study on ewrs in panchayati raj institutions · and the ministry of panchayati raj on a job well...

Study on EWRs in

Panchayati Raj Institutions

Ministry of Panchayati Raj

Government of India

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FOREFOREFOREFOREFOREWORDWORDWORDWORDWORD

The political and social empowerment of women in our Panchayats is, in my view, one of the most significant achievements

of India in the last decade or so. For, at a stroke as it were, over a million women in rural India have been liberated from

the kitchen and the courtyard and brought into positions of authority and responsibility in their village communities.

Even at the block and district levels, they have assumed office and learned to not only contest elections (and win them!)

but also to exercise power in the larger interests of the public good.

Indeed, the proportion of women getting elected tends to be significantly higher than the reserved quota, with women

from the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes often securing election to a higher proportion of seats and chairpersonships

than women from the socially and economically better off classes.

The political and social empowerment of women on this scale is without parallel in the world and without precedent in

the history. There are more elected women in India than in the rest of the world put together. Combined with the

economic empowerment fostered by the enormously successful women’s self-help group movement, what we are witnessing

in the Indian countryside is a gender revolution of a magnitude never before seen. It is a matter of pride that this

revolution should be taking place with such relative ease and harmony in a society hitherto viewed as hidebound by

tradition, custom and usage.

True, there are still formidable problems to be overcome. Many women are hesitant and tentative in rising to the

occasion. Often, the men of the village do not accord them the respect and regard that is their due. Officials take

advantage of their inexperience and poor education. Effective devolution is so uneven and inadequate that oftentimes

even the most able women are crippled for want of the rightful allocation of functions, finances and functionaries

without which effective Panchayati Raj is rendered impossible. Some of these hurdles are gender-specific. Some are

generic in nature and related to the larger issue of the empowerment of the Panchayats. What emerges clearly is that the

more effectively the Panchayats are endowed with powers and authority, the more effective is the role of women in

Panchayats. Perhaps the single biggest hurdle to appreciating the true nature of this gender revolution sweeping through

the least well-off parts of our country and most discriminated against segments of our society is the tendency to

impressionistically generalize from episodic occurrences instead of attempting a holistic, scientific understanding of the

role of women in our Panchayats.

This study has been commissioned to fill this gaping lacuna. For the first time, a country-wide study of the place of

women in our Panchayats has been undertaken, at the instance of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, by the well-known

firm of AC-Nielsen ORG-MARG. An Academic Advisory Committee that included Secretary, Ministry of Panchayati

Raj (initially Smt. Meenakshi Datta Ghosh and, later, Smt. Sushma Singh), Prof. Kuldeep Mathur, Prof. A. Vaidyanathan,

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Prof. Neera Chandhoke, Ms. Ratna M. Sudarshan, Ms. Rita Sarin and Prof. S.K. Singh of NIRD has examined their

findings and the renowned Nehru Scholar, Prof. Nirja Gopal Jayal, has supervised the writing up of the principal

conclusions. Smt. Rajwant Sandhu, Additional Secretary in the Ministry of Panchayati Raj facilitated the preparation of

the Report.

I congratulate A.C. Nielsen ORG-MARG, the members of the Academic Advisory Committee, Prof. Niraja Gopal Jayal

and the Ministry of Panchayati Raj on a job well done. This study is presented to the general public on the auspicious

occasion of the 15th Anniversary of the coming into force of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992, which

introduced Part IX (‘The Panchayats’) into the Constitution.

(M(M(M(M(Mani Sani Sani Sani Sani Shankar Aiyar)hankar Aiyar)hankar Aiyar)hankar Aiyar)hankar Aiyar)

Union Ministor for Panchayati Raj)

New Delhi

Panchayati Raj Diwas

24 April, 2008

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CONTENTCONTENTCONTENTCONTENTCONTENTSSSSS

Page No.

Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1 IIIIIntrntrntrntrntroductionoductionoductionoductionoduction 1 - 161 - 161 - 161 - 161 - 16

1.1 Women in Rural India: The Gender Gap in Development 1

1.2 Evolution of Panchayats in Independent India 3

1.3 Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 4

1.4 The Structure of Panchayats 8

1.5 Devolution of Powers, Functions and Resources 12

Chapter 2Chapter 2Chapter 2Chapter 2Chapter 2 SSSSStudy Atudy Atudy Atudy Atudy Apprpprpprpprpproach & Moach & Moach & Moach & Moach & Methodologyethodologyethodologyethodologyethodology 17 - 2417 - 2417 - 2417 - 2417 - 24

2.1 Objectives of the Study 17

2.2 Research Approach 18

2.3 Research Tools vis-à-vis Target Respondents 18

2.4 Broad Study Indicators 19

2.5 Sampling Design 20

2.6 Sample Coverage 22

2.7 Presentation of Study Findings 23

Chapter 3Chapter 3Chapter 3Chapter 3Chapter 3 PPPPPrrrrrofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 25 - 5025 - 5025 - 5025 - 5025 - 50

3.1 Profile of Elected Representatives in their Current Term 25

3.2 Profile of Ex-Elected Women Representatives 46

3.3 Profile of Community Members 48

Chapter 4Chapter 4Chapter 4Chapter 4Chapter 4 PPPPPolitical Carolitical Carolitical Carolitical Carolitical Career of Eeer of Eeer of Eeer of Eeer of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 51 - 7351 - 7351 - 7351 - 7351 - 73

4.1 Age at which first Panchayati Raj Election Contested 51

4.2 Political Background of Elected Representatives 52

4.3 Motivation for Contesting First PRI Election 53

4.4 Constraints Encountered in Contesting Elections 55

4.5 Overcoming Constraints 57

4.6 Political Career of Elected Representatives 58

4.7 Training and Capacity Building 64

4.8 Do ERs Function within a Supportive Environment? 71

Chapter 5Chapter 5Chapter 5Chapter 5Chapter 5 QQQQQuality of Puality of Puality of Puality of Puality of Parararararticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 74 - 11074 - 11074 - 11074 - 11074 - 110

5.1 Participation in the Gram Sabha 75

5.2 Quorum in Gram Sabha 77

5.3 Encouraging Community Participation in Gram Sabha 79

5.4 Issues Discussed by ERs During Gram Sabha Meetings 84

5.5 Interaction with Government Officials 87

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5.6 Proactive Role of Elected Representatives 90

5.7 Role of the Gram Panchayat in Implementing Development Schemes 92

5.8 Participation in Community Mobilisation 96

5.9 Role of Elected Representatives in Standing Committees 106

Chapter 6Chapter 6Chapter 6Chapter 6Chapter 6 RRRRRole of Pole of Pole of Pole of Pole of Parallel Bodies, CBOarallel Bodies, CBOarallel Bodies, CBOarallel Bodies, CBOarallel Bodies, CBOs in the Fs in the Fs in the Fs in the Fs in the Functioning of Eunctioning of Eunctioning of Eunctioning of Eunctioning of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 111 - 129111 - 129111 - 129111 - 129111 - 129

6.1 Membership and Participation in Parallel Bodies 111

6.2 Association with Community Based Organisations 118

6.3 Presence of Customary Panchayats 119

6.4 Role of Parallel Bodies, CBOs & Other Institutions 123

Chapter 7Chapter 7Chapter 7Chapter 7Chapter 7 IIIIImpact of Pmpact of Pmpact of Pmpact of Pmpact of Parararararticipation on ticipation on ticipation on ticipation on ticipation on WWWWWomen and Community Domen and Community Domen and Community Domen and Community Domen and Community Devevevevevelopmentelopmentelopmentelopmentelopment 130 - 147130 - 147130 - 147130 - 147130 - 147

7.1 Perception of Change in the Role of ERs 130

7.2 Developmental Initiatives taken by Elected Representatives 141

Chapter 8Chapter 8Chapter 8Chapter 8Chapter 8 DDDDDeterminants of Eeterminants of Eeterminants of Eeterminants of Eeterminants of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives' Pes' Pes' Pes' Pes' Perererererformanceformanceformanceformanceformance 148 - 156148 - 156148 - 156148 - 156148 - 156

8.1 Construction of Dependent and Independent Variables 148

8.2 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Variables 149

8.3 Correlation Coefficients between Performance Scores and Independent variables 152

8.4 Regression Coefficients between Performance Index and Independent Variables 154

Chapter 9Chapter 9Chapter 9Chapter 9Chapter 9 Conclusions & RConclusions & RConclusions & RConclusions & RConclusions & Recommendationsecommendationsecommendationsecommendationsecommendations 157 - 161157 - 161157 - 161157 - 161157 - 161

9.1 Study Conclusions 157

9.2 Study Recommendations 160

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LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF TABLESTABLESTABLESTABLESTABLES

Page No.

Table 1.1 Status of Panchayati Raj, 2007 14

Table 3.1 Distribution of Age Data on Pradhans - by State 26

Table 3.2 Distribution of Age Data on Ward Members - by State 27

Table 3.3 Distribution of Data on Educational Attainment of Pradhans - by State 29

Table 3.4 Distribution of Data on Educational Attainment of Ward Members - by State 30

Table 3.5 Distribution of Data on Primary Occupation on the basis of Time Spent for Pradhans - by State 33

Table 3.6 Distribution of Data on Primary Occupation on the basis of Time Spent for 34Ward Members - by State

Table 3.7 Social Background of Pradhans - by State 35

Table 3.8 Social Background of Ward Members - by State 36

Table 3.9 Distribution of Data on Religion of Elected Representatives 37

Table 3.10 Distribution of Data on Religion of Pradhans - by State 38

Table 3.11 Distribution of Data on Religion of Ward Members -by State 39

Table 3.12 Distribution of Data on Marital Status of Elected Representatives 40

Table 3.13 Distribution of Data on Economic Status reported on the Basis of Village List 41

Table 3.14 Distribution of data on economic status of Pradhan reported on the basis of Village List - by State 41

Table 3.15 Distribution of Data on Economic Status of Ward members Reported on the 42Basis of Village List - by State

Table 3.16 Distribution of Data on Extent of Food Adequacy 43

Table 3.17 Distribution of Data on Extent of Food Adequacy for Pradhans -by State 43

Table 3.18 Distribution of Data on Extent of Food Adequacy for Ward Members -by State 44

Table 3.19 Perceived change in income over the last 10 years 45

Table 3.20 Perceived Change in Income among Pradhans over past 10 Years - by State 46

Table 3.21 Perceived Change in Incomes among Ward Members over past 10 years - by State 47

Table 3.22 Socio-Demographic Profile of ex-EWRs 48

Table 3.23 Economic Profile of ex-EWRs 48

Table 3.24 Socio-Demographic Profile of Community Members 49

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Table 3.25 Economic Profile of Community Members 49

Table 4.1 Age of Association and Age at which first contested PRI election - All ERs 51

Table 4.2 Proportion of ERs reported their HH Members Contested PRI Election 53

Table 4.3 Proportion of ERs reported their Relatives had Contested PRI Election in the Past 53

Table 4.4 Factors Motivated ERs to Contest First PRI Election 54

Table 4.5 Incidents that led ERs to Contest First PRI Election 54

Table 4.6 Constraints Faced while Filing Nomination for the First Time 55

Table 4.7 ERs that did not face any Constraint - by State 55

Table 4.8 Types of Constraints faced while filing Nomination for the First Time 56

Table 4.9 Manner in which Constraints were Overcome while Filing Nomination for 57First Time were Overcome

Table 4.10 Change in Constraints Faced while Filing for Nomination the First Time 58

Table 4.11 Proportion of ERs Contested PRI Elections across Three Rounds 58

Table 4.12 ERs contested and won PRI elections across three rounds 59

Table 4.13 Proportion of ERs that Served Multiple Terms 59

Table 4.14 Number of elections won by ERs - by state 60

Table 4.15 ERs that have won from Reserved Seat in the Current Term 61

Table 4.16 Status of ERs’ Seat across Three Rounds of Election 61

Table 4.17 ERs that have won from Reserved Seat across Three Rounds of Election - by State 62

Table 4.18 Ex-EWRs Participation in Last PRI Election 63

Table 4.19 Reasons for Not Contesting Last PRI Election 63

Table 4.20 Reason for Defeat in Last PRI election 64

Table 4.21 Contested Intermediate Panchayat or Zilla Parishad Election 64

Table 4.22 Received Any Training / Orientation After Being Elected 65

Table 4.23 Reasons for Not Receiving Any Training 66

Table 4.24 Proportion of Pradhans Received Training - by State 66

Table 4.25 Proportion of Ward Members Received Training - by State 67

Table 4.26 Content of Training Received by ERs 68

Table 4.27 Place of, and Need for Further Training on Rules and Regulations 69

Table 4.28 Reasons for Wanting Further Training on Rules and Regulations 69

Table 4.29 Reasons for not Wanting any Further Training on Rules and Regulations 70

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Table 4.30 Satisfaction with Different Aspects of Training 70

Table 4.31 Perception Regarding the Participatory Nature of Training 71

Table 4.32 Interaction with the village community 72

Table 4.33 Facing Conflict with Other Caste Groups after being Elected 72

Table 4.34 Change in Time Devoted by ERs to Household Work, and sharing of 73Household Responsibilities within the Family

Table 4.35 Change in Time Devoted to Looking after Children by ERs and Sharing of this 73Responsibility by other Family Members

Table 5.1 Gram Sabha Meetings Convened during ER's Current Term 76

Table 5.2 Reasons for Gram Sabha Meetings Not Being Held 76

Table 5.3 Awareness about Number of Times Gram Sabha Meetings held in a Year 77

Table 5.4 Formation of Quorum for Gram Sabha Meeting 78

Table 5.5 Instances of Gram Sabha Being Held Despite Lack of Quorum 78

Table 5.6 Total Eligible Women Usually Attending Gram Sabha Meeting 79

Table 5.7 Pradhan's Opinion about Proportion of Women Usually Attending 79Gram Sabha Meeting - by State

Table 5.8 Ward Members' Perception of Proportion of Women Usually Attending the 81Gram Sabha Meeting - by State

Table 5.9 Wards where ERs Encouraged the Participation of Women Community Members in Gram Sabha 82

Table 5.10 Wards where All Citizens are Encouraged to Speak in Gram Sabha 82

Table 5.11 Raising Any Issue Freely During the Gram Sabha Meeting 83

Table 5.12 Percentage of Wards Where ERs Enforced their Ideas 83

Table 5.13 Wards where ERs tend to Dominate Gram Sabha Meetings 84

Table 5.14 Percentage of Wards where ERs took Note of the Concerns of the Community in Gram Sabha 84

Table 5.15 Issues discussed by ERs During Gram Sabha Meetings 85

Table 5.16 Interactive Role of ERs (Yes %) 87

Table 5.17 Interaction of Pradhans with Local Bureaucracy - by State 87

Table 5.18 Interaction of Ward Members with Local Bureaucracy - by State 88

Table 5.19 Participation of Government Officials During Gram Sabha Meetings 89

Table 5.20 Presence of Government Officials in Gram Sabha 90

Table 5.21 Wards where EWRs had Interaction with Government Officials 90

Table 5.22 Initiative Taken for Local-Level Issues (Yes %) 91

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Table 5.23 Manner in Which Beneficiaries are Selected for Different Schemes 92

Table 5.24 Pradhans' Perceptions of Manner in which Beneficiaries are selected for 93Different Schemes - by State

Table 5.25 Ward Members' Perceptions of Manner in which Beneficiaries are Selected 94for Different Schemes - by State

Table 5.26 Preparation of List of Beneficiaries as per the Programme Guidelines 95

Table 5.27 Preparation of List of Beneficiaries as per the Programme Guidelines - 96Perception of Pradhans - by State

Table 5.28 Participation of ERs in Health-Related Campaign in the Current Term 97

Table 5.29 Awareness Campaign/Drive against Disease in Village by ERs 97

Table 5.30 ERs' Participation in the Prevention of Diseases at Village Level 98

Table 5.31 Involvement in Activity for Prevention of Diseases at Village Level 99

Table 5.32 ERs' Participation in Family Planning Campaigns at Village Level 99

Table 5.33 Involvement in Counseling/Medical Aid for Family Planning 100

Table 5.34 Initiatives Taken by ERs to Increase Enrolment in School 100

Table 5.35 Initiatives taken by Pradhans to Increase Enrolment in school-by State 101

Table 5.36 Initiatives taken by Ward Members to Increase Enrolment in School - by State 102

Table 5.37 Efforts made by ERs to Increase Enrolment in School 103

Table 5.38 Community's Perception about Efforts made by their ERs to Increase Enrolment - by State 103

Table 5.39 ERs' Participation in Campaigns to Reduce School Dropouts 104

Table 5.40 Efforts made by ERs to Reduce Dropouts from School 105

Table 5.41 ER Attending Community Meetings to Discuss Local Issues 105

Table 5.42 Awareness of Types of Standing Committees at GP level 107

Table 5.43 Membership of Standing Committee 108

Table 5.44 Attending Standing Committee Meetings Regularly 108

Table 5.45 Decisions Taken and Implemented by Standing Committees in past year 109

Table 6.1 Membership in Parallel Bodies 111

Table 6.2 Membership of Pradhan in Parallel Bodies - by State 112

Table 6.3 Membership of Ward Member in Parallel Bodies - by State 113

Table 6.4 Types of Parallel Bodies 114

Table 6.5 Participation of ERs in Parallel Body Meetings - by State 115

Table 6.6 Involvement with Health Functionaries 116

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Table 6.7 Activities of AWW Monitored by Pradhan 117

Table 6.8 ERs Monitoring MDM programme - by Gender & Position 117

Table 6.9 Association of ERs with CBOs - by State 118

Table 6.10 Association with Parallel Bodies and CBOs 119

Table 6.11 Existence of Traditional Village Heads - by State 120

Table 6.12 Participation of Traditional Heads in Village Activities 121

Table 6.13 Attendance of Traditional Heads in Gram Sabha Meetings 122

Table 6.14 Involvement with Parallel Body/CBO before Being Elected 124

Table 6.15 Encouraged by Parallel Body/CBO to become ER 125

Table 6.16 Nature of Involvement of Traditional Leaders in Gram Sabha Meetings 125

Table 6.17 Nature of Participation of Traditional Heads in Village 126

Table 6.18 Influence of Traditional Heads on the Nomination of Candidates 126

Table 6.19 Involvement of ERs in the Functioning of Traditional Institutions 126

Table 6.20 Affiliation/Support with Political Party 127

Table 6.21 Affiliation/Support from Political Parties - by State 127

Table 6.22 Nature of Support Received from Political Party to Contest Election 128

Table 7.1 Perception of Improvement in Image and Personal Effectiveness 131

Table 7.2 Proportion that Perceived Change in Voice in HH Decisions After Being Elected 132

Table 7.3 Responsiveness of Block Panchayat and Local Government to Concerns Raised by Pradhans 132

Table 7.4 Responsiveness of Block Panchayat to Concerns Raised by Pradhans - by State 133

Table 7.5 Change in Attention of Local Government to Local Issues Raised by Pradhan - by State 134

Table 7.6 Instances when EWRs felt ignored in Panchayat because of Being a Woman 135

Table 7.7 Instances when EWRs felt Ignored in Panchayat because of Being a Woman - by State 135

Table 7.8 Recognition by Other Panchayat Members of Efforts Made by ERs 136

Table 7.9 Recognition by Other Panchayat Members of ERs' Efforts- by State 136

Table 7.10 Acceptability in Gram Panchayat Meetings 137

Table 7.11 Change in Interaction with Line Departments & Parallel Bodies Over Period of Time 137

Table 7.12 Increase in Interaction with Line Departments & Parallel Bodies 138

Table 7.13 Change in Acceptability among Colleagues 138

Table 7.14 Women in the Village Community Needing Permission at the Household Level 139

Table 7.15 ERs' Perception of Change in the Participation of Women in the Village 139

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Table 7.16 ERs' Perceptions of Increase in Participation of Women in the Village 140

Table 7.17 ERs' Perceptions about Change in Village Development Activities 140

Table 7.18 ERs' Perception about Increase in Village Development - by Position & Gender 141

Table 7.19 ERs' Involvement in the Provision of Civic Amenities 142

Table 7.20 EWRs' Efforts for Encouraging Girls' Enrolment & Mitigating Domestic Violence 142

Table 7.21 Community's Awareness Regarding Some Common Schemes 144

Table 7.22 Community's Perception about Fairness of Beneficiary Selection 144

Table 7.23 Community's Satisfaction with Implementation of Various Schemes 145

Table 7.24 Community's Satisfaction with Transparency in implementation 145

Table 7.25 Households that have Benefited under Various Schemes 145

Table 7.26 Social Problems Affecting Households 146

Table 7.27 Perception of ERs Interventions Address Social Problems 146

Table 8.1 Variations of Mean and Standard Deviations 151

Table 8.2 Correlation Coefficients between Performance Index and set of Independent Variables 153

Table 8.3 Regression Coefficients between Performance Index and set of Independent Variables 155

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LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURES

Page No.

Figure 1.1 Structure of Panchayati Raj 8

Figure 2.1 Preparatory Phases of Study 18

Figure 2.2 Schematic Presentation of Sampling Strategy 21

Figure 2.3 Geographical Coverage of District 22

Figure 2.4 Presentations of Study Findings 24

Figure 3.1 Age of Elected Representatives 25

Figure 3.2 Educational Attainments of Elected Representatives 28

Figure 3.3 Primary Occupation on the Basis of Time Spent 31

Figure 3.4 Social Background of Elected Representatives 35

Figure 4.1 Age of Association and Age at which first contested PRI Election (EWRs) 52

Figure 4.2 Age of Association and Age when first contested PRI Election (EMRs) 52

Figure 5.1 Women's Representation in Panchayats 74

Figure 5.2 Gram Sabha Meetings Organised and Attended During Current Term of Elected Representatives 75

Figure 6.1 Districts under Schedule V Areas 123

Figure 7.1 Empowerment & Impact Parameters at Different Levels of ER's Environment 130

Figure 7.2 Perception of ERs about their Image and Personal Effectiveness 131

Figure 7.3 ERs' Efforts towards Mitigating Domestic Violence 143

Figure 8.1 Performance Index of Pradhan 155

Figure 8.2 Performance Index of Ward Members 156

Figure 9.1 Participation and Women's Development 160

SSSSStudy on Etudy on Etudy on Etudy on Etudy on EWRs in PWRs in PWRs in PWRs in PWRs in Panchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Instituionsnstituionsnstituionsnstituionsnstituions

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1.1.1.1.1. INTRINTRINTRINTRINTRODUCTIONODUCTIONODUCTIONODUCTIONODUCTION

This volume presents the findings of the most comprehensive all-India survey yet attempted to assess, as accurately aspossible, the quality of participation of elected women representatives in Panchayati Raj. There can scarcely be twoopinions on the potentially revolutionary nature of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments which mandated for33 percent reservation for women in rural and urban local bodies, respectively. Fifteen years on, with most states havingheld three rounds of elections, it is time for some stocktaking.

Earlier assessments of women’s participation in the panchayats presented sharply polarised pictures. On the one hand arethe many who dismiss the women’s quota as so much tokenism, pointing to the abundance of instances of bahu-beti raj,i.e. male leaders propping up close female relatives as their surrogates. On the other hand, there are those who celebrateonly the success stories – of which doubtless there are many – but prefer to ignore the imperfections of the rest. Inaddition to the uncertainty about which of these accounts presents a truer description of the reality, there is also theconcern that many of these conclusions are based on very small sample sizes; or have a very restricted geographicalspread; or else present ethnographic findings which provide valuable insights but not necessarily more widely generalisableconclusions. This study aims to furnish some of these missing dimensions.

The presence of 1.2 million elected women representatives in the institutions of local governance in rural India is trulyan extraordinary phenomenon. However, it is not possible to appreciate either the potential of this initiative or itsoutcomes so far without situating it against the backdrop of (a) the position of women in Indian society, as well as theIndian polity and economy, some aspects of which are discussed in section 1.1 (below) and (b) the structural limitationsin terms of the lack of effective devolution to the panchayats, discussed in Section 1.4. Both represent important constraintsthat limit the potential of the quotas for women.

1.11.11.11.11.1 WWWWWomen in Romen in Romen in Romen in Romen in Rural Iural Iural Iural Iural India: ndia: ndia: ndia: ndia: The GThe GThe GThe GThe Gender Gender Gender Gender Gender Gap in Dap in Dap in Dap in Dap in Devevevevevelopmentelopmentelopmentelopmentelopment

The human development indicators of rural women, particularly of those belonging to socially disadvantaged groups,are abysmally poor. The Global Gender Gap Report 2007 (Hausmann et al, 2007) ranks India 114 out of 128 countries,using a composite index of economic participation, educational attainment, political empowerment, and health andsurvival. A year earlier, India’s ranking on this index was 98 out of 115 countries; and even counting only those countries,India’s position in 2007 slipped four places to 102. This composite ranking places India below its South Asian neighboursSri Lanka (at 15th place) and even Bangladesh (at 100), higher only than Nepal and Pakistan.

The disaggregated scores in this index are significant. On three of the sub-indexes, India’s ranking is lower than itsranking of 114 on the composite index. On economic participation and opportunity for women, for example, India’sranking is 122. On educational attainment it is 116, and on health and survival it is positively abysmal – 126 – aboveonly two countries, Azerbaijan and Armenia. In sharp contrast is India’s ranking in terms of political empowerment ofwomen: 21 out of 128 countries, higher than even Australia, Canada and the United States. India’s Indira Gandhi wasonly the third woman in the world to lead a democratic country. Today, there are at least four women leading majorpolitical parties in India.

Be that as it may, it is notable that the Global Gender Gap Index assigns heavy weightage to countries with female headsof state. It could be argued that this is flawed because the presence and even the longevity of elite women leaderships isno proof of women’s political participation being either widespread or robust. In the first half of the 20th century, tensof thousands of Indian women participated in the national freedom movement, many of them suffering prison terms forthe cause. After Independence, however, it was mainly elite women who were visible in public life. Nevertheless, it couldbe safely assumed that if the 1.2 million women in India’s panchayats were to be counted, India could well be on top.

It is another matter that there remains a wide — and worrying – gap between the political opportunities before Indianwomen and the woeful lack of social and economic options which are reflected in their human development indicators.The sex ratio is known to be a good predictor of gender discrimination, and indeed, the Global Gender Gap Report2007 attributes the lowering of India’s overall ranking (as compared to the previous year) to this phenomenon. The


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Census of 2001 documented a sex ratio of 933 females per 1000 males, which is marginally better than the 927 of the1991 Census.

Maternal mortality in India is estimated at 301 per 100,000 live births, which puts the risk of a woman dying each timeshe becomes pregnant at 1 in 330. This in turn means that if a woman gets pregnant three times in her life, the chanceof her dying is 1 in 110 (Radkar and Parasuraman, 2007: 3262). Not surprisingly, higher rates of maternal mortality aremore characteristic of rural and backward caste women than of urban and forward caste women. This is also a pointer tothe poor access of women to health care in general and maternity facilities in particular, in rural India.

A rich amount of data on issues ranging from fertility and age of marriage to spousal violence and health care has veryrecently (September 2007) become available, following a 29-state survey conducted in 2005-06. The National FamilyHealth Survey (NFHS-3) shows a reassuring decline in the rates of fertility, birth and infant mortality. However,anaemia, wasting and malnutrition continue to be on the rise among both children and adult women. Between the lastsuch survey (NFHS-2), conducted in 1998-99 and the present one, anaemia in married women has gone up from 52 to56 percent, and in pregnant women, from 50 to 58 percent. Anaemia among men, by contrast, is 24 percent (IIPS,2007:310).

Gender inequalities are similarly reflected in access to education and employment. The enrolment of girl children inschool is lower than that of boys, and half of those who enroll drop out by middle school. Thus, 41 percent of womenand 18 percent of men (15-49 age group) have never been to school (IIPS, 2007: 55). Girls are kept home to help withhousework or to look after younger siblings. They are also married off at a fairly young age – 46 percent in the 18-29 agegroup before the legal age of 18, and the median age for first birth among them is 19.3 years (IIPS, 2007:163). NFHS-3 also documents spousal, physical or sexual violence and abuse in 37 percent of married women, which is actuallyjustified by 54 percent of those surveyed (IIPS: 478).

The survey found that 43 percent of currently married women were employed, as opposed to 99 percent of men. Ofthese women, 25 percent received no payment for their work, while 12 percent were paid in kind (IIPS, 2007:450).Among married women who work and are paid in cash, over 70 percent said they decided, either alone (14 percent) orjointly with their husbands (57 percent) on how to spend their earnings. One in six had no say in how their earningswere spent (IIPS, 2007: 453). The survey also asked respondents as to who in the household usually decides on majorand routine household purchases, whether or when to visit the wife’s family or relatives, and even how many children tohave. Only 37 percent of married women said they participated in the decision making process in all four areas; 43percent participated in some of these decisions, and 21 percent did not participate in any of these decisions at all (IIPS,2007: 463).

Among disadvantaged social groups – such as the Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) – we observe thatwomen here are not only more disadvantaged than men, but equally as much so in relation to their sisters in the generalpopulation. The differential – in wages, work participation rates, literacy and education, health and mortality – ispalpable. Levels of educational deprivation are highest among rural SC-ST females and lowest among urban males whodo not belong to these social groups (Jayal, 2006a: 35). Only a quarter of SC-ST women are literate, as compared toapproximately half in other, less disadvantaged, social groups. Similarly, the data for schooling of children between theages of 7 and 16 years shows that the mean years of schooling for Muslim girls – whether rural or urban – are fewer thaneven those for SC-ST girls. If rural Muslim girls in this age group get 2.62 mean years of schooling, SC-ST girls get 2.75(Government of India, 2006: 290).

The fertility rate among SC-ST and Muslim women is also higher than the average. Thus, if the average for women as awhole is 2.7 children in a lifetime, the average for women belonging to these three groups is 2.9 (SC) 3.1 (ST) and 3.1for Muslims. Likewise, anaemia is especially high in women without any education and those belonging to the ScheduledTribes (IIPS, 2007: 310).

This, then, is the socio-demographic context in which the Constitutionally mandated 33 percent quota for women, atevery level of the panchayat structure, as well as in the post of head at each level, is situated.


3

Notwithstanding the presence of powerful women in the political elite, for the vast majority, the triple burdens ofgender, class and caste/religion, overlaid with the power of patriarchy, renders the Constitutional promise of genderequality more symbolic than substantive. The multiple disadvantages that mark the condition of rural women shouldlead to an acknowledgment of the barriers and obstacles to women’s participation, and, of course, greater appreciation ofthe successes scored by at least some elected women representatives, both as participants in local governance and asrepresentatives articulating the interests of women.

1.21.21.21.21.2 EEEEEvvvvvolution of Polution of Polution of Polution of Polution of Panchayats in Ianchayats in Ianchayats in Ianchayats in Ianchayats in Independent Independent Independent Independent Independent Indiandiandiandiandia

In India, attempts at strengthening local democracy have invariably invoked the traditional self-governing institutions ofthe village, which have often been romanticised and valorised by a wide variety of observers, from Henry Maine toMahatma Gandhi. Historically, however, despite their consensual appearance, these institutions were not really democraticas they were concealed forms of social prejudice, oppression and exploitation that were firmly rooted in local powerstructures. It was in recognition of these that B.R. Ambedkar argued strenuously in the Constituent Assembly againstincorporating them into that Document. This is why the impulse for local self-government, embodied in Article 401,was placed in the non-justiciable Directive Principles of State Policy.

After Independence, the idea of the revival of panchayats was first mooted in the Balwantrai Mehta Committee Report(1957), which saw democratic decentralisation as a way of making good the failures of the community developmentprogramme. Two decades later, the Asoka Mehta Committee Report on Panchayati Raj Institutions made far-reachingrecommendations for the revival of panchayats, which inspired at least a few states – notably, Karnataka, Kerala andWest Bengal - to restructure their institutions of local government. At the national level, the initiative to give Constitutionalstatus to Panchayati Raj was attempted by the Rajiv Gandhi government in 1989. Eventually, in 1993, Panchayati Rajwas incorporated into the Constitution by the 73rd (for panchayats at the village, block and district levels) and 74th (formunicipalities) Constitutional Amendment Acts.

It is notable that, until the passage of the 73rd and 74th Amendments, the suggestion for strengthening women’srepresentation was only faintly articulated in the mainstream history of Panchayati Raj. In relation to this mainstreamhistory, the question of women’s representation in panchayats has evolved in a distinct, even parallel, trajectory. TheBalwantrai Mehta Committee report had suggested only that the 20-member Panchayat Samiti should co-opt or nominatetwo women, “interested in work among women and children” (Government of India, 1957:45-52). The MaharashtraZilla Parishad and Panchayat Samiti Act of 1961 followed this recommendation, providing for the nomination of one ortwo women to each of the three bodies, if no woman candidate was otherwise elected. In 1978, of 320 womenrepresentatives on the Panchayat Samitis and Zilla Parishads in Maharashtra, only six were elected, demonstrating – ifany evidence were required – that the provision of co-option or nomination was little more than an opportunity forpatronage and, at best, an expression of tokenism. Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan used such provisions fitfully and atconvenience with broadly similar results. The Andhra Pradesh Gram Panchayats Act, 1964 effectively provided forreservation of between 22 and 25 percent for women.

The next important milestone in the history of Panchayati Raj in India was the Asoka Mehta Committee Report of1978. Between Balwantrai Mehta and Asoka Mehta, the Committee for the Status of Women in India, in its famousreport Towards Equality (1974), argued forcefully that rural women’s needs and perspectives had never been givensufficient weightage in the plans and development policies of the Government of India. The Report recognised that co-option and nomination were underwritten by the assumption that women were incapable of contesting elections, andwould not permit the questioning, much less transformation, of power equations in rural society. It therefore recommendedthe setting-up of statutory women’s panchayats at the local level, which would have strong links with Panchayati Rajinstitutions, as well as possess some resources to manage and administer welfare and development programmes forwomen and children. On the question of reservations for women in legislative bodies, however, the Committee was

1ArArArArArticle 40:ticle 40:ticle 40:ticle 40:ticle 40:The state shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such power and authority as may be necessary to enable them tofunction as units of self-government


4

divided. The majority opinion was that reservations were a retrograde step from the equality conferred by the Constitution,but the note of dissent (signed by two members, Vina Mazumdar and Lotika Sarkar) recognised the importance ofreservations as an instrument of empowerment.

