Moreover, this study shows the advantage of factual information, which increases the

subjective knowledge of the consumer. Nevertheless, no proof is provided for an attitude

change towards the destination when knowledge increases. Consequently, factual information

can be used as a tool to inform a customer, but not necessarily to shape their attitude.

Figure 2 presents the outcomes of this study. The thickness of the line represents the

effect size and red lines signify an insignificant effect. Through this we can clearly see how

the information type affects the affective components of customer engagement and the affect-

based attitude. Moreover, the figure shows evidently how the affect-based attitude has an

impact on the intention to travel, whereas this is not the case for the cognitive-based attitude.

Figure 3 Conceptual Model including the outcomes

47

6.2 Limitations

This study has some limitations that need to be taken into account and could lay the

basis for future research within this field. A first limitation could be the fact that the

information provided in the videos was not similar. Therefore, no full guarantee is given for

the advantage of stories over facts, since the video that included a story also contained facts

that were less revelatory. Moreover the factual information that was provided did increase the

subjective knowledge, but did not have an affect on the cognitive-based attitude. Another

limitation could be the practicality of the information provided in the video. Different

information could have a different impact on the attitude. Thus, practical holiday related

information could for example be more effective than the revelatory facts about the country

that were presented in the video.

Additionally, the sample was strongly divided between people with a personal

connection for Switzerland and people that did not feel a personal connection with the

country. Research could focus on the consumers that already feel engaged to a certain extend

and whether storytelling creates a significant increase in their current engagement with the

country.

One final limitation could be the lack of a control group. Even though the participant

was asked to base there judgement on the video, a pre-existing preference towards the country

could possibly influence these results. Consequently, a control group could be added in order

to understand whether the effect really derives from the video instead of a pre-existing

judgement.

48

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8 Appendix

Experimental Survey (English translation in blue) Introduction: Ontzettend bedankt dat u de tijd wilt nemen om deze enquête in te vullen. Mijn naam is Lasse Goud en ik ben een marketing student aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam. Momenteel ben ik bezig met mijn afstudeerscriptie en heb ik het voorrecht om dit te mogen doen voor Zwitserland Toerisme. Op de volgende pagina zal een korte video worden getoond waarop een aantal vragen volgen. Ik wil u vragen de video met geluid te bekijken en de vragen met alle eerlijkheid in te vullen. Er is geen fout antwoord. Dit onderzoek zal niet meer dan 10 minuten van uw tijd in beslag nemen en de reacties zijn volledig anoniem. U heeft de mogelijkheid om uw e-mail adres aan het einde van dit onderzoek in te vullen om kans te maken op een bongo lunchtime bon, waarmee u op 150 adressen in heel Nederland eenmalig gratis kunt lunchen (voor 2 personen). Ik stel uw input zeer op prijs! Met vriendelijke groet, Lasse Goud Universtiteit van Amsterdam I would like to thank you for taking the time to fill in this questionnaire. My name is Lasse Goud and I am a marketing student at the University of Amsterdam. Currently I am working on my master thesis and I have been fortunate to do this for the Swiss National Tourism Agency. On the next page you will be shown a short video, followed by a couple of questions. I would like to ask you to watch the video with audio and answer the questions as truthful as possible. There is no wrong answer. This questionnaire will not take more than 10 minutes of your time and all your reactions are completely anonymous. You will have the possibility afterwards to enter your e-mail address and get the chance to win a bongo gift card, which you can use to get a free lunch (2 persons) at 150 restaurants in the Netherlands.. Thanks in advance for your effort. Kind regards, Lasse Goud University of Amsterdam

55

Stimuli: Q1 Bekijk de onderstaande video met geluid: Q1 Watch the video below with audio (videos are shown randomly):

Video 1 fact: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q9kKFm2TLFM Video 2 story: https://youtu.be/5hBqqxYcDN8

56

Pre-questions for both treatment groups: Q1 Beoordeel deze video aan de hand van de volgende statements: Helemaal

mee oneens (1)

Mee oneens (2)

Enigszins mee oneens (3)

Neutraal (4)

Enigszins mee eens (5)

Mee eens (6)

Helemaal mee eens (7)

Deze video heeft een duidelijke chronologische volgorde (1)

m m m m m m m

Deze video bevat een verhaalstructuur (2)

m m m m m m m

Deze video bevat een hoofdpersoon (3)

m m m m m m m

Deze video heeft een duidelijk begin, midden en eind (4)

m m m m m m m

Deze video bevat een climax (5) m m m m m m m

Deze video presenteert informatie op een conversatie-achtige manier (6)

m m m m m m m

Deze video heeft een duidelijke boodschap (7)

m m m m m m m

Deze video heeft een conflict/mysterie dat opgelost moet worden (8)

m m m m m m m

Deze video bevat karakters/typetjes (9)

m m m m m m m

Q1 Judge the video by using the following statements: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. This video has a chronological structure 2. This video has the structure of a story 3. This video includes a main character 4. This video has a clear begin, middle and end 5. This video has a climax 6. This video presents information in a conversation-like approach 7. This video has a clear message 8. This video includes a conflict/mystery that has to be solved 9. This video includes characters

