sustainable computing

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Sustainable Computing

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Khurshid Ahmad, Professor of Computer Science,

Department of Computer ScienceTrinity College,

Dublin-2, IRELANDNovember 1st, 2010.

https://www.cs.tcd.ie/Khurshid.Ahmad/Teaching/Teaching.html

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Sustainable Computing Moore’s Law

http://search.eb.com.elib.tcd.ie/eb/art-68188/Moores-law-In-1965-Gordon-E-Moore-observed-that-the

Visualising Cities

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Visualising Cities

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Visualising Cities

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The number of chips on the same area has doubled every 18-24 months; and has increased exponentially. However, the R&D costs and manufacturing costs for building ultra-small, high-precision circuitry and controls has had an impact on the prices

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Sustainable Computing The fabrication of processors

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cmos-chip_structure_in_2000s_(en).svg

Schematic structure of a CMOS chip (c. early 2000) . The graphic shows LDD-MISFET's on a SOI silicon substrate with five metallization layers and solder bump for flip-chip bonding.

The manufacture involves photo-lithography, vacuum deposition, chemical etching.

Compounds of elements Cobalt, Cooper, [Germanium], Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, Silicon, and Tungsten are used. It had been suggested that the amount of the compounds used will be reduced dramatically by nanotechnology.

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The cost of computation is falling dramatically – an exponential decay in what we can get by spending $1000 (calculations per second):

In 1940: 0.01In 1950: 1In 1960: 100In 1970: 500-1000In 1980: 10,000In 1990: 100,000In 2000: 1,000,000

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The cost of data storage is falling dramatically – an exponential decay in what we can get by spending the same amount of money:In 1980: 0.001 GBIn 1985: 0.01In 1990: 0.1In 1995: 1In 2000: 10In 2005: 100In 2010: 1000

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Multicore vs. single core processors

Computer performance has been driven largely by decreasing the size of chips while increasing the number of transistors they contain. In accordance with Moore’s law, this has caused chip speeds to rise and prices to drop. This ongoing trend has driven much of the computing industry for years.

However, transistors can’t shrink forever. Even now, as transistor components grow thinner, chip manufacturers have struggled to cap power usage and heat generation, two critical problems.

Geer, David (2005). Chip Makers Turn to Multicore Processors, Computer 2005, pp 11-13 (electronic version available at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.elib.tcd.ie/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1430623&isnumber=30853

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Geer, David (2005). Chip Makers Turn to Multicore Processors, Computer 2005, pp 11-13 (electronic version available at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.elib.tcd.ie/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1430623&isnumber=30853


Chip performance increased 60 percent per year in the 1990s but slowed to 40 percent per year from 2000 to 2004, when performance increased by only 20 percent.

Energy and other costs were becoming noticeably larger

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http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.elib.tcd.ie/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1430623&isnumber=30853


SOLUTION: Instead of a single very powerful processor , what we have are a number of less powerful processors. The multi-core processors can execute clumps of instructions in parallel and thus have higher performance – in some cases dual-core processors have 1.5 times the performance of single core and at a lesser cost for cooling and environmental impact.

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Sustainable Computing Display Systems

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active-matrix_liquid_crystal_display

An active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) is a type of flat panel display. A flat panelt display is relatively light weight, has a better image quality, a wider colour gamut, and better response time when compared, say, to a cathode-ray tube.

The term was first used in 1975 by Dr T. Peter Brody to describe a method of switching individual elements of a flat panel display, using a CdSe TFT for each pixel.

Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, toxic, bluish-white bivalent metal. It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms more complex compounds.

Selenium is toxic in large doses, selenium is an essential micronutrient for animals.

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Sustainability and Computing

Using power management features on your computer can save more than 600 KWh of electricity and more than $60 a year in energy costs. That equates to nearly half a ton of CO2 – more than lowering your home thermostat by two degrees Fahrenheit in the winter or replacing six standard light bulbs with compact fluorescents.

http://www.climatesaverscomputing.org/learn/saving-energy-at-home/

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http://ncomputing.com/GreenComputing/Greencomputing.aspx

Eco-friendly computingA typical PC takes 110 watts to run, and there are almost a billion of them on the planet. And according to the Silicon Valley Toxics Commission, e-waste is the fastest growing part of the waste stream.