The Asoka Mehta Committee Report (1978) emphasised the importance of Panchayati Raj institutions to localdevelopment planning, on account of both the democratic imperative of decentralising power, as well as the efficiencyimperative of strengthening the micro-level planning process. It recommended a two-tier panchayat system, in whichthe two women who polled the highest number of votes in the panchayat elections would, even if they failed to actuallyget elected, stand co-opted into the panchayat. Where no women contested elections, any two women known to beactive community workers, could be co-opted. The importance of according Constitutional status to the PRIs subsequentlycame up in the recommendations of several official committees reviewing rural development and poverty alleviationprogrammes (e.g., the G.V.K.Rao Committee, 1985; the L.M. Singhvi Committee, 1986). The Sarkaria Commissionon Centre-State relations also noted that panchayats were not functioning effectively as elections to them were notregularly held, and they were constantly being superseded on flimsy grounds. But the issue of the representation ofwomen and their participation in local-level institutions only came up again in the parallel stream, with the NationalPerspective Plan for Women (1988) recommending 30 percent reservation for women in these bodies. The samerecommendation was also made in the unsuccessful 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill of 1989, but it was onlyfinally in 1992 that a redesigned three-tier system of Panchayati Raj – along with the provisions for women’s reservationin panchayat bodies at every level – was incorporated into the Constitution by Amendment, and subsequently ratifiedby the states.

Meanwhile, some states had already proceeded to provide reservations for women. In 1985, Karnataka introduced 25percent reservation for women in the Mandal Praja Parishads, with a further reservation for women belonging to theSCs and STs. Andhra Pradesh, too, had in 1986 provided for reservation of

22-25 percent for the Gram Panchayat, with two women to be co-opted in the Panchayat Samitis, in addition to theelected women members. Surprisingly, West Bengal – one of the states that introduced a new Panchayati Raj system in1978 and held elections at regular intervals – did not make any effort to encourage the participation, or even visibility,of women.

The enactment of the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution in 1992 was stimulated by the disappointmentover the failure of development programmes, and the perception that these would be able to perform better with localparticipation that could help identify local needs as well as deserving beneficiaries.

A wide chasm separated the largest body of the electorate from a small number of its elected representatives. This gap hasbeen occupied by the power brokers, the middlemen and vested interests….With the passage of this Bill, the panchayatswould emerge as a firm building block of administration and development….as an instrument in the consolidation ofdemocracy at the grassroots” (Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, 1989).

1.31.31.31.31.3 Constitution (73Constitution (73Constitution (73Constitution (73Constitution (73rrrrrddddd Amendment) A Amendment) A Amendment) A Amendment) A Amendment) Act, 1992ct, 1992ct, 1992ct, 1992ct, 1992

The Amendment Bill, giving Constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions, was passed by both Houses ofParliament in December 1992. Following its ratification by more than half the state Assemblies as required under theConstitution, the President of India gave his assent, and the same came into force as the Constitution (73rd Amendment)Act, 1992 on April 24, 1993, adding a new part to the Constitution, namely, Part IX titled “The Panchayats”.

Article 243 of the amended Constitution defines a panchayat as “an institution (by whatever name called) of self-government…for the rural areas.” This was clearly a substantial advance over the constitutional provision in Article 40(Directive Principles of State Policy) which envisaged panchayats as “units” of self-government, rather than institutions.Apart from adding a new section – Part IX – to the constitution, it also added the Eleventh Schedule, which lists thesubjects on which powers may be devolved to the panchayats. The Act required that the states pass conformity legislationswithin a specified time, and while it made some provisions that were mandatory and binding on the states, there wereother enabling or discretionary provisions on which the states were – within broadly defined parameters – expected tolegislate. Let us briefly examine the mandatory provisions, the discretionary provisions, the provision relating to the


5

powers and functions of the panchayats, and the list of subjects in the Eleventh Schedule.

Union Minister of Panchayat Raj, Shri Mani Shankar Aiyar, addressing a specialGram Sabha meeting in Satdubia Gram Panchayat, Mohanpur block, Tripura

1.3.11.3.11.3.11.3.11.3.1 MMMMMandatorandatorandatorandatorandatory pry pry pry pry prooooovisions:visions:visions:visions:visions:

The mandatory provisions, which pertain to the structure of Panchayati Raj, includes:

• A three-tier panchayat system shall be constituted in every state, comprising panchayats at the village, intermediateand district levels. However, states with populations not exceeding 20 lakh could dispense with the intermediatelevel, and have a two-tier system.

• Elections to the panchayats at every level shall be filled by direct election from territorial constituencies in thepanchayat area.

• The Panchayats will enjoy a five-year term; if dissolved earlier, fresh elections will be completed within sixmonths of the date of dissolution.

• The Gram Sabha (village assembly) will consist of all persons registered on the electoral rolls. While the compositionof the Gram Sabha is uniform, its powers and functions may vary, as provided for by the state legislature.

• In the directly elected seats of members in all panchayats, there will be reservation of seats for SC-ST in proportionto their total population in a panchayat area, and one-third of these seats will be reserved for women belongingto these groups.


6

• Of the seats to be filled by direct election in every panchayat, there will be not less than one-third reservation ofseats in panchayats for women, including the seats reserved for SC-ST women. Such seats may be allotted byrotation to different constituencies in a panchayat.

• The offices of Chairpersons in the panchayats at all levels will be reserved for the SC-STs and women as the statelegislature may decide, provided that not less than one-third of the chairpersons’ positions shall be reserved forwomen. Likewise, there will be reservation in the offices of chairperson in panchayats at all levels for members ofthe SCs and STs, in proportion to their population in a state.

• The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls, as also the conduct of elections,will be the responsibility of the State Election Commission to be appointed by the state Governor.

• The Governor of the state will also appoint a State Finance Commission, initially within one year of thecommencement of the Act, and subsequently every five years, to review the financial position of the panchayats,and make recommendations regarding the principles which should govern the distribution of the taxes, duties,tolls and fees between the state government and the panchayats. It will also decide the principles by which thetaxes leviable by the state, grants-in-aid to the panchayats, and the taxes which panchayats may be authorised tolevy and collect will be determined.

1.3.21.3.21.3.21.3.21.3.2 DDDDDiscriscriscriscriscretionaretionaretionaretionaretionary pry pry pry pry prooooovisions:visions:visions:visions:visions:

The provisions left to the discretion of the state legislatures relate only partially to the structure of the Panchayati Rajsystem. More substantively, they are concerned with additional reservations for the backward classes, and with the all-important question of the powers devolved to the panchayats. The main features of these enabling or discretionaryprovisions, as provided for in the 73rd Amendment Act are:

• The state legislature may provide for the representation of chairpersons of village panchayats to the membershipof the intermediate panchayat, and that of chairpersons of the intermediate panchayat in membership of thedistrict-level panchayat.

• The state legislature may provide for the inclusion of Members of Parliament and Members of the LegislativeAssemblies of the states in the membership of the two higher levels of the panchayats.

• The state legislature may provide for reservation of seats – both as members and as chairpersons – in the panchayatsfor members of the backward classes.

• The state legislature may authorise a panchayat to levy and collect taxes, duties, toll fees, etc., or assign to apanchayat taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied by the state government, and provide for grants-in-aid from the stategovernment to the panchayats.

• The state legislature may endow the panchayats with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enablethem to function as institutions of self-government. This would also enable the panchayats to prepare plans foreconomic development and social justice, and to implement schemes concerning plans entrusted to them.

1.3.31.3.31.3.31.3.31.3.3 PPPPPooooowwwwwers and Fers and Fers and Fers and Fers and Functions of Punctions of Punctions of Punctions of Punctions of Panchayats:anchayats:anchayats:anchayats:anchayats:

Article 243-G specifies the powers and functions of the panchayats in language that attributes some discretion tothe states.

Subject to the provisions of the Constitution, the Legislature of a State may, by law, endow the Panchayats withsuch powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as institutions of self-government andsuch law may contain provisions for the devolution of powers and responsibilities upon Panchayats at theappropriate level, subject to such conditions as may be specified therein, with respect to –

(a) The preparation of plans for economic development and social justice


7

(b) the implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice as may be entrusted to themincluding those in relation to the matters listed in the Eleventh Schedule.

1.3.41.3.41.3.41.3.41.3.4 The EThe EThe EThe EThe Elevlevlevlevleventh Schedule:enth Schedule:enth Schedule:enth Schedule:enth Schedule:

The new Eleventh Schedule, added to the Constitution by Article 243–G, lists 29 sectors or functions which may betransferred by state governments to the Panchayati Raj Institutions. These are:

1. Agriculture, including agricultural extension

2. Land improvement, implementation of land reforms, land consolidation and soil conservation

3. Minor irrigation, water management and watershed development

4. Animal husbandry, dairy and poultry

5. Fisheries

6. Social forestry and farm forestry

7. Minor forest produce

8. Small scale industries, including food processing industries

9. Khadi (homespun cloth), village and cottage industries

10. Rural housing

11. Drinking water

12. Fuel and fodder

13. Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries, waterways and other means of communication

14. Rural electrification, including distribution of electricity

15. Non-conventional energy sources

16. Poverty alleviation programmes

17. Education including primary and secondary schools

18. Technical training and vocational education

19. Adult and non-formal education

20. Libraries

21. Cultural activities

22. Markets and fairs

23. Health and sanitation, including hospitals, primary health centres and dispensaries

24. Family welfare

25. Women and child development

26. Social welfare, including welfare of the handicapped and mentally retarded

27. Welfare of the weaker sections, and in particular, of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes

28. Public distribution system

29. Maintenance of community assets


8

In the last few years, the Union Ministry of Panchayati Raj has encouraged the states to undertake a process of activityMapping that clearly indicates the activities to be undertaken by the Panchayats in respect of each devolved function andat each of the three levels.

1.3.51.3.51.3.51.3.51.3.5 DDDDDistrict Pistrict Pistrict Pistrict Pistrict Planning Committeeslanning Committeeslanning Committeeslanning Committeeslanning Committees

At the district level, Article 243ZD in Part IX A of the Constitution provides for the constitution of District PlanningCommittees (DPC) by the State Governments. The DPCs are required to “consolidate” the plans prepared by thePanchayats and Municipalities in the district, and, on this basis, to formulate a draft development plan for the district asa whole. Four-fifths of DPC members are to be elected by and from among the elected representatives of the DistrictPanchayat and the Municipalities in the district. Each DPC has the authority to take decisions regarding matters ofcommon interest between the Panchayats and the Municipalities, including spatial planning, sharing of water and otherphysical and natural resources, as also the integrated development of infrastructure and environmental conservation inthe districts concerned. There is no reservation for women in the DPCs.

1.3.61.3.61.3.61.3.61.3.6 PPPPPanchayat (Eanchayat (Eanchayat (Eanchayat (Eanchayat (Extension to the Schedule Arxtension to the Schedule Arxtension to the Schedule Arxtension to the Schedule Arxtension to the Schedule Areas) Aeas) Aeas) Aeas) Aeas) Act, 1996ct, 1996ct, 1996ct, 1996ct, 1996

Article 243 M gives to Parliament the power to extend the provisions of Part IX to the tribal areas listed in the FifthSchedule. It is in exercise of these powers that Parliament passed The Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act,1996. The Article exempts certain States and certain areas covered by the Sixth Schedule, as also certain other States andregions covered by separate special arrangements, from the purview of Part IX of the Constitution. It exempts ArunachalPradesh from the necessity of making reservations for the Scheduled Castes.

1.41.41.41.41.4 The SThe SThe SThe SThe Strtrtrtrtructuructuructuructuructure of Pe of Pe of Pe of Pe of Panchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayats

Panchayats are organised in a three-tiered structure from the village to the district level. Above the district level are thestate and the central ministries for Panchayati Raj. The Union Ministry of Panchayati Raj is responsible for the work ofadvocacy for, and monitoring of, the implementation of the Constitution (73rdAmendment) Act. The Ministry ensuresthat the States hold timely elections, set up State Finance Commissions and implement their recommendations, constituteDistrict Planning Committees and empower them suitably to ensure grass-root level planning to effectively feed intoState and Central-level planning. A major task of the Ministry is to ensure that the State Governments/Union TerritoryAdministrations devolve funds, functions and functionaries to the Panchayati Raj institutions in the spirit of theConstitutional provisions. The Ministry of Panchayati Raj is also responsible for formulation and implementation of anAction Plan for seeing PRIs to emerge as “Institutions of Local-Self Governance” and secure economic development andsocial justice in their respective areas. The ministries at the states are largely responsible for executing the policies andplans formulated by the central ministry, as also for ensuring the complete devolution of functions, functionaries, fundsto the grassroots level, and monitoring the activities and tasks assigned to the Panchayats.

The Figure 1.1 below provides the structure of the three-tiered system of Panchayati Raj institutions and also indicatesthe administrative support structure that accompanies it.

Figure 1.1 Structure of Panchayati Raj


9

By April 1994, all the states had completed the process of enacting conformity legislations to the 73rd ConstitutionalAmendment. Despite the uniformity in the application of the mandatory provisions, there are considerable variations inthe enabling or discretionary provisions, especially those relating to the functions and powers of the Gram Sabha, theelection of chairpersons of the two higher levels, reservation for the backward classes, financial procedures, the committeesystem, and so on. Some important variations in the conformity acts of the various states are discussed in subsequentparagraphs.

1.4.11.4.11.4.11.4.11.4.1 The The The The The ThirThirThirThirThird d d d d TTTTTier: the Gier: the Gier: the Gier: the Gier: the Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha and the Gabha and the Gabha and the Gabha and the Gabha and the Gram Pram Pram Pram Pram Panchayatanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayat

As the base of the entire pyramidal structure of local government, the Gram Sabha (or village assembly) is the life-bloodof local democracy. Though the constitution of the Gram Sabha is mandatory, there are variations across states in respectof the required frequency of its meetings, as also its powers and functions. Gram Sabhas are required to meet four timesa year in Assam and Bihar, three times a year in Tamil Nadu, annually in Tripura, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal, andtwice a year in all the remaining states. Some states – viz. Bihar, Goa, Tripura, Rajasthan and Manipur - have providedfor the constitution of Vigilance Committees for each Gram Sabha.

The meetings of the Gram Sabha are chaired by the Pradhan and attended by elected members from different wards andthe community at large. These meetings discuss the general problems of community; identify local development needsand aspirations as well as the special problems faced by particular groups. Issues of local public concern are meant to beraised and discussed among citizens in a participatory manner, with the final decision being taken collectively, anddocumented in the form of Minutes of Meetings (MoM).

An indicative list of the issues discussed in Gram Sabha meetings includes:

1. Examine annual accounts and audit report.

2. Consider taxation proposals.

3. Consider budget proposals.

4. Discuss report of the administration.

5. Review existing schemes/works.

6. Review panchayat activities.

7. Review current and further programmes.

8. Select local schemes.

9. Approve village plan.

10. Identify beneficiaries.

11. Undertake programme for family welfare.

12. Maintain register of development activities.

13. Promote social harmony.

14. Mobilize peoples’ participation.

The Gram Sabha is thus meant to be the forum in which beneficiaries of various development programmes are identified.It is also the body that audits and approves the accounts of the Gram Panchayat. As such, it is in the Gram Sabha thatordinary citizens can make their representatives accountable and demand transparency in their functioning. In moststates, Gram Sabhas take decisions on the basis of the majority of members present and voting. Though all personsregistered as voters on the electoral rolls are members of the Gram Sabha, very few states have provided special incentivesto encourage the participation of women in this forum.


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The Village Panchayat or Gram Panchayat covers a population that varies considerably, from 300 people in ArunachalPradesh to 7,000 in Karnataka and upto 10,000 in Assam. Statistically, one member of a village panchayat representsanywhere between 100 (in Arunachal Pradesh) to 500 (in Bihar) persons. Proportionate reservation for SC-STs isprovided by all states. Reservation of seats to the minimum extent of 33 percent for women in the Gram Panchayat isalso a feature in all the states.

Reservation for the backward classes, though discretionary, is provided for by Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Goa. Thereare also variations in the percentage of seats reserved for the backward classes: one-tenth in Gujarat, one-third in AndhraPradesh and Karnataka, and 27 percent in Maharashtra. In Madhya Pradesh, where 50 percent or less of the seats arereserved for SC-STs, 25 percent are reserved for Backward Classes. In Punjab, one seat in each Gram Panchayat isreserved for the Backward Classes, if their population is more than 20 percent. In Haryana, one seat is reserved for theBackward Classes, if their population is 2 percent or more of the total population of the Gram Sabha area.

The mode of election of the Chairperson (variously called Sarpanch, Pradhan or Mukhiya) at the village panchayat levelis determined by the states. Thus, many states – including Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab – have provided for direct election of theChairperson at this level. In Himachal Pradesh, the “Upa-Pradhan” (or deputy chairperson) is also directly elected. Theremaining states provide for indirect election, with the Chairperson being elected by the directly elected members of thebody from among themselves. The office of the Chairperson is also subject to provisions of reservation for ScheduledCastes and Scheduled Tribes (in proportion to their population) and women (not less than one-third). Arunachal Pradeshprovides reservation to women alone. In Uttar Pradesh, reservation for women in Chairpersonships is subject to thecondition that it should not exceed 27 percent of the total number of offices of Pradhans. In other states, it varies fromone-tenth in Gujarat and one-third in A.P. and Karnataka, to 25 percent in Madhya Pradesh and 27 percent in Maharashtra.

Two provisions of some significance that seriously impacts the functioning of women representatives are the two-childnorm and no-confidence motions against the Chairperson. Some states have introduced the two-child norm, disqualifyingthe candidature of all those who have more than two children. While Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh introducedand subsequently revoked the two-child norm, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Chhattisgarh continue to enforce it. Thisis a provision that is clearly against the interests of women who have little control over reproductive decisions.

No-confidence motions are widely provided for, though there are notable variations across states. In Sikkim and WestBengal, a simple majority of the total members can vote out a sitting Chairperson, while in most other states this requiresa majority of between two-thirds (Karnataka, Bihar, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, among others) andthree-fourths (Madhya Pradesh). In Punjab and Haryana, a majority of Gram Sabha members can unseat a Chairperson,while in Himachal a two-thirds majority of the Gram Sabha members is required. Goa has the most foolproof methodof all states - a no-confidence motion has to be supported by a two-thirds majority of the Gram Panchayat, ratified by asimple majority of the Gram Sabha members - while Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have not made any such provisionat all.

In Himachal Pradesh, there is no special safeguard against the removal of women Pradhans through no-confidencemotions. But if a no-confidence motion - against any Pradhan, male or female – fails, it cannot be raised for a two-yearperiod following the rejection. However, in the case of no-confidence motions passed against a woman chairperson, theoffice, if reserved for women, can be filled only by another woman. In Madhya Pradesh, which is distinctive in having aright to recall provision in its conformity law, the Gram Sabha has the right to recall the Sarpanch or a Panch after two-and-a-half years of his tenure, through a secret ballot. All disputes regarding no confidence motions against the Sarpanchor Upa Sarpanch are referred to the Collector, whose decision is final.

There are variations also in the number of standing committees. Standing committees – on Social Justice, Finance,Education, Poverty Alleviation – are provided for by several states. These are also important from the gender perspective,because provisions for reservation frequently do not apply to these committees.


11

1.4.21.4.21.4.21.4.21.4.2 The MThe MThe MThe MThe Middle iddle iddle iddle iddle TTTTTier: Bier: Bier: Bier: Bier: Block or Mlock or Mlock or Mlock or Mlock or Mandal Pandal Pandal Pandal Pandal Panchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayats

In several states – including Bihar, Tripura, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, ArunachalPradesh, Kerala, Assam, Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal – panchayats at the intermediate level areconstituted at the Block. In Karnataka and Gujarat they are constituted at the level of the Taluk, while in Andhra Pradeshat the Mandal level. There are significant variations in the nomenclature of these panchayats: they are called by manynames, ranging from Janpad Panchayat in Madhya Pradesh to Kshetra Panchayat in Uttar Pradesh, and PanchayatSamiti in most of the northern states. Members of these panchayats are directly elected, though the number of membersdepends on the population, with one member on average representing 2,000-4,000 people in the mid-sized to big states.In most states, the chairpersons of the third tier are ex-officio members of the intermediate level panchayat, too. Whilethis is the provision in Bihar, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Arunachal, West Bengal and Assam, other states(like Karnataka, Punjab and Haryana) take one-fifth of the chairpersons of the lower tier on a rotational basis for oneyear. In several states, MPs and MLAs are also ex-officio members of these bodies, with provisions also existing in manyplaces for the co-option of the director of the cooperative marketing society or the cooperative bank.

One-third of the seats in these bodies are also reserved for women, though as with the Gram Panchayat, reservation forOBCs is discretionary. Nevertheless, several states have made such provision, according to formulae largely similar tothose adopted for the Gram Panchayats. The Chairpersons at the intermediate level are indirectly elected, i.e. elected bythe elected members from among their own number. Again, the nomenclature varies across states, though the one-thirdreservation for this office is uniform. Many states have also exercised their discretion in providing reservation for OBCsto the office of the Chairperson.

1.4.31.4.31.4.31.4.31.4.3 The DThe DThe DThe DThe District or Zistrict or Zistrict or Zistrict or Zistrict or Zilla Pilla Pilla Pilla Pilla Parishadarishadarishadarishadarishad

The Zilla Parishad is the topmost layer of the Panchayati Raj structure. Its members are directly elected by the voters inthe district, and one member may represent anywhere between 15,000 to 50,000 people, depending upon the state. ThePresident (head) of the Parishad is known as Zilla Pramukh in many states, or by other names such as Sabhadipati inTripura and West Bengal or Adhyaksha in Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh. In a majority of states, the ZillaPramukh is directly elected, though some states, e.g. Arunachal Pradesh, follow the practice of selecting the Zilla Pramukhfrom among the elected members. The chairperson of the intermediate level panchayat is generally an ex-officio memberof the district panchayat, as are Members of Parliament and Members of the state Legislative Assembly. It is only inMaharashtra that legislators are completely excluded, while in Gujarat they are permanent invitees without the right tovote.

At this level, too, there is mandatory reservation for women (one-third) and for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes(in accordance with their proportion in the population). Reservation, on the same basis, holds for the office of theChairperson in the panchayats of this tier. The chairperson and the vice-chairperson are indirectly elected by the electedmembers of the panchayat. In Madhya Pradesh, however, they are indirectly elected by all members of the Zilla Parishad.

Not surprisingly, this is the level at which there are the maximum number of Standing Committees (the average, acrossstates, being around six Committees per district panchayat) though Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh have none. Orissahas provided for the representation of women in the standing committee on education and health, such that three of itsfive members must be women. In most other states, persons belonging to the SC-STs or Other Backward Classes areusually co-opted on to committees, but not women. Though Orissa is one of the few states that has sought to makespecial provision for its tribal population – in tribal areas, not less than half the directly elected seats are reserved for theSTs, and all the offices of sarpanches in the Gram Panchayats in these areas are so reserved - it has however neglected tomake any special provision for tribal women.

1.4.41.4.41.4.41.4.41.4.4 IIIIInterlinkages Bnterlinkages Bnterlinkages Bnterlinkages Bnterlinkages Betwetwetwetwetween een een een een TTTTTiersiersiersiersiers

There is some ambiguity about the way in which the three tiers should be linked, thereby obviating situations resultingfrom lack of co-ordination between the three levels, which could weaken the structure as a whole. Thus, for instance, theRajasthan Panchayati Raj Act does not provide for the Sarpanch of the Gram Panchayat to be a member of the Panchayat


12

Samiti, or for the Pradhan of the Samiti to be a member of the Zilla Parishad. The lack of specification of functions andpowers as between the three levels sometimes results in confusion, and a feeling – at each level – that the other two havegreater powers and resources.

1.4.51.4.51.4.51.4.51.4.5 The PThe PThe PThe PThe Panchayat-Aanchayat-Aanchayat-Aanchayat-Aanchayat-Administration Rdministration Rdministration Rdministration Rdministration Relationshipelationshipelationshipelationshipelationship

Likewise, the relationship between the panchayats and the local administration has been interpreted differently acrossstates. The Rajasthan government amended, by ordinance, some of the provisions of the Conformity act to increase thecontrol of government over the two higher tiers. In Uttar Pradesh, the Kshetriya Pradhan (intermediate level) actuallywrites the confidential report of the Block Development Officer, though this is by no means definitive evidence of thesuperiority of elective over appointed authority. On the contrary, evidence is to be found in virtually all states of thedominance of the bureaucracy over the people’s representatives. In Haryana, the bureaucracy is seen to exercise inordinatecontrol, as it substantially guides and directs the developmental activities of the panchayats, instead of merely facilitatingthese.

This relationship can become especially stifling in relation to panchayats headed by women, and even more so thoseheaded by Dalit women. Further, lower-level government functionaries, attached to the panchayats, are also confused asthey are simultaneously accountable to their superior in the government as well as to the elected leaders of the panchayats.A notable exception in this regard is the Gujarat Conformity act which provides for sectoral development staff of thegazetted officers’ rank to be transferred to the panchayat institutions to carry out developmental work. Despite thisprovision, Gujarat has not been able to decentralise planning which Karnataka or Maharashtra have been able to dosomewhat better.

1.51.51.51.51.5 DDDDDevevevevevolution of Polution of Polution of Polution of Polution of Pooooowwwwwers, Fers, Fers, Fers, Fers, Functions and Runctions and Runctions and Runctions and Runctions and Resouresouresouresouresourcescescescesces

The most stringent test of any exercise in democratic decentralisation is, of course, the actual powers and functions thatare devolved to democratic institutions at the local level. An examination of the powers and functions actually devolvedmakes it clear that the implications of the Constitutional Amendment were perhaps more radical in reservation provisionsthan in the powers and functions which were left to the states to determine and finance.

In fact, few conformity legislations – such as those of West Bengal, Bihar and Tripura – state that they aim to endowpanchayats with powers and functions that can enable them to work as institutions of self-government. The Haryana Actspecifically states that the objective of the panchayat institutions is to “administer rural areas better”.

With the maintenance of law and order remaining in the hands of the state government, and with it police and judicialpowers, the devolved functions generally include those relating to the planning and implementation of some selecteddevelopment programmes. Duality of control in development, with the elected bodies often paralleling the existing statestructures, persists. Moreover, the absence of adequate financial provisions makes difficult the performance of even thefew developmental functions that have been devolved. Most of the conformity acts in the states give Gram Panchayatsthe power to levy taxes on rural property, non-motorised vehicles, professions, trades and callings. Another source ofrevenue for panchayats is the fee for water, lighting and conservancy services. Some money is also raised by sharing taxes– most commonly, land revenue and stamp duty - between the state governments and the panchayats.

However, the chief source of income for the panchayats remains the grants provided by the government, especiallythrough special schemes like the Swaranjayanti Swarozgar Yojana (SJSY) or the National Rural Employment GuaranteeScheme (NREGS). These are usually in the nature of tied funds, and are attached to schemes imposed from above,instead of being made available for plans evolved at the local level.

Though it is admitted that these structural problems of Panchayati Raj impinge on the functioning of panchayatinstitutions, their implications on panchayats headed by women often goes unrecognised. The obstacles faced by womenas members or heads of panchayats tend to be evaluated independently instead of being related to the inherent inadequaciesof the system. This amounts to flawed diagnosis of the problem as subjective generalisations dominate the discourse.

The Table 1.1 presents basic data on the status of the panchayats in various states, including the number of elections


13

held, the extent of devolution, and the constitution of District Planning Committees and State Finance Commissions.Thus, we see that while most of the states have constituted DPCs, some like Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Punjab, andGujarat are still in the process of doing so. It is only in a handful of states – such as Kerala, Karnataka and West Bengal– that significant or complete devolution has been achieved.

Ms. Magnhild Meltveit Kleppa, Norwegian Minister for Local Bodies and Regional Developmentwith Members of all Women Panchayat of Neemkeda, District Mewat, Haryana

SS SSStudy on Etudy on Etudy on Etudy on Etudy on E

WR

s in PW

Rs in P

WR

s in PW

Rs in P

WR

s in Panchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj Instituions

nstituionsnstituionsnstituionsnstituions

14

TTTTTable 1.1 : Sable 1.1 : Sable 1.1 : Sable 1.1 : Sable 1.1 : Status of Ptatus of Ptatus of Ptatus of Ptatus of Panchayati Raj, 2007anchayati Raj, 2007anchayati Raj, 2007anchayati Raj, 2007anchayati Raj, 2007

SSSSStatus Otatus Otatus Otatus Otatus Of Pf Pf Pf Pf Panchayati Rajanchayati Rajanchayati Rajanchayati Rajanchayati Raj

SSSSStatestatestatestatestates EEEEEnfornfornfornfornforcementcementcementcementcement ConstitutionConstitutionConstitutionConstitutionConstitution PPPPPanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayat SSSSStatus oftatus oftatus oftatus oftatus of DDDDDevevevevevolution ofolution ofolution ofolution ofolution of Local name ofLocal name ofLocal name ofLocal name ofLocal name of SSSSStatus oftatus oftatus oftatus oftatus of QQQQQuoruoruoruoruorumumumumum NNNNNooooo. of. of. of. of. of NNNNNooooo. of elected. of elected. of elected. of elected. of electedof 73of 73of 73of 73of 73rrrrrddddd CAA CAA CAA CAA CAA of DPCsof DPCsof DPCsof DPCsof DPCs electionelectionelectionelectionelection SFCSFCSFCSFCSFC funds, functions,funds, functions,funds, functions,funds, functions,funds, functions, PPPPPanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayats DRDA/DRDA/DRDA/DRDA/DRDA/ PPPPPanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayats rrrrrepreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeeeee(((((YYYYYear)ear)ear)ear)ear) (((((YYYYYear)ear)ear)ear)ear) and functionariesand functionariesand functionariesand functionariesand functionaries ZP MZP MZP MZP MZP Mergerergerergerergererger membersmembersmembersmembersmembers

Andhra 1994 Yes 1st in 1996 1st in 1994 Fund =5 GP=Gram Panchayat No No ZP=22 P=1095Pradesh 2nd in 2001 2nd in 1998 Functions =17 IP= Mandal Parishad IP=1098 IP=14617

3rd in 2006 3rd in 2003 Functionaries =2 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP= 21825 GP=208291

ArunanchalPradesh 1997 Yes 1st in 2003 1st in 2003 Fund= NIL GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=14 ZP=136

2nd in 2008 Functions= 29 IP=Anchal Samiti IP=136 IP=1639Functionaries= 2 ZP= Zilla Parishad GP=1639 GP=6485

Assam 1994 Yes 1st in 2001 1st in 1995 Fund =18 GP=Gaon Panchayat No Yes ZP=20 ZP=3902nd in 2007 2nd in 2001 Functions =23 IP=Anchalik Panchayat IP=188 IP=2148

3rd in 2006 Functionaries =18 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=2223 GP=22898

Bihar 1993 Yes 1st in 2001 1st in 1994 Fund =0 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=38 ZP=11572nd in 2006 2nd in 1999 Functions =28 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=531 IP=11537

3rd in 2004 Functionaries =28 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=8471 GP=1173974th in 2007

Himachal 1994 Yes 1st in 1995 1st in 1994 Fund =0 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=12 ZP=251Pradesh 2nd in 2000 2nd (accepted) Functions =26 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=75 IP=1667

3rd in 2005 3rd (under Functionaries =0 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=3243 GP=25352consideration)

Maharashtra 1994 No 1st in 1997 1st in 1994 Fund =11 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=33 ZP=19512nd in 2002 2nd in 1999 Functions =11 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=351 IP=39023rd in 2007 3rd in 2005 Functionaries =11 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=27918 GP=223857

Manipur 1994 Yes 1st in 1997 1st in 1996 Fund =16 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=4 ZP=612nd in 2002 2nd in 2003 Functions =16 IP=Does not exist GP= 165 IP=3rd in 2007 (extended Functionaries =16 ZP=Zilla Panchayat GP=1707

to 2010)

Madhya 1994 Yes 1st in 1994 1st in 1995 Fund =12 GP=Gram Panchayat Yes Yes ZP=48 ZP=884Pradesh 2nd in 1999 2nd in 2001 Functions=23 IP=Janpad Panchayat IP=313 IP=7164

3rd in 2004-05 Functionaries =13 ZP= Zilla Panchayat GP=23051 GP=388829

Orissa 1996 Yes 1st in 1997 1st in 1996 Fund =21 GP= Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=30 ZP=8542nd in 2002 2nd in 2003 Functions=21 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=314 IP=62273rd in 2007 3rd is due but Functionaries= 21 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=6234 GP=93781

not yetConstituted

Punjab 1994 No 1st in 1998 1st in 1997 Fund =0 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=17 ZP=2982nd in 2003 2nd in 2001 Functions=13 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=141 IP=2622

3rd in 2005 Functionaries=0 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=12447 GP=88136

Rajasthan 1994 Yes 1st in 1995 1st in 1994 Funds=16 GP=Gram Panchayat Yes Yes ZP=32 ZP=10072nd in 2000 2nd in 1999 Functions=29 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=237 IP=52563rd in 2005 3rd in2004 Functionaries=16 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=9188 GP=113541


WR

s in PW

Rs in P

WR

s in PW

Rs in P

WR


anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I



15

Sikkim 1993 Yes 1st in 1997 1st in 1998 Funds=15 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=4 ZP=1002nd in 2002 2nd in 2003 Functions=15 IP=Does not exist GP= 166 IP=3rd in 2007 Functionaries=15 ZP= Zilla Panchayat GP=905

Tripura 1994 Yes 1st in 1994 1st in 1997 Fund =9 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=4 ZP=822nd in 1999 2nd in 2001 Functions=29 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=23 IP=2993rd in 2004 3rd in 2005 Functionaries= 29 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=513 GP=5352

Uttar Pradesh 1994 No 1st in 1995 1st in 1994 Fund=8 GP=Gaon Panchayat No Yes ZP=70 ZP=26982nd in 2000 2nd in 2000 Functions=16 IP=Kshetra Panchayat IP=820 IP=656693rd in 2005 3rd in 2004 Functionaries= 4 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP= 52000 GP=703294

West Bengal 1993 Yes 1st in 1993 1st in 1994 Fund=29 GP=Gram Panchayat Yes Yes ZP=13 ZP=7212nd in 1998 2nd in 2000 Functions=29 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=341 IP=84833rd in 2003 3rd in 2006 Functionaries=29 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=3354 GP=49545

Goa 1995 Yes 1st in 2000 1st in 1995 Fund= partially GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=2 ZP=502nd in 2005 2nd in 2001 devolved IP=Does not exist GP=190 IP=

Functions= 29 ZP= Zilla Panchayat GP=1450(partially devolved)Functionaries= 29(partially devolved)

Gujarat 1997 No 1st in 1995 1st in 1994 Fund=0 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=25 ZP=8172nd in 2000 2nd in 2003 Functions=15 IP=Taluk Panchayat IP=224 IP=41613rd in 2007 Functionaries=14 ZP= Zilla Panchayat GP=13819 GP=109209

Kerala 1994 Yes 1st in 1995 1st in 1994 Fund=29 GP=Gram Panchayat Yes yes ZP=14 ZP=3392nd in 2000 2nd in 1999 Functions=29 IP=Block Panchayat IP=152 IP=20053rd in 2005 3rd in 2004 Functionaries=29 ZP=District Panchayat GP=999 GP=16139

Tamil Nadu 1994 Yes 1st in 1996 1st in 1994 Fund=2 GP=Village Panchayat Yes Yes ZP=28 ZP=6562nd in 2001 2nd in 1999 Functions=29 IP= Panchayat Union IP=385 IP=65243rd in 2006 3rd in 2004 Functionaries=29 ZP=District Panchayat GP=12618 GP=109308

Uttrakhand 1994 No 1st in 1996 1st in 2001 Fund= 3 GP=Gaon Panchayat No Yes ZP=13 ZP=3602nd in 2003 2nd in 2006 Functions=14 IP=Kshetra Panchayat IP=95 IP=3152

Functionaries=3 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=7227 GP=53988

Chhattisgarh 1997 Yes 1st in 2005 Accepted Fund=10 GP=Gram Panchayat Yes Yes ZP=16 ZP=305Recommen- Functions=29 IP=Janpad Panchayat IP=146 IP=2831dations of Functionaries=09 ZP=Zila Panchyata GP=9820 GP=157250SFC of MP

Karnataka 1993 Yes 1st in 1995 1st in 1996 Fund=29 GP=Gram Panchayat Yes Yes ZP=27 ZP=10052nd in 2000 2nd in 2001 Functions=29 IP=Taluk Panchayat IP=176 IP=36833rd in 2005 3rd in 2006 Functionaries=29 ZP=Zllla Panchayat GP=5653 GP=91402

Haryana 1994 Yes (only 1st in 1995 1st in 1994 Fund=0 GP=Gram Panchayat No Yes ZP=19 ZP=38419 districts) 2nd in 2000 2nd in 2000 Functions=29 IP=Panchayat Samiti IP=119 IP=2833

3rd in 2005 3rd in 2005 Functionaries=0 ZP=Zilla Parishad GP=6187 GP=66256(report awaited)


16

Through the instrument of a quantitative survey covering 23 states of India, and complemented by qualitative methods,this study aims to arrive at a more definitive understanding of the quality of women’s participation in the panchayatsthan has hitherto been available. It will interpret the data yielded by the quantitative and qualitative field-studies keepingin view the variations in the design and implementation of Panchayati Raj in different states. It will also take intoaccount the social and economic backgrounds of the elected women representatives in trying to understand the constraintswithin which they operate. As such, the study aims to provide as nuanced a view as possible of the largest sample andmost ambitious geographical coverage yet attempted for a study of elected women representatives.