57

Questionnaire Q2 Beoordeel de video door middel van de volgende statements: Helemaal

mee oneens (1)

Mee oneens (2)

Enigszins mee oneens (3)

Onbeslist (4)

Enigszins mee eens (5)

Mee eens (6)

Helemaal mee eens (7)

Deze video zal de kans vergroten dat ik Zwitserland zal verdedigen als het word bekritiseerd (1)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zal mijn enthousiasme over Zwitserse successen vergroten (2)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zal mijn enthousiasme vergroten op het moment dat Zwitserland word geprezen (3)

m m m m m m m

Deze video vertoont onderscheidende persoonlijke eigenschappen van Zwitserland (4)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik mezelf als persoon meer identificeer met de karaktereigenschappen van Zwitserland (5)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik me persoonlijk meer verbonden voel met Zwitserland (6)

m m m m m m m

Q2 Judge the video by using the following statements: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. Makes it more likely that I will defend Switzerland when being criticized 2. Makes me more enthusiastic about the successes of Switzerland 3. Makes me feel more enthusiastic when Switzerland is praised 4. Helps in ascribing distinct personality characteristics of Switzerland 5. Makes me identify myself with characteristics of Switzerland 6. Makes me feel personally more connected to Switzerland

58

Q3 Beoordeel de video door middel van de volgende statements: Helemaal

mee oneens (1)

Mee oneens (2)

Enigszins mee oneens (3)

Onbeslist (4)

Enigszins mee eens (5)

Mee eens (6)

Helemaal mee eens (7)

Deze video creëert enthousiasme voor Zwitserland (1)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zorgt voor opwinding over Zwitserland (2)

m m m m m m m

Deze video geeft mij een hoog niveau van energie (3)

m m m m m m m

Q3: Judge the video by using the following statements: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. Creates enthusiasm about Switzerland 2. Makes me excited about Switzerland 3. Gives me a high level of energy

59

Q4 Beoordeel de video door middel van de volgende statements: Helemaal

mee oneens (1)

Mee oneens (2)

Enigszins mee oneens (3)

Onbeslist (4)

Enigszins mee eens (5)

Mee eens (6)

Helemaal mee eens (7)

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik meer over Zwitserland wil weten (1)

m m m m m m m

Deze video verhoogt mijn aandacht voor alles gerelateerd aan Zwitserland (2)

m m m m m m m

Deze video verhoogt mijn aandacht voor informatie over Zwitserland (3)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik me meer zal concentreren op Zwitserland (4)

m m m m m m m

Q4 Judge the video by using the following statements: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. Makes me want to learn more about Switzerland 2. Increases my attention to anything related to Switzerland 3. Increases the attention I pay to information about Switzerland 4. Is likely to make me concentrate more on Switzerland

60

Q5 Beoordeel de video door middel van de volgende statements: Helemaal

mee oneens (1)

Mee oneens (2)

Enigszins mee oneens (3)

Onbeslist (4)

Enigszins mee eens (5)

Mee eens (6)

Helemaal mee eens (7)

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik tijdens het kijken alles om me heen vergeet (1)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat tijdens het kijken de tijd vliegt (2)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik in de video word meegetrokken (3)

m m m m m m m

Deze video maakt het moeilijk om voor het einde te stoppen met kijken (4)

m m m m m m m

Deze video geeft mij een ondergedompeld gevoel (5)

m m m m m m m

Deze video geeft mij een gelukkig gevoel (6)

m m m m m m m

Q5 Judge the video by using the following statements: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. Makes me forget everything else around me when watching it 2. Makes time fly while watching it 3. When I am watching the video I get carried away 4. Makes it difficult to detach myself, and stop watching 5. Makes me feel immersed 6. Makes me feel happy

61

Q6 Beoordeel de video door middel van de volgende statements: Helemaal

mee oneens (1)

Mee oneens (2)

Enigszins mee oneens (3)

Onbeslist (4)

Enigszins mee eens (5)

Mee eens (6)

Helemaal mee eens (7)

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik meer betrokken zal raken in gesprekken over Zwitserland (1)

m m m m m m m

Deze video verhoogt de kans dat ik ideeën, gedachtes en gevoelens zal uitwisselen met gelijkgezinden over Zwitserland (2)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik informatie over Zwitserland wil delen met anderen (3)

m m m m m m m

Deze video vergroot de kans dat ik een online gemeenschap zal bezoeken voor meer informatie (4)

m m m m m m m

Deze video zorgt ervoor dat ik meer verhalen wil horen van anderen over Zwitserland (5)

m m m m m m m

Q6 Judge the video by using the following statements: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. Will probably make me get more involved in conversations about Switzerland

62

2. Makes it more likely that I will interchange ideas, thoughts and feelings with like-minded people about Switzerland 3. Makes me want to share information about Switzerland with others 4. Makes it more likely that I will visit an online community to gain more information 5. Makes me want to hear stories from others about Switzerland Q7 Beoordeel de video door middel van de volgende statements: Helemaal

mee oneens (1)