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The limits to growthToday's PCs are so powerful that we no longer need one for each person. We can tap into the excess power in one PC and share it with many users. Some of the newer systems uses just 1 to 5 watts, lasts for a decade, and generates just a few ounces of e-waste.

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http://ww

w.internetw

orldstats.com/stats.htm

REGION

Population Internet Users Penetration GrowthInternet

Users

(Est. 2009, 100 M) 31/12/2000 (100 M)17/08/2009

(100 M) % 2009 PopulationYear 2000 as

base% 2009

Population

(a) (b) (c)(d)=

(c)/(a)(e)=

(c-b)/(c)(f)=

(c)/WORLD

North America 3.41 1.08 2.52 73.9% 1.3 15.1%

Oceania/Australia 0.35 0.08 0.21 60.1% 1.7 1.2%

Europe 8.04 1.05 4.02 50.1% 2.8 24.1%

Latin Am/Carib. 5.87 0.18 1.76 30.0% 8.7 10.5%

Middle East 2.03 0.03 0.48 23.7% 13.6 2.9%

Asia 38.08 1.14 7.04 18.5% 5.2 42.2%

Africa 9.91 0.05 0.66 6.7% 13.6 3.9%WORLD 67.68 3.61 16.69 24.7% 3.6 100.0%

The Internet keeps growing and growing and growing

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Sustainable Computing Rapid development of technologies can be

disruptive

Disruptive technology and disruptive innovation are terms used in business and technology literature to describe innovations that improve a product or service in ways that the market does not expect, typically by being lower priced or designed for a different set of consumers. ICT are generally regarded as disruptive technologies.

However, institutions have difficulty in adapting to the disruption. As our sustainable city depends critically and strategically on ICT, and ICT is disruptive, then careful consideration of the disruption should be taken when planning the city.

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disruptive

http://ww

w.internetw


Disruptive technology and disruptive innovation are terms used in business and technology literature to describe innovations that improve a product or service in ways that the market does not expect, typically by being lower priced or designed for a different set of consumers

Mother Technology ProgenyCathode Ray Tube Disrupted by Flat Panel Screens

Centralised Computing (c. 1950-1970)

Disrupted by Personal Computing (c. 1980’s)

Personal Computing (c. 1980’s)

Disrupted by Web-based Computing

Traditional Publishing Disrupted by Desk-top publishing

Terrestrial TV Disrupted by Satellite TV

Satellite TV Disrupted by Web TV

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disruptive

http://ww

w.internetw


Disruptive technology and disruptive innovation are terms used in business and technology literature to describe innovations that improve a product or service in ways that the market does not expect, typically by being lower priced or designed for a different set of consumers

Disruptive computing brings with itself a mass of equipment which is then not used. This legacy of equipment will have a negative impact on a sustainable city – a city that is run using computers: what to do with the equipment?

Throw it away in a land fill?Recycle it?Reuse it?

Not to follow fashion?

Here are some facts for you to make up your mind

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Sustainable Computing End-of-Life Planning: Sticking it in a storage area

http://update.unu.edu/archive/issue31_5.htm

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Sustainable ComputingEnd-of-Life Planning

http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/ecycling/docs/app-1.pdf

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Sustainable Computing Average weight of Computers &

Peripherals

Average Weight (Kilograms)

Year Desktops Portables HC Peripehrals Mice KeyboardsPC CRT

PC Flat Panel

1980 10.0 0.0 8.2 0.1 1.3 11.1 0.0

1985 10.0 0.0 8.2 0.1 1.3 11.1 0.0

1990 9.9 0.0 8.9 0.1 1.3 11.2 11.2

1995 10.4 3.7 7.6 0.1 1.3 14.8 11.2

2000 10.0 3.2 8.4 0.1 1.3 23.6 11.2

2002 10.9 3.1 7.4 0.1 1.3 23.2 11.2

2004 10.0 2.9 7.9 0.1 1.3 22.9 11.2

2006 10.0 2.9 7.9 0.1 1.3 22.9 11.2

2007 10.0 2.9 7.9 0.1 1.3 22.9 11.2

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Sustainable Computing Estimated Sales of Computers &