17


2.2.2.2.2. STUDSTUDSTUDSTUDSTUDY APPRY APPRY APPRY APPRY APPROOOOOAAAAACH & METHODOLCH & METHODOLCH & METHODOLCH & METHODOLCH & METHODOLOGYOGYOGYOGYOGY

A combination of various research techniques was adopted in the present study. The methodology chosen followed atwo-pronged strategy, including quantitative and qualitative approach. This was done with a view to producing a richerset of findings.

The quantitative survey was conducted to obtain precise and mostly pre-coded responses from each respondentindividually. The structured schedules used in the survey offered many benefits, e.g. biases were controlled and probableerrors reduced. On the other hand, the qualitative method generated information that was used to corroborate thequantitative findings. This chapter comprehensively details the approach, objectives, broad indicators and samplingstrategy adopted for the study.

2.12.12.12.12.1 OOOOObjectivbjectivbjectivbjectivbjectives of the Ses of the Ses of the Ses of the Ses of the Studytudytudytudytudy

The chief objectives of the study were:

1. To map the socio-economic profile of elected women representatives.

2. To document the political career of elected women representatives over the past three elections.

3. To gauge the quality of participation of elected women representatives in Panchayati Raj.

4. To assess the empowerment of elected women representatives within the household and at the community level.

5. To ascertain the developmental outcomes of women panchayat leaders, and whether their leadership has hadany impact on the implementation and performance of development activities.

6. To document the elected women representatives’ perception of their own successes and their satisfaction levelswith their own role in decision-making.

7. To assess the impact of self help groups, women’s organisations and other civil society forums on the participationof elected women representatives.

8. To obtain an understanding of the role of customary panchayats as gatekeepers/facilitators.

9. To examine the role of parallel bodies, i.e. user committees in local governance, and their impact on the functioningof elected women representatives.

Chief Guest Girija Vyas, Chairperson, National Commission for Women, Presenting the OutstandingWoman Panchayat Leader Award at the Institute of Social Sciences.

18


2.22.22.22.22.2 RRRRResearesearesearesearesearch Ach Ach Ach Ach Apprpprpprpprpproachoachoachoachoach

The study was undertaken in four phases as presented in Figure 2.1. The first three phases were preparatory in nature,followed by the main survey. In the first phase, a comprehensive desk review was carried out, which included a reviewof literature, internal group discussion and interviews with key stakeholders. The purpose of this background study wasto obtain a complete understanding of Panchayati Raj institutions, the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, the statusof women in panchayats, their roles and participation levels. With this knowledge, the study moved to the next level ofdeveloping a log-frame. In this phase, the appropriate research tools were identified, as also the indicators to measure thedifferent dimensions of the study. This exercise enabled the research team to secure greater control over, and a betterunderstanding of, the issues under review. The research methodology and tools were then taken to the field for pre-testing. The pre-testing was done in four states, each representing different zones, viz., Kerala, West Bengal, UttarPradesh, and Gujarat. The pre-testing helped in establishing confidence in the methodology and facilitated the firmingup of indicators.

From this phase, the study migrated to the main phase, which included field survey and monitoring, preparation of dataentry programme, data entry, coding, preparation of analysis plan, analysis of data, and finally, report writing.

Figure 2.1 : Preparatory Phases of Study

2.32.32.32.32.3 RRRRResearesearesearesearesearch ch ch ch ch TTTTTools vis-à-vis ools vis-à-vis ools vis-à-vis ools vis-à-vis ools vis-à-vis TTTTTarget Rarget Rarget Rarget Rarget Respondentsespondentsespondentsespondentsespondents

As part of the study methodology, it was decided to carry out both quantitative and qualitative surveys with identifiedtarget respondents. For the quantitative survey, it was decided to interview Pradhans (female as well as male), WardMembers (both sexes), ex-elected women representatives, Panchayat Secretaries and members of the community (localcitizens and group/committee members). For the qualitative survey, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conductedwith the community, as well as in-depth interviews with Government officials and reviews of the Minutes of Meetings(MoM) of Gram Sabhas.

The following schedules were devised for the QQQQQuantitativuantitativuantitativuantitativuantitative Se Se Se Se Surururururvvvvveyeyeyeyey:

• Schedule for Pradhans/Ward Members.

• Schedule for ex-elected women representatives.

• Schedule for Panchayat Secretary.

• Schedule for community/household.

19


The Guidelines/Semi- structure schedules devised for the QQQQQualitativualitativualitativualitativualitative Se Se Se Se Surururururvvvvvey ey ey ey ey were:

• FGD with community.

• In-depth discussions with government officials.

• Review of MoM.

2.42.42.42.42.4 BBBBBrrrrroad Soad Soad Soad Soad Study Itudy Itudy Itudy Itudy Indicatorsndicatorsndicatorsndicatorsndicators

The research tools included broader themes and indicators such as:

SSSSSocio-Docio-Docio-Docio-Docio-Demographic and Eemographic and Eemographic and Eemographic and Eemographic and Economic Pconomic Pconomic Pconomic Pconomic Prrrrrofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Elected lected lected lected lected WWWWWomen Romen Romen Romen Romen Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

• Social category (caste), religion, age, education, marital status, average family size, type of family, primary ccupation,economic category (APL/BPL), household assets, etc.

PPPPPolitical Carolitical Carolitical Carolitical Carolitical Career of Eeer of Eeer of Eeer of Eeer of Elected lected lected lected lected WWWWWomen Romen Romen Romen Romen Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

• Age at which entered into active politics.

• Constraints in filing candidature and contesting elections.

• Social constraints, e.g. freedom of mobility, caste factor, economic dependence, resistance within the householdand community.

• Institutional constraints, e.g. community, religion, etc.

• Coping strategies to overcome challenges.

EEEEEnabling Enabling Enabling Enabling Enabling Envirnvirnvirnvirnvironmentonmentonmentonmentonment

• Support from spouse and other family members.

• Support from community-based organisations and women’s groups.

QQQQQuality of Puality of Puality of Puality of Puality of Parararararticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of Elected lected lected lected lected WWWWWomen Romen Romen Romen Romen Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

• Elected women representatives’ physical presence, i.e. seats in panchayats, decision-making position (office bearers)in Zilla Parishad/ Gram Sabha, standing committees, user committees, local institutions and leadership positions.

• Elected women representatives’ representation of different social categories.

• Elected women representatives’ awareness regarding norms for development programmes, rural developmentprogrammes, welfare schemes, etc.

• Interface between level of education and participation.

• Membership of standing committees and participation in community mobilisation activities.

• Elected women representatives’ attendance in Gram Sabha meetings, nature of issues raised, specific work donefor women and girl children, involvement in planning and implementation of development schemes, involvementin identification of beneficiaries for development schemes, encouraging people to raise questions and seekingtheir suggestions.

• Elected women representatives’ perception of the influence of dominant groups, e.g., caste/tribe.

• Elected women representatives’ involvement in public affairs, e.g. Public Distribution System, civic amenities,health workers, etc.

20


• Training and capacity-building programmes attended.

• Number of meetings held with local stakeholders.

• Interaction with government officials, parallel bodies and user committees.

IIIIImpact on mpact on mpact on mpact on mpact on WWWWWomenomenomenomenomen’’’’’s Es Es Es Es Empompompompompowwwwwermentermentermentermenterment

• Freedom to meet people, attend gatherings, talk to unrelated persons; need to obtain permission to go out forhousehold work; voice in selection of groom; say in decisions on family planning, etc.

• Freedom to make small or large purchases independently; control fully/partially household and own income;spending as per own desire.

IIIIImpact of Pmpact of Pmpact of Pmpact of Pmpact of Parallel Bodies on arallel Bodies on arallel Bodies on arallel Bodies on arallel Bodies on WWWWWomenomenomenomenomen’’’’’s Ps Ps Ps Ps Parararararticipationticipationticipationticipationticipation

• Existence of self help groups and women’s participation.

• Existence of WATSAN (Water and Sanitation Committees) and women’s participation.

• Existence of education committee and women’s participation.

• Existence of health committee and women’s participation.

• Existence of development committee and women’s participation.

• Activities undertaken for women’s development by these committees.

• Synergy between village education committee and elected women representatives.

• Synergy between village health committee and elected women representatives.

SSSSSatisfaction of Eatisfaction of Eatisfaction of Eatisfaction of Eatisfaction of Elected lected lected lected lected WWWWWomen Romen Romen Romen Romen Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives with their Res with their Res with their Res with their Res with their Role and Pole and Pole and Pole and Pole and Perererererformanceformanceformanceformanceformance

• Their own capacities.

• Self-respect and self-esteem within the household.

• Self-respect and self-esteem within community.

• Their awareness levels and articulation of issues in various forum

• Their effectiveness as a change agent.

2.52.52.52.52.5 SSSSSampling Dampling Dampling Dampling Dampling Designesignesignesignesign

A multi-stage stratified random sampling design was adopted for the survey. Hence, states followed by districts, blocksand finally Gram Panchayats were selected.

2.5.12.5.12.5.12.5.12.5.1 SSSSSelection of Selection of Selection of Selection of Selection of Statestatestatestatestates

Twenty three states across India were covered for this Survey on the basis of the position of panchayats in them. Onlythose states where panchayats are not in existence or where elections have not yet taken place, were excluded from thestudy - Jharkhand, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland. Likewise, Jammu and Kashmir was excluded from the surveybecause the election of panchayats under its own Act has not yet taken place.

2.5.22.5.22.5.22.5.22.5.2 SSSSSelection of Delection of Delection of Delection of Delection of Districtsistrictsistrictsistrictsistricts

It was important to select the districts based on the actual proportion of elected women representatives within the

21


district. However, in the absence of such detailed information at the central level it was proposed to use the socio-economic index2 developed by the Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi, for the purpose of selecting districts.

Firstly, all the districts of a state were arranged in descending order by their socio-economic index. Subsequently, theQuartile Deviation Technique was used to divide the whole range of the index into four categories or Quartile Classes.

The states were classified into three categories – large, medium and small — based on the total number of villages andthe rural population. Thereafter, one district (for small states), two (for medium states) and three districts (for largestates) were selected from each Quartile. It is worth noting here that districts selected from Quartiles 1 and 4 representthe developmental extremes of a state, and districts from Quartiles 2 and 3 represent the moderately developed districts.Thus, a total of 12 districts from large states, eight from medium states and four from small states were selected. Whileselecting the districts from the respective Quartiles, regional variations within states were also considered. In all 114districts were selected from 23 states.

2 The socio-economic index has been sourced from the Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi. The extraction method adopted for obtaining districtwise socio-economic development indices using Principle Component Analysis technique. The variables considered towards the development ofthe index are: Female Literacy Rate, Gross Sown Area as Percent of Geographical Area, Percent Village Electrified, Auxiliary Nursing Midwives PerLakh Population, Percentage Villages Not Connected by Pucca Road, Hospital Beds per Lakh Population, Road Length per Hundred Square Kms,Number of Post Offices per Lakh Population, Bank Branches per Lakh Population. The data on these socio-economic indicators is primarily drawnfrom the latest Center for Monitoring Indian Economy

Figure 2.2 : Schematic Presentation of Sampling Strategy

2.5.32.5.32.5.32.5.32.5.3 SSSSSelection of Belection of Belection of Belection of Belection of Blocks/Mlocks/Mlocks/Mlocks/Mlocks/Mandalsandalsandalsandalsandals

One of the most critical and oft-repeated variables that influences the acceptability of any government initiative in ruralIndia is literacy. Since this study revolves around the performance and empowerment of elected women representativesin panchayats, it was assumed that the female literacy rate would play a pivotal role in this process. Keeping this in mind,and accepting the fact that the relative performance of development schemes, participation in democratic decision-making and performance of panchayats are likely to be influenced by the informed involvement of peer groups, theselection of two blocks from each sample district was done on the basis of the female literacy rate. Thus, a total of 228blocks were selected from 114 districts across India.

All the blocks of a district were arranged in accordance with the female literacy rate (for rural areas). The blocks weredivided into two halves based on the median value. Subsequently, one block each was selected from above the medianand below the median.

22


2.5.42.5.42.5.42.5.42.5.4 SSSSSelection of Gelection of Gelection of Gelection of Gelection of Gram Pram Pram Pram Pram Panchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayats

Selection of Gram Panchayats was done so as to ensure the representation of unreserved as well as reserved seats for thepost of Pradhan. Thus, a total of six Gram Panchayats (four female- headed and two male-headed) were covered withineach block on a random basis. Thus, 12 Gram Panchayats were selected from each district. In all, 1,368 Gram Panchayatswere selected throughout the country.

2.62.62.62.62.6 SSSSSample Coample Coample Coample Coample Covvvvverageerageerageerageerage

Figure 2.3 shows the distribution of the sample across India. As mentioned above, a total of 23 states, 114 districts, 228blocks and 1368 Gram Panchayats were covered during the field survey.

Figure 2.3 : Geographical Coverage of Districts

2.6.12.6.12.6.12.6.12.6.1 QQQQQuantitativuantitativuantitativuantitativuantitative Se Se Se Se Sampleampleampleampleample

In all, 1,368 Pradhans were covered across India (one from each Gram Panchayat), of which 907 were female. Theresponses of male Pradhans acted as a moderating factor in this study.

A total of 5,350 Ward Members were also interviewed during the field survey, of which 3,973 were elected womenrepresentatives and 1,377 were male. It was planned to cover three elected women representatives and one elected malerepresentative from each sample Gram Panchayat.

A total of 1,302 former women representatives were also interviewed during the field survey. The objective was tounderstand their motives behind contesting elections a second time round, and, if not, why not.

The total number of community members (including both household and group/committee members) covered duringthe field survey was 20,154.

23


It was planned to cover 15 individual households from each Gram Panchayat. Of them, three households were pickedwith at least one member a member of any group or committee i.e. self help group, Mahila Mandal, Youth Club, etc.The remaining 12 households were distributed equally (three each) among three elected women representatives and oneelected male representative in their respective wards. Hence, an attempt was made to obtain a list of elected male andfemale representatives indicating their ward name/number from the panchayat. The objective of the household interviewwas to triangulate the information gathered from the Pradhan and elected male and female representatives’ schedules.

It was also proposed to administer a Gram Panchyat Information Sheet (GPIS) at each Gram Panchayat, and a total of1,368 GPISs were canvassed during the main survey. This tool was used to understand the profile of Gram Panchayatsin terms of their demography, economy, infrastructure, services, resources, etc.

2.6.22.6.22.6.22.6.22.6.2 QQQQQualitativualitativualitativualitativualitative Se Se Se Se Sampleampleampleampleample

In the qualitative sample, it was planned to conduct two in-depth interviews (IDI) each with district and block levelofficials, and as such, 228 district and 456 block level interviews were conducted across India.

Two FGDs were also proposed to be conducted within each district at the community level. These were held at GramPanchayats located in the block representing the highest and lowest female literacy.

The minutes of meetings (MoM) were also examined at the block and Gram Panchayat levels. It was proposed to reviewMoMs over the past one year. This period was within the working period of a selected Pradhan.

Focus Group Discussion in Amburi Gram Panchayat, Neyyattinkara, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

2.72.72.72.72.7 PPPPPrrrrresentation of Sesentation of Sesentation of Sesentation of Sesentation of Study Ftudy Ftudy Ftudy Ftudy Findingsindingsindingsindingsindings

The study findings follow a logical flow as presented in Figure 2.4. The profile of elected women representatives has beendescribed in Chapter 3, which presents their broad profiles, the age groups they belong to, chief occupations and sourcesof income, educational backgrounds, the caste and religious group to which they belong and the type and size of familiesthey hail from. All these attributes provided the necessary background to understand the trends of awareness, participationand performance of elected women representatives.

24


→

→

→

→

Profile of EWRs

Political Career of EWRs

Quality of Participation

Impact of Participation

Conclusions & Recommendations

Figure 2.4: Presentations of Study Findings

The political career of elected women representatives, as discussed in Chapter 4, throws light on various aspects like theage of women representatives entering active politics, the constraints they faced and strategies adopted to overcomethem, the enabling environment which helped them in getting elected for the first and subsequent terms, etc.

The quality of participation forms the most important Chapter (Chapter 5) in this Report. The issues analysed there arerelated to the actual participation of elected women representatives in Gram Sabha meetings. Also considered were theissues they raised during those meetings, the type of development work they undertook, their role in increasing women’sparticipation, their interface with officials and stakeholders, their interaction with local people across social categories,their awareness of health and education related facilities and issues, the identification of beneficiaries, and so forth.

The subsequent chapters deal with the impact of parallel bodies, community-based organisations and other groups ininhibiting or encouraging the participation of elected women representatives. Finally, the impact of elected womenrepresentatives’ participation in their own and in their community’s development is evaluated.

25

SSSSStudy on Etudy on Etudy on Etudy on Etudy on EWRs in PWRs in PWRs in PWRs in PWRs in Panchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj InstituionsnstituionsnstituionsnstituionsnstituionsSSSSStudy on Etudy on Etudy on Etudy on Etudy on EWRs in PWRs in PWRs in PWRs in PWRs in Panchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Ianchayati Raj Instituionsnstituionsnstituionsnstituionsnstituions

3.3.3.3.3. PRPRPRPRPROFILE OF ELECTED REPRESENTOFILE OF ELECTED REPRESENTOFILE OF ELECTED REPRESENTOFILE OF ELECTED REPRESENTOFILE OF ELECTED REPRESENTAAAAATIVESTIVESTIVESTIVESTIVES

This chapter presents the socio-demographic and economic profile of elected representatives interviewed in the Survey.It provides the necessary context for understanding and interpreting the findings of the various studies and for explainingthe trends and reasons behind specific findings. Wherever possible, it also facilitates the drawing of correlations betweenthe responses and the profiles of elected women representatives. For each socio-demographic and economic variable,therefore, a comprehensive discussion has been presented keeping the following dimensions in view:

• The all-India scenario

• Differences by state

• Differences by status (between Pradhan and Ward Members and between existing and former members)

• Difference by gender (between elected men and women representatives)

3.13.13.13.13.1 PPPPPrrrrrofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives in their Ces in their Ces in their Ces in their Ces in their Currurrurrurrurrent ent ent ent ent TTTTTermermermermerm

In all, 6,718 elected representatives were interviewed across 23 states. However, since the primary focus of the study wason evaluating the role of women representatives, a larger proportion (73%) of women were covered in the survey, incomparison to men (27%). Of the elected women representatives, 3,973 (81%) were Ward Members, while the remaining907 (19%) were village presidents (Pradhan). Similarly, of the males, 75 percent were Ward Members and 25 percentPradhans. Thus, 1,368 Pradhans and 5,350 Ward Members were covered in the study. This distribution was, more orless, similar across all the states.

3.1.13.1.13.1.13.1.13.1.1 Age PAge PAge PAge PAge Prrrrrofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

The age-wise analysis of elected representatives shows that almost half (45%) were between 36 and 50 years, whilearound two-fifths were in the younger (21-35) age group. Only 17 percent of elected representatives were above 50 yearsof age. Compared to the Pradhans, the Ward Members were younger (Figure 3.1), as at the aggregate level, a higherproportion of the latter (40%) belonged to the 21-25 age group than the former (33%). In the higher age groups, theproportion of Ward Members was less, in comparison to, the Pradhans.

Figure 3.1: Age of Elected Representatives

26


In comparison to male representative (31%), a higher proportion of female representatives (41%) were from the 21-35age group and relatively less from the higher age groups. This reflects the fact that at the all-India level, female representativestended to be younger than their male counterparts.

As Table 3.1 shows, female Pradhans were, relatively speaking, younger (mean age 40.3 years) than their male counterparts(mean age 44.7 years). A similar difference is observed between female Ward Members (mean age 39.8 years) and maleWard Members (mean age 41.9 years), though the age gap between these two groups is smaller.

TTTTTable 3.1: Dable 3.1: Dable 3.1: Dable 3.1: Dable 3.1: Distribution of Age Distribution of Age Distribution of Age Distribution of Age Distribution of Age Data on Pata on Pata on Pata on Pata on Pradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

PPPPPradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- male P P P P Pradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- female

MMMMMeaneaneaneanean MMMMMedianedianedianedianedian SD*SD*SD*SD*SD* NNNNN MMMMMeaneaneaneanean MMMMMedianedianedianedianedian SD*SD*SD*SD*SD* NNNNNAgeAgeAgeAgeAge Age Age Age Age Age AgeAgeAgeAgeAge Age Age Age Age Age

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 44.744.744.744.744.7 43.043.043.043.043.0 11.211.211.211.211.2 461461461461461 40.340.340.340.340.3 40.040.040.040.040.0 10.910.910.910.910.9 907907907907907

Andhra Pradesh 39.2 39.5 10.4 32 37.3 35.5 12.0 64

Karnataka 43.3 42.0 9.9 16 37.4 35.0 7.6 32

Tamil Nadu 46.9 47.5 9.5 16 36.9 35.5 7.3 32

Kerala 44.7 40.5 10.1 16 40.3 39.5 8.6 32

Arunachal Pradesh 39.9 37.0 9.8 8 38.4 38.5 6.9 16

Assam 51.2 51.0 12.1 16 45.7 44.5 11.8 32

Manipur 42.9 41.5 4.2 8 42.8 42.0 9.2 16

Sikkim 46.5 47.0 12.9 13 45.1 42.0 9.2 11

Tripura 49.6 48.0 12.3 8 40.7 41.0 9.3 16

West Bengal 47.8 45.0 11.5 32 37.2 36.0 8.6 64

Orissa 40.2 36.5 11.6 16 32.6 30.0 8.4 32

Bihar 43.1 41.5 8.6 32 36.0 35.0 8.7 64

Madhya Pradesh 44.7 44.0 9.7 32 42.7 40.0 12.8 64

Chhattisgarh 41.7 41.5 9.8 16 39.5 36.0 13.6 32

Gujarat 50.1 50.0 12.0 15 40.2 39.0 10.5 33

Maharashtra 42.0 40.5 10.0 32 39.2 39.0 10.2 64

Rajasthan 50.9 50.0 13.7 32 44.9 44.0 12.6 64

Haryana 49.4 51.5 12.9 16 44.3 44.5 11.8 32

Punjab 47.0 45.0 10.1 15 47.6 47.0 12.0 33

Uttar Pradesh 43.3 40.5 10.3 50 42.8 40.0 10.8 94

Uttarakhand 41.5 40.0 12.2 15 37.9 37.0 7.6 33

Himachal Pradesh 44.8 40.5 11.5 16 40.9 42.0 9.5 32

Goa 38.6 40.0 8.6 9 39.0 41.0 8.5 15

* Standard Deviation

27


Likewise, the mean age of female Ward Members was lowest in Orissa (34 years) and highest in Punjab (48 years). In thecase of male Ward Members, this was lowest in Tamil Nadu (37.2 years) and again highest in Punjab (49.8 years) (Table3.2).

TTTTTable 3.2: Dable 3.2: Dable 3.2: Dable 3.2: Dable 3.2: Distribution of Age Distribution of Age Distribution of Age Distribution of Age Distribution of Age Data on ata on ata on ata on ata on WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members – bembers – bembers – bembers – bembers – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member-maleember-maleember-maleember-maleember-male WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member-femaleember-femaleember-femaleember-femaleember-female

NNNNN MMMMMeaneaneaneanean MMMMMedianedianedianedianedian SD*SD*SD*SD*SD* NNNNN MMMMMeaneaneaneanean MMMMMedianedianedianedianedian SD*SD*SD*SD*SD*AgeAgeAgeAgeAge AgeAgeAgeAgeAge AgeAgeAgeAgeAge AgeAgeAgeAgeAge

All India 1,377 41.9 40.0 11.3 3,973 39.8 38.0 10.6

Andhra Pradesh 101 37.7 35.0 10.5 283 36.7 35.0 10.0

Karnataka 48 42.1 40.0 10.2 144 39.4 38.5 9.0

Tamil Nadu 48 37.2 35.5 8.9 144 36.3 36.0 9.1

Kerala 49 46.4 45.0 10.9 143 39.8 39.0 8.0

Arunachal Pradesh 23 38.9 40.0 7.4 58 42.2 42.0 8.8

Assam 48 46.7 46.0 9.7 144 41.1 38.0 10.2

Manipur 25 37.0 35.0 7.9 71 38.9 37.0 8.7

Sikkim 24 43.9 42.5 10.2 42 39.6 37.5 9.1

Tripura 25 46.2 42.0 11.2 71 41.3 40.0 9.4

West Bengal 98 44.5 42.0 10.5 280 37.6 37.0 7.5

Orissa 47 42.5 42.0 11.0 145 34.4 33.0 9.2

Bihar 97 39.7 38.0 11.0 287 37.5 35.0 9.7

Madhya Pradesh 94 43.4 40.0 11.2 289 40.7 39.0 10.7

Chhattisgarh 49 39.5 38.0 9.7 143 40.4 40.0 9.8

Gujarat 47 41.2 40.0 8.9 131 37.7 36.0 9.4

Maharashtra 97 40.2 39.0 9.3 278 40.7 40.0 10.5

Rajasthan 98 44.5 45.0 12.9 286 45.6 45.0 12.9

Haryana 47 48.7 48.0 14.9 143 46.0 45.0 13.3

Punjab 47 49.8 49.0 13.0 134 48.1 46.5 11.4

Uttar Pradesh 144 38.5 36.0 11.1 432 38.8 36.0 10.3

Uttarakhand 50 41.3 38.0 11.8 125 39.8 37.0 10.6

Himachal Pradesh 47 41.9 38.0 11.8 140 37.3 37.0 9.4

Goa 24 39.3 36.0 8.8 60 39.6 39.5 8.7

* Standard Deviation

28


3.1.23.1.23.1.23.1.23.1.2 EEEEEducational Aducational Aducational Aducational Aducational Attainment of Ettainment of Ettainment of Ettainment of Ettainment of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

To capture and analyse the educational attainment of elected representatives, codes for different levels of education werecombined to work out final education categories against which the educational attainment of the elected representativeswas analysed. The educational category ‘illiterate’ was made up by those who reported themselves as such. The personswho had completed upto Class V were categorised under ‘upto primary school’ and those who had passed Class V werelabeled as ‘upto middle school’. Those who had completed `Class VIII or above’ were clubbed under the category‘middle school and higher’.

As presented in Figure 3.2, the majority of elected representatives, at the all-India level, had completed middle school orabove (48%). The proportion of illiterates was 19 percent. Educational attainment was greater in the case of Pradhans,in comparison to, Ward Members. Not only was the proportion that passed middle school or above higher, but therewas also fewer illiterates among the Pradhans as compared to Ward Members. The position wise break-up shows thatamong the interviewed Pradhans, 61 percent had, reportedly, passed middle school or higher, as compared to 45 percentof the Ward Members. The proportion of illiterate Pradhans was 8 percent when compared to 22 percent of illiterateWard Members.

Figure 3.2: Educational Attainments of Elected Representatives

An analysis of the gender differences vis-a-vis educational attainment shows that male representatives were more educatedthan their female counterparts. The proportion of male representatives who had passed middle school or above was 70percent, in comparison to, 40 percent for females. Again, the proportion of illiterates was higher in the case of women(24%) than men (6%).

At the all-India level, male Pradhans had higher levels of educational attainment than male Ward Members, and a similartrend was observed in the case of female Pradhans and female Ward Members. (Tables 3.3 & 3.4)

Most of the male Pradhans were educated upto the middle school level or higher in most of the states. In the case offemale Pradhans, a sizeable proportion of them were educated upto the middle school level and above in Kerala, TamilNadu, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh and Goa. The highest concentration of illiterate female Pradhans was found inKarnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.

29


TTTTTable 3.3: Dable 3.3: Dable 3.3: Dable 3.3: Dable 3.3: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Eata on Eata on Eata on Eata on Educational Aducational Aducational Aducational Aducational Attainment of Pttainment of Pttainment of Pttainment of Pttainment of Pradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

F F F F Female Pemale Pemale Pemale Pemale Pradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan MMMMMale Pale Pale Pale Pale Pradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan

IIIIIlliteratelliteratelliteratelliteratelliterate UUUUUptoptoptoptopto UUUUUptoptoptoptopto MMMMMiddleiddleiddleiddleiddle NNNNN IIIIIlliteratelliteratelliteratelliteratelliterate UUUUUptoptoptoptopto UUUUUptoptoptoptopto MMMMMiddleiddleiddleiddleiddle NNNNNprimarprimarprimarprimarprimaryyyyy middlemiddlemiddlemiddlemiddle schoolschoolschoolschoolschool primarprimarprimarprimarprimaryyyyy middlemiddlemiddlemiddlemiddle schoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschool school school school school school & abo& abo& abo& abo& abovvvvveeeee schoolschoolschoolschoolschool schoolschoolschoolschoolschool & abo& abo& abo& abo& abovvvvveeeee

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 11.411.411.411.411.4 19.819.819.819.819.8 16.416.416.416.416.4 52.452.452.452.452.4 907907907907907 2.62.62.62.62.6 8.28.28.28.28.2 11.111.111.111.111.1 78.178.178.178.178.1 461461461461461

Andhra Pradesh 12.5 20.3 28.1 39.1 64 12.5 3.1 21.9 62.5 32

Karnataka 34.4 21.9 25.0 18.8 32 12.5 12.5 12.5 62.5 16

Tamil Nadu 3.1 9.4 12.5 75.0 32 0.0 12.5 6.3 81.3 16

Kerala 0.0 0.0 6.3 93.8 32 0.0 0.0 12.5 87.5 16

Arunachal Pradesh 6.3 50.0 25.0 18.8 16 12.5 12.5 25.0 50.0 8

Assam 0.0 0.0 3.1 96.9 32 0.00 0.00 6.3 93.8 16

Manipur 0.0 0.0 0.00 100.0 16 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 8

Sikkim 18.2 9.1 18.2 54.5 11 7.7 7.7 7.7 76.9 13

Tripura 6.3 6.3 37.5 50.0 16 12.5 0.00 12.5 75.0 8

West Bengal 1.6 6.3 14.1 78.1 64 3.1 0.0 3.1 93.8 32

Orissa 0.0 9.4 21.9 68.8 32 0.0 6.3 6.3 87.5 16

Bihar 3.1 18.8 15.6 62.5 64 0.0 6.3 6.3 87.5 32

Madhya Pradesh 28.1 31.3 14.1 26.6 64 6.3 18.8 18.8 56.3 32

Chhattisgarh 3.1 37.5 31.3 28.1 32 0.0 12.5 18.8 68.8 16

Gujarat 6.1 15.2 21.2 57.6 33 0.0 13.3 6.7 80.0 15

Maharashtra 10.9 23.4 12.5 53.1 64 0.0 12.5 15.6 71.9 32

Rajasthan 23.4 35.9 18.8 21.9 64 0.0 21.9 15.6 62.5 32

Haryana 25.0 18.8 18.8 37.5 32 0.0 0.0 6.3 93.8 16

Punjab 18.2 15.2 18.2 48.5 33 0.0 0.0 20.0 80.0 15

Uttar Pradesh 19.1 34.0 7.4 39.4 94 0.0 8.0 6.0 86.0 50

Uttarakhand 3.0 18.2 15.2 63.6 33 0.0 13.3 6.7 80.0 15

Himachal Pradesh 0.00 12.5 15.6 71.9 32 0.0 0.0 6.3 93.8 16

Goa 0.00 0.00 20.0 80.0 15 0.0 11.1 11.1 77.8 9

As presented in Table 3.4, a similar trend was observed in the case of male and female Ward Members.