Mee oneens (2)

Enigszins mee oneens (3)

Onbeslist (4)

Enigszins mee eens (5)

Mee eens (6)

Helemaal mee eens (7)

Deze video versterkt mijn kennis over Zwitserland (1)

m m m m m m m

Deze video verbetert mijn kennis over Zwitserland (2)

m m m m m m m

Deze video voegt wat toe aan mijn huidige kennis over Zwitserland (3)

m m m m m m m

Q7 Judge the video by using the following statements: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. Strengthens my knowledge of Switzerland 2. Improves my knowledge of Switzerland 3. Adds to my current knowledge of Switzerland Q8 Deze video laat mij denken over Zwitserland als: 1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) Leeg:Overvol (1) m m m m m Vies:Schoon (2) m m m m m Ontwikkeld:Onderontwikkeld (3) m m m m m

Onveilig:Veilig (4) m m m m m Modern:Traditioneel (5) m m m m m Vriendelijk:Onvriendelijk (6) m m m m m Uniek:Gewoon (7) m m m m m Toeristisch:Authentiek (8) m m m m m Q8 After watching this video I think about Switzerland as:(Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. Overcrowded-sparse 2. Clean-dirty 3. Developed-underdeveloped 4. Safe-unsafe 5. Modern-traditional

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6. Friendly-unfriendly 7. Unique-ordinary 8. Touristy-authentic Q9 Deze video geeft mij het volgende gevoel over Zwitserland 1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) Onaangenaam:Aangenaam (1) m m m m m

Relaxed:Stressvol (2) m m m m m Opwindend:Slaperig (3) m m m m m Somber:Vreugdevol (4) m m m m m Q9 This video gives me the following feelings about Switzerland: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. Pleasant-unpleasant 2. Relaxing-distressing 3. Arousing-sleepy 4. Exciting-gloomy Q10 Na het zien van deze video: Helemaal mee

oneens (1) Oneens (2) Onbeslist (3) Mee eens (4) Helemaal mee

eens (5) Zal ik het overwegen om naar Zwitserland te reizen (1)

m m m m m

Is er een grotere kans dat ik naar Zwitserland reis (2)

m m m m m

Ben ik meer bereid om naar Zwitserland te reizen (3)

m m m m m

Q10 After watching this video: (Strongly disagree – Strongly agree) 1. I would consider going to Switzerland 2. I am more likely to go to Switzerland 3. I am more willing to go to the Switzerland Q11 Heeft u de hiervoor getoonde video al eens eerder gezien? Q11 Have you seen the video before? m Ja (1) m Nee (2) Q12 Wat is uw geslacht? Q12 What is your gender? m Man (1) m Vrouw (2)

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Q13 Wat is uw land van herkomst? Q13 What is your country of origin? Q14 In welk land bent u woonachtig? Q14 In which country do you live currently? Q15 Wat is uw leeftijd? Q15 What is your age? m jonger dan 20 jaar (1) m 20 - 39 jaar (2) m 40 - 59 jaar (3) m 60 - 69 jaar (4) m 70 jaar en ouder (5) Q16 Hoe vaak per jaar reist u gemiddeld naar het buitenland? Q16 How often do you travel per year on average? Q17 Hoe vaak bent u naar Zwitserland gereisd in de afgelopen 10 jaar? Q17 How often have you been travelling to Switzerland over the past 10 years? Q18 Voelt u een persoonlijke connectie met Zwitserland? Q18 Do you feel a personally connected to Switzerland? m Ja (1) m Enigszins (2) m Nee (3) Final word Dank u wel voor het invullen van deze vragenlijst!U bent onderdeel geweest van een onderzoek over het effect van video-materiaal op de betrokkenheid, kennis, houding en reis intentie. In dit experiment heeft u een video gezien die alleen feitelijke informatie bevat of een video die een verhaal vertelt. Doormiddel van dit onderzoek kunnen we het effect van verhalen op de betrokkenheid, kennis, houding en reis intentie voor Zwitserland meten en begrijpen. Wilt u kans maken op de bongo lunchtime bon? Vul dan hier uw e-mail adres in. Uw e-mail adres zal enkel gebruikt worden om contact met u op te nemen indien u de bon gewonnen heeft. Heeft u nog vragen over dit onderzoek? Aarzel dan niet om contact met mij op te nemen via lassegoud@hotmail.com Hartelijk dank, Lasse Goud Universiteit van Amsterdam Thank you for participating in this questionnaire! You have taken part in an investigation about the effect of video-material on engagement, knowledge, attitude and intention to travel. In this experiment you have seen either a video including factual information or a video that included a story. This investigation is of great support in measuring and understanding the effect of stories on the engagement, attitude and travel intention for Switzerland. Fill in your e-mail address below if you would like to win a bongo gift card. Your e-mail address will only be used for reaching out to you in case you win the gift card. Please don’t hesitate to contact me at lassegoud@hotmail.com in case you have any questions

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regarding this study. Thank you. Lasse Goud University of Amsterdam