Peripherals

Estimated SALES is Millions of Units

Year Desktops PortablesHard Copy Peripherals Mice Keyboards

PC CRT

PC Flat Panel

1980 1 0.5 1 1 1

1985 5.8 3 5.8 5.8 5.8

1990 9.5 5 9.5 21.7 9.4 0.9

1995 19.1 3.6 11.9 19.1 47.6 22.2 3

2000 40.8 9.6 28.7 56.2 51.7 37.5 4.8

2002 35.1 10.9 28.7 57.5 48.6 23.3 11.7

2004 39.4 16.6 32.2 39.4 47.2 13.9 22.7

2006 35.4 24.3 34.3 35.4 44.6 3.5 38.6

2007 34.2 30 36.9 34.2 43.1 1 37

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Sustainable Computing The cumulative weight of computers and

peripherals

Estimated TOTAL Computing Equipment Weight (Millions KG)

Year Desktops PortablesHC

Peripherals MiceKey

boards. PC CRTPC Flat Panel TOT.

1980 9.98 0.00 4.08 0.09 1.32 11.11 0.00 26.58

1985 57.88 0.00 24.49 0.53 7.63 64.46 0.00 154.98

1990 93.94 0.00 44.50 0.86 28.54 105.02 10.04 282.90

1995 199.26 13.39 90.84 1.73 62.61 329.38 33.48 730.70

2000 409.00 30.92 240.31 5.10 68.01 884.51 53.56 1691.40

2002 383.70 33.62 213.76 5.22 63.93 541.65 130.55 1372.42

2004 393.17 48.19 254.14 3.57 62.09 318.40 253.30 1332.86

2006 353.26 70.54 270.71 3.21 58.67 80.17 430.71 1267.28

2007 341.28 87.09 291.23 3.10 56.69 22.91 412.86 1215.17

TOT. 2241.47 283.75 1434.07 23.41 409.49 2357.60 1324.50 8074.29

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Sustainable Computing The cumulative weight of computers and

peripheralsEstimated TOTAL Computing Equipment Weight (Millions KG)

Year Desktops Portables HC Peripherals MiceKey

boards. PC CRT PC Flat Panel TOT.

1980 9.98 0.00 4.08 0.09 1.32 11.11 0.00 26.58

1985 57.88 0.00 24.49 0.53 7.63 64.46 0.00 154.98

1990 93.94 0.00 44.50 0.86 28.54 105.02 10.04 282.90

1995 199.26 13.39 90.84 1.73 62.61 329.38 33.48 730.70

2000 409.00 30.92 240.31 5.10 68.01 884.51 53.56 1691.40

2002 383.70 33.62 213.76 5.22 63.93 541.65 130.55 1372.42

2004 393.17 48.19 254.14 3.57 62.09 318.40 253.30 1332.86

2006 353.26 70.54 270.71 3.21 58.67 80.17 430.71 1267.28

2007 341.28 87.09 291.23 3.10 56.69 22.91 412.86 1215.17

TOT. 2241.47 283.75 1434.07 23.41 409.49 2357.60 1324.50 8074.29

Jumbo Jets 121423 15371 77685 1268 22183 127714 71750 437394

184,600 KG empty weight of Jumbo Jet

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Sustainable ComputingEnvironmental Impact and Conservation Issues

Material Main applications in computer production

Arsenic

‘Doping’ agents in transistors and printed wiring board

Beryllium

Used for thermal conductivity

Cadmium SMD chip resistors, infrared detectors, semiconductors, older models of CRTs; also used as plastic stabilizer

Environment Victoria, Computer waste in Australia and the case for producer responsibility, June 2005. (http://www.canz.org.nz/Computer%20toxicity.htm)

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Sustainable ComputingEnvironmental Impact and Conservation

Issues



Lead Soldering of printed circuit boards and other components; glass panels in CRT monitors

Mercury

Sensors and switches on printed circuit boards, batteries, switches/housing, printed wiring boards, tubes in flat panel screens

Plastics including PVC

Cabling, computer housings

Selenium

Used in rectifiers and printed wiring boards

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Sustainable Computing Do you really need such a powerful

computer?

http://www.infoworld.com/t/hardware/un-study-think-upgrade-buying-new-pc-601

Users should think carefully about whether they really need a new computer, if upgrading their existing computer could serve the same purpose.