30


TTTTTable 3.able 3.able 3.able 3.able 3.4: D4: D4: D4: D4: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Eata on Eata on Eata on Eata on Educational Aducational Aducational Aducational Aducational Attainment of ttainment of ttainment of ttainment of ttainment of WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members – bembers – bembers – bembers – bembers – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

FFFFFemale-Wemale-Wemale-Wemale-Wemale-Wararararard Md Md Md Md Member (N=3982)ember (N=3982)ember (N=3982)ember (N=3982)ember (N=3982) MMMMMale-Wale-Wale-Wale-Wale-Wararararard Md Md Md Md Member (N=1357)ember (N=1357)ember (N=1357)ember (N=1357)ember (N=1357)

IIIIIlliteratelliteratelliteratelliteratelliterate UUUUUptoptoptoptopto UUUUUptoptoptoptopto MMMMMiddleiddleiddleiddleiddle NNNNN IIIIIlliteratelliteratelliteratelliteratelliterate UUUUUptoptoptoptopto UUUUUptoptoptoptopto MMMMMiddleiddleiddleiddleiddle NNNNNprimarprimarprimarprimarprimaryyyyy middlemiddlemiddlemiddlemiddle schoolschoolschoolschoolschool primarprimarprimarprimarprimaryyyyy middlemiddlemiddlemiddlemiddle schoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschoolschool schoolschoolschoolschoolschool & abo& abo& abo& abo& abovvvvveeeee schoolschoolschoolschoolschool schoolschoolschoolschoolschool & abo& abo& abo& abo& abovvvvveeeee

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 26.626.626.626.626.6 19.219.219.219.219.2 17.117.117.117.117.1 37.137.137.137.137.1 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973 7.57.57.57.57.5 11.111.111.111.111.1 13.913.913.913.913.9 67.567.567.567.567.5 1,3771,3771,3771,3771,377

Andhra Pradesh 34.3 20.5 23.0 22.3 283 17.8 11.9 22.8 47.5 101

Karnataka 26.4 15.3 20.1 38.2 144 8.3 8.3 10.4 72.9 48

Tamil Nadu 0.0 14.6 27.8 57.6 144 0.00 14.6 22.9 62.5 48

Kerala 0.00 1.40 5.6 93.0 143 2.04 2.04 12.2 83.7 49


Assam 0.69 9.03 15.3 75.0 144 0.00 0.00 8.3 91.7 48

Manipur 5.6 4.23 8.45 81.7 71 0.00 4.00 0.00 96.0 25

Sikkim 4.8 33.3 9.5 52.4 42 0.0 12.5 16.7 70.8 24

Tripura 7.0 28.2 21.1 43.7 71 0.0 20.00 4.0 76.0 25

West Bengal 11.1 13.2 16.4 59.3 280 2.0 7.14 4.1 86.7 98

Orissa 8.28 39.3 27.6 24.8 145 2.13 14.9 25.5 57.4 47

Bihar 29.3 29.3 12.9 28.6 287 2.06 14.4 10.3 73.2 97

Madhya Pradesh 45.0 28.4 12.8 13.8 289 17.0 14.9 25.5 42.6 94

Chhattisgarh 24.5 33.6 23.1 18.9 143 4.08 20.4 24.5 51.0 49

Gujarat 20.6 12.2 20.6 46.6 131 2.13 10.6 17.0 70.2 47

Maharashtra 20.9 16.5 20.1 42.4 278 2.06 9.3 11.3 77.3 97

Rajasthan 51.0 29.4 10.1 9.4 286 12.24 22.4 18.4 46.9 98

Haryana 44.8 18.2 11.9 25.2 143 21.28 14.89 17.0 46.8 47

Punjab 29.1 17.2 23.1 30.6 134 4.26 14.89 19.1 61.7 47

Uttar Pradesh 51.6 12.0 14.8 21.5 432 13.19 6.9 6.9 72.9 144

Uttarakhand 17.6 15.2 16.0 51.2 125 2.00 8.0 12.0 78.0 50


Goa 3.3 3.33 6.7 86.7 60 0.00 8.3 0.0 91.7 24

3.1.33.1.33.1.33.1.33.1.3 PPPPPrimarrimarrimarrimarrimary Oy Oy Oy Oy Occupation on the Bccupation on the Bccupation on the Bccupation on the Bccupation on the Basis of asis of asis of asis of asis of TTTTTime Sime Sime Sime Sime Spentpentpentpentpent

To assess which activity engages elected representatives most of the time, questions pertaining to their primary occupationfrom the point of view of time spent on it was collected through the survey.

An analysis of data on primary occupation by gender and position in the panchayat shows that a high proportion of malePradhans (47%), reported spending most of their time in panchayat work, followed by farming (36%). Female Pradhansspend their time primarily in performing household tasks (51%), but for 32 percent of them, panchayat activitiesconstituted the primary occupation, engaging most of their time. For the remaining female Pradhans, the primaryoccupation was farming (9%), labour works (2%) and other occupations (5%) (Figure 3.3).

31


Figure 3.3: Primary Occupation on the Basis of Time Spent

Unlike male Pradhans, the primary occupation (on the basis of time) for the majority of male Ward Members (41%) wasfarming and not panchayat work (21%). This may be accounted for by the fact that Pradhans, being senior panchayatfunctionaries, spend more time in executing their role, as compared to male Ward Members. Again, in contrast to malePradhans, a large proportion of Ward Members reportedly spent their time in labour works (12%), small business (11%)and any other occupation (15%).

Like female Pradhans, 54 percent of the female Ward Members reported their primary occupation as household workwith respect to time spent. However, for 15 percent it was panchayat-related work.

Distribution of data by State on primary occupation for Pradhans and Ward Members has been presented in Tables 3.5and 3.6, respectively. Among the female Pradhans, those spending their time mainly in farming were the highest inArunachal Pradesh (88%). However, none of the respondents reported farming as an occupation in seven states (AndhraPradesh, Kerala, Manipur, West Bengal, Haryana Punjab and Goa). The proportion sending time in household workwas highest in Uttar Pradesh (93%), followed by Bihar and Assam (75-77%). This proportion was lowest in Kerala andArunachal Pradesh (6%). The phenomenon of spending greatest amount of time on panchayat-related activities wasseen as highest in Kerala (91%), while there was no such occupation reported by female Pradhans in Karnataka, Gujaratand Arunachal Pradesh.

The proportion of male Pradhans reporting panchayat work as their primary occupation in terms of time spent was onthe higher side in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Uttarakhand and Orissa (80-88%), followed by West Bengal and Rajasthan(72-78%). Farming was the primary occupation for male Pradhans in Arunachal Pradesh, and the same was seen for 88percent in Karnataka, 73.3 percent in Gujarat and 63 percent in Chhattisgarh and Himachal Pradesh. Labour wasmentioned only in Gujarat (7%) and Madhya Pradesh (9%). Small business emerged mainly in Goa (44%), Assam(38%) and Himachal Pradesh (25%).

The distribution of primary occupation as per time spent was, more or less, the same for Ward Members (both male andfemale) across the different states covered in study (Table 3.6).

32


Union Minister, Panchayati Raj, Shri Mani Shankar Aiyar Interacting withthe Members of Gram Panchayat Mathni in Gadchiroli District of Maharashtra

33


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anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I




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anchayati Raj I

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TTTTTable 3.5: Dable 3.5: Dable 3.5: Dable 3.5: Dable 3.5: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Pata on Pata on Pata on Pata on Primarrimarrimarrimarrimary Oy Oy Oy Oy Occupation on the basis of ccupation on the basis of ccupation on the basis of ccupation on the basis of ccupation on the basis of TTTTTime Sime Sime Sime Sime Spent for Ppent for Ppent for Ppent for Ppent for Pradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

PPPPPradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- female PPPPPradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- male

FFFFFarmingarmingarmingarmingarming LabourLabourLabourLabourLabourererererer PPPPPanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayat SSSSSmallmallmallmallmall HHHHHouseouseouseouseousewifewifewifewifewife OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNN FFFFFarmingarmingarmingarmingarming LabourLabourLabourLabourLabourererererer PPPPPanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayat SSSSSmallmallmallmallmall NNNNN OOOOOthersthersthersthersthersworworworworworksksksksks businessbusinessbusinessbusinessbusiness worworworworworksksksksks businessbusinessbusinessbusinessbusiness

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 8.28.28.28.28.2 2.32.32.32.32.3 26.526.526.526.526.5 0.40.40.40.40.4 58.058.058.058.058.0 4.64.64.64.64.6 898898898898898 37.637.637.637.637.6 1.11.11.11.11.1 44.044.044.044.044.0 7.57.57.57.57.5 9.89.89.89.89.8 451451451451451

Andhra Pradesh 0.0 1.6 43.8 1.6 53.1 0.0 64 9.4 0.0 87.5 0.0 3.1 32

Karnataka 21.9 9.4 0.0 0.0 62.5 6.3 32 87.5 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 16

Tamil Nadu 18.8 0.0 12.5 0.0 65.6 3.1 32 43.8 0.0 12.5 0.0 43.8 16

Kerala 0.0 0.0 90.6 0.0 6.3 3.1 32 6.3 0.0 87.5 0.0 6.3 16

Arunachal Pradesh 87.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 16 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8

Assam 3.1 0.0 18.8 0.0 75.0 3.1 32 25.0 0.0 25.0 37.5 12.5 16

Manipur 0.0 0.0 18.8 6.3 31.3 43.8 16 25.0 0.0 50.0 12.5 12.5 8

Sikkim 9.1 0.0 45.5 0.0 45.5 0.0 11 30.8 0.0 53.8 7.7 7.7 13

Tripura 6.3 0.0 43.8 0.0 37.5 12.5 16 50.0 0.0 37.5 0.0 12.5 8

West Bengal 0.0 0.0 51.6 0.0 40.6 7.8 64 12.5 0.0 71.9 9.4 6.3 32

Orissa 15.6 0.0 25.0 0.0 53.1 6.3 32 18.8 0.0 81.3 0.0 0.0 16

Bihar 1.6 0.0 15.6 1.6 76.6 4.7 64 40.6 0.0 43.8 9.4 6.3 32

Madhya Pradesh 12.5 10.9 35.9 0.0 32.8 7.8 64 53.1 9.4 28.1 3.1 6.3 32

Chhattisgarh 18.8 3.1 40.6 0.0 28.1 9.4 32 62.5 0.0 25.0 6.3 6.3 16

Gujarat 18.2 9.1 0.0 0.0 60.6 12.1 33 73.3 6.7 0.0 6.7 13.3 15

Maharashtra 17.2 6.3 25.0 1.6 40.6 9.4 64 28.1 3.1 56.3 6.3 6.3 32

Rajasthan 6.3 0.0 56.3 0.0 37.5 0.0 64 12.5 0.0 78.1 6.3 3.1 32

Haryana 0.0 0.0 56.3 0.0 43.8 0.0 32 25.0 0.0 75.0 0.0 0.0 16

Punjab 0.0 0.0 33.3 0.0 66.7 0.0 33 26.7 0.0 53.3 6.7 13.3 15

Uttar Pradesh 5.3 0.0 1.1 0.0 92.6 1.1 94 54.0 0.0 18.0 12.0 16.0 50

Uttarakhand 3.0 0.0 66.7 0.0 24.2 6.1 33 13.3 0.0 80.0 0.0 6.7 15

Himachal Pradesh 31.3 0.0 25.0 0.0 40.6 3.1 32 62.5 0.0 6.3 25.0 6.3 16

Goa 0.0 0.0 33.3 6.7 60.0 0.0 15 0.0 0.0 55.6 44.4 0.00 9

34


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anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I




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anchayati Raj I

anchayati Raj I



TTTTTable 3.6: Dable 3.6: Dable 3.6: Dable 3.6: Dable 3.6: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Pata on Pata on Pata on Pata on Primarrimarrimarrimarrimary Oy Oy Oy Oy Occupation on the basis of ccupation on the basis of ccupation on the basis of ccupation on the basis of ccupation on the basis of TTTTTime Sime Sime Sime Sime Spent for pent for pent for pent for pent for WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members – bembers – bembers – bembers – bembers – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member-femaleember-femaleember-femaleember-femaleember-female WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member-maleember-maleember-maleember-maleember-male

FFFFFarmingarmingarmingarmingarming LabourLabourLabourLabourLabourererererer PPPPPanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayat SSSSSmallmallmallmallmall HHHHHouseouseouseouseousewifewifewifewifewife OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNN FFFFFarmingarmingarmingarmingarming LabourLabourLabourLabourLabourererererer PPPPPanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayat SSSSSmallmallmallmallmall OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNNworworworworworksksksksks businessbusinessbusinessbusinessbusiness worworworworworksksksksks businessbusinessbusinessbusinessbusiness

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 11.811.811.811.811.8 9.99.99.99.99.9 12.512.512.512.512.5 1.21.21.21.21.2 58.158.158.158.158.1 6.56.56.56.56.5 3,9823,9823,9823,9823,982 42.042.042.042.042.0 13.513.513.513.513.5 17.617.617.617.617.6 10.810.810.810.810.8 16.216.216.216.216.2 1,3571,3571,3571,3571,357

Andhra Pradesh 1.4 14.5 18.4 1.1 60.1 4.6 283 11.9 22.8 36.6 1.0 27.7 101

Karnataka 11.1 3.5 1.4 2.1 72.9 9.0 144 58.3 4.2 4.2 14.6 18.8 48

Tamil Nadu 8.3 21.5 13.2 1.4 31.9 23.6 144 20.8 25.0 4.2 6.3 43.8 48

Kerala 0.7 0.7 87.4 0.0 2.8 8.4 143 4.1 4.1 79.6 0.0 12.2 49

Arunachal Pradesh 89.7 0.0 0.0 1.7 6.9 1.7 58 82.6 0.0 0.0 17.4 0.0 23

Assam 1.4 2.8 27.1 0.0 63.2 5.6 144 20.8 0.0 31.3 35.4 12.5 48

Manipur 9.9 2.8 19.7 0.0 42.3 25.4 71 32.0 0.0 28.0 8.0 32.0 25

Sikkim 9.5 0.0 42.9 2.4 38.1 7.1 42 58.3 0.0 37.5 4.2 0.0 24

Tripura 0.0 2.8 42.3 0.0 50.7 4.2 71 12.0 12.0 64.0 8.0 4.0 25

West Bengal 2.5 6.1 28.2 1.1 55.0 7.1 280 22.4 4.1 48.0 18.4 7.1 98

Orissa 13.8 13.1 5.5 0.7 54.5 12.4 145 55.3 10.6 10.6 10.6 12.8 47

Bihar 3.8 11.5 1.4 1.4 81.2 0.7 287 45.4 22.7 6.2 14.4 11.3 97

Madhya Pradesh 22.5 24.2 0.0 1.4 44.3 7.6 289 60.6 24.5 6.4 7.4 1.1 94

Chhattisgarh 42.7 21.7 1.4 1.4 28.7 4.2 143 69.4 16.3 8.2 6.1 0.0 49

Gujarat 13.7 16.0 0.0 0.0 58.8 11.5 131 57.4 17.0 0.0 8.5 17.0 47

Maharashtra 27.0 12.9 12.6 2.5 35.6 9.4 278 49.5 7.2 14.4 10.3 18.6 97

Rajasthan 7.3 5.6 24.5 1.0 57.0 4.5 286 40.8 8.2 24.5 5.1 21.4 98

Haryana 7.0 9.8 21.0 0.7 60.8 0.7 143 25.5 19.1 42.6 8.5 4.3 47

Punjab 1.5 4.5 13.4 0.0 76.9 3.7 134 51.1 12.8 8.5 6.4 21.3 47

Uttar Pradesh 17.1 3.5 0.5 1.4 75.0 2.5 432 56.3 13.2 1.4 12.5 16.7 144

Uttarakhand 12.0 2.4 29.6 0.8 45.6 9.6 125 26.0 2.0 40.0 6.0 26.0 50

Himachal Pradesh 33.6 1.4 0.7 0.0 57.9 6.4 140 63.8 2.1 8.5 19.1 6.4 47

Goa 0.0 0.0 25.0 5.0 58.3 11.7 60 8.3 4.2 25.0 29.2 33.33 24

35


3.1.43.1.43.1.43.1.43.1.4 SSSSSocial Bocial Bocial Bocial Bocial Backgrackgrackgrackgrackground of Eound of Eound of Eound of Eound of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

A large proportion of the interviewed respondents was from the more disadvantaged sections of society (SC- 26%; ST-13%). About one-third were members of the OBC category and the remaining 28 percent were from the generalcategory (Figure 3.4). Reservation of different caste categories in panchayats seems to be in line with their distributionin the general population in rural areas, both at the state and national levels. On this dimension, no major difference wasobserved between Pradhans and Ward Members, or between male and female representatives

Figure 3.4: Social Background of Elected Representatives

A gender-based comparison among Pradhans and Ward Members shows that there were 31percent male Pradhans and27 percent male Ward Members from the general (unreserved) category, but no such difference was observed betweenfemale Pradhans and female Ward Members.

A state-wise analysis shows that the proportion of ST elected representatives was on the higher side in Chhattisgarh,Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim and in Arunachal Pradesh. The SC proportion was higher in Tripura, West Bengal and HimachalPradesh (Tables 3.7 and 3.8).

TTTTTable 3.7: Sable 3.7: Sable 3.7: Sable 3.7: Sable 3.7: Social Bocial Bocial Bocial Bocial Backgrackgrackgrackgrackground of Pound of Pound of Pound of Pound of Pradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


GGGGGeneraleneraleneraleneraleneral SCSCSCSCSC STSTSTSTST OBCOBCOBCOBCOBC NNNNN GGGGGeneraleneraleneraleneraleneral SCSCSCSCSC STSTSTSTST OBCOBCOBCOBCOBC NNNNN


Andhra Pradesh 15.6 32.8 9.4 42.2 64 6.3 40.6 18.8 34.4 32

Karnataka 15.6 31.3 21.9 31.3 32 31.3 12.5 6.3 50.0 16

Tamil Nadu 6.3 28.1 0.00 65.6 32 6.3 50.0 6.3 37.5 16

Kerala 34.4 25.0 3.1 37.5 32 37.5 25.0 6.3 31.3 16


Assam 46.9 9.4 9.4 34.4 32 56.3 12.5 12.5 18.8 16

Manipur 75.0 0.00 0.00 25.0 16 87.5 12.5 0.00 0.00 8

Sikkim 0.00 9.1 36.4 54.5 11 15.4 15.4 30.8 38.5 13

Tripura 25.0 43.8 18.8 12.5 16 37.5 62.5 0.00 0.00 8

36


West Bengal 48.4 39.1 10.9 1.6 64 40.6 43.8 6.3 9.4 32

Orissa 3.1 28.1 50.0 18.8 32 12.5 6.3 50.0 31.3 16

Bihar 17.2 25.0 0.00 57.8 64 18.8 18.8 3.1 59.4 32

Madhya Pradesh 15.6 21.9 37.5 25.0 64 18.8 9.4 43.8 28.1 32

Chhattisgarh 0.00 15.6 68.8 15.6 32 0.00 6.3 87.5 6.3 16

Gujarat 45.5 6.1 15.2 33.3 33 60.0 6.7 13.3 20.0 15

Maharashtra 25.0 21.9 9.4 43.8 64 37.5 6.3 9.4 46.9 32

Rajasthan 26.6 14.1 20.3 39.1 64 28.1 21.9 15.6 34.4 32

Haryana 50.0 34.4 0.00 15.6 32 56.3 18.8 0.00 25.0 16

Punjab 36.4 51.5 0.00 12.1 33 60.0 26.7 0.00 13.3 15

Uttar Pradesh 20.2 22.3 0.00 57.4 94 24.0 20.0 0.00 56.0 50

Uttarakhand 63.6 30.3 3.0 3.0 33 73.3 26.7 0.00 0.00 15


Goa 66.7 0.00 0.00 33.3 15 33.3 0.00 44.4 22.2 9

TTTTTable 3.8: Sable 3.8: Sable 3.8: Sable 3.8: Sable 3.8: Social Bocial Bocial Bocial Bocial Backgrackgrackgrackgrackground of ound of ound of ound of ound of WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members – bembers – bembers – bembers – bembers – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


GGGGGeneraleneraleneraleneraleneral SCSCSCSCSC STSTSTSTST OBCOBCOBCOBCOBC NNNNN GGGGGeneraleneraleneraleneraleneral SCSCSCSCSC STSTSTSTST OBCOBCOBCOBCOBC NNNNN


Andhra Pradesh 12.7 29.7 6.7 50.9 283 1.0 60.4 17.8 20.8 101

Karnataka 38.2 18.8 8.3 34.7 144 33.3 20.8 6.3 39.6 48

Tamil Nadu 13.9 31.3 2.1 52.8 144 12.5 31.3 0.0 56.3 48

Kerala 43.4 23.8 4.20 28.7 143 22.4 55.1 12.2 10.2 49


Assam 56.25 10.42 11.1 22.22 144 50.00 14.58 8.3 27.08 48

Manipur 80.3 8.5 2.8 8.5 71 68.0 8.0 4.0 20.0 25

Sikkim 2.4 4.76 54.76 38.1 42 20.8 8.3 45.83 25.00 24

Tripura 36.62 35.2 4.2 23.9 71 60.0 16.0 8.0 16.0 25

West Bengal 40.0 46.4 10.7 2.9 280 44.9 36.7 9.18 9.18 98

Orissa 2.1 24.8 40.7 32.4 145 6.4 17.0 36.2 40.4 47

Bihar 11.1 27.9 1.7 59.2 287 10.3 35.1 1.0 53.6 97

Madhya Pradesh 11.1 19.4 17.30 52.2 289 10.6 19.1 27.7 42.6 94

Chhattisgarh 6.3 9.8 46.9 37.1 143 12.2 14.3 38.8 34.7 49

Gujarat 50.38 8.4 15.3 26.0 131 46.81 10.6 17.0 25.5 47

Maharashtra 30.2 14.4 12.6 42.8 278 28.9 16.5 9.3 45.4 97

Rajasthan 18.2 26.6 14.0 41.3 286 18.4 28.6 16.3 36.7 98

Haryana 37.1 39.2 0.0 23.8 143 34.0 40.4 0.0 25.5 47

Punjab 48.5 41.0 0.75 9.7 134 53.2 42.6 0.0 4.3 47

Uttar Pradesh 24.8 30.3 0.0 44.9 432 23.6 21.5 0.69 54.2 144

Uttarakhand 65.6 28.8 0.80 4.8 125 70.0 26.0 2.00 2.0 50


Goa 68.3 3.3 8.3 20.00 60 45.8 0.0 12.5 41.7 24

TTTTTable 3.7 (Contd...)able 3.7 (Contd...)able 3.7 (Contd...)able 3.7 (Contd...)able 3.7 (Contd...)

37


3.1.53.1.53.1.53.1.53.1.5 RRRRReligious Affiliation of Eeligious Affiliation of Eeligious Affiliation of Eeligious Affiliation of Eeligious Affiliation of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

The majority of the elected representatives covered in the survey were Hindu (86%). Among the rest, 7 percent wereMuslims, 3 percent Christians, 3 percent Sikhs and 1 percent in the ‘others’ category. As presented in Table 3.9 nodifference was observed by gender or position as far as the religious background of elected representatives is concerned.

TTTTTable 3.9: Dable 3.9: Dable 3.9: Dable 3.9: Dable 3.9: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Rata on Rata on Rata on Rata on Religion of Eeligion of Eeligion of Eeligion of Eeligion of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives (%)es (%)es (%)es (%)es (%)

HHHHHinduinduinduinduindu MMMMMuslimuslimuslimuslimuslim ChristianChristianChristianChristianChristian SSSSSikhikhikhikhikh JJJJJainainainainain BBBBBuddhistuddhistuddhistuddhistuddhist OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNN

BBBBBy Gy Gy Gy Gy Genderenderenderenderender

EWR 85.5 6.4 3.6 3.3 0.2 0.8 0.1 4880

EMR 85.7 6.7 3.0 2.6 0.2 1.5 0.2 1838

BBBBBy Py Py Py Py Positionositionositionositionosition

Pradhan- male 86.3 6.7 2.6 2.2 0.2 1.7 0.2 461

Pradhan- female 84.8 6.1 4.2 4.0 0.2 0.8 907

Total Pradhans 85.3 6.3 3.7 3.4 0.2 1.1 0.1 1,368

Ward member-male 85.5 6.8 3.1 2.8 0.2 1.5 0.2 1,377

Ward member-female 85.7 6.5 3.5 3.2 0.2 0.8 0.2 3,973

Total Ward Members 85.6 6.6 3.4 3.1 0.2 1.0 0.2 5,350

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 85.685.685.685.685.6 6.56.56.56.56.5 3.43.43.43.43.4 3.13.13.13.13.1 0.20.20.20.20.2 1.01.01.01.01.0 0.10.10.10.10.1 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

A Member Addressing Zilla Parishad Meeting in Rajpura Gram Panchayat, Udupi District, Karnataka

38


In Tripura, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Uttarakhand, all the interviewed Pradhans were found to be Hindus (Table 3.10).Among Ward Members, the proportion of Hindus was more than 90 percent in Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Muslim Pradhans were concentrated more in Assam,West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala. Muslim Ward Members were in larger proportion in Assam and Uttar Pradesh(Table 3.11).

TTTTTable 3.10: Dable 3.10: Dable 3.10: Dable 3.10: Dable 3.10: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Rata on Rata on Rata on Rata on Religion of Peligion of Peligion of Peligion of Peligion of Pradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – bradhans – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

P P P P Pradhan - femaleradhan - femaleradhan - femaleradhan - femaleradhan - female P P P P Pradhan - maleradhan - maleradhan - maleradhan - maleradhan - male

HHHHHinduinduinduinduindu MMMMMuslimuslimuslimuslimuslim ChristianChristianChristianChristianChristian S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B* NNNNN HHHHHinduinduinduinduindu MMMMMuslimuslimuslimuslimuslim ChristianChristianChristianChristianChristian S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B* OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNN

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 84.884.884.884.884.8 6.16.16.16.16.1 4.24.24.24.24.2 5.05.05.05.05.0 907907907907907 86.386.386.386.386.3 6.76.76.76.76.7 2.62.62.62.62.6 4.14.14.14.14.1 0.20.20.20.20.2 461461461461461

Andhra Pradesh 89.1 0.0 10.9 0.0 64 90.6 3.1 6.3 0.0 0.0 32

Karnataka 100.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 32 75.0 25.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 16

Tamil Nadu 78.1 0.0 21.9 0.0 32 100.0 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 16

Kerala 65.6 12.5 21.9 0.0 32 75.0 12.5 12.5 0.0 0.0 16

Arunachal Pradesh 75.0 0.0 18.8 6.3 16 50.0 0.00 50.0 0.0 0.0 8

Assam 56.3 31.3 12.5 0.0 32 75.0 25.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 16

Manipur 93.8 6.3 0.00 0.00 16 87.5 0.00 0.00 0.00 12.5 8

Sikkim 54.5 0.0 18.2 27.3 11 38.5 0.00 0.00 61.54 0.00 13

Tripura 100.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 16 100.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8

West Bengal 76.6 21.9 1.6 0.0 64 75.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 32

Orissa 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 32 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16

Bihar 89.1 10.9 0.0 0.00 64 90.6 9.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 32

Madhya Pradesh 98.4 0.0 0.0 1.56 64 96.9 0.0 0.0 3.1 0.0 32

Chhattisgarh 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 32 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16

Gujarat 90.9 6.1 0.0 3.03 33 93.3 6.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 15

Maharashtra 90.6 1.6 1.6 6.3 64 93.8 3.1 3.1 0.0 0.0 32

Rajasthan 85.9 6.3 0.0 7.81 64 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 32

Haryana 87.5 0.0 0.0 12.50 32 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16

Punjab 18.2 6.1 0.0 75.76 33 33.3 0.0 0.0 66.7 0.0 15

Uttar Pradesh 89.4 10.6 0.0 0.00 94 86.0 14.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 50

Uttarakhand 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 33 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15

Himachal Pradesh 96.9 0.0 0.0 3.13 32 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16

Goa 60.0 0.0 40.0 0.0 15 66.7 0.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 9

* S=Sikh; J=Jain; B=Buddha

39


TTTTTable 3.11: Dable 3.11: Dable 3.11: Dable 3.11: Dable 3.11: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Rata on Rata on Rata on Rata on Religion of eligion of eligion of eligion of eligion of WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members –bembers –bembers –bembers –bembers –by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


HHHHHinduinduinduinduindu MMMMMuslimuslimuslimuslimuslim ChristianChristianChristianChristianChristian S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B*S/J/B* OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNN HHHHHinduinduinduinduindu MMMMMuslimuslimuslimuslimuslim ChristianChristianChristianChristianChristian S/J/ B*S/J/ B*S/J/ B*S/J/ B*S/J/ B* OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNN

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 85.785.785.785.785.7 6.56.56.56.56.5 3.53.53.53.53.5 4.24.24.24.24.2 0.20.20.20.20.2 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973 85.585.585.585.585.5 6.86.86.86.86.8 3.13.13.13.13.1 4.54.54.54.54.5 0.20.20.20.20.2 1,3771,3771,3771,3771,377

Andhra Pradesh 89.8 0.71 9.2 0.4 0.00 283 87.1 2.0 10.9 0.0 0.00 101

Karnataka 92.4 4.86 1.39 0.69 0.69 144 85.4 8.3 4.17 2.08 0.00 48

Tamil Nadu 88.2 0.69 11.1 0.0 0.00 144 83.3 2.08 14.58 0.00 0.00 48

Kerala 67.8 13.3 18.2 0.7 0.00 143 77.6 8.2 14.3 0.0 0.00 49

Arunachal Pradesh 63.8 0.00 31.0 3.4 1.72 58 69.6 0.00 26.1 0.0 4.35 23

Assam 61.8 34.7 2.8 0.7 0.00 144 58.3 39.6 2.08 0.00 0.00 48

Manipur 84.5 8.5 2.82 0.00 4.23 71 88.0 4.00 0.00 0.00 8.0 25

Sikkim 69.0 0.00 4.8 23.8 2.38 42 50.0 0.00 0.00 50.00 0.00 24

Tripura 94.4 5.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 71 96.0 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 25

West Bengal 83.9 12.9 3.2 0.0 0.00 280 78.6 20.4 1.02 0.00 0.00 98

Orissa 99.3 0.00 0.69 0.00 0.00 145 97.9 0.00 2.13 0.00 0.00 47

Bihar 88.5 11.1 0.35 0.00 0.00 287 88.7 11.3 0.00 0.00 0.00 97

Madhya Pradesh 95.5 2.77 0.69 1.04 0.00 289 100.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 94

Chhattisgarh 99.3 0.70 0.00 0.00 0.00 143 98.0 0.00 0.00 2.04 0.00 49

Gujarat 91.6 6.9 0.00 1.53 0.00 131 91.5 6.4 0.00 2.13 0.00 47

Maharashtra 89.6 4.7 0.0 5.8 0.00 278 88.7 2.1 0.0 9.3 0.00 97

Rajasthan 92.0 5.6 0.70 1.75 0.00 286 91.8 7.14 0.00 1.02 0.00 98

Haryana 90.9 0.70 0.00 8.39 0.00 143 93.6 0.00 0.00 6.38 0.00 47

Punjab 19.4 0.0 0.75 79.85 0.00 134 29.8 0.00 0.00 70.21 0.00 47

Uttar Pradesh 87.0 12.5 0.00 0.46 0.00 432 87.5 12.5 0.00 0.00 0.00 144

Uttarakhand 100.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 125 100.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 50

Himachal Pradesh 99.3 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.00 140 100.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 47

Goa 55.0 0.00 43.3 1.7 0.00 60 70.8 0.00 29.2 0.0 0.00 24


3.1.63.1.63.1.63.1.63.1.6 MMMMMarital Sarital Sarital Sarital Sarital Status of Etatus of Etatus of Etatus of Etatus of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

A large proportion (over 91%) of elected representatives interviewed was married (Table 3.12). There is no majordifference by position or gender. Among the women, 7 percent were widows, as compared to 2 percent widowers amongmen. The state-wise data also exhibits a similar pattern.

40


TTTTTable 3.12: Dable 3.12: Dable 3.12: Dable 3.12: Dable 3.12: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Mata on Mata on Mata on Mata on Marital Sarital Sarital Sarital Sarital Status of Etatus of Etatus of Etatus of Etatus of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives (%)es (%)es (%)es (%)es (%)

MMMMMarriedarriedarriedarriedarried UUUUUnmarriednmarriednmarriednmarriednmarried DDDDDeseresereseresereserted/Sted/Sted/Sted/Sted/Separated/eparated/eparated/eparated/eparated/ WWWWWidoidoidoidoidow/Ww/Ww/Ww/Ww/Widoidoidoidoidowwwwwererererer NNNNNDDDDDivivivivivorororororcedcedcedcedced

GGGGGender wiseender wiseender wiseender wiseender wise

EWR 90.8 1.1 1.4 6.8 4880

EMR 91.3 5.5 1.2 2.0 1838


Pradhan- male 92.0 4.8 1.1 2.2 461

Pradhan- female 90.6 1.2 1.8 6.4 907

Total Pradhans 91.1 2.4 1.5 5.0 1,368

Ward member-male 91.1 5.8 1.2 1.9 1,377

Ward member-female 90.9 1.0 1.2 6.8 3,973

Total Ward Members 90.9 2.3 1.2 5.6 5,350

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 91.091.091.091.091.0 2.32.32.32.32.3 1.31.31.31.31.3 5.45.45.45.45.4 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

3.1.73.1.73.1.73.1.73.1.7 EEEEEconomic Pconomic Pconomic Pconomic Pconomic Prrrrrofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

The economic profile of the elected representatives was discerned by collecting information regarding their ‘economicstatus’, i.e., Above (APL) or Below Poverty Line (BPL) as per the Village List; their ‘ability to meet annual food consumptionneeds’, and, finally, their ‘change in income over time’.

Elected Women Representatives in Chhattisgarh State Sharing their Experiences at the Panchayat Mahila Shakti Abhiyan

41


The economic status of more than half (54%) of the elected representatives was above the poverty line (APL) as per theVillage List reported by the respondents. There was a higher proportion of APL individuals in the case of Pradhans(72%), as compared to Ward Members (50%). Almost two-fifths (38%) of all EWRs were, reportedly, below thepoverty line, the majority of this category being Ward Members (41%) rather than Pradhans (24%). This indicates,overall, that the Pradhans are better off than other panchayat members. However, not much difference was observedbetween the economic status of male and female elected representatives (Table 3.13).

TTTTTable 3.13: Dable 3.13: Dable 3.13: Dable 3.13: Dable 3.13: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Eata on Eata on Eata on Eata on Economic Sconomic Sconomic Sconomic Sconomic Status rtatus rtatus rtatus rtatus reporeporeporeporeported on the Bted on the Bted on the Bted on the Bted on the Basis of asis of asis of asis of asis of VVVVVillage List (%)illage List (%)illage List (%)illage List (%)illage List (%)

APLAPLAPLAPLAPL BPLBPLBPLBPLBPL NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot awareeeee NNNNN


EWR 52.7 38.1 9.1 4880

EMR 57.9 36.5 5.7 1838


Pradhan- male 75.5 22.3 2.2 461

Pradhan- female 70.8 25.0 4.2 907

Total Pradhans 72.4 24.1 3.5 1,368

Ward member-male 52.0 41.2 6.8 1,377

Ward member-female 48.6 41.1 10.2 3,973

Total Ward Members 49.5 41.1 9.4 5,350

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 54.254.254.254.254.2 37.737.737.737.737.7 8.28.28.28.28.2 67186718671867186718

The concentration of APL female Pradhans was higher than 50 percent in almost all states except Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Manipur, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh. The same was seen in the case of male Pradhans(Table 3.14).