Actions such as delaying replacement and upgrading the memory or storage space or, if the machine is replaced, donating the old computer so that it may continue to be used offer potential energy savings of between five and 20 times those gained by recycling.

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Sustainable Computing Do you really need such a powerful

computer?

http://www.infoworld.com/t/hardware/un-study-think-upgrade-buying-new-pc-601

Large quantities of energy is required to manufacture a personal computer/laptop/palmtop/PDA comprising high-tech components like semiconductors

Typically these components are destroyed in the recycling process to collect a small amount of raw materials.

It was established in 2002 that ‘1.7 kilograms of fossil fuels and chemicals and 32 kilograms of water are used to produce a single 2-gram 32M-byte DRAM (dynamic RAM) memory chip.’

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Sustainable Computing Do you really need such a powerful computer?


The solution?Today's PCs are so powerful that we no longer need one for each person. We can tap into the excess power in one PC and share it with many users. NComputing technology uses just 1 to 5 watts, lasts for a decade, and generates just a few ounces of e-waste.

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Sustainable Computing Do you really need such a powerful computer?


A sustainable city will need to provide an information infrastructure, e.g. computer labs in schools and colleges. There are many labs in the schools and colleges, and each lab may have tens of computers. There is a tendency to buy complex equipment for general purpose use and a tendency to replace the equipment every 3-5 years. This cannot be sustained across the school systems in a sustainable city.

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Sustainable Computing Do you really need a computer on your desk?

One solution is cloud computing. This involves an enterprise, remote from the actual place of use, to provide storage and processing power ON DEMAND. Users need not have knowledge of, expertise in, or control over the technology infrastructure in the "cloud" that supports them.

Cloud computing services often provide common business applications online that are accessed from a web browser, while the software and data are stored on the servers. This technology has been used in some North American schools systems.

Here is an easy way to find out about cloud computing.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hplXnFUlPmg&feature=fvw

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http://www.theclimategroup.org/assets/resources/publications/Smart2020Report.pdf

The ICT sector’s own emissions are expected to increase, in a business as usual (BAU) scenario, from 0.53 billion tonnes (Gt) carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) in 2002 to 1.43 GtCO2e in 2020. But specific ICT opportunities […] can lead to emission reductions five times the size of the sector’s own footprint, up to 7.8 GtCO2e, or 15% of total BAU emissions by 2020.

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The ICT sector’s own emissions are expected to increase, in a business as usual (BAU) scenario, from 0.53 billion tonnes (Gt) carbon dioxide

equivalent (CO2e) in

2002 to 1.43 GtCO2e

in 2020. But specific ICT opportunities […] can lead to emission reductions five times the size of the sector’s own footprint, up to

7.8 GtCO2e, or 15%

of total BAU emissions by 2020.

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Issues


In 2007, the total footprint of the ICT sector – including personal computers (PCs) and peripherals, telecoms networks and devices and data centres – was 830 MtCO2e, about 2% of the estimated total emissions from human activity released that year. Even if the efficient technology developments […] are implemented, this figure looks set to grow at 6% each year until 2020. The carbon generated from materials and manufacture is about one quarter of the overall ICT footprint, the rest coming from its use

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Using power management features on your computer can save more than 600 KWh of electricity and more than $60 a year in energy costs. That equates to nearly half a ton of CO2 – more than lowering your home thermostat by two degrees Fahrenheit in the winter or replacing six standard light bulbs with compact fluorescents.

http://www.climatesaverscomputing.org/learn/saving-energy-at-home/

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Environmental/health Impacts

Arsenic

‘Doping’ agents in transistors and printed wiring board

Chronic exposure to arsenic can lead to various diseases of the skin and decrease nerve conduction velocity. It can also cause lung cancer and can often be fata

Beryllium

Used for thermal conductivity

Recently identified as human carcinogen. Exposure can cause lung cancer and skin diseases.

Cadmium SMD chip resistors, infrared detectors, semiconductors, older models of CRTs; also used as plastic stabilizer

When plastics containing cadmium are landfilled, can leach into groundwater. Acute and chronic toxic compound which accumulates in human body, esp. in kidneys. Can be absorbed either through respiration or ingested through food.


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Issues



Environmental/health Impacts

Lead Soldering of printed circuit boards and other components; glass panels in CRT monitors

Significant amounts of lead ions are dissolved from broken lead containing glass, such as the cone glass of cathode ray tubes, when mixed with acid waters which commonly occur in landfills. Accumulates in environment and has high acute and toxic effects on plants, animals, and micro-organisms Damage to nervous system, blood

Mercury

Sensors and switches on printed circuit boards, batteries, switches/housing, printed wiring boards, tubes in flat panel screens

Mercury is released when electronic devices that contain it are destroyed – such as in, or on the way to, landfills. The vaporization of metallic mercury and dimethylene mercury is also a possibility. Both are highly toxic – methylated mercury causes chronic brain damage. Inorganic mercury is transformed into methylated mercury when introduced into natural water systems, where it concentrates in sediment. Easily accumulates in living organisms, especially fish.

Plastics including PVC

Cabling, computer housings

Various cancers; endocrine system disruption (PVC emits highly toxic dioxins)

Selenium

Used in rectifiers and printed wiring boards

Exposure to high concentrations of selenium compounds cause selenosis, the symptoms of which are hair loss, nail brittleness, and neurological abnormalities.

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Issues

Cooling Servers and ComputersEighty-nine percent of electricity in the United States is produced with thermally driven water-cooled energy conversion cycles. Thermoelectric power plants withdraw a tremendous amount of water, but only a small percentage is evaporated. The evaporative or consumptive use is approximately 2.5% or 3,310 million gal per day (MGD) (12,530 x 106 L/d).

Moreover, hydroelectric plants produce approximately 9% of the nation’s electricity. Evaporative water loss from the reservoir surfaces also results in water being evaporated for electrical production.

Torcellini, P., N. Long, and R. Judkoff (2003). Consumptive Water Use for U.S. Power Production. (NREL/TP-550-33905). Colorado: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/33905.pdf).

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Sustainable Computing Terminology

http://epa.gov/osw/conserve/materials/ecycling/docs/fact7-08.pdf

In 2005, used or unwanted electronics amounted to approximately 1.9 to 2.2 million tons. Of that, about 1.5 to 1.8 million tons were primarily disposed in landfills, and only 345,000 to 379,000 tons were recycled.

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Sustainable Computing Terminology

http://epa.gov/osw/conserve/materials/ecycling/docs/fact7-08.pdf

Glossary of Terms Age Distribution: A distribution describing the various ages at which a particular product is made available for end-of -life management and the frequency at which products are made available for such management at a given age. The age of a device is based on the number of years between its original sale and the end of its life. Disposal: Management of a product at the end of its useful life through landfilling or incineration. End-of-life (EOL) Management: When a product is no longer used, stored, or reused, it has reached its end-of-life. The management options for a product at end-of-life include recycling or disposal. Lifespan: The period of time between when a product is initially purchased and when it reaches the end of its life. See definition of age distribution above. Recycling: Electronic devices may be recovered for the purpose of dismantling, parts and/or materials recovery, and/or resale (resale that occurs by a recycler and not by the user of the product). Reuse: Occurs when the first user gives up a product by informal sale or donation (other than making it available for end of life management) and a subsequent user uses the product for its intended purpose. Storage: Holding or storing a product for a temporary period by the first owner of the product or any other owner, at the end of which it is reused, resold, recycled, or disposed.

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Sustainable Computing End-of-Life, Storage and Current

Usage

http://update.unu.edu/archive/issue31_5.htm

Estimated Number of Units in Various Stages as of 2007Collected for EOL

ManagementIn

StorageStill in

UseTotal Sold

Desktops 277.6 65.7 205.8 549.1

Portables 67.1 2.1 101.7 170.9

HC Peripherals 209.3 25.2 173.7 408.2

PC Monitors 339 42.4 207.2 588.6

TOTAL Computing 893 135.4 688.4 1716.8Television 306.6 99.1 299.1 704.8

TOTAL Computing + TV 1199.6 234.5 987.5 2421.6

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Sustainable ComputingEnvironmental Impact and Conservation Issues in Internet

Computing

http://www.google.com/corporate/green/datacenters/step1.html

Serving Servers: Up to a third of the total energy consumed by a typical server is wasted before reaching the computing components:

First, during the conversion of one kind of electricity to another The power supply is the major loser here when it converts AC supply to DC.