TTTTTable 3.14: Dable 3.14: Dable 3.14: Dable 3.14: Dable 3.14: Distribution of data on economic status of Pistribution of data on economic status of Pistribution of data on economic status of Pistribution of data on economic status of Pistribution of data on economic status of Pradhan rradhan rradhan rradhan rradhan reporeporeporeporeported on the basis of ted on the basis of ted on the basis of ted on the basis of ted on the basis of VVVVVillage List – billage List – billage List – billage List – billage List – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

P P P P Pradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- female PPPPPradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- male

APLAPLAPLAPLAPL BPLBPLBPLBPLBPL NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot awareeeee NNNNN APLAPLAPLAPLAPL BPLBPLBPLBPLBPL NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot awareeeee NNNNN


Andhra Pradesh 29.7 50.0 20.3 64 34.4 56.3 9.4 32

Karnataka 37.5 62.5 0.0 32 62.5 37.5 0.0 16

Tamil Nadu 65.6 28.1 6.3 32 62.5 37.5 0.0 16

Kerala 59.4 40.6 0.0 32 75.0 25.0 0.0 16


Assam 100.0 0.0 0.0 32 100.0 0.0 0.0 16

Manipur 37.5 43.8 18.8 16 25.0 37.5 37.5 8

Sikkim 100.0 0.0 0.0 11 100.0 0.0 0.0 13

Tripura 37.5 62.5 0.0 16 25.0 75.0 0.0 8

West Bengal 82.8 15.6 1.6 64 87.5 12.5 0.0 32

Orissa 65.6 34.4 0.0 32 62.5 37.5 0.0 16

Bihar 75.0 23.4 1.6 64 75.0 21.9 3.1 32

Madhya Pradesh 57.8 37.5 4.7 64 62.5 37.5 0.0 32

Chhattisgarh 46.9 50.0 3.1 32 43.8 50.0 6.3 16

42


TTTTTable 3.14 (Contd..)able 3.14 (Contd..)able 3.14 (Contd..)able 3.14 (Contd..)able 3.14 (Contd..)

P P P P Pradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- female PPPPPradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- maleradhan- male


Gujarat 78.8 18.2 3.0 33 80.0 20.0 0.0 15

Maharashtra 64.1 31.3 4.7 64 81.3 15.6 3.1 32

Rajasthan 95.3 3.1 1.6 64 96.9 3.1 0.0 32

Haryana 87.5 12.5 0.0 32 100.0 0.0 0.0 16

Punjab 78.8 12.1 9.1 33 93.3 6.7 0.0 15

Uttar Pradesh 81.9 11.7 6.4 94 86.0 14.0 0.0 50

Uttarakhand 81.8 18.2 0.0 33 100.0 0.0 0.0 15


Goa 100.0 0.0 0.0 15 100.0 0.0 0.0 9

In the majority of states, there were more APL respondents than BPL, but the gender gap between the two categories ofAPL/BPL was not as high as in the case of Pradhans.

TTTTTable 3.15: Dable 3.15: Dable 3.15: Dable 3.15: Dable 3.15: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Eata on Eata on Eata on Eata on Economic Sconomic Sconomic Sconomic Sconomic Status of tatus of tatus of tatus of tatus of WWWWWararararard members Rd members Rd members Rd members Rd members Reporeporeporeporeported on the Bted on the Bted on the Bted on the Bted on the Basis of asis of asis of asis of asis of VVVVVillage List – billage List – billage List – billage List – billage List – byyyyySSSSState (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)



All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 48.648.648.648.648.6 41.141.141.141.141.1 10.210.210.210.210.2 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973 52.052.052.052.052.0 41.241.241.241.241.2 6.86.86.86.86.8 1,3771,3771,3771,3771,377

Andhra Pradesh 7.4 47.0 45.6 283 6.9 62.4 30.7 101

Karnataka 46.5 45.8 7.6 144 68.8 27.1 4.2 48

Tamil Nadu 17.4 75.7 6.9 144 20.8 75.0 4.2 48

Kerala 58.7 41.3 0.00 143 46.9 53.1 0.0 49


Assam 51.4 41.0 7.6 144 41.7 52.1 6.3 48

Manipur 23.9 50.7 25.4 71 12.0 60.0 28.0 25

Sikkim 81.0 19.0 0.0 42 66.7 33.3 0.0 24

Tripura 26.8 73.2 0.0 71 32.0 68.0 0.0 25

West Bengal 60.4 36.8 2.9 280 84.7 14.3 1.0 98

Orissa 31.7 66.9 1.4 145 21.3 78.7 0.0 47

Bihar 21.3 65.5 13.2 287 25.8 56.7 17.5 97

Madhya Pradesh 40.8 45.7 13.5 289 44.7 50.0 5.3 94

Chhattisgarh 35.7 53.8 10.5 143 36.7 49.0 14.3 49

Gujarat 65.6 32.1 2.3 131 74.5 25.5 0.0 47

Maharashtra 65.8 28.4 5.8 278 78.4 19.6 2.1 97

Rajasthan 76.2 21.0 2.8 286 74.5 25.5 0.0 98

Haryana 76.2 23.1 0.7 143 70.2 27.7 2.1 47

Punjab 81.3 17.2 1.5 134 78.7 19.1 2.1 47

Uttar Pradesh 47.2 34.3 18.5 432 52.8 38.2 9.0 144

Uttarakhand 63.2 36.0 0.8 125 60.0 40.0 0.0 50


Goa 93.3 6.7 0.0 60 91.7 8.3 0.0 24

43


Approximately half the elected representatives reported neither surplus nor deficit in their annual food consumptions.In fact, food availability was surplus for around one-third of them. Only 12 percent reported inadequate food in somemonths of the year; and the proportion of such cases was higher in the case of Ward Members (14%) than Pradhans(5%) (Table 3.16).

TTTTTable 3.16: Dable 3.16: Dable 3.16: Dable 3.16: Dable 3.16: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Eata on Eata on Eata on Eata on Extent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Food Aood Aood Aood Aood Adequacy (%)dequacy (%)dequacy (%)dequacy (%)dequacy (%)

NNNNNot adequateot adequateot adequateot adequateot adequate NNNNNot adequateot adequateot adequateot adequateot adequate NNNNNeithereithereithereithereither SSSSSurplus/urplus/urplus/urplus/urplus/ NNNNNthrthrthrthrthroughoutoughoutoughoutoughoutoughout thrthrthrthrthrough someough someough someough someough some deficit nordeficit nordeficit nordeficit nordeficit nor AAAAAdequatedequatedequatedequatedequate

the ythe ythe ythe ythe yearearearearear months months months months months surplussurplussurplussurplussurplus


EWR 3.3 13.5 51.0 32.3 4880

EMR 3.0 9.7 47.9 39.3 1838


Pradhan- male 2.6 4.1 32.5 60.7 461

Pradhan- female 2.1 5.4 38.7 53.8 907

Total Pradhans 2.3 5.0 36.6 56.1 1,368

Ward member-male 3.2 11.5 53.1 32.2 1,377



TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 3.23.23.23.23.2 12.412.412.412.412.4 50.150.150.150.150.1 34.234.234.234.234.2 67186718671867186718

The proportion reporting surplus availability of food annually was higher in the case of Pradhans (56%), which is in linewith economic status on the basis of APL/BPL studied in the previous section. Differentiated by gender, annual foodavailability was found to be better among the male representatives than their female counterparts.

Inadequacy of food was reported relatively higher in the north-eastern states (Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur),Orissa and Bihar in case of Pradhans. Among Ward Members, apart from these north-eastern states, inadequacy of foodwas also reported in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh (Tables 3.17 and 3.18)

TTTTTable 3.17: Dable 3.17: Dable 3.17: Dable 3.17: Dable 3.17: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Eata on Eata on Eata on Eata on Extent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Food Aood Aood Aood Aood Adequacy for Pdequacy for Pdequacy for Pdequacy for Pdequacy for Pradhans –bradhans –bradhans –bradhans –bradhans –by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


NNNNNototototot AAAAAdequatedequatedequatedequatedequate NNNNNeithereithereithereithereither SSSSSurplusurplusurplusurplusurplus NNNNNototototot AAAAAdequatedequatedequatedequatedequate NNNNNeithereithereithereithereither SSSSSurplusurplusurplusurplusurplusadequateadequateadequateadequateadequate food infood infood infood infood in deficitdeficitdeficitdeficitdeficit foodfoodfoodfoodfood adequateadequateadequateadequateadequate food infood infood infood infood in deficitdeficitdeficitdeficitdeficit foodfoodfoodfoodfood

foodfoodfoodfoodfood somesomesomesomesome nornornornornor NNNNN foodfoodfoodfoodfood somesomesomesomesome nornornornornor NNNNNmonthsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonths surplussurplussurplussurplussurplus monthsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonths surplussurplussurplussurplussurplus

(1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) (4)(4)(4)(4)(4) (1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) (4)(4)(4)(4)(4)


Andhra Pradesh 0.0 4.7 28.1 67.2 64 0.0 3.1 28.1 68.8 32

Karnataka 3.1 9.4 71.9 15.6 32 6.3 6.3 37.5 50.0 16

Tamil Nadu 0.0 3.1 31.3 65.6 32 0.0 0.0 37.5 62.5 16

Kerala 3.1 0.0 87.5 9.4 32 6.3 0.0 81.3 12.5 16


Assam 0.0 0.0 37.5 62.5 32 0.0 0.0 56.3 43.8 16

Manipur 6.3 25.0 50.0 18.8 16 25.0 12.5 50.0 12.5 8

Sikkim 0.0 0.0 36.4 63.6 11 0.0 23.1 38.5 38.5 13

Tripura 0.0 25.0 50.0 25.0 16 0.0 12.5 62.5 25.0 8

West Bengal 1.6 4.7 40.6 53.1 64 3.1 3.1 37.5 56.3 32

44



(1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) (4)(4)(4)(4)(4) (1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) (4)(4)(4)(4)(4)

Orissa 3.1 9.4 53.1 34.4 32 0.0 12.5 43.8 43.8 16

Bihar 1.6 15.6 23.4 59.4 64 3.1 3.1 34.4 59.4 32

Madhya Pradesh 3.1 7.8 45.3 43.8 64 6.3 9.4 34.4 50.0 32

Chhattisgarh 0.0 6.3 37.5 56.3 32 0.0 6.3 31.3 62.5 16

Gujarat 0.0 3.0 24.2 72.7 33 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 15

Maharashtra 3.1 1.6 37.5 57.8 64 0.0 3.1 21.9 75.0 32

Rajasthan 4.7 1.6 39.1 54.7 64 3.1 3.1 34.4 59.4 32

Haryana 3.13 0.0 34.4 62.5 32 0.0 0.0 12.5 87.5 16

Punjab 6.1 0.0 18.2 75.8 33 6.7 0.0 0.0 93.3 15

Uttar Pradesh 2.1 4.3 36.2 57.4 94 0.0 2.0 30.0 68.0 50

Uttarakhand 0.0 9.1 42.4 48.5 33 0.0 0.0 33.3 66.7 15


Goa 0.0 0.0 20.0 80.0 15 11.1 0.0 11.1 77.8 9

1=Not adequate food throughout the year 2=Adequate food in some months of the year

3=Neither deficit not surplus 4=Surplus food throughout the year

Table 3.18 shows considerable variations in this regard. For instance, the proportion of female Ward Members reportinginadequacy of food in some months or throughout the year was highest in Manipur (41%) followed by Bihar (38%),Madhya Pradesh (37%) and Orissa (26%).

TTTTTable 3.18: Dable 3.18: Dable 3.18: Dable 3.18: Dable 3.18: Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Distribution of Data on Eata on Eata on Eata on Eata on Extent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Fxtent of Food Aood Aood Aood Aood Adequacy for dequacy for dequacy for dequacy for dequacy for WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members –bembers –bembers –bembers –bembers –by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member- femaleember- femaleember- femaleember- femaleember- female WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member- maleember- maleember- maleember- maleember- male

NNNNNototototot AAAAAdequatedequatedequatedequatedequate NNNNNeithereithereithereithereither SSSSSurplusurplusurplusurplusurplus NNNNNototototot AAAAAdequatedequatedequatedequatedequate NNNNNeithereithereithereithereither SSSSSurplusurplusurplusurplusurplusadequateadequateadequateadequateadequate food infood infood infood infood in deficitdeficitdeficitdeficitdeficit foodfoodfoodfoodfood adequateadequateadequateadequateadequate food infood infood infood infood in deficitdeficitdeficitdeficitdeficit foodfoodfoodfoodfood

foodfoodfoodfoodfood somesomesomesomesome nornornornornor NNNNN foodfoodfoodfoodfood somesomesomesomesome nornornornornor NNNNNmonthsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonths surplussurplussurplussurplussurplus monthsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonths surplussurplussurplussurplussurplus

(1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) (4)(4)(4)(4)(4) (1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) (4)(4)(4)(4)(4)


Andhra Pradesh 3.2 12.4 54.4 30.0 283 7.9 3.0 61.4 27.7 101

Karnataka 7.6 7.6 50.0 34.7 144 0.0 10.4 54.2 35.4 48

Tamil Nadu 2.8 14.6 44.4 38.2 144 0.0 8.3 52.1 39.6 48

Kerala 1.4 1.4 90.9 6.3 143 0.0 6.1 83.7 10.2 49


Assam 4.2 16.7 61.1 18.1 144 4.2 10.4 70.8 14.6 48

Manipur 12.7 26.8 50.7 9.9 71 16.0 40.0 36.0 8.0 25

Sikkim 2.4 2.4 57.1 38.1 42 4.2 0.00 45.8 50.0 24

Tripura 14.1 9.9 56.3 19.7 71 4.0 12.0 56.0 28.0 25

West Bengal 2.5 6.4 57.9 33.2 280 6.1 5.1 42.9 45.9 98

Orissa 2.8 22.8 46.2 28.3 145 4.3 6.4 55.3 34.0 47

Bihar 3.1 33.8 54.7 8.4 287 1.0 24.7 67.0 7.2 97

Madhya Pradesh 8.7 29.8 40.1 21.5 289 8.5 18.1 52.1 21.3 94

Chhattisgarh 0.7 28.7 52.4 18.2 143 0.0 10.2 65.3 24.5 49

Gujarat 0.8 5.3 24.4 69.5 131 0.0 10.6 23.4 66.0 47

45



(1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) (4)(4)(4)(4)(4) (1)(1)(1)(1)(1) (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) (3)(3)(3)(3)(3) (4)(4)(4)(4)(4)

Maharashtra 0.7 2.2 57.2 39.9 278 0.0 4.1 44.3 51.5 97

Rajasthan 1.7 19.6 56.6 22.0 286 2.0 20.4 55.1 22.4 98

Haryana 0.00 9.1 64.3 26.6 143 0.0 6.4 63.8 29.8 47

Punjab 2.2 4.5 43.3 50.0 134 0.0 2.1 29.8 68.1 47

Uttar Pradesh 5.6 21.8 52.1 20.6 432 4.2 16.7 48.6 30.6 144

Uttarakhand 1.6 14.4 56.8 27.2 125 0.0 12.0 62.0 26.0 50


Goa 1.7 0.0 26.7 71.7 60 0.0 0.0 25.0 75.0 24

1=Not adequate food throughout the year 2=Adequate food in some months of the year

3=Neither deficit not surplus 4=Surplus food throughout the year

Among elected representatives, 54 percent reported increase in incomes over the past 10 years. This was significantlyhigher among Pradhans (68%) than the Ward Members (51%). On the other hand, the income remained the same in alower proportion of Pradhans (23%), in comparison to, Ward Members (37 %), indicating that the increase in incomeover past 10 years was more in the case of Pradhans (Table 3.19). Between male and female elected representatives, theincrease in income over the past 10 years was almost the same.

TTTTTable 3.19: Pable 3.19: Pable 3.19: Pable 3.19: Pable 3.19: Perererererceivceivceivceivceived change in income oed change in income oed change in income oed change in income oed change in income ovvvvver the last 10 yer the last 10 yer the last 10 yer the last 10 yer the last 10 years (%)ears (%)ears (%)ears (%)ears (%)

IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreasedeasedeasedeasedeased DDDDDecrecrecrecrecreasedeasedeasedeasedeased RRRRRemained sameemained sameemained sameemained sameemained same NNNNN


EWR 53.8 10.1 36.0 4880

EMR 56.0 14.3 29.7 1838


Pradhan- male 67.7 11.9 20.4 461

Pradhan- female 68.4 6.9 24.7 907

Total Pradhans 68.1 8.6 23.2 1,368

Ward member-male 52.1 15.0 32.8 1,377



TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 54.4 11.3 34.3 6718

Across the states, the increase in income over the past 10 years among Pradhans was most marked in Himachal Pradeshfollowed by Goa. This was also reported by a large proportion (over 70%) of both male and female Pradhans inMaharashtra, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Assam. A similar trend was observed in four states (Orissa,Kerala, Haryana and Goa) among female Ward Members and in three states (Orissa, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh)among male Ward Members (Table 3.20 & 3.21).

46


TTTTTable 3.20: Pable 3.20: Pable 3.20: Pable 3.20: Pable 3.20: Perererererceivceivceivceivceived Change in Ied Change in Ied Change in Ied Change in Ied Change in Income among Pncome among Pncome among Pncome among Pncome among Pradhans oradhans oradhans oradhans oradhans ovvvvver last 10 er last 10 er last 10 er last 10 er last 10 YYYYYears – bears – bears – bears – bears – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreasedeasedeasedeasedeased DDDDDecrecrecrecrecreasedeasedeasedeasedeased RRRRRemainedemainedemainedemainedemained NNNNN IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreasedeasedeasedeasedeased DDDDDecrecrecrecrecreasedeasedeasedeasedeased RRRRRemainedemainedemainedemainedemained NNNNNsamesamesamesamesame samesamesamesamesame


Andhra Pradesh 42.2 14.1 43.8 64 46.9 28.1 25.0 32

Karnataka 65.6 0.0 34.4 32 75.0 6.3 18.8 16

Tamil Nadu 34.4 9.4 56.3 32 43.8 6.3 50.0 16

Kerala 84.4 9.4 6.3 32 62.5 25.0 12.5 16


Assam 75.0 9.4 15.6 32 75.0 12.5 12.5 16

Manipur 37.5 25.0 37.5 16 25.0 0.0 75.0 8

Sikkim 54.5 9.1 36.4 11 61.5 0.0 38.5 13

Tripura 50.0 18.8 31.3 16 12.5 25.0 62.5 8

West Bengal 71.9 4.7 23.4 64 53.1 25.0 21.9 32

Orissa 93.8 0.0 6.3 32 68.8 12.5 18.8 16

Bihar 56.3 10.9 32.8 64 59.4 21.9 18.8 32

Madhya Pradesh 70.3 3.1 26.6 64 68.8 9.4 21.9 32

Chhattisgarh 84.4 6.3 9.4 32 62.5 12.5 25.0 16

Gujarat 48.5 3.0 48.5 33 66.7 6.7 26.7 15

Maharashtra 70.3 9.4 20.3 64 75.0 6.3 18.8 32

Rajasthan 79.7 6.3 14.1 64 71.9 6.3 21.9 32

Haryana 93.8 3.1 3.1 32 81.3 18.8 16

Punjab 78.8 12.1 9.1 33 66.7 20.0 13.3 15

Uttar Pradesh 72.3 4.3 23.4 94 90.0 6.0 4.0 50

Uttarakhand 54.5 3.0 42.4 33 73.3 13.3 13.3 15


Goa 86.7 0.0 13.3 15 77.8 0.0 22.2 9

3.2 P3.2 P3.2 P3.2 P3.2 Prrrrrofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Eofile of Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-Elected lected lected lected lected WWWWWomen Romen Romen Romen Romen Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

As discussed in the previous chapter, the primary objective of interviewing ex-women representatives was to gain aninsight into the reasons that prevented them from continuing their political careers. So, the questionnaire for themfocused on the constraints or challenges faced while contesting a panchayat election, and also for probing their personalmotivations and external factors. Interviews – either of ex-Pradhans or ex-Ward Members – were conducted in thesample Gram Panchayats. There was no fixed sample for ex-Pradhans or ex-Ward Members separately. Hence, thedemographic profile and other aggregate findings have been presented for the former representatives as a whole. Across23 states, 1,302 such women were covered in the study, of which 168 were ex-Pradhans and 1,134 were ex-WardMembers.

47


TTTTTable 3.21: Pable 3.21: Pable 3.21: Pable 3.21: Pable 3.21: Perererererceivceivceivceivceived Change in Ied Change in Ied Change in Ied Change in Ied Change in Incomes among ncomes among ncomes among ncomes among ncomes among WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members oembers oembers oembers oembers ovvvvver last 10 yer last 10 yer last 10 yer last 10 yer last 10 years – bears – bears – bears – bears – by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member- femaleember- femaleember- femaleember- femaleember- female WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member- maleember- maleember- maleember- maleember- male

IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreasedeasedeasedeasedeased DDDDDecrecrecrecrecreasedeasedeasedeasedeased RRRRRemainedemainedemainedemainedemained NNNNN IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreasedeasedeasedeasedeased DDDDDecrecrecrecrecreasedeasedeasedeasedeased RRRRRemainedemainedemainedemainedemained NNNNNsamesamesamesamesame samesamesamesamesame

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 50.550.550.550.550.5 10.910.910.910.910.9 38.638.638.638.638.6 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973 52.152.152.152.152.1 15.015.015.015.015.0 32.832.832.832.832.8 1,3771,3771,3771,3771,377

Andhra Pradesh 20.8 10.6 68.6 283 21.8 17.8 60.4 101

Karnataka 49.3 11.8 38.9 144 47.9 20.8 31.3 48

Tamil Nadu 42.4 5.6 52.1 144 56.3 4.2 39.6 48

Kerala 72.0 7.7 20.3 143 53.1 20.4 26.5 49


Assam 53.5 13.2 33.3 144 54.2 16.7 29.2 48

Manipur 38.0 16.9 45.1 71 40.0 24.0 36.0 25

Sikkim 21.4 2.4 76.2 42 50.0 12.5 37.5 24

Tripura 50.7 16.9 32.4 71 32.0 24.0 44.0 25

West Bengal 54.6 9.6 35.7 280 55.1 17.3 27.6 98

Orissa 75.9 7.6 16.6 145 78.7 8.5 12.8 47

Bihar 22.6 21.3 56.1 287 33.0 20.6 46.4 97

Madhya Pradesh 51.9 8.0 40.1 289 53.2 18.1 28.7 94

Chhattisgarh 52.4 12.6 35.0 143 49.0 12.2 38.8 49

Gujarat 55.0 6.9 38.2 131 51.1 12.8 36.2 47

Maharashtra 55.8 11.9 32.4 278 71.1 8.2 20.6 97

Rajasthan 64.0 12.9 23.1 286 54.1 17.3 28.6 98

Haryana 73.4 9.1 17.5 143 66.0 6.4 27.7 47

Punjab 62.7 10.4 26.9 134 63.8 21.3 14.9 47

Uttar Pradesh 43.8 9.7 46.5 432 50.7 15.3 34.0 144

Uttarakhand 44.8 11.2 44.0 125 46.0 16.0 38.0 50


Goa 70.0 6.7 23.3 60 58.3 12.5 29.2 24

As observed in the case of serving elected representatives, 86 per cent of the ex-women representatives across India wereHindus and 7 per cent were Muslim. The remaining were Christian, Sikh, Jain or Buddhist. Their mean age was 45.5years. The proportion that had passed middle school or above was 37 percent, but around one-fourth was illiterate. Themajority of the interviewed ex-representatives (86%) were married while 13 percent were widows. When occupationswere considered, 42 percent of ex-women representatives were found to be engaged in farming, 23 percent in labourworks, 6 percent had small businesses while 29 percent were in other (unspecified) occupations (Table 3.22).

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TTTTTable 3.22: Sable 3.22: Sable 3.22: Sable 3.22: Sable 3.22: Socio-Docio-Docio-Docio-Docio-Demographic Pemographic Pemographic Pemographic Pemographic Prrrrrofile of ex-Eofile of ex-Eofile of ex-Eofile of ex-Eofile of ex-EWRs (%)WRs (%)WRs (%)WRs (%)WRs (%)

EEEEEx-Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-EWR (N=1302)WR (N=1302)WR (N=1302)WR (N=1302)WR (N=1302)

SSSSSocial Categorocial Categorocial Categorocial Categorocial Categoryyyyy General 30.9SC 24.4ST 10.2OBC 34.5

RRRRReligioneligioneligioneligioneligion Hindu 86.4Muslim 6.9Christian 2.7S/J/B* 4.0

MMMMMarital Sarital Sarital Sarital Sarital Statustatustatustatustatus Married 85.5Unmarried 1.1Divorced/ Separated/ Deserted 0.6Widow 12.9

EEEEEducationducationducationducationducation Illiterate 25.4Upto primary school 22.0Upto middle school 15.9Middle school & above 36.6


As regards their economic profile, two-fifths of Ex-EWRs interviewed were living in ‘pucca’ houses, while one-fifth had‘kutcha’ houses. Their economic status as per the Village List revealed that 54 percent of former women representativeshad APL status. On food availability, around half of them reported neither deficit nor surplus in meeting their annualconsumption needs. The proportion that indicated surplus food was 30 percent. Among the remaining, food was notadequately available either throughout the year or during some months (Table 3.23).

TTTTTable 3.23: Eable 3.23: Eable 3.23: Eable 3.23: Eable 3.23: Economic Pconomic Pconomic Pconomic Pconomic Prrrrrofile of ex-Eofile of ex-Eofile of ex-Eofile of ex-Eofile of ex-EWRs (%)WRs (%)WRs (%)WRs (%)WRs (%)

EEEEEx- Ex- Ex- Ex- Ex- Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-EWR (N=1302)WR (N=1302)WR (N=1302)WR (N=1302)WR (N=1302)

TTTTType of houseype of houseype of houseype of houseype of house Kutcha 21.4Semi-Pucca 36.4Pucca 42.2

EEEEEconomic Sconomic Sconomic Sconomic Sconomic Status as per tatus as per tatus as per tatus as per tatus as per VVVVVillage Listillage Listillage Listillage Listillage List APL 54BPL 38.6Not aware 7.4

AAAAAbility to meet Annual Fbility to meet Annual Fbility to meet Annual Fbility to meet Annual Fbility to meet Annual Food Consumption Nood Consumption Nood Consumption Nood Consumption Nood Consumption Needseedseedseedseeds Not adequate food throughout year 4.3Not adequate food in some months of year 17.3Neither deficit nor surplus 49.5Surplus/ adequate food 28.9

OOOOOccupationccupationccupationccupationccupation Farming 41.7Labourer 22.5Small business 6.1Others 29.7

3.3 P3.3 P3.3 P3.3 P3.3 Prrrrrofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Membersembersembersembersembers

The objective of the interviews with members of the community was to gauge their perceptions and satisfaction levelswith the performance of their Pradhans or Ward Members. The head or any elder member of the household wasinterviewed irrespective of gender. Hence, no proportion was fixed for male and female respondents in this part of thesurvey. However, a section in the ‘household schedule’ was developed exclusively for female members of the household,mainly to get a sense of the environment – enabling or otherwise – within which the elected representatives (especiallyEWRs) function. Finally, the household schedule was canvassed to a total of 65 percent of male members and 35 percent

49


of females of the community. Among the interviewed community members, 65 percent were males while 35 percentwere females. As for social background, the OBC category was the largest with 35 percent respondents being from it,followed by 32 percent respondents in the general category (Table 3.24). The next largest category was that of the SCs,who comprised 22 percent of the respondents, followed by the STs who made up about 11 percent. As with the case ofthe elected representatives, 85 percent of the community members were Hindus, 7 percent Muslims and the others fromChristian, Sikh, Jain or Buddhist faiths.

In terms of their age profile, 21 percent and 32 percent, respectively, fell within the 21-30 and 31-40 age brackets. While37 percent were of the 41-60 age group. Thus, almost three-fourths of the respondents were below 60 years of age.About 90 percent of them were married.

TTTTTable 3.24: Sable 3.24: Sable 3.24: Sable 3.24: Sable 3.24: Socio-Docio-Docio-Docio-Docio-Demographic Pemographic Pemographic Pemographic Pemographic Prrrrrofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Members (%)embers (%)embers (%)embers (%)embers (%)


SSSSSocial Categorocial Categorocial Categorocial Categorocial Categoryyyyy General 31.9SC 22.3ST 10.7OBC 35.1

RRRRReligioneligioneligioneligioneligion Hindu 85.4Muslim 7.2Christian 3.2S/J/B* 4.1

MMMMMarital Sarital Sarital Sarital Sarital Statustatustatustatustatus Married 89.3Unmarried 4.5Divorced/ Separated/ Deserted 0.9Widow 5.4

EEEEEducationducationducationducationducation Illiterate 24.4Upto primary school 14.3Upto middle school 15.8Middle school & above 45.4

The economic profiles of these respondents show that one-third were living in kutcha houses and slightly fewer in puccaconstructions. Their economic status, as per the Village Lists, shows that 42 percent of the respondents had APL statuswhile 47 percent were BPL. While 20 percent reported having surplus food, nearly 30 percent faced inadequacy of foodeither throughout the year or for some part of it. Half the respondents reported neither surplus nor deficit of food (Table3.25).

TTTTTable 3.25: Eable 3.25: Eable 3.25: Eable 3.25: Eable 3.25: Economic Pconomic Pconomic Pconomic Pconomic Prrrrrofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Mofile of Community Members (%)embers (%)embers (%)embers (%)embers (%)


TTTTType of houseype of houseype of houseype of houseype of house Kutcha 33.0Semi-Pucca 36.3Pucca 30.7

EEEEEconomic Sconomic Sconomic Sconomic Sconomic Status as per tatus as per tatus as per tatus as per tatus as per VVVVVillage Listillage Listillage Listillage Listillage List APL 41.5BPL 47.3Not aware 11.2

AAAAAbility to meet Annual Fbility to meet Annual Fbility to meet Annual Fbility to meet Annual Fbility to meet Annual Food Consumption Nood Consumption Nood Consumption Nood Consumption Nood Consumption Needseedseedseedseeds Not adequate food throughout year 6.5Not adequate food in some months of year 23.3Neither deficit nor surplus 50.6Surplus/ adequate food 19.6

OOOOOccupationccupationccupationccupationccupation Farming 36.7Labourer 31.0Small business 7.3Others 24.8

50


To conclude, our sample consisted mainly of elected representatives in their current term as the basis for analysing mostof the study objectives. As such, the coverage of such representatives was proportionately higher for women (73%) thanfor men (27%). The Pradhan is the senior-most Panchayati Raj functionary at the Gram Panchayat level, and this wasreflected in data on age, showing that Ward Members were generally younger than Pradhans. By gender, too, theseniority of males in politics was marked – elected female representatives were found to be generally younger than theirmale counterparts. Similarly, as expected, educational attainment was generally found to be higher in the case of malerepresentatives.

The responsibilities that go with a higher position in a Panchayati Raj institution is reflected in the higher proportion ofPradhans, as compared to Ward Members, who spend the greater part of their time in panchayat-related work. Otherthan this, the main activities were found to be ‘farming’ for men, and ‘household work’ for women, neither of which isa surprising finding. In terms of social groups, the distribution of elected representatives by caste was in tandem withtheir distribution in the rural population. Thus, about 28 percent were from the general category and 86 percent wereHindus. Irrespective of position and gender, a high proportion of elected representatives were married (91%). Theireconomic background was determined by assessing their ‘APL/BPL status’ and the ‘adequacy of food throughout theyear’. On both counts, Pradhans were found to have a better economic status, and there was not much difference on thebasis of gender.

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4.4.4.4.4. POLITICAL CAREER OF ELECTEDPOLITICAL CAREER OF ELECTEDPOLITICAL CAREER OF ELECTEDPOLITICAL CAREER OF ELECTEDPOLITICAL CAREER OF ELECTEDREPRESENTREPRESENTREPRESENTREPRESENTREPRESENTAAAAATIVESTIVESTIVESTIVESTIVES

As an important objective of this study is to track the political history of elected women representatives, the surveyinvestigated the following aspects of their political careers: age of entering active politics, motivating factors, constraintsencountered in participating, presence or absence of an enabling environment, etc. While this chapter analyses each ofthese aspects, it also throws light on whether women representatives are encouraged to contest elections a second or thirdtime, as politicians at the state Assembly or Parliamentary levels often do. There are a variety of factors that may inhibita woman from re-contesting an election. If the rotation of seats leads to the de-reservation of that particular constituency,the same woman may or may not be inclined to contest on a general seat. Sometimes, the seat continues to be reservedbut the women representatives are disinclined to contest again. At other times, despite the seat being de-reserved, theyare enthusiastic about continuing with their political careers. To capture both sets of objective data on this issue, as alsothe diversity of this experience in terms of reasons for seeking or not seeking re-election, the survey placed some emphasison the longevity of their political careers.

4.1 Age at which F4.1 Age at which F4.1 Age at which F4.1 Age at which F4.1 Age at which First Pirst Pirst Pirst Pirst Panchayati Raj Eanchayati Raj Eanchayati Raj Eanchayati Raj Eanchayati Raj Election Contestedlection Contestedlection Contestedlection Contestedlection Contested

It was hypothesised that an aspiration for a political career is likely to be reflected in a prior association with some formof local politics, which leads elected representatives to work towards continuing, consolidating and sustaining theirpolitical success. Reservation can be an opportunity given to members of unprivileged groups in society who may beaspiring for a political career but in need of their first break. To continue in politics over the longer term, however,requires more than just reservations or an enabling environment. It calls also for a high degree of personal motivationand enduring efforts.

The survey takes any association with public affairs at the local level before getting into active politics as reflective ofpolitical interest, which is therefore used as an indicator to gain insight into political aspirations as also to track politicalcareers. This association with public affairs was interpreted fairly widely, to include involvement with village andcommunity-level activities, or association with political parties, NGOs, CBOs, or participating in election campaigns asa volunteer. Analysis of the data on 'age of getting associated with local politics' and 'age of first time contesting the localbody election' show a considerable overlap between the age group in which elected representatives got associated withlocal politics and the age group in which they contested panchayat elections (Table 4.1). This suggests that the time gapbetween the two events may have been very small, further implying that a majority of elected representatives did nothave a long political association. It was only in the case of a small proportion of representatives that an early associationwith local politics proved to be helpful when they contested elections at a later stage in their political career.

TTTTTable 4.1: Age of Association and Age at which first contested PRI election - All ERs (%)able 4.1: Age of Association and Age at which first contested PRI election - All ERs (%)able 4.1: Age of Association and Age at which first contested PRI election - All ERs (%)able 4.1: Age of Association and Age at which first contested PRI election - All ERs (%)able 4.1: Age of Association and Age at which first contested PRI election - All ERs (%)

Age when first contested PRI electionAge when first contested PRI electionAge when first contested PRI electionAge when first contested PRI electionAge when first contested PRI election TTTTTotalotalotalotalotal

21-2521-2521-2521-2521-25 26-3526-3526-3526-3526-35 36-4536-4536-4536-4536-45 46-5046-5046-5046-5046-50 51-5551-5551-5551-5551-55 56 and56 and56 and56 and56 and %%%%% NNNNNyrsyrsyrsyrsyrs yrsyrsyrsyrsyrs yrsyrsyrsyrsyrs yrsyrsyrsyrsyrs yrsyrsyrsyrsyrs aboaboaboaboabovvvvveeeee

Less than 15 yrs 11.0 44.0 29.7 8.8 3.3 3.3 1.5 91

15-20 yrs 31.8 38.6 20.8 4.2 2.6 2.0 7.4 500

21-25 yrs 53.7 31.5 10.1 2.2 1.2 1.3 17.8 1194

26-35 yrs 0.0 84.8 12.2 1.7 0.7 0.5 36.1 2424

36-45 yrs 0.0 0.0 91.3 6.1 1.1 1.5 22.4 1503

46-50 yrs 0.0 0.0 0.0 86.7 9.4 3.9 6.8 458

51-55 yrs 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 84.1 15.9 3.7 245

56 and above 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 4.5 303

TTTTTotalotalotalotalotal % 12.1 39.7 28.6 8.7 4.7 6.3 100.0 6718

N 810 2664 1920 586 314 424 6718 -

Age at whichassociated withlocal politics

52


Disaggregated by gender, an analysis of this data demonstrates that in the case of women representatives, prior associationwith any form of politics was low. It is evident from Figure 4.1 that for most women, the act of contesting the firstelection signalled their entry into active politics. Whatever little prior association they had was of a limited nature.

Figure 4.1 Age of Association and Age at which First Contested PRI Election (EWRs)

In the case of male representatives, on the other hand, association with some form of local politics had been a characteristicof their political careers (Figure 4.2). Most of them had been involved with politics in their youth before joining itactively. The reason for this early association with politics may indicate their aspiration to pursue politics as a career. Inthe case of women, there is no ambiguity that the provision of reservations had played a determining role. An analysis ofthis data, by state or by elected status, does not reflect much difference on this aspect.

4.2 P4.2 P4.2 P4.2 P4.2 Political Bolitical Bolitical Bolitical Bolitical Backgrackgrackgrackgrackground of Eound of Eound of Eound of Eound of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

The association of the family with politics can also be an important factor that encourages individuals to enter politics.As such, all elected representatives were asked about any family member who had ever contested panchayat elections,but only 20 percent of them answered in the affirmative (Table 4.2). This means that only about one-fifth had somepolitical background, which was more evident in the case of Pradhans, as compared to Ward Members, and femalerepresentatives in relation to their male counterparts.

Figure 4.2 Age of Association and Age when First Contested PRI Election (EMRs)

53


TTTTTable 4.2: Pable 4.2: Pable 4.2: Pable 4.2: Pable 4.2: Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of ERs rtion of ERs rtion of ERs rtion of ERs rtion of ERs reporeporeporeporeported their HH Mted their HH Mted their HH Mted their HH Mted their HH Members Contested PRI Eembers Contested PRI Eembers Contested PRI Eembers Contested PRI Eembers Contested PRI Election (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNN


EWR 21.1 78.9 4,880

EMR 18.6 81.4 1,838


Pradhan- male 27.3 72.7 461

Pradhan- female 38.5 61.5 907

Total Pradhans 34.7 65.3 1,368

Ward Member-male 15.6 84.4 1,377

Ward Member-female 17.1 82.9 3,973

Total Ward Members 16.7 83.3 5,350

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 20.420.420.420.420.4 79.679.679.679.679.6 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

“We prefer women from families having some political affiliation and also allegiance towards our party. They shouldhave local connections or experience in NGO or SHGs. Education is also important criteria for selecting candidatefor the concerned seat even at the GP level elections” – Political leader, CPI (M), district Idduki, Kerala.

Of the 20 percent who confirmed that some member in their household had earlier contested a PRI election, 54 percentstated the relationship with that member as that of spouse, followed by father/father-in-law (23%). This was morecommon with women (59%) than men (36%). This indicates that either the husbands or fathers or fathers-in-law ofmany female members were already in politics (Table 4.3).

TTTTTable 4.3: Pable 4.3: Pable 4.3: Pable 4.3: Pable 4.3: Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of ERs rtion of ERs rtion of ERs rtion of ERs rtion of ERs reporeporeporeporeported their Rted their Rted their Rted their Rted their Relativelativelativelativelatives had Contested PRI Ees had Contested PRI Ees had Contested PRI Ees had Contested PRI Ees had Contested PRI Election in Plection in Plection in Plection in Plection in Past (%)ast (%)ast (%)ast (%)ast (%)

R R R R Relationship with family member contesting PRI election in pastelationship with family member contesting PRI election in pastelationship with family member contesting PRI election in pastelationship with family member contesting PRI election in pastelationship with family member contesting PRI election in past

MMMMMother/other/other/other/other/ OOOOOthertherthertherther OOOOOtherthertherthertherFFFFFather/ather/ather/ather/ather/ mother-inmother-inmother-inmother-inmother-in SSSSSononononon DDDDDaughteraughteraughteraughteraughter malemalemalemalemale famalefamalefamalefamalefamale NNNNN

SSSSSpousepousepousepousepouse father-infather-infather-infather-infather-in lawlawlawlawlaw rrrrrelativelativelativelativelativeseseseses rrrrrelativelativelativelativelativeseseseseslawlawlawlawlaw


EWR 59.9 19.0 11.9 3.2 0.7 11.1 7.1 1,029

EMR 36.1 34.3 8.5 2.3 1.2 21.4 10.3 341


Pradhan- male 38.9 33.3 7.9 2.4 2.4 25 14.3 126

Pradhan- female 67.0 18.9 12.6 3.2 0.6 25 7.4 349

Total Pradhans 59.6 22.7 11.4 2.9 1.1 50 9.3 475

Ward Member-male 34.4 34.9 8.8 2.3 0.5 48 7.9 215

Ward Member-female 56.2 19.0 11.5 3.2 0.7 89 6.9 680

Total Ward Members 50.9 22.8 10.8 3.0 0.7 137 7.2 895


4.3 M4.3 M4.3 M4.3 M4.3 Motivotivotivotivotivation for Contesting Fation for Contesting Fation for Contesting Fation for Contesting Fation for Contesting First PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Electionlectionlectionlectionlection

The survey questioned elected representatives about the factors that motivated them to contest their first PRI election.While 21 percent claimed to be self-motivated, about 22 percent said that their spouse had inspired them, which was

54


higher in the case of women representatives (30%). Interestingly, members of community groups (such as MahilaMandals, self-help groups, youth clubs, cooperatives, etc.) seem to have played an important role, as 22 percent ofelected representatives reported how they were motivated to take the plunge in electoral politics. However, 8 percent ofthe elected representatives - mainly from West Bengal, Sikkim, Tripura and Kerala - also disclosed the role of politicalparties in motivating them (Table 4.4).

TTTTTable 4.4 Fable 4.4 Fable 4.4 Fable 4.4 Fable 4.4 Factors Mactors Mactors Mactors Mactors Motivotivotivotivotivated ERs to Contest Fated ERs to Contest Fated ERs to Contest Fated ERs to Contest Fated ERs to Contest First PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Election (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)

OOOOOthertherthertherther PPPPPoliticaloliticaloliticaloliticaloliticalSSSSSelf-elf-elf-elf-elf- PPPPParararararents/ents/ents/ents/ents/ familyfamilyfamilyfamilyfamily FFFFFriendsriendsriendsriendsriends Commu-Commu-Commu-Commu-Commu- EEEEEWR/WR/WR/WR/WR/ parparparparpartytytytyty OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNN

motivmotivmotivmotivmotiva-a-a-a-a- SSSSSpousepousepousepousepouse in-in-in-in-in- membersmembersmembersmembersmembers nitynitynitynitynity EMREMREMREMREMR membersmembersmembersmembersmemberstedtedtedtedted lawlawlawlawlaw grgrgrgrgroupoupoupoupoup


EWR 13.9 29.7 2.3 9.8 3.2 22.1 3.6 6.9 7.3 4,880

EMR 39.7 1.1 1.4 6.0 10.1 23.3 2.2 10.0 6.0 1,838


Pradhan -male 37.3 0.4 2.2 4.8 8.2 24.9 0.7 14.3 6.7 461

Pradhan -female 13.2 31.6 2.8 7.3 3.4 23.7 1.0 6.3 7.2 907

Total Pradhans 21.3 21.1 2.6 6.4 5.0 24.1 0.9 9.0 7.0 1,368

Ward member-male 40.5 1.3 1.2 6.5 10.7 22.7 2.7 8.6 4.9 1,377

Ward member-female 14.1 29.2 2.2 10.4 3.2 21.7 4.2 7.1 4.8 3,973

Total Ward member 20.9 22.0 1.9 9.4 5.1 22.0 3.8 7.5 4.8 5,350

TTTTTotal electedotal electedotal electedotal electedotal elected 21.021.021.021.021.0 21.921.921.921.921.9 2.12.12.12.12.1 8.88.88.88.88.8 5.15.15.15.15.1 22.422.422.422.422.4 3.23.23.23.23.2 7.87.87.87.87.8 6.96.96.96.96.9 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718rrrrrepreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

Besides motivating factors, the survey asked elected representatives if there was any specific incident or experience thatled them to contest their first panchayat election. Table 4.5 shows that 43 percent of the elected representatives mentionedthat incidents related to social problems, such as alcoholism, gender discrimination, suppression of underprivilegedsections, etc. motivated them to enter politics. The next big category belongs to those whose interest had been stimulatedby the availability of reservations for women and disadvantaged groups. Women's reservation was important for allcategories of female representatives, whereas the reservation for disadvantaged groups helped men more than women.Not surprisingly, in Kerala, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal, party affiliation was reported to be a major reason that ledrepresentatives to join active politics.

TTTTTable 4.5: Iable 4.5: Iable 4.5: Iable 4.5: Iable 4.5: Incidents that led ERs to Contest Fncidents that led ERs to Contest Fncidents that led ERs to Contest Fncidents that led ERs to Contest Fncidents that led ERs to Contest First PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Election (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)

IIIIIncidentsncidentsncidentsncidentsncidents IIIIIncidentsncidentsncidentsncidentsncidents IIIIIncidentsncidentsncidentsncidentsncidents EEEEEnfornfornfornfornforcementcementcementcementcement EEEEEnfornfornfornfornforcementcementcementcementcement PPPPPoliticaloliticaloliticaloliticalolitical OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNN(social(social(social(social(social (economic(economic(economic(economic(economic (law and(law and(law and(law and(law and of womenof womenof womenof womenof women’’’’’sssss of rof rof rof rof reseresereseresereservvvvvationationationationation affiliationaffiliationaffiliationaffiliationaffiliation

prprprprproblems)oblems)oblems)oblems)oblems) benefits/benefits/benefits/benefits/benefits/ orororororder)der)der)der)der) rrrrreseresereseresereservvvvvationationationationation forforforforfor of theof theof theof theof theloss)loss)loss)loss)loss) disadvdisadvdisadvdisadvdisadvantagedantagedantagedantagedantaged familyfamilyfamilyfamilyfamily

grgrgrgrgroupsoupsoupsoupsoups


EWR 36.5 4.7 1.2 37.3 5.7 6.3 8.4 4,880

EMR 60.4 5.0 3.5 0.0 12.1 7.9 11.2 1,838


Pradhan- male 57.9 5.2 3.5 0.0 9.5 11.7 12.1 461

Pradhan- female 37.5 3.3 1.1 36.1 4.4 8.6 9.0 907

Total Pradhans 44.4 3.9 1.9 23.9 6.1 9.6 10.1 1,368

Ward Member-male 61.2 4.9 3.6 0.0 12.9 6.6 10.8 1,377

Ward Member-female 36.2 5.0 1.2 37.5 6.0 5.7 8.3 3,973



55


4.4 Constraints F4.4 Constraints F4.4 Constraints F4.4 Constraints F4.4 Constraints Faced while Contesting Faced while Contesting Faced while Contesting Faced while Contesting Faced while Contesting First PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Eirst PRI Electionlectionlectionlectionlection

The survey asked a range of questions relating to challenges faced by elected representatives while filing nominations fortheir first election. Where relevant, this experience was compared with a more recent one. It was felt that this wouldenable us to observe the broader trend at the Gram Panchayat level.

Of all the elected representatives interviewed, 58 percent said they did not face any problem at the time of filing theirfirst nomination. This proportion was slightly higher in the case of Ward Members (59%) than Pradhans (52%),suggesting that those who did encounter such problems were more likely to be contesting for the post of Pradhan thanfor that of Ward Member. It is also interesting to note that all the male representatives reported having faced some kindof constraint in contrast to 80 percent of their female counterparts denying there was any problem (Table 4.6). Anexplanation for this could be that they were contesting on Reserved - and therefore somewhat less competitive - seats.Another reason could be that their male relatives had taken care of potential challenges.

TTTTTable 4.6: Constraints Fable 4.6: Constraints Fable 4.6: Constraints Fable 4.6: Constraints Fable 4.6: Constraints Faced while Faced while Faced while Faced while Faced while Filing Niling Niling Niling Niling Nomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the First irst irst irst irst TTTTTime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)

DDDDDid not face any constraintid not face any constraintid not face any constraintid not face any constraintid not face any constraint NNNNN


EWR 79.2 4,880

EMR 0.0 1,838


Pradhan- male 0.0 461

Pradhan- female 77.8 907

Total Pradhans 51.6 1,368

Ward Member-male 0.0 1,377

Ward Member-female 79.5 3,973

Total Ward Members 59.0 5,350

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 57.557.557.557.557.5 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

Across states, the proportion of those who did not face any constraint while filing their nominations the first time wasover 90 percent in the North-eastern states (Manipur, Sikkim, Tripura), Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Gujaratand Tamil Nadu) in the case of female Pradhans (Table 4.7), and similar in five states (Sikkim, Tripura, Haryana,Gujarat, Maharashtra) in the case of female Ward members.

TTTTTable 4.7: ERs that did not face any Constraint - bable 4.7: ERs that did not face any Constraint - bable 4.7: ERs that did not face any Constraint - bable 4.7: ERs that did not face any Constraint - bable 4.7: ERs that did not face any Constraint - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

PPPPPradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- female WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member-femaleember-femaleember-femaleember-femaleember-female

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 77.877.877.877.877.8 907907907907907 79.579.579.579.579.5 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973

Andhra Pradesh 70.3 64 78.8 283

Karnataka 81.3 32 79.9 144

Tamil Nadu 90.6 32 80.6 144

Kerala 68.8 32 77.6 143

Arunachal Pradesh 81.3 16 77.6 58

Assam 71.9 32 54.9 144

Manipur 100.0 16 84.5 71

Sikkim 90.9 11 90.5 42

Tripura 93.8 16 91.5 71

56



PPPPPradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- femaleradhan- female WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member-femaleember-femaleember-femaleember-femaleember-female


West Bengal 89.1 64 84.6 280

Orissa 59.4 32 51.0 145

Bihar 92.2 64 85.7 287

Madhya Pradesh 54.7 64 75.1 289

Chhattisgarh 68.8 32 81.1 143

Gujarat 90.9 33 93.1 131

Maharashtra 85.9 64 90.6 278

Rajasthan 76.6 64 75.5 286

Haryana 90.6 32 92.3 143

Punjab 45.5 33 43.3 134

Uttar Pradesh 81.9 94 89.8 432

Uttarakhand 54.5 33 60.0 125

Himachal Pradesh 93.8 32 87.1 140

Goa 80.0 15 83.3 60

Among those who faced some constraints, the majority mentioned the lack of financial resources (14%), political rivalryfrom other groups (12%), low educational level (12%) and resistance related to caste or religion (10%) (Table 4.8).

“The level of education of EWRs poses problem for them at various stages in their functioning. This problem is at bothblock and GP level. If EWR is educated her awareness would be higher and she will be less hesitant while interactingwith different officials for necessary works” – Panchayat Officer, block Panchayat Bassi Pathana, district FatehgarhSahib, Punjab

TTTTTable 4.8: able 4.8: able 4.8: able 4.8: able 4.8: TTTTTypes of Constraints faced while filing Nypes of Constraints faced while filing Nypes of Constraints faced while filing Nypes of Constraints faced while filing Nypes of Constraints faced while filing Nomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the First irst irst irst irst TTTTTime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)

Lack ofLack ofLack ofLack ofLack of PPPPPoliticaloliticaloliticaloliticalolitical LoLoLoLoLowwwww Caste/Caste/Caste/Caste/Caste/ UUUUUnacceptnacceptnacceptnacceptnaccept RRRRResistanceesistanceesistanceesistanceesistance ConstraintsConstraintsConstraintsConstraintsConstraints PPPPPoliticaloliticaloliticaloliticalolitical NNNNNfinancialfinancialfinancialfinancialfinancial rivrivrivrivrivalralralralralryyyyy educationaleducationaleducationaleducationaleducational rrrrreligioneligioneligioneligioneligion abilityabilityabilityabilityability frfrfrfrfromomomomom associatedassociatedassociatedassociatedassociated rivrivrivrivrivalralralralralryyyyyrrrrresouresouresouresouresourcescescescesces frfrfrfrfromomomomom levlevlevlevlevelelelelel rrrrrelatedelatedelatedelatedelated acracracracracrossossossossoss spouse/spouse/spouse/spouse/spouse/ withwithwithwithwith withinwithinwithinwithinwithin

otherotherotherotherother rrrrresistanceesistanceesistanceesistanceesistance differdifferdifferdifferdifferententententent father orfather orfather orfather orfather or femalefemalefemalefemalefemale samesamesamesamesamepoliticalpoliticalpoliticalpoliticalpolitical socialsocialsocialsocialsocial otherotherotherotherother candidatescandidatescandidatescandidatescandidates politicalpoliticalpoliticalpoliticalpoliticalgrgrgrgrgroupsoupsoupsoupsoups categorcategorcategorcategorcategoryyyyy familyfamilyfamilyfamilyfamily grgrgrgrgroupoupoupoupoup

membersmembersmembersmembersmembers


EWR 29.1 23.2 29.2 20.6 10.9 14.5 22.9 8.5 1,017

EMR 5.8 5.5 1.7 3.8 1.6 4.8 - 2.7 1,838


Pradhan- male 5.6 6.5 1.3 6.9 2.6 8.0 - 4.3 461

Pradhan- female 27.4 29.4 27.4 20.9 18.4 12.9 28.9 10.9 907

Total Pradhans 12.2 13.4 9.2 11.2 7.4 9.5 8.8 6.3 1,368

Ward Member-male 5.8 5.2 1.8 2.8 1.3 3.7 - 2.2 1,377

Ward Member-female 29.5 21.7 29.7 20.5 9.1 14.8 21.4 7.8 3,973

Total Ward Members 14.6 11.4 12.2 9.3 4.2 7.8 8.0 4.3 5,350

TTTTTotal electedotal electedotal electedotal electedotal elected 14.114.114.114.114.1 11.811.811.811.811.8 11.511.511.511.511.5 9.89.89.89.89.8 4.94.94.94.94.9 8.28.28.28.28.2 8.28.28.28.28.2 4.84.84.84.84.8 2,8552,8552,8552,8552,855rrrrrepreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

57


4.5 Ov4.5 Ov4.5 Ov4.5 Ov4.5 Overerererercoming of the Constraintscoming of the Constraintscoming of the Constraintscoming of the Constraintscoming of the Constraints

The ways in which the constraints, faced while filing nomination for the first time were overcome have been presentedin Table 4.9. It shows that 17-18 percent of representatives convinced members of the community or the household togive their support and 12 percent mobilised funds through relatives, friends or the community to meet election expenses.

TTTTTable 4.9: Mable 4.9: Mable 4.9: Mable 4.9: Mable 4.9: Manner in which Constraints wanner in which Constraints wanner in which Constraints wanner in which Constraints wanner in which Constraints wererererere Ove Ove Ove Ove Overerererercome while Fcome while Fcome while Fcome while Fcome while Filing Niling Niling Niling Niling Nomination foromination foromination foromination foromination forFFFFFirst irst irst irst irst TTTTTime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)

ConvincedConvincedConvincedConvincedConvinced ConvincedConvincedConvincedConvincedConvinced MMMMMobilised financialobilised financialobilised financialobilised financialobilised financial TTTTTook help ofook help ofook help ofook help ofook help of OOOOOthertherthertherther NNNNNcommunitycommunitycommunitycommunitycommunity householdhouseholdhouseholdhouseholdhousehold rrrrresouresouresouresouresources thrces thrces thrces thrces throughoughoughoughough CBO/ SHG/CBO/ SHG/CBO/ SHG/CBO/ SHG/CBO/ SHG/membersmembersmembersmembersmembers membersmembersmembersmembersmembers rrrrrelativelativelativelativelatives/es/es/es/es/ NGO/ womenNGO/ womenNGO/ womenNGO/ womenNGO/ women

friends/communityfriends/communityfriends/communityfriends/communityfriends/community organisationorganisationorganisationorganisationorganisation


EWR 39.8 36.6 24.3 23.4 9.8 1,017

EMR 7.7 5.8 4.9 3.4 2.4 1,838


Pradhan- male 10.6 7.6 4.1 4.8 2.8 461

Pradhan- female 50.7 33.8 24.4 25.9 10.4 201

Total Pradhans 22.8 15.6 10.3 11.2 5.1 662

Ward Member-male 6.8 5.2 5.2 2.9 2.3 1,377

Ward Member-female 37.1 37.3 24.3 22.8 9.7 816

Total Ward Members 18.1 17.1 12.3 10.3 5.1 2,193

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 19.219.219.219.219.2 16.716.716.716.716.7 11.811.811.811.811.8 10.510.510.510.510.5 5.15.15.15.15.1 2,8552,8552,8552,8552,855

Elected representatives who have served more than one term were further questioned about how, in their perception andwith reference to the most recent election, these constraints had changed over a period of time. Around 57 percent ofthem confirmed that there was a change, though 16 percent said that it has remained the same. The gender difference onthis issue was not significant.

58


The main sources of finance for contesting for the current term were also assessed separately and in detail. It was foundthat the problem of funds crunch was overcome by mobilising money through their own resources. In line with this, themain source of finance for elections was through own funds (48.9%) or through family members (32.7%).

TTTTTable 4.10: Change in Constraints Fable 4.10: Change in Constraints Fable 4.10: Change in Constraints Fable 4.10: Change in Constraints Fable 4.10: Change in Constraints Faced while Faced while Faced while Faced while Faced while Filing Niling Niling Niling Niling Nomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the Fomination for the First irst irst irst irst TTTTTime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)

ChangeChangeChangeChangeChange NNNNNo changeo changeo changeo changeo change RRRRRemained sameemained sameemained sameemained sameemained same NNNNN


EWR 59.2 25.2 15.5 103

EMR 55.6 28.7 15.7 108


Pradhan- male 62.2 31.1 6.7 45

Pradhan- female 61.3 22.6 16.1 31

Total Pradhans 61.8 27.6 10.5 76

Ward Member-male 50.8 27.0 22.2 63

Ward Member-female 58.3 26.4 15.3 72

Total Ward Members 54.8 26.7 18.5 135

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 57.3 27.0 15.6 211

4.6 P4.6 P4.6 P4.6 P4.6 Political Carolitical Carolitical Carolitical Carolitical Career of Eeer of Eeer of Eeer of Eeer of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

This section analyses the attempts made and successes achieved by elected representatives while contesting panchayatelections across three rounds. It also throws light on the status of seat reservation.

The number of elections contested over the last three rounds is an important indicator of the motivation and keennessof representatives to pursue politics as a career. Table 4.11 shows that while a large proportion (83.4%) of the interviewedelected representatives have contested only one election in their career, only a small proportion (12.4%) have attemptedsecond and third rounds (4.2%) of elections. Elected male representatives were found to be more likely to contestelections more than once as compared to elected women.

TTTTTable 4.11: Pable 4.11: Pable 4.11: Pable 4.11: Pable 4.11: Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of ERs Contested PRI Etion of ERs Contested PRI Etion of ERs Contested PRI Etion of ERs Contested PRI Etion of ERs Contested PRI Elections Alections Alections Alections Alections Acrcrcrcrcross oss oss oss oss ThrThrThrThrThree Ree Ree Ree Ree Rounds (%)ounds (%)ounds (%)ounds (%)ounds (%)

Contested only one electionContested only one electionContested only one electionContested only one electionContested only one election Contested only two electionsContested only two electionsContested only two electionsContested only two electionsContested only two elections Contested thrContested thrContested thrContested thrContested three electionsee electionsee electionsee electionsee elections

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN


EWR 87.8 4,880 9.9 4,880 2.3 4,880

EMR 71.9 1,838 18.7 1,838 9.4 1,838


Pradhan- male 56.4 461 27.1 461 16.5 461

Pradhan- female 82.7 907 13.0 907 4.3 907

Total Pradhans 73.8 1,368 17.8 1,368 8.4 1,368

Ward Member-male 77.1 1,377 16.0 1,377 7.0 1,377

Ward Member-female 89.0 3,973 9.2 3,973 1.8 3,973

Total Ward Members 85.9 5,350 10.9 5,350 3.2 5,350

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 83.483.483.483.483.4 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718 12.412.412.412.412.4 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718 4.24.24.24.24.2 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

The analysis of elected representatives who were successful over multiple rounds of election has been presented in Table4.12. It shows that the figure for contesting two elections and winning both is higher than for contesting two electionsand winning one.

59


TTTTTable 4.12: ERs Contested and able 4.12: ERs Contested and able 4.12: ERs Contested and able 4.12: ERs Contested and able 4.12: ERs Contested and WWWWWon PRI Eon PRI Eon PRI Eon PRI Eon PRI Elections Alections Alections Alections Alections Acrcrcrcrcross oss oss oss oss ThrThrThrThrThree Ree Ree Ree Ree Rounds (%)ounds (%)ounds (%)ounds (%)ounds (%)

PPPPPosition-wiseosition-wiseosition-wiseosition-wiseosition-wise GGGGGender-wiseender-wiseender-wiseender-wiseender-wise

PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan WWWWWarararararddddd NNNNN TTTTTotalotalotalotalotal EEEEEWRWRWRWRWR EMREMREMREMREMR NNNNN TTTTTotalotalotalotalotalmembersmembersmembersmembersmembers ERsERsERsERsERs ERsERsERsERsERs

Contested only one election 73.8 85.9 5,606 83.4 87.8 71.9 5,606 83.4and won one

Contested two elections 2.8 1.9 140 2.1 1.7 3.2 140 2.1and won one

Contested three elections 0.6 0.1 15 0.2 0.1 0.4 15 0.2and won one

Contested two elections 15.0 9.0 688 10.2 8.2 15.6 688 10.2and won two

Contested three elections 1.2 0.6 48 0.7 0.4 1.6 48 0.7and won tow

Contested three elections 6.6 2.4 221 3.3 1.8 7.3 221 3.3and won three

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 1,3681,3681,3681,3681,368 5,3505,3505,3505,3505,350 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718 4,8804,8804,8804,8804,880 1,8381,8381,8381,8381,838 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

For further analysis, elected representatives were categorized on the basis of number of elections won by them. Thus,elected representatives winning only one, the most recent, election were labeled 'first timers', those who had won twoelections as 'second timers' and those who had won three elections as 'third timers'. This shows that a majority of electedrepresentatives were first timers (85.8%) though 14.3% of them have managed to win second and third rounds ofelection, as well. The ability to win more than one round of election is found to be higher in the case of male Pradhansand male ward members than female Pradhans and female ward members respectively. (Table 4.13)

TTTTTable 4.13: Pable 4.13: Pable 4.13: Pable 4.13: Pable 4.13: Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of ERs that Stion of ERs that Stion of ERs that Stion of ERs that Stion of ERs that Sererererervvvvved Med Med Med Med Multiple ultiple ultiple ultiple ultiple TTTTTerms (%)erms (%)erms (%)erms (%)erms (%)

FFFFFirst timerirst timerirst timerirst timerirst timer SSSSSecond timerecond timerecond timerecond timerecond timer ThirThirThirThirThird timerd timerd timerd timerd timer NNNNN


EWR 89.6 8.6 1.8 4,880

EMR 75.5 17.1 7.3 1,838


Pradhan- male 62.7 24.5 12.8 461

Pradhan- female 84.6 12.0 3.4 907

Total Pradhans 77.2 16.2 6.6 1,368

Ward Member-male 79.8 14.7 5.5 1,377

Ward Member-female 90.8 7.9 1.4 3,973


TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 85.885.885.885.885.8 11.011.011.011.011.0 3.33.33.33.33.3 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

In Arunachal Pradesh only one round of election has taken place till date. As presented in Table 4.14, the proportionthat got re-elected in more than one term was highest in Tripura (33%), closely followed by West Bengal, Sikkim, TamilNadu and Karnataka (22-27%).

60


TTTTTable 4.14: Nable 4.14: Nable 4.14: Nable 4.14: Nable 4.14: Number of elections won bumber of elections won bumber of elections won bumber of elections won bumber of elections won by ERs - by ERs - by ERs - by ERs - by ERs - by state (%)y state (%)y state (%)y state (%)y state (%)

FFFFFirst timerirst timerirst timerirst timerirst timer SSSSSecond timerecond timerecond timerecond timerecond timer ThirThirThirThirThird timerd timerd timerd timerd timer TTTTTotalotalotalotalotal

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 85.885.885.885.885.8 11.011.011.011.011.0 3.33.33.33.33.3 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

Andhra Pradesh 88.3 10.4 1.3 480

Karnataka 78.3 16.7 5.0 240

Tamil Nadu 77.1 16.3 6.7 240

Kerala 82.9 15.4 1.7 240

Arunachal Pradesh 100.0 NA NA 105

Assam 96.3 2.9 0.8 240

Manipur 85.8 12.5 1.7 120

Sikkim 73.3 17.8 8.9 90

Tripura 66.7 22.5 10.8 120

West Bengal 73.0 21.9 5.1 474

Orissa 86.7 11.7 1.7 240

Bihar 92.7 7.3 0.0 480

Madhya Pradesh 84.6 10.6 4.8 479

Chhattisgarh 85.4 11.3 3.3 240

Gujarat 88.5 8.4 3.1 226

Maharashtra 85.1 9.3 5.5 471

Rajasthan 92.9 4.8 2.3 480

Haryana 94.5 4.2 1.3 238

Punjab 82.1 13.5 4.4 229

Uttar Pradesh 84.2 12.1 3.8 720

Uttarakhand 91.0 8.1 0.9 223

Himachal Pradesh 89.8 7.7 2.6 235

Goa 84.3 9.3 6.5 108

Re-electability was also evaluated against reservations across three rounds of election. At the All-India level, of all theelected representatives interviewed, 79 percent were from reserved seats. This was more true in the case of Ward Membersand elected women representatives, in comparison to their respective counterparts.

“Ward-wise reserved women’s seats rotate after every five-years. Women are usually not given chance to contest fromgeneral unreserved seat as majority of the time this decision lies with the concerned political party or with senior malemember of the household. Hence they could not extend their experience gained from one term to another term. Theygenerally return to their role of housewife or as a NGO worker” – District Panchayat Secretary, district Kannur, Kerala

61


TTTTTable 4.15: ERs that havable 4.15: ERs that havable 4.15: ERs that havable 4.15: ERs that havable 4.15: ERs that have won fre won fre won fre won fre won from Rom Rom Rom Rom Reseresereseresereservvvvved Sed Sed Sed Sed Seat in the Ceat in the Ceat in the Ceat in the Ceat in the Currurrurrurrurrent ent ent ent ent TTTTTerm (%)erm (%)erm (%)erm (%)erm (%)

ERs frERs frERs frERs frERs from rom rom rom rom reseresereseresereservvvvved seated seated seated seated seat ERs frERs frERs frERs frERs from unrom unrom unrom unrom unreseresereseresereservvvvved seated seated seated seated seat NNNNN


EWR 87.8 12.2 4,880

EMR 56.6 43.4 1,838


Pradhan- male 51.0 49 461





Total Ward Members 80.0 20 5,350


Further, it is evident from Table 4.16 that, in the case of first timers, reservation played a critical role as a large proportionof these (83%) reported being elected on a reserved seat. This phenomenon was more pronounced in the case of femalePradhans and female Ward Members than their male counterparts. However, reservation does not seem to have playedan important role for those who got elected in the second and third rounds, as a relatively small proportion of themreported that their seat continued to be reserved in the subsequent rounds.

TTTTTable 4.16: Sable 4.16: Sable 4.16: Sable 4.16: Sable 4.16: Status of ERstatus of ERstatus of ERstatus of ERstatus of ERs’ S’ S’ S’ S’ Seat acreat acreat acreat acreat across oss oss oss oss ThrThrThrThrThree Ree Ree Ree Ree Rounds of Eounds of Eounds of Eounds of Eounds of Election (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)

FFFFFirst timersirst timersirst timersirst timersirst timers SSSSSecond timerecond timerecond timerecond timerecond timer ThirThirThirThirThird timerd timerd timerd timerd timer TTTTTotal ERsotal ERsotal ERsotal ERsotal ERs

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN


EWR 90.0 4,373 71.5 421 59.3 86 87.8 4,880

EMR 62.2 1,388 40.6 315 36.3 135 56.6 1,838


Pradhan- male 60.2 289 37.2 113 32.2 59 51.0 461

Pradhan- female 94.4 767 66.1 109 41.9 31 89.2 907

Total Pradhans 85.0 1,056 51.4 222 35.6 90 76.3 1,368

Ward Member-male 62.7 1,099 42.6 202 39.5 76 58.5 1,377

Ward Member-female 89.0 3,606 73.4 312 69.1 55 87.5 3,973

Total Ward Members 82.9 4,705 61.3 514 51.9 131 80.0 5,350

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 83.383.383.383.383.3 5,7615,7615,7615,7615,761 58.358.358.358.358.3 736736736736736 45.245.245.245.245.2 221221221221221 79.379.379.379.379.3 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718

The State-wise distribution of elected representatives in reserved seats, across various rounds of election, has beenpresented in Table 4.17. It shows that the proportion of those who have won more than one round of election fromreserved seats was highest in Chhattisgarh and Punjab, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. Onthe other hand, this proportion was on a lower side in Bihar, Goa and Tamil Nadu.

62


Elected Women Representatives of Chhattisgarh Discussing the PMSA Draft Charter

TTTTTable 4.17: Sable 4.17: Sable 4.17: Sable 4.17: Sable 4.17: Status of ERstatus of ERstatus of ERstatus of ERstatus of ERs’ S’ S’ S’ S’ Seat Aeat Aeat Aeat Aeat Acrcrcrcrcross oss oss oss oss ThrThrThrThrThree Ree Ree Ree Ree Rounds of Eounds of Eounds of Eounds of Eounds of Election - blection - blection - blection - blection - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

FFFFFirst timersirst timersirst timersirst timersirst timers SSSSSecond timerecond timerecond timerecond timerecond timer ThirThirThirThirThird timerd timerd timerd timerd timer

% r% r% r% r% reseresereseresereservvvvvededededed NNNNN % r% r% r% r% reseresereseresereservvvvvededededed NNNNN % r% r% r% r% reseresereseresereservvvvvededededed NNNNN

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 83.383.383.383.383.3 5,7615,7615,7615,7615,761 58.358.358.358.358.3 736736736736736 45.245.245.245.245.2 221221221221221

Andhra Pradesh 95.5 424 84.0 50 66.7 6

Karnataka 67.0 188 52.5 40 50.0 12

Tamil Nadu 75.7 185 25.6 39 31.3 16

Kerala 83.9 199 54.1 37 50.0 4

Arunachal Pradesh 89.5 105 0.0 0 0.0 0

Assam 79.7 231 71.4 7 50.0 2

Manipur 80.6 103 33.3 15 50.0 2

Sikkim 80.3 66 75.0 16 0.0 8

Tripura 81.3 80 66.7 27 53.8 13

West Bengal 85.3 346 59.6 104 54.2 24

Orissa 94.7 208 78.6 28 50.0 4

Bihar 88.1 445 40.0 35 0.0 0

Madhya Pradesh 91.4 405 72.5 51 56.5 23

Chhattisgarh 88.8 205 74.1 27 87.5 8

Gujarat 74.0 200 36.8 19 57.1 7

Maharashtra 73.8 401 59.1 44 38.5 26

Rajasthan 84.8 446 56.5 23 45.5 11

Haryana 82.7 225 60.0 10 0.0 3

Punjab 83.0 188 61.3 31 100.0 10

Uttar Pradesh 80.7 606 51.7 87 25.9 27

Uttarakhand 78.3 203 61.1 18 0.0 2

Himachal Pradesh 80.6 211 61.1 18 33.3 6

Goa 68.1 91 30.0 10 14.3 7

63


From the above analysis, it is evident that reservation served its primary purpose of providing opportunities to enterpolitics. However, re-electability seems to have been less dependent on reservation, as the proportion of electedrepresentatives from reserved seats in second or third terms was less than among the first timers. Overall, reservation hasprovided an opportunity to demonstrate political calibre in local governance, as we find a small but significant proportioncontinuing even into a third term.

4.6.14.6.14.6.14.6.14.6.1 RRRRReasons for not Continuing in Peasons for not Continuing in Peasons for not Continuing in Peasons for not Continuing in Peasons for not Continuing in Politicsoliticsoliticsoliticsolitics

A separate schedule was designed to gain an insight into the reasons that prevented women representatives from continuingwith their political careers. The objective of interviewing ex-representatives was to explore the reasons why they chosenot to continue in the panchayat.

Of all the ex-women representatives interviewed, a large majority (89%) did not contest another election, while theremaining 11 percent did contest but lost.

TTTTTable 4.18: Eable 4.18: Eable 4.18: Eable 4.18: Eable 4.18: Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-EWRs PWRs PWRs PWRs PWRs Parararararticipation in Last PRI Eticipation in Last PRI Eticipation in Last PRI Eticipation in Last PRI Eticipation in Last PRI Election (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)

DDDDDid not contestid not contestid not contestid not contestid not contest Contested but lostContested but lostContested but lostContested but lostContested but lost NNNNNthe electionthe electionthe electionthe electionthe election the electionthe electionthe electionthe electionthe election

Pradhan 88.7 11.3 168

Ward Members 88.5 11.5 1,134

Total Ex-EWRs 88.6 11.4 1,302

All those who responded saying that they did not contest an election the second time round were further questioned tounderstand the reasons. Close to half of them (45%) said that the work entailed was unsuitable for women or that theyhad felt incompetent in executing their responsibilities. Two-fifths said that they were unable to maintain balancebetween work and household chores, while 30 percent faced resistance from their spouses or families. It is interestingthat 30 percent of current women representatives cited their spouse as the major motivating factor for their contestingelections, while an almost exactly equal proportion of former women representatives said the spouse was the inhibitingfactor.

Among the factors related to their external environment, 17 percent pointed to unacceptability/conflict across differentsocial categories, 9 percent to political rivalry and 5 percent to conflicts with other elected representatives. Nearly two-fifths (39%) of ex-women representatives cited as their reason the de-reservation of their seats, while 14 percent cited thelack of financial resources (Table 4.19).

TTTTTable 4.19: Rable 4.19: Rable 4.19: Rable 4.19: Rable 4.19: Reasons for Neasons for Neasons for Neasons for Neasons for Not Contesting Last PRI Eot Contesting Last PRI Eot Contesting Last PRI Eot Contesting Last PRI Eot Contesting Last PRI Election (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)

RRRRReasonseasonseasonseasonseasons PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers TTTTTotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-EWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs

The work is unsuitable to females/ feel incompetent 41.6 45.8 45.3

Unable to maintain balance between work & household chores 24.2 42.3 40

Seat was not reserved 49.7 37.5 39.1

Resistance from spouse/ family 20.8 31.3 29.9

Unacceptability/ conflict across different social categories 15.4 17.6 17.3

No economic benefits 11.4 17.5 16.7

Lack of financial resources 8.7 14.7 14

Political rivalry from same/ other political group 8.1 9.5 9.3

Have to please people 8.1 6 6.2

Had conflict with other elected members 4.7 4.5 4.5

TTTTTotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-EWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs 149149149149149 1,0041,0041,0041,0041,004 1,1531,1531,1531,1531,153

64


Those who contested, but lost, the last election offer various reasons for their defeat. Relatively low levels of socialinteraction or inadequate campaigning emerges as the most frequently cited reasons (52%). Other than this, most of thereasons offered are unrelated to their personal performance while in office. Thus, only a very small proportion (12%)attributed their defeat to inadequate developmental achievements during their tenure. A much higher percentage (40%)cited their unacceptability or conflict across different social categories, while 30 percent cited political rivalry among theexternal factors not directly linked with one's own performance. Inadequacy of funds was mentioned by 19 percent,while 13 percent cited de-reservation as reasons for their defeat (Table 4.20).

TTTTTable 4.20: Rable 4.20: Rable 4.20: Rable 4.20: Rable 4.20: Reason for Deason for Deason for Deason for Deason for Defeat in Last PRI election (%)efeat in Last PRI election (%)efeat in Last PRI election (%)efeat in Last PRI election (%)efeat in Last PRI election (%)

RRRRReasonseasonseasonseasonseasons PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers TTTTTotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-EWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs

Less social interaction/ no proper campaigning 47.4 53.1 52.3

Unacceptability/ conflict across different social categories 47.4 39.2 40.3

Political rivalry from same/ other political group 10.5 32.3 29.5

Inadequate financial resources 21.1 18.5 18.8

Seat was not reserved 21.1 11.5 12.8

Asked to contest from a different ward 5.3 9.2 8.7

Development work in my tenure was not sufficient 10.5 12.3 12.1

No political affiliation 5.3 11.5 10.7

TTTTTotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-Ex-EWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs 1919191919 130130130130130 149149149149149

4.6.2 A4.6.2 A4.6.2 A4.6.2 A4.6.2 Attempt to Contest for Ittempt to Contest for Ittempt to Contest for Ittempt to Contest for Ittempt to Contest for Intermediate Pntermediate Pntermediate Pntermediate Pntermediate Panchayat / Zanchayat / Zanchayat / Zanchayat / Zanchayat / Zilla Pilla Pilla Pilla Pilla Parishad Earishad Earishad Earishad Earishad Electionlectionlectionlectionlection

Of the total number of elected representatives surveyed, 9 percent reported having contested panchayat elections at ahigher level i.e. Intermediate Panchayat and Zilla Parishad. This trend was more common among Pradhans as comparedto Ward Members, and men in relation to women (Table 4.21).

TTTTTable 4.21: Contested Iable 4.21: Contested Iable 4.21: Contested Iable 4.21: Contested Iable 4.21: Contested Intermediate Pntermediate Pntermediate Pntermediate Pntermediate Panchayat or Zanchayat or Zanchayat or Zanchayat or Zanchayat or Zilla Pilla Pilla Pilla Pilla Parishad Earishad Earishad Earishad Earishad Election (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)



EWR 7.8 92.2 4,880

EMR 12.2 87.8 1,838









4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 TTTTTraining and Capacity Braining and Capacity Braining and Capacity Braining and Capacity Braining and Capacity Buildinguildinguildinguildinguilding

Elected representatives' performance in office and their ability to contribute meaningfully to village development flowfrom their knowledge of laws and rules. It also reflects awareness of their own powers and responsibilities and theirsensitisation on the criticality of their roles as elected representatives. This is the rationale for training and capacitybuilding programmes, whether sponsored by state governments or non-governmental organisations. It has been observedthat training programmes are an effective instrument of improving the ability of elected representatives to perform.

65


4.7.14.7.14.7.14.7.14.7.1 TTTTTraining Rraining Rraining Rraining Rraining Receiveceiveceiveceiveceivededededed

Just over half (57%) the elected representatives interviewed said they had received any training or orientation after beingelected. Pradhans are, on the whole, more likely to have undergone some training (84%) than Ward Members (50%).By gender, too, a higher proportion of EMRs (65%) received training in comparison to EWRs (54%). As presented inTable 4.22, the gender gap on this aspect was higher in the case of Ward Members than Pradhans.

Training of EWRs in Chhattisgarh

TTTTTable 4.22: Rable 4.22: Rable 4.22: Rable 4.22: Rable 4.22: Receiveceiveceiveceiveceived Any ed Any ed Any ed Any ed Any TTTTTraining / Oraining / Oraining / Oraining / Oraining / Orientation after Brientation after Brientation after Brientation after Brientation after Being Eeing Eeing Eeing Eeing Elected (%)lected (%)lected (%)lected (%)lected (%)



EWR 54.1 45.9 4,880

EMR 64.7 35.3 1,838


Pradhan-male 87.6 12.4 461

Pradhan-female 81.8 18.2 907






66


Of those who did not receive such training/orientation, 60 percent gave `training programmes not held' as the chiefreason for their non-attendance. Among Ward Members, 23 percent, and among Pradhans, 12 percent, cited their 'notbeing called for training' as the next most important reason. Only a tenth of the elected representatives cited theirpersonal preoccupations and priorities as the reason for not attending the programmes.

TTTTTable 4.23: Rable 4.23: Rable 4.23: Rable 4.23: Rable 4.23: Reasons for Neasons for Neasons for Neasons for Neasons for Not Rot Rot Rot Rot Receiving any eceiving any eceiving any eceiving any eceiving any TTTTTraining (%)raining (%)raining (%)raining (%)raining (%)

I wasI wasI wasI wasI was I had otherI had otherI had otherI had otherI had other IIIIIt wast wast wast wast was I was notI was notI was notI was notI was not TheTheTheTheTheTTTTTrainingrainingrainingrainingraining notnotnotnotnot prioritiesprioritiesprioritiesprioritiespriorities notnotnotnotnot alloalloalloalloallowwwwwed toed toed toed toed to trainingtrainingtrainingtrainingtrainingwas notwas notwas notwas notwas not calledcalledcalledcalledcalled at thatat thatat thatat thatat that imporimporimporimporimportanttanttanttanttant attendattendattendattendattend center wascenter wascenter wascenter wascenter was NNNNN

heldheldheldheldheld for thefor thefor thefor thefor the timetimetimetimetime too fartoo fartoo fartoo fartoo fartrainingtrainingtrainingtrainingtraining


EWR 60.9 21.7 10.7 3.6 1.6 1.5 2,239

EMR 60.6 21.9 10.8 4.3 1.7 0.6 648


Pradhan-male 63.2 17.5 8.8 7.0 1.8 1.8 57

Pradhan-female 64.8 10.3 13.3 7.3 2.4 1.8 165

Total Pradhans 64.4 12.2 12.2 7.2 2.3 1.8 222

Ward Member-male 60.4 22.3 11.0 4.1 1.7 0.5 591

Ward Member-female 60.6 22.6 10.5 3.3 1.5 1.4 2,074

Total Ward Members 60.6 22.6 10.6 3.5 1.6 1.2 2,665

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 60.960.960.960.960.9 21.821.821.821.821.8 10.710.710.710.710.7 3.83.83.83.83.8 1.61.61.61.61.6 1.31.31.31.31.3 2,8872,8872,8872,8872,887

In Kerala, all Pradhans received training, as did more than 80 percent in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,Assam, Sikkim, Tripura, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttarakhand andHimachal Pradesh. Gujarat has the lowest figures for training received by Pradhans.

TTTTTable 4.24: Pable 4.24: Pable 4.24: Pable 4.24: Pable 4.24: Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of Ption of Ption of Ption of Ption of Pradhans Rradhans Rradhans Rradhans Rradhans Receiveceiveceiveceiveceived ed ed ed ed TTTTTraining - braining - braining - braining - braining - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

PPPPPradhan- Mradhan- Mradhan- Mradhan- Mradhan- Malealealealeale PPPPPradhan- Fradhan- Fradhan- Fradhan- Fradhan- Femaleemaleemaleemaleemale

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNN

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 87.687.687.687.687.6 12.412.412.412.412.4 461461461461461 81.881.881.881.881.8 18.218.218.218.218.2 907907907907907

Andhra Pradesh 100.0 0.0 32 92.2 7.8 64

Karnataka 93.8 6.3 16 96.9 3.1 32

Tamil Nadu 93.8 6.3 16 90.6 9.4 32

Kerala 100.0 0.0 16 100.0 0.0 32

Arunachal Pradesh 62.5 37.5 8 56.3 43.8 16

Assam 93.8 6.3 16 81.3 18.8 32

Manipur 100.0 0.0 8 75.0 25.0 16

Sikkim 100.0 0.0 13 90.9 9.1 11

Tripura 87.5 12.5 8 81.3 18.8 16

West Bengal 96.9 3.1 32 98.4 1.6 64

Orissa 87.5 12.5 16 75.0 25.0 32

Bihar 87.5 12.5 32 84.4 15.6 64

Madhya Pradesh 87.5 12.5 32 67.2 32.8 64

Chhattisgarh 100.0 0.0 16 81.3 18.8 32

67



PPPPPradhan- Mradhan- Mradhan- Mradhan- Mradhan- Malealealealeale PPPPPradhan- Fradhan- Fradhan- Fradhan- Fradhan- Femaleemaleemaleemaleemale


Gujarat 40.0 60.0 15 36.4 63.6 33

Maharashtra 78.1 21.9 32 67.2 32.8 64

Rajasthan 87.5 12.5 32 92.2 7.8 64

Haryana 87.5 12.5 16 87.5 12.5 32

Punjab 73.3 26.7 15 84.8 15.2 33

Uttar Pradesh 80.0 20.0 50 72.3 27.7 94

Uttarakhand 100.0 0.0 15 97.0 3.0 33

Himachal Pradesh 93.8 6.3 16 96.9 3.1 32

Goa 77.8 22.2 9 66.7 33.3 15

The state-wise analysis of Ward Members also shows that the biggest lot of them received training in Kerala. Over 80percent reported having received training in the states of Karnataka, Sikkim, West Bengal, Haryana, Uttarakhand andHimachal Pradesh. Orissa was the lowest in this ranking, followed by Gujarat, Manipur, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.The state differentials could be partially explained by their duration of having served as elected representatives. The all-India figure suggests a 10 percent gender gap between male and female Ward Members in receiving training (Table4.25). Across the states, the gender gap among Ward Members was highest in Tripura (34%), closely followed byMadhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan (17-20%). In Karnataka, Punjab, HimachalPradesh and Assam, more women Ward Members than men have received training (gender gap: 8%). It is notable thatin the matter of training, Gujarat is the poorest performing state, with only 40 percent of male Pradhans and 36.4percent of female Pradhans having received any training.

TTTTTable 4.25: Pable 4.25: Pable 4.25: Pable 4.25: Pable 4.25: Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of tion of tion of tion of tion of WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members Rembers Rembers Rembers Rembers Receiveceiveceiveceiveceived ed ed ed ed TTTTTraining - braining - braining - braining - braining - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member- maleember- maleember- maleember- maleember- male WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member- femaleember- femaleember- femaleember- femaleember- female


All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 57.157.157.157.157.1 42.942.942.942.942.9 1,3771,3771,3771,3771,377 47.847.847.847.847.8 52.252.252.252.252.2 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973

Andhra Pradesh 68.3 31.7 101 50.5 49.5 283

Karnataka 83.3 16.7 48 91.7 8.3 144

Tamil Nadu 33.3 66.7 48 21.5 78.5 144

Kerala 100.0 0.0 49 100.0 0.0 143


Assam 37.5 62.5 48 45.8 54.2 144

Manipur 16.0 84.0 25 14.1 85.9 71

Sikkim 95.8 4.2 24 95.2 4.8 42

Tripura 64.0 36.0 25 29.6 70.4 71

West Bengal 90.8 9.2 98 83.2 16.8 280

Orissa 4.3 95.7 47 3.4 96.6 145

Bihar 67.0 33.0 97 62.4 37.6 287

Madhya Pradesh 33.0 67.0 94 13.5 86.5 289

Chhattisgarh 46.9 53.1 49 39.9 60.1 143

Gujarat 10.6 89.4 47 10.7 89.3 131

68



WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member- maleember- maleember- maleember- maleember- male WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member- femaleember- femaleember- femaleember- femaleember- female


Maharashtra 49.5 50.5 97 31.7 68.3 278

Rajasthan 69.4 30.6 98 52.4 47.6 286

Haryana 83.0 17.0 47 74.1 25.9 143

Punjab 68.1 31.9 47 68.7 31.3 134

Uttar Pradesh 27.1 72.9 144 17.4 82.6 432

Uttarakhand 80.0 20.0 50 82.4 17.6 125


Goa 62.5 37.5 24 51.7 48.3 60

4.7.2 4.7.2 4.7.2 4.7.2 4.7.2 TTTTTypes of ypes of ypes of ypes of ypes of TTTTTraining Rraining Rraining Rraining Rraining Receiveceiveceiveceiveceivededededed

The survey also attempted to elicit data on the quality of training, the content and its location, duration, the agencyorganising it and the perception of elected representatives regarding their quality and usefulness. These questions wereadministered only to those who had received some form of training.

TTTTTable 4.26: Content of able 4.26: Content of able 4.26: Content of able 4.26: Content of able 4.26: Content of TTTTTraining Rraining Rraining Rraining Rraining Receiveceiveceiveceiveceived bed bed bed bed by ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)

RRRRRules andules andules andules andules and RRRRRoles andoles andoles andoles andoles and PPPPPrrrrreparationeparationeparationeparationeparation PPPPPlanninglanninglanninglanninglanning MMMMMonitoringonitoringonitoringonitoringonitoring GGGGGooooovvvvvernmenternmenternmenternmenternment OOOOOthertherthertherther NNNNNrrrrregulationsegulationsegulationsegulationsegulations rrrrresponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilities of villageof villageof villageof villageof village andandandandand of rof rof rof rof ruraluraluraluralural schemes/schemes/schemes/schemes/schemes/

ofofofofof of panchayatof panchayatof panchayatof panchayatof panchayat actionactionactionactionaction budgetingbudgetingbudgetingbudgetingbudgeting devdevdevdevdevelopmentelopmentelopmentelopmentelopment prprprprprogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammespanchayatpanchayatpanchayatpanchayatpanchayat membersmembersmembersmembersmembers plansplansplansplansplans pr pr pr pr programmesogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammes


EWR 55.4 43.4 15.5 13.7 28.9 21.8 2.3 2,641

EMR 59.8 43.5 18.2 15.3 29.7 25.5 1.9 1,190


Pradhan- male 65.3 43.1 22.8 25.2 30.9 34.9 2.7 404

Pradhan- female 63.3 43.4 18.6 19.1 32.7 30.1 3.1 742

Total Pradhans 64.0 43.3 20.1 21.3 32.1 31.8 3.0 1,146

Ward Member-male 57.0 43.8 15.8 10.2 29.1 20.7 1.5 786



TTTTTotal electedotal electedotal electedotal electedotal elected 56.856.856.856.856.8 43.443.443.443.443.4 16.316.316.316.316.3 14.214.214.214.214.2 29.229.229.229.229.2 22.922.922.922.922.9 2.22.22.22.22.2 3,8313,8313,8313,8313,831rrrrrepreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

Though it is evident that training in the rules and regulations of panchayats as also the roles and responsibilities ofelected representatives, only 57 percent of male and 43 percent of female representatives reported to have learnt aboutthese from the training programmes that they attended. Training on planning and budgeting and on the preparation ofvillage action plans is also directly related to the functioning of elected representatives. But such training was available toa very small proportion (14-16%) of respondents who received any form of training. Training related to village development- on various government schemes/programmes and on the monitoring of rural development programmes - was attendedby, respectively, 23 percent and 29 percent of elected male and female representatives.

Though the Pradhans are more likely to attend training programmes than Ward Members, there does not appear to beany great difference on the basis of gender.

69


4.7.34.7.34.7.34.7.34.7.3 TTTTTraining on 'Rraining on 'Rraining on 'Rraining on 'Rraining on 'Rules and Rules and Rules and Rules and Rules and Regulations'egulations'egulations'egulations'egulations'

All those who attended training on the rules and regulations of panchayats were further asked whether it was held intheir village (non-residential) or outside the village which entailed staying over for more than a day at a residentialfacility. To this, 46 percent said that it was residential in nature. There is no great difference by position or gender on thisaspect.

TTTTTable 4.27: Pable 4.27: Pable 4.27: Pable 4.27: Pable 4.27: Place oflace oflace oflace oflace of, and N, and N, and N, and N, and Need for Feed for Feed for Feed for Feed for Furururururther ther ther ther ther TTTTTraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rules and Rules and Rules and Rules and Rules and Regulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)

PPPPPlace of traininglace of traininglace of traininglace of traininglace of training ERs mentioning needERs mentioning needERs mentioning needERs mentioning needERs mentioning need NNNNN

RRRRResidentialesidentialesidentialesidentialesidential NNNNNon ron ron ron ron residentialesidentialesidentialesidentialesidential for furfor furfor furfor furfor further trainingther trainingther trainingther trainingther training


EWR 44.2 55.8 59.7 712

EMR 47.0 53.0 59.5 1,463


Pradhan- male 47.3 52.7 55.7 264

Pradhan- female 48.1 51.9 57.9 470

Total Pradhans 47.8 52.2 57.1 734





Three-fifths of the elected representatives (60%) apparently feel the need for training in the rules and regulationspertaining to Panchayati Raj. This proportion is slightly higher in the case of Ward Members, though there is virtuallyno difference between male and female representatives.

Of the fairly large numbers wanting further training on rules and regulations, 82 percent said that the training was tooshort, 14-17 percent mentioned that it was not easy to understand and that the curriculum was too technical. Thedifference by position (Pradhan/Ward Member) and gender was insignificant, except on the question of the languageused.

TTTTTable 4.28: Rable 4.28: Rable 4.28: Rable 4.28: Rable 4.28: Reasons for easons for easons for easons for easons for WWWWWanting Fanting Fanting Fanting Fanting Furururururther ther ther ther ther TTTTTraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rules and Rules and Rules and Rules and Rules and Regulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)

TTTTTrainingrainingrainingrainingraining WWWWWas notas notas notas notas not CCCCCurriculumurriculumurriculumurriculumurriculum WWWWWas notas notas notas notas not WWWWWas notas notas notas notas not OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNNwas vwas vwas vwas vwas verererereryyyyy easy toeasy toeasy toeasy toeasy to was toowas toowas toowas toowas too in localin localin localin localin local interactivinteractivinteractivinteractivinteractiveeeee

shorshorshorshorshorttttt understandunderstandunderstandunderstandunderstand technicaltechnicaltechnicaltechnicaltechnical languagelanguagelanguagelanguagelanguage


EWR 81.5 17.7 14.0 6.7 4.8 0.9 870

EMR 84.2 16.0 14.6 2.1 6.4 1.2 425


Pradhan- male 85.7 14.3 13.6 0.7 9.5 0.7 147

Pradhan- female 77.2 19.1 15.8 7.0 7.7 1.8 272

Total Pradhans 80.2 17.4 15.0 4.8 8.4 1.4 419

Ward Member-male 83.5 16.9 15.1 2.9 4.7 1.4 278

Ward Member-female 83.4 17.1 13.2 6.5 3.5 0.5 598

Total Ward Members 83.4 17.0 13.8 5.4 3.9 0.8 876


70


However, 84 percent of those who said that they did not want any further training on rules and regulations of panchayatsindicated that they found the training they had already received to be quite comprehensive. Around 13 percent also saidthat they had received such training several times. Again, there existed only a minor difference between Pradhan andWard Members, and between male and female representatives.

TTTTTable 4.29: Rable 4.29: Rable 4.29: Rable 4.29: Rable 4.29: Reasons for not easons for not easons for not easons for not easons for not WWWWWanting Fanting Fanting Fanting Fanting Furururururther ther ther ther ther TTTTTraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rraining on Rules and Rules and Rules and Rules and Rules and Regulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)egulations (%)

TTTTTrainingrainingrainingrainingraining AAAAAttendedttendedttendedttendedttended WWWWWould not beould not beould not beould not beould not be SSSSSuchuchuchuchuch SSSSSuchuchuchuchuch OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNNwaswaswaswaswas suchsuchsuchsuchsuch avavavavavailable dueailable dueailable dueailable dueailable due trainings artrainings artrainings artrainings artrainings areeeee trainingtrainingtrainingtrainingtraining

comprcomprcomprcomprcomprehensivehensivehensivehensivehensiveeeee trainingtrainingtrainingtrainingtraining to familyto familyto familyto familyto family not vnot vnot vnot vnot verererereryyyyy prprprprprogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammesmanymanymanymanymany obligationobligationobligationobligationobligation usefulusefulusefulusefuluseful ararararare re re re re residentialesidentialesidentialesidentialesidentialtimestimestimestimestimes


EWR 81.1 10.6 11.4 5.4 3.7 2.0 594

EMR 89.9 17.4 3.8 3.1 2.1 1.4 287


Pradhan- male 91.5 18.8 1.7 3.4 0.9 1.7 117

Pradhan- female 85.9 12.1 6.1 3.5 5.1 1.0 198

Total Pradhans 87.9 14.6 4.4 3.5 3.5 1.3 315

Ward Member-male 88.8 16.5 5.3 2.9 2.9 1.2 170



TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 84.084.084.084.084.0 12.812.812.812.812.8 9.09.09.09.09.0 4.74.74.74.74.7 3.23.23.23.23.2 1.81.81.81.81.8 881881881881881

4.7.44.7.44.7.44.7.44.7.4 PPPPPerererererceptions about the Qceptions about the Qceptions about the Qceptions about the Qceptions about the Quality of uality of uality of uality of uality of TTTTTrainingrainingrainingrainingraining

The levels of satisfaction with, and general perceptions about, various aspects of training were also evaluated through aseries of questions fielded to those who received them. As Table 4.30 shows, a high level of satisfaction was observedwith the logistical arrangements of training, such as the seating arrangements (95%), visibility of screen/board (88%),the quality of the instructor with respect to both attitude (93%) and the language medium of the training (96%).Almost four-fifths of respondents said that the training material provided was easy to understand. The satisfaction andperception on various aspects of training did not vary much with regard to the position or gender.

TTTTTable 4.30: Sable 4.30: Sable 4.30: Sable 4.30: Sable 4.30: Satisfaction with Datisfaction with Datisfaction with Datisfaction with Datisfaction with Differifferifferifferifferent Aspects of ent Aspects of ent Aspects of ent Aspects of ent Aspects of TTTTTraining (%)raining (%)raining (%)raining (%)raining (%)

SSSSSatisfiedatisfiedatisfiedatisfiedatisfied SSSSSatisfied withatisfied withatisfied withatisfied withatisfied with SSSSSatisfied withatisfied withatisfied withatisfied withatisfied with SSSSSatisfiedatisfiedatisfiedatisfiedatisfied TTTTTraining materialraining materialraining materialraining materialraining materialwith seatingwith seatingwith seatingwith seatingwith seating visibility ofvisibility ofvisibility ofvisibility ofvisibility of language oflanguage oflanguage oflanguage oflanguage of with attitudewith attitudewith attitudewith attitudewith attitude prprprprprooooovided wasvided wasvided wasvided wasvided wasarrangementarrangementarrangementarrangementarrangement scrscrscrscrscreen/boareen/boareen/boareen/boareen/boarddddd instrinstrinstrinstrinstructoructoructoructoructor of instrof instrof instrof instrof instructoructoructoructoructor easy to understandeasy to understandeasy to understandeasy to understandeasy to understand NNNNN


EWR 95.4 87.6 92.0 96.5 76.9 2,641

EMR 94.9 90.3 95.0 95.2 82.7 1,190


Pradhan- male 95.5 92.8 95.8 96.3 84.7 404

Pradhan- female 95.3 88.9 93.1 97.0 79.6 742

Total Pradhans 95.4 90.3 94.1 96.8 81.4 1,146

Ward Member-male 94.5 88.9 94.7 94.7 81.7 786

Ward Member-female 95.4 87.0 91.6 96.3 75.9 1,899



71


Any training is likely to be more effective in achieving its purpose if it enables all those attending to participate anddiscuss without any inhibitions. A high proportion (90%), reported that they found the training to be participatory innature, and 85 percent of them also said that they found it easy to field questions during the training. Only a minordifference was observed in terms of position and gender on this aspect of training.

In line with the overall objective of the study, its quality was also assessed in terms of the perception of female representativeson whether or not they were treated differently from male trainees. A high proportion of females (91%) felt that theyreceived treatment at par with their male counterparts, and this perception was held by almost similar proportions ofboth female Pradhans and female Ward Members. A similar pattern was also observed across the various states.

“The number of queries raised by women representatives in the training is much less when compared to male representatives.This is not because they get discriminatory treatment but because they themselves are hesitant and shy to speak publicly.Also due to low educational levels EWRs grasp less and are unable to articulate their questions properly” – OfficeSuperintendent, district Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh

TTTTTable 4.31: Pable 4.31: Pable 4.31: Pable 4.31: Pable 4.31: Perererererception Rception Rception Rception Rception Regaregaregaregaregarding the Pding the Pding the Pding the Pding the Parararararticipatorticipatorticipatorticipatorticipatory Ny Ny Ny Ny Naturaturaturaturature of e of e of e of e of TTTTTraining (%)raining (%)raining (%)raining (%)raining (%)

PPPPPerererererception rception rception rception rception regaregaregaregaregardingdingdingdingding QQQQQuestions could be easilyuestions could be easilyuestions could be easilyuestions could be easilyuestions could be easily EEEEEWRs rWRs rWRs rWRs rWRs reporeporeporeporeporting that theyting that theyting that theyting that theyting that theytraining beingtraining beingtraining beingtraining beingtraining being asked in case training wasasked in case training wasasked in case training wasasked in case training wasasked in case training was rrrrreceiveceiveceiveceiveceived tred tred tred tred treatment at pareatment at pareatment at pareatment at pareatment at parparparparparparticipatorticipatorticipatorticipatorticipatoryyyyy perperperperperceivceivceivceivceived as pared as pared as pared as pared as participatorticipatorticipatorticipatorticipatoryyyyy with EMRswith EMRswith EMRswith EMRswith EMRs



EWR 89.6 2,641 82.7 2,366 91.3 2,641

EMR 92.1 1,190 89.1 1,096 - -


Pradhan- male 93.1 404 93.4 376 - -

Pradhan- female 91.5 742 86.2 679 91.8 742

Total Pradhans 92.1 1,146 88.7 1,055 91.8 742

Ward Member-male 91.6 786 86.9 720 - -

Ward Member-female 88.8 1,899 81.3 1,687 91.0 1899

Total Ward Members 89.6 2,685 83.0 2,407 91.0 1899


Training programmes appear to be satisfactory where they have been held. However, two suggestions for their furtherimprovement emerged from this survey. Firstly, a large proportion of elected representatives could not receive anytraining due to some reason or the other. Secondly, more attention is apparently needed to the content, duration andcomprehensibility of training, especially with respect to the rules and regulations of panchayats, and on the roles andresponsibilities of elected representatives.

4.8 D4.8 D4.8 D4.8 D4.8 Do Eo Eo Eo Eo Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives Fes Fes Fes Fes Function within a Sunction within a Sunction within a Sunction within a Sunction within a Supporupporupporupporupportivtivtivtivtive Ee Ee Ee Ee Envirnvirnvirnvirnvironment?onment?onment?onment?onment?

A supportive environment not only makes it easier to enter politics, but also enables elected representatives to carve outa political career, and remain committed to it over a longer period of time.

4.8.1 S4.8.1 S4.8.1 S4.8.1 S4.8.1 Supporupporupporupporupport frt frt frt frt from om om om om VVVVVillage Communityillage Communityillage Communityillage Communityillage Community

Getting elected as a Pradhan or a Ward Member brings with it the responsibility for taking significant initiatives forensuring the development of the village community. This process becomes easier if elected representatives are successfulin getting support across various religious and caste groups -- if not before then, at least after their election. Of thoseinterviewed, 91 percent, irrespective of position and gender, claimed to have received such recognition in the village

72


(Table 4.32). This friendly and conducive environment is apparently an opportunity that two-thirds of electedrepresentatives are proactive in exploiting, by increasing their social interaction after election.

TTTTTable 4.32: Iable 4.32: Iable 4.32: Iable 4.32: Iable 4.32: Interaction with the nteraction with the nteraction with the nteraction with the nteraction with the VVVVVillage Community (%)illage Community (%)illage Community (%)illage Community (%)illage Community (%)

RRRRReceiveceiveceiveceiveceived red red red red recognition frecognition frecognition frecognition frecognition fromomomomom Change in social interaction with theChange in social interaction with theChange in social interaction with theChange in social interaction with theChange in social interaction with theall caste categoriesall caste categoriesall caste categoriesall caste categoriesall caste categories community after being electedcommunity after being electedcommunity after being electedcommunity after being electedcommunity after being elected

YYYYYeseseseses IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreasedeasedeasedeasedeased RRRRRemained sameemained sameemained sameemained sameemained same RRRRReducededucededucededucededuced NNNNN


EWR 89.9 62.6 35.6 1.8 4,880

EMR 92.5 74.9 23.9 1.1 1,838


Pradhan- male 93.9 84.2 15.0 0.9 461

Pradhan- female 93.9 79.3 19.3 1.4 907

Total Pradhans 93.9 80.9 17.8 1.2 1,368

Ward Member-male 92.1 71.8 26.9 1.2 1,377

Ward Member-female 89.0 58.8 39.3 1.9 3,973



The process of entering politics involves many challenges and problems at the local level, not least among them is thespecter of conflicts with other caste groups. Overall, however, only a small proportion reported facing such situationsafter being elected, both in the current as also in earlier elections. However, there was a small decline in the proportionthat faced such conflict in the recent election (9%) when compared to the previous election (11%). The difference byposition or by gender is not very significant, nor is there much variation across states.

“Both male and female elected representatives support each other in performing their duties in the village. EWRs don’tface any tough competition or hurdles from EMRs. In fact I have seen that even other male functionaries such as PanchayatSecretary extend their full cooperation to EWRs whenever required “ – Sabhapati, block Khowai, district West Tripura

TTTTTable 4.33: Fable 4.33: Fable 4.33: Fable 4.33: Fable 4.33: Facing Conflict with Oacing Conflict with Oacing Conflict with Oacing Conflict with Oacing Conflict with Other Caste Gther Caste Gther Caste Gther Caste Gther Caste Grrrrroups after being Eoups after being Eoups after being Eoups after being Eoups after being Elected (%)lected (%)lected (%)lected (%)lected (%)

Contested currContested currContested currContested currContested current electionent electionent electionent electionent election Contested earlier election/sContested earlier election/sContested earlier election/sContested earlier election/sContested earlier election/s

Those who faced conflictThose who faced conflictThose who faced conflictThose who faced conflictThose who faced conflict NNNNN Those who faced conflictThose who faced conflictThose who faced conflictThose who faced conflictThose who faced conflict NNNNN


EWR 8.2 4,880 11.8 1,123

EMR 9.2 1,838 8.5 669


Pradhan- male 11.7 461 11.9 226

Pradhan- female 11.9 907 12.3 235

Total Pradhans 11.8 1,368 12.1 461

Ward Member-male 8.4 1,377 6.8 443

Ward Member-female 7.3 3,973 11.6 888

Total Ward Members 7.6 5,350 10.0 1,331

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 8.58.58.58.58.5 6,7186,7186,7186,7186,718 10.510.510.510.510.5 1,7921,7921,7921,7921,792

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4.8.24.8.24.8.24.8.24.8.2 SSSSSupporupporupporupporupport frt frt frt frt from Hom Hom Hom Hom Household Mousehold Mousehold Mousehold Mousehold Membersembersembersembersembers

For women, support from family members seems to play an important role in terms of their own perception of theirroles in the panchayats. According to the survey findings, 30 percent of women representatives say that the time devotedby them to household chores has decreased after getting elected. But for 62 percent it has remained the same. There issome evidence also of the increased involvement of other family members in sharing the household responsibilities ofthe elected representatives. Of those who reported a reduction in their involvement in household responsibilities afterbeing elected, 60 percent mentioned an increase in the support provided by their families (Table 4.34).

TTTTTable 4.34: Change in able 4.34: Change in able 4.34: Change in able 4.34: Change in able 4.34: Change in TTTTTime Dime Dime Dime Dime Devevevevevoted boted boted boted boted by ERs to Hy ERs to Hy ERs to Hy ERs to Hy ERs to Household ousehold ousehold ousehold ousehold WWWWWororororork, and sharing of Hk, and sharing of Hk, and sharing of Hk, and sharing of Hk, and sharing of Household Rousehold Rousehold Rousehold Rousehold Responsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitieswithin the Fwithin the Fwithin the Fwithin the Fwithin the Family (%)amily (%)amily (%)amily (%)amily (%)

Change in time devChange in time devChange in time devChange in time devChange in time devotedotedotedotedoted Change in invChange in invChange in invChange in invChange in involvolvolvolvolvement of other family members in sharingement of other family members in sharingement of other family members in sharingement of other family members in sharingement of other family members in sharingfor household rfor household rfor household rfor household rfor household responsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilities NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses household rhousehold rhousehold rhousehold rhousehold responsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilitiesesponsibilities

IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreased (%)eased (%)eased (%)eased (%)eased (%) RRRRRemained same (%)emained same (%)emained same (%)emained same (%)emained same (%) RRRRReduced (%)educed (%)educed (%)educed (%)educed (%)

Increased 380 7.8 54.7 32.1 13.2

Remained same 3,028 62.4 13.0 83.5 3.5

Reduced 1,443 29.7 59.5 22.4 18.1

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 4,8514,8514,8514,8514,851 100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0 30.130.130.130.130.1 61.361.361.361.361.3 8.68.68.68.68.6

A specific question related to change in time spent in looking after the children, before and after being elected, was alsoadministered to the women representatives. Once again, a decline in this role was reported by 29 percent of respondents,of whom 63 percent also reported an increase in the support of family members.

TTTTTable 4.35: Change in able 4.35: Change in able 4.35: Change in able 4.35: Change in able 4.35: Change in TTTTTime Dime Dime Dime Dime Devevevevevoted to Looking after Childroted to Looking after Childroted to Looking after Childroted to Looking after Childroted to Looking after Children ben ben ben ben by ERs and Sy ERs and Sy ERs and Sy ERs and Sy ERs and Sharing of this Rharing of this Rharing of this Rharing of this Rharing of this Responsibility besponsibility besponsibility besponsibility besponsibility byyyyyother Fother Fother Fother Fother Family Mamily Mamily Mamily Mamily Members (%)embers (%)embers (%)embers (%)embers (%)

Change in time devChange in time devChange in time devChange in time devChange in time devotedotedotedotedoted Change in invChange in invChange in invChange in invChange in involvolvolvolvolvement of other family members inement of other family members inement of other family members inement of other family members inement of other family members infor looking after childrfor looking after childrfor looking after childrfor looking after childrfor looking after childrenenenenen NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses looking after childrlooking after childrlooking after childrlooking after childrlooking after childrenenenenen

IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreased (%)eased (%)eased (%)eased (%)eased (%) RRRRRemained same (%)emained same (%)emained same (%)emained same (%)emained same (%) RRRRReduced (%)educed (%)educed (%)educed (%)educed (%)

Increased 242 6.4 62.4 26.9 10.7

Remained same 2,441 65.0 12.2 86.0 1.8

Reduced 1,074 28.6 62.7 21.8 15.5

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 3,7573,7573,7573,7573,757 100100100100100 29.929.929.929.929.9 63.863.863.863.863.8 6.36.36.36.36.3

The findings analysed thus far indicate the extent to which elected women representatives function within an enablingenvironment at the level of the village community and the household. The next chapter will explore the impact of thison their actual performance as elected representatives.

74


5.5.5.5.5. QQQQQUUUUUALITALITALITALITALITY OF PY OF PY OF PY OF PY OF PARARARARARTICIPTICIPTICIPTICIPTICIPAAAAATION OF ELECTEDTION OF ELECTEDTION OF ELECTEDTION OF ELECTEDTION OF ELECTEDREPRESENTREPRESENTREPRESENTREPRESENTREPRESENTAAAAATIVESTIVESTIVESTIVESTIVES

The benchmark generally selected for evaluating women's participation in politics is their representation in term ofnumbers or percentages. This does not facilitate adequate understanding, because representation does not, in itself,constitute evidence of participation. Hence, this survey sought to gather evidence about the quality of women'sparticipation, instead of resorting to broad-brush inference based on data on representation. The study is based on theassumption that representation is a necessary, but by no means sufficient, condition for participation. As such, we startby recording the representation of women from objective data, noting in particular the states where the actual representationof women exceeds the number of reserved seats.

Figure 5.1 depicts instances where women's representation in Panchayat Raj institutions exceeds the 33 percent level. InBihar, women's representation is as high as 54 percent at the Gram Panchayat and 49 percent at the Intermediate andZilla Panchayat levels. It may be noted that the Bihar State Panchayati Raj Act mandates 50 percent reservation forwomen in panchayats. Women's representation is also high in the northeastern states.

Source: Ministry of Panchayati Raj, 2006

Figure 5.1 : Women's Representation in Panchayats

The quality of participation is a broad concept, encapsulating varying dimensions that were surveyed by this study. Theindicators which assisted in the work of evaluating the quality of participation were: the elected women representatives'awareness of their roles; their performance in implementing development works; their involvement with the localcommunity and organisations, either community-based or non-governmental, and, their role in organising Gram Sabhameetings, community drives and campaigns. These issues were further triangulated with community interviews, thedata relating to which are presented in the following sections.

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5.1 P5.1 P5.1 P5.1 P5.1 Parararararticipation in the Gticipation in the Gticipation in the Gticipation in the Gticipation in the Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha

According to the 73rd Amendment (Part IX), a Gram Sabha may exercise powers and perform functions at the villagelevel as provided by Laws enacted by its state legislature.3 Gram Sabha means a body of persons registered as voters in theelectoral rolls relating to a village lying within the jurisdiction of that panchayat.4 Holding Gram Sabha meetings withina fixed time period is mandatory under the 73rd Amendment Act of the Constitution. It is usually convened by theGram Panchayat.

The Constitutional Amendment devolves to these elected institutions the task of preparing "plans for economicdevelopment and social justice" for each Gram Panchayat. As such, the elected representatives are expected to be closelyinvolved in activities related to the Gram Sabha.

5.1.1 O5.1.1 O5.1.1 O5.1.1 O5.1.1 Organising and Arganising and Arganising and Arganising and Arganising and Attending Gttending Gttending Gttending Gttending Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetingseetingseetingseetingseetings

The survey attempted to gather information regarding the number of Gram Sabha meetings organised in villages. Thisinformation was gathered with reference to the current term of Pradhans and Ward Members. Of the contacted 6,718elected representatives, 6,210 reported that Gram Sabha meetings were organised in their villages. Among them, 1,290were Pradhans and 4,920 were Ward Members.

The quality of participation of elected representatives is often determined by the frequency of Gram Sabha meetings.But it holds true only for Pradhans as the organisation of Gram Sabha meetings is primarily their role. The analysed datashows that 94 percent of Pradhans have performed this role during their current term. When asked about Gram Sabhameetings they have attended, a relatively larger proportion of male Pradhans confirmed their participation, in comparisonto, their female counterparts. Figure 5.2 shows that 93 percent of male Pradhans reported having organised and attendedGram Sabha meetings compared to 86 percent of female Pradhans. The gap between male and female Ward Memberswas double that of male and female Pradhans: 77 percent of male Ward Members reported that the Gram Sabhameetings were organised in their villages which they had attended, whereas only 60 percent of female Ward Membersdid so. This trend is more or less uniform across states.

3 Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 (Part IX) Article 243A.4 Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 (Part IX) Article 243.

Figure 5.2 : Gram Sabha Meetings Organised and Attended During Current Term of Elected Representatives

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Table 5.1 presents all-India figures to show that elected representatives reported that on an average six Gram Sabhameetings were organised in each village during their current term. The average was seven with Pradhans and six in thecase of Ward Members. The same trend was seen with elected male and female representatives, the former reportinglarger number of meetings organised. At the all-India level, the Standard Deviation of mean values shows a largevariability (SD=4.6), which may be attributed to the fact that the duration of the current terms of panchayats variedfrom state to state. Naturally, this reflected in the number of Gram Sabha meetings organised in different states.

The variability of the number of Gram Sabha meetings organised among villages within states was also observed to behigh. In Maharashtra, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Biharand Haryana, it ranged from 3.1 to 6.4.

TTTTTable 5.1: Gable 5.1: Gable 5.1: Gable 5.1: Gable 5.1: Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings Conveetings Conveetings Conveetings Conveetings Convened during ER's Cened during ER's Cened during ER's Cened during ER's Cened during ER's Currurrurrurrurrent ent ent ent ent TTTTTerm (%)erm (%)erm (%)erm (%)erm (%)

NNNNNumber of Gumber of Gumber of Gumber of Gumber of Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetings convabha meetings convabha meetings convabha meetings convabha meetings convened during ERs currened during ERs currened during ERs currened during ERs currened during ERs current terment terment terment terment term

MMMMMeaneaneaneanean SSSSStandartandartandartandartandard Dd Dd Dd Dd Deviationeviationeviationeviationeviation


EWR 5.8 4.6

EMR 6.7 4.9


Pradhan- male 7.9 7.0

Pradhan- female 7.0 6.0

Total Pradhans 7.3 6.0

Ward member-male 6.3 5.0

Ward member-female 5.6 5.0

Total Ward Members 5.7 5.0

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 6.16.16.16.16.1 4.64.64.64.64.6

A small proportion of elected representatives (8%) did not report the organisation of Gram Sabha meetings during theircurrent term. Going by position, these were mainly Ward Members (85%) and going by gender, they were mostlywomen (82%). However, this response was recorded on the basis of their awareness of such meetings and also on theirrecall (Table 5.2). The elected representatives were also encouraged to specify the reasons for these meetings not beingorganised. A large proportion (85%) mentioned that the meetings were not held because of various administrativereasons: e.g. the Pradhan was dismissed, or the Pradhan passed away, or the quorum was not met, and so on.

TTTTTable 5.2: Rable 5.2: Rable 5.2: Rable 5.2: Rable 5.2: Reasons for Geasons for Geasons for Geasons for Geasons for Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings Neetings Neetings Neetings Neetings Not Bot Bot Bot Bot Being Heing Heing Heing Heing Held (%)eld (%)eld (%)eld (%)eld (%)

RRRRReasons for Geasons for Geasons for Geasons for Geasons for Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetings not being heldabha meetings not being heldabha meetings not being heldabha meetings not being heldabha meetings not being held

DDDDDue to naturalue to naturalue to naturalue to naturalue to natural PPPPPradhan did notradhan did notradhan did notradhan did notradhan did not DDDDDue to someue to someue to someue to someue to some OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNNcalamity (flood,calamity (flood,calamity (flood,calamity (flood,calamity (flood, convconvconvconvconvene Gene Gene Gene Gene Gramramramramram administrativadministrativadministrativadministrativadministrativeeeee

drdrdrdrdrought etc.)ought etc.)ought etc.)ought etc.)ought etc.) SSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha rrrrreasonseasonseasonseasonseasons


EWR 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 418

EMR 1.1 54.4 16.7 30.0 90


Pradhan- male 0.0 15.8 52.6 31.6 19

Pradhan- female 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 59

Total Pradhans 0.0 3.8 88.5 7.7 78

Ward member-male 1.4 64.8 7.0 29.6 71

Ward member-female 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 359

Total Ward Members 0.2 10.7 84.7 4.9 430

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 0.20.20.20.20.2 9.69.69.69.69.6 85.285.285.285.285.2 5.35.35.35.35.3 508508508508508

77


5.1.25.1.25.1.25.1.25.1.2 AAAAAwarwarwarwarwareness about Neness about Neness about Neness about Neness about Number of Gumber of Gumber of Gumber of Gumber of Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings Heetings Heetings Heetings Heetings Held in a eld in a eld in a eld in a eld in a YYYYYearearearearear

Though the number of Gram Sabha meetings to be held varied from state to state, it was nevertheless an importantindicator of the quality of participation of elected representatives. Table 5.3 shows that 42 percent of elected representativesreported to have organised two Gram Sabha meetings in a year. This was the common response of all elected representatives.Around 24 percent of elected representatives confirmed having organised four meetings.

TTTTTable 5.3: Aable 5.3: Aable 5.3: Aable 5.3: Aable 5.3: Awarwarwarwarwareness about Neness about Neness about Neness about Neness about Number of umber of umber of umber of umber of TTTTTimes Gimes Gimes Gimes Gimes Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings held in a eetings held in a eetings held in a eetings held in a eetings held in a YYYYYear (%)ear (%)ear (%)ear (%)ear (%)

NNNNNumber of times Gumber of times Gumber of times Gumber of times Gumber of times Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetings held in a yabha meetings held in a yabha meetings held in a yabha meetings held in a yabha meetings held in a yearearearearear

OOOOOncencencencence TTTTTwicewicewicewicewice ThriceThriceThriceThriceThrice FFFFFour our our our our TTTTTimesimesimesimesimes MMMMMororororore than Fe than Fe than Fe than Fe than Four timesour timesour timesour timesour times NNNNN


EWR 10.5 41.9 15.1 23.0 9.5 4,258

EMR 7.7 41.5 13.4 26.0 11.3 1,733


Pradhan- male 5.2 36.7 13.2 31.3 13.6 441

Pradhan- female 5.8 40.2 12.1 28.1 13.8 846

Total Pradhans 5.6 39.0 12.4 29.2 13.8 1,287

Ward member-male 8.6 43.1 13.5 24.2 10.5 1,292

Ward member-female 11.6 42.4 15.9 21.7 8.4 3,412



The data by state show that in most of the states the majority of elected representatives have reported that the GramSabha meetings were organised twice in a year. In Tamil Nadu, Assam, Orissa, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Goa,Himachal Pradesh and Maharashtra, Gram Sabha meetings were, reportedly, organised four or more times in a year.Manipur, Gujarat, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh reported their states had Gram Sabha meetings onlyonce a year.

5.2 Q5.2 Q5.2 Q5.2 Q5.2 Quoruoruoruoruorum in Gum in Gum in Gum in Gum in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha

The quorum is the minimum number of registered voters or representatives of households required to be present inorder to hold a Gram Sabha meeting. This norm varies from state to state. Maintaining a quorum for the Gram Sabhameetings is an important norm, and therefore an important benchmark to evaluate the quality of participation ofelected representatives.

It may be noted that all states , with the sole exception of Andhra Pradesh, have a provision for quorum in theirPanchayati Raj Acts. In most of them, non-fulfillment of quorum in the first meeting leads to adjournment. But at thereconvened meeting, there are provisions allowing the waiver of quorum.

The discussion held with different state level officials across 23 states revealed that the quorum for holding Gram Sabhameeting varies from state to state. In WWWWWest Best Best Best Best Bengalengalengalengalengal, 1/20 of total electorate is the quorum for holding of Gram Sabhameeting. In the absence of quorum, the meeting will be adjourned and the adjourned meeting shall be held after sevendays, but no quorum is required for the adjourned meeting of the Gram Sabha. For annual and half-yearly meetings ofGram Sansad, attendance of 10 percent electors pertaining to the constituency shall form a quorum. In the absence of aquorum, the meeting will be adjourned and the adjourned meeting shall be held after seven days and attendance of 5percent electors is necessary for quorum. A similar norm was also observed in most of the states, but in HHHHHimachalimachalimachalimachalimachalPPPPPradeshradeshradeshradeshradesh, the quorum for holding Gram Sabha meetings requires one-third households, but if the meeting is adjourned itbecomes one-fifth, thus quorum cannot be completely bypassed. This is the case in BBBBBihariharihariharihar as well. In TTTTTamil Namil Namil Namil Namil Naduaduaduaduadu, specificnorms for quorum have been given. For population up to 500, quorum is 50 people. Up to 3000 population, it is 100and for up to 10000 population it is 200 and for more than 10000 population it is 300 people.

78


5.2.1 F5.2.1 F5.2.1 F5.2.1 F5.2.1 Formation of Qormation of Qormation of Qormation of Qormation of Quoruoruoruoruorum for Gum for Gum for Gum for Gum for Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetingseetingseetingseetingseetings

The data presented in Table 5.4 show that nearly 62 percent of elected representatives across India said that quorum wasformed at Gram Sabha meetings. This was stated more often in the case of Pradhans than Ward Members, and more bymale than female representatives.

TTTTTable 5.4: Fable 5.4: Fable 5.4: Fable 5.4: Fable 5.4: Formation of Qormation of Qormation of Qormation of Qormation of Quoruoruoruoruorum for Gum for Gum for Gum for Gum for Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)

FFFFFormation of quorormation of quorormation of quorormation of quorormation of quorum for Gum for Gum for Gum for Gum for Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetingabha meetingabha meetingabha meetingabha meeting

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot aware of such norme of such norme of such norme of such norme of such norm NNNNN


EWR 57.2 13.0 29.8 4,258

EMR 73.5 14.1 12.4 1,733


Pradhan- male 83.7 13.6 2.7 441

Pradhan- female 69.7 15.8 14.4 846

Total Pradhans 74.5 15.1 10.4 1,287

Ward member-male 70.0 14.3 15.7 1,292




5.2.25.2.25.2.25.2.25.2.2 IIIIInstances when Qnstances when Qnstances when Qnstances when Qnstances when Quoruoruoruoruorum was not Mum was not Mum was not Mum was not Mum was not Maintainedaintainedaintainedaintainedaintained

During the survey, the elected representatives were asked to recall instances from the past two years when the GramSabha meeting was held despite non-fulfillment of quorum. Around 21 percent of the elected representatives surveyedconfirmed this at the all-India level. The response was, more or less, the same among Pradhans and Ward Members,irrespective of gender (Table 5.5).

TTTTTable 5.5: Iable 5.5: Iable 5.5: Iable 5.5: Iable 5.5: Instances of Gnstances of Gnstances of Gnstances of Gnstances of Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Babha Babha Babha Babha Being Heing Heing Heing Heing Held Deld Deld Deld Deld Despite Lack of Qespite Lack of Qespite Lack of Qespite Lack of Qespite Lack of Quoruoruoruoruorum (%)um (%)um (%)um (%)um (%)

IIIIInstances during last two ynstances during last two ynstances during last two ynstances during last two ynstances during last two years when Gears when Gears when Gears when Gears when Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha was held despiteabha was held despiteabha was held despiteabha was held despiteabha was held despitequorquorquorquorquorum not being formedum not being formedum not being formedum not being formedum not being formed



EWR 21.6 78.4 2,991

EMR 19.3 80.7 1,518





Ward member-male 20.8 79.2 1,089

Ward member-female 22.4 77.6 2,267



79


5.3 E5.3 E5.3 E5.3 E5.3 Encouraging Community Pncouraging Community Pncouraging Community Pncouraging Community Pncouraging Community Parararararticipation in Gticipation in Gticipation in Gticipation in Gticipation in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha

Elected representatives are expected to create an enabling environment for the local community, and especially women,to participate in Gram Sabha meetings, raise questions, interact and present their opinions.

Attendance in Gram Sabha meetings is an important indicator of the quality of women representatives' participation.Table 5.6 shows the low participation of women citizens in Gram Sabha meetings, suggesting low levels of mobilisationby elected women representatives. About 63 percent of elected representatives themselves indicated that less than 25percent of women participate in the Gram Sabha meetings.

TTTTTable 5.6: able 5.6: able 5.6: able 5.6: able 5.6: TTTTTotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Eligible ligible ligible ligible ligible WWWWWomen Uomen Uomen Uomen Uomen Usually Asually Asually Asually Asually Attending Gttending Gttending Gttending Gttending Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)

PPPPPrrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of women usually attending Gtion of women usually attending Gtion of women usually attending Gtion of women usually attending Gtion of women usually attending Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetings

Less than 10Less than 10Less than 10Less than 10Less than 10 10 to 2510 to 2510 to 2510 to 2510 to 25 25 to 5025 to 5025 to 5025 to 5025 to 50 MMMMMororororore thane thane thane thane than NNNNNoneoneoneoneone NNNNNperperperperpercentcentcentcentcent perperperperpercentcentcentcentcent perperperperpercentcentcentcentcent 50 per50 per50 per50 per50 percentcentcentcentcent


EWR 31.7 31.3 21.2 13.1 2.6 4,258

EMR 28.4 33.1 22.3 12.6 3.6 1,733


Pradhan- male 25.4 35.4 25.2 12.7 1.4 441

Pradhan- female 24.8 33.2 26.6 13.9 1.4 846

Total Pradhans 25.0 34.0 26.1 13.5 1.4 1,287

Ward member-male 29.5 32.4 21.3 12.5 4.3 1,292




This participation was particularly low in Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Goa, but high in Kerala, WestBengal, Karnataka, Assam and Tripura. The latter category of states has higher levels of political mobilisation (Table5.7).

TTTTTable 5.7: Pable 5.7: Pable 5.7: Pable 5.7: Pable 5.7: Pradhan's Oradhan's Oradhan's Oradhan's Oradhan's Opinion about Ppinion about Ppinion about Ppinion about Ppinion about Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of tion of tion of tion of tion of WWWWWomen Uomen Uomen Uomen Uomen Usually Asually Asually Asually Asually AttendingttendingttendingttendingttendingGGGGGram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meeting - beeting - beeting - beeting - beeting - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

FFFFFemale Pemale Pemale Pemale Pemale Pradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan MMMMMale Pale Pale Pale Pale Pradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan

LessLessLessLessLess 10 to10 to10 to10 to10 to 25 to25 to25 to25 to25 to MMMMMorororororeeeee NNNNNoneoneoneoneone NNNNN LessLessLessLessLess 10 to10 to10 to10 to10 to 25 to25 to25 to25 to25 to MMMMMorororororeeeee NNNNNoneoneoneoneone NNNNNthanthanthanthanthan 25 %25 %25 %25 %25 % 50%50%50%50%50% thanthanthanthanthan thanthanthanthanthan 25 %25 %25 %25 %25 % 50%50%50%50%50% thanthanthanthanthan10 %10 %10 %10 %10 % 50%50%50%50%50% 10 %10 %10 %10 %10 % 50%50%50%50%50%

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 24.824.824.824.824.8 33.233.233.233.233.2 26.626.626.626.626.6 13.913.913.913.913.9 1.41.41.41.41.4 846846846846846 25.425.425.425.425.4 35.435.435.435.435.4 25.225.225.225.225.2 12.712.712.712.712.7 1.41.41.41.41.4 441441441441441

Andhra Pradesh 17.5 30.2 34.9 15.9 1.6 63 6.5 41.9 38.7 12.9 0.0 31

Karnataka 11.1 22.2 22.2 44.4 0.0 9 28.6 28.6 0.0 42.9 0.0 7

Tamil Nadu 6.3 15.6 46.9 31.3 0.0 32 0.0 6.3 50.0 43.8 0.0 16

Kerala 0.0 0.0 12.5 87.5 0.0 32 0.0 6.3 6.3 87.5 0.0 16


Assam 15.6 21.9 21.9 40.6 0.0 32 6.3 31.3 18.8 43.8 0.0 16

Manipur 0.0 28.6 42.9 28.6 0.0 7 50.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 2

Sikkim 0.0 9.1 72.7 18.2 0.0 11 7.7 30.8 53.8 7.7 0.0 13

Tripura 0.0 6.3 31.3 62.5 0.0 16 0.0 0.0 37.5 62.5 0.0 8

80





West Bengal 22.2 22.2 39.7 15.9 0.0 63 21.9 43.8 25.0 6.3 3.1 32

Orissa 68.8 25.0 3.1 0.0 3.1 32 87.5 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 16

Bihar 26.6 26.6 37.5 9.4 0.0 64 43.8 21.9 31.3 3.1 0.0 32

Madhya Pradesh 45.0 43.3 10.0 0.0 1.7 60 25.0 50.0 15.6 3.1 6.3 32

Chhattisgarh 56.3 37.5 3.1 3.1 0.0 32 43.8 25.0 25.0 6.3 0.0 16

Gujarat 28.0 40.0 16.0 4.0 12.0 25 20.0 53.3 20.0 0.0 6.7 15

Maharashtra 22.6 45.2 22.6 8.1 1.6 62 18.8 56.3 21.9 3.1 0.0 32

Rajasthan 17.7 53.2 27.4 1.6 0.0 62 31.3 43.8 21.9 3.1 0.0 32

Haryana 26.7 30.0 33.3 10.0 0.0 30 31.3 25.0 43.8 0.0 0.0 16

Punjab 6.5 54.8 32.3 3.2 3.2 31 20.0 66.7 6.7 6.7 0.0 15

Uttar Pradesh 33.0 39.4 19.1 4.3 4.3 94 48.0 28.0 18.0 2.0 4.0 50

Uttarakhand 21.2 33.3 36.4 9.1 0.0 33 6.7 40.0 33.3 20.0 0.0 15


Goa 40.0 26.7 26.7 6.7 0.0 15 22.2 66.7 11.1 0.0 0.0 9

BoBoBoBoBox Nx Nx Nx Nx Nooooo. 3.1. 3.1. 3.1. 3.1. 3.1PPPPPractice of "Mractice of "Mractice of "Mractice of "Mractice of "Mahila Gahila Gahila Gahila Gahila Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha"abha"abha"abha"abha"

In some villages of Solan district of HimachalPradesh, there is a practice of holding "MahilaGram Sabha" before the main Gram Sabha. Inthe meeting common women of the village cometogether and discuss the problems of the village.While this provides them a platform to discuss issuesrelated to their interests, it also offers them theopportunity to formulate their agenda for the mainGram Sabha meeting. In the main meeting, thisagenda is discussed with the other electedrepresentatives in a systematic manner. Theidentified issues are placed in the main Gram Sabhameeting by one woman among them who isconfident, active and articulate. Such arrangementsplay a significant role in fostering effectiveparticipation of common women in the process ofdevelopment.

81


TTTTTable 5.8: able 5.8: able 5.8: able 5.8: able 5.8: WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members' Pembers' Pembers' Pembers' Pembers' Perererererception of Pception of Pception of Pception of Pception of Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion of tion of tion of tion of tion of WWWWWomen Uomen Uomen Uomen Uomen Usually Asually Asually Asually Asually Attending thettending thettending thettending thettending theGGGGGram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meeting - beeting - beeting - beeting - beeting - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

FFFFFemale emale emale emale emale WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers MMMMMale ale ale ale ale WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers


All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 33.433.433.433.433.4 30.930.930.930.930.9 19.919.919.919.919.9 12.912.912.912.912.9 2.92.92.92.92.9 3,4123,4123,4123,4123,412 29.529.529.529.529.5 32.432.432.432.432.4 21.321.321.321.321.3 12.512.512.512.512.5 4.34.34.34.34.3 1,2921,2921,2921,2921,292

Andhra Pradesh 14.4 35.8 31.0 16.6 2.2 229 11.3 27.8 40.2 18.6 2.1 97

Karnataka 13.3 19.6 31.5 35.0 0.7 143 18.8 25.0 35.4 20.8 0.0 48

Tamil Nadu 6.3 19.0 41.5 33.1 0.0 142 4.2 14.6 41.7 39.6 0.0 48

Kerala 0.0 2.8 21.7 75.5 0.0 143 0.0 4.1 10.2 85.7 0.0 49


Assam 36.1 16.7 14.6 32.6 0.0 144 29.2 18.8 14.6 37.5 0.0 48

Manipur 4.3 21.7 30.4 43.5 0.0 23 0.0 9.1 63.6 27.3 0.0 11

Sikkim 2.4 7.1 73.8 16.7 0.0 42 12.5 20.8 66.7 0.0 0.0 24

Tripura 0.0 4.2 18.3 77.5 0.0 71 4.0 0.0 40.0 56.0 0.0 25

West Bengal 18.1 38.5 35.6 7.4 0.4 270 9.3 44.3 36.1 10.3 0.0 97

Orissa 86.3 6.5 0.8 0.0 6.5 124 95.5 4.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 44

Bihar 40.7 35.0 17.1 5.7 1.6 246 46.7 30.4 15.2 4.3 3.3 92

Madhya Pradesh 63.5 27.0 3.4 0.6 5.6 178 48.8 34.1 4.9 0.0 12.2 82

Chhattisgarh 65.2 25.8 5.3 1.5 2.3 132 40.8 46.9 10.2 0.0 2.0 49

Gujarat 32.9 38.4 24.7 2.7 1.4 73 46.9 40.6 9.4 3.1 0.0 32

Maharashtra 33.9 40.3 21.6 0.8 3.4 236 26.3 46.3 18.9 2.1 6.3 95

Rajasthan 29.5 54.0 13.8 1.9 0.8 261 26.9 51.6 18.3 3.2 0.0 93

Haryana 41.8 30.6 17.3 9.2 1.0 98 42.2 35.6 17.8 4.4 0.0 45

Punjab 11.8 72.0 11.8 1.1 3.2 93 16.2 67.6 13.5 0.0 2.7 37

Uttar Pradesh 57.6 20.9 8.1 0.9 12.6 422 50.0 16.7 8.3 2.1 22.9 144

Uttarakhand 18.6 41.6 31.9 8.0 0.0 113 18.4 32.7 34.7 14.3 0.0 49


Goa 31.7 40.0 28.3 0.0 0.0 60 37.5 45.8 8.3 8.3 0.0 24

BoBoBoBoBox Nx Nx Nx Nx Nooooo. 3.2. 3.2. 3.2. 3.2. 3.2PPPPPractice of "Mractice of "Mractice of "Mractice of "Mractice of "Makkal (Bakkal (Bakkal (Bakkal (Bakkal (Bal) Gal) Gal) Gal) Gal) Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha"abha"abha"abha"abha"

In Sanoor Panchayat of Udupi district in Karnataka aninteresting and innovative practice of conducting children’sGram Sabha was observed. This Gram Sabha takes placessubsequent to the main Gram Sabha wherein all schoolgoing children and teachers attend the meeting. Formaking it successful, thorough planning is done by firstinforming all the schools in advance with sufficient timemargins for necessary preparations. The objective of themeeting is to understand the issues pertinent to childrendirectly, and through their own peers. They are also madeaware of information on various aspects that would helpthem both academically and personally. Attempts are alsomade to reduce dropouts and increase enrolment in theschool.

82


The attendance of women in Gram Sabha meetings was also validated from the local community during householdsurveys. Interviews were conducted in 6,718 constituencies as part of the survey - three households in each. The analysespresented (below) counted the "Yes" responses. If all three households of a particular constituency said "Yes", the concernedissue was put under the "all 3 HHs confirmed" category. Likewise, if two households replied in the affirmative, thatissue was put under "Only 2 HHs confirmed". The same logic was used to generate response for the "only 1 HHconfirmed" category. If none of the households said, "Yes", they were put under the "None" category.

Table 5.9 shows that in 24.4 percent of the wards, all three households confirmed that the male and female representativesmade efforts to increase the participation of female members of the community. The same was 30.7 percent in the wardsof Pradhans and 22.7 percent in those of Ward Members.

TTTTTable 5.9: able 5.9: able 5.9: able 5.9: able 5.9: WWWWWararararards wherds wherds wherds wherds where ERs Ee ERs Ee ERs Ee ERs Ee ERs Encouraged the Pncouraged the Pncouraged the Pncouraged the Pncouraged the Parararararticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of WWWWWomen Community Momen Community Momen Community Momen Community Momen Community Members in Gembers in Gembers in Gembers in Gembers in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha (%)abha (%)abha (%)abha (%)abha (%)

Community's perCommunity's perCommunity's perCommunity's perCommunity's perceptionceptionceptionceptionception

NNNNNoneoneoneoneone OOOOOnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HH OOOOOnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HH All 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HH NNNNNconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed


EWR 29.4 23.6 22.8 24.2 4,880

EMR 26.4 23.6 25.2 24.9 1,838


Pradhan- male 18.9 24.7 27.5 28.9 461

Pradhan- female 18.0 22.6 27.8 31.6 907

Total Pradhans 18.3 23.3 27.7 30.7 1,368

Ward member-male 28.9 23.2 24.4 23.5 1,377




In fact, in 25 percent of wards, all three households confirmed that their representatives, both male and female, encouragedthe people from all sections of society to speak during Gram Sabha meetings. This phenomenon was more evident in thewards of the Pradhans than those of the Ward Members (Table 5.10).

TTTTTable 5.10: able 5.10: able 5.10: able 5.10: able 5.10: WWWWWararararards ds ds ds ds WherWherWherWherWhere All Citize All Citize All Citize All Citize All Citizens arens arens arens arens are Ee Ee Ee Ee Encouraged to Sncouraged to Sncouraged