Second, wasted energy is in voltage regulator circuitry. ‘This circuitry sits on the computer's motherboard and further converts the power supply's output voltages to the voltages required by the microchips.’

Google’s efficient servers lose only 15% of the energy.

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Sustainable ComputingEnvironmental Impact and Conservation Issues in Internet

Computing

http://www.google.com/corporate/green/datacenters/step1.htmlFact Sheet on National Data Center Energy Efficiency Information Program. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) March 19, 2008

Serving Servers:

A data center is a building housing thousands of servers. The losses are of two types:

• First, in delivering large amounts of energy to the servers;• Second, the server building also has the provision of alternative supplies in case the mains supply is disrupted.

Typically 10-20% of the incoming power is lost in this machinery.

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Sustainable ComputingEnvironmental Impact and Conservation Issues in

Internet Computing

http://www.google.com/corporate/green/datacenters/step1.htmlFact Sheet on National Data Center Energy Efficiency Information Program. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) March 19, 2008

Serving Servers: ‘U.S. data centers consume a growing portion of the U.S. energy/electricity supply due to growing demand for the services they provide. Data centers used 61 billion kWh of electricity in 2006, representing 1.5% of all U.S. electricity consumption and double the amount consumed in 2000. Based on current trends, energy consumed by data centers will continue to grow by 12% per year’ (US DoE/US EPA Fact Sheet, 2009).

Google has used a range of technologies to reduce the energy overhead, including evaporative technologies, and now “energy-weighted average overhead across all Google-built data centers [has been reduced] to 19% .”

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Internet Computing

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/datacenters/software.html

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Internet Computing


Water Management: Energy efficiency reduces greenhouse gas emissions and saves money, but it also plays a central role in fresh water conservation. Most people don't realize that power plants require a significant amount of water to operate. On average, two gallons of water is consumed for every kilowatt-hour of electricity produced in the U.S. By using less electricity to power [ ] computing infrastructure, we also save fresh water.

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Internet Computing


Sustainable Server Retirement: The US EPA estimates a large majority of U.S. electronic waste ends up in landfills or storage, with only 18% of the equipment retired in 2006 being reused or recycled.

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Sustainable ComputingSustaining Well being

http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/health/whatis_ehealth/index_en.htm

eHealth means Information and Communication Technologies tools and services for health. Whether eHealth tools are used behind the scenes by healthcare professionals, or directly by patients, they play a significant role in improving the health of European citizens.

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Throughout the lectures, the emphasis has been on how to use less of the valuable resources deployed in engineering design, planning and control.

You, as future engineers, will have to incorporate systems into engineering artefacts.

In our quest for sustainability we have to use systems for planning, design and control.

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For a range of systems that are used in ensuring our health and well being, we as engineers, in a sense, are duty bound to use systems that can be used on 24/7 basis.

The choice for us is to consider the resourcing of the technology during its creation, resources used to sustain the technological artefacts, and the end-of-life planning for these artefacts.

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So, we have looked at the pollutants released in the fabrication of ICT systems, the intensive use of water and energy in the fabrication and subsequent use of such systems. Is there a silver-lining??

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Yes: ICT researchers are looking at resource sharing in a way that was not only imaginable only a few years ago: Optical fibre technology, cloud and grid computing, nano-scale engineering, agent-based computing....

And, we hope, some of you will turn out to be the smart engineers who will take good care of resources whilts ensuring health and well being.

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Thank you for listening to me.

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So, we have looked at the pollutants released in the fabrication of ICT systems, the intensive use of water and energy in the fabrication and subsequent use of such systems. Is there a silver-lining??

sustainable computing

Documents

computing moores lawgeer

computing industry

g cities

chip makers

cmos chip

chip manufacturers

chip speeds

g number of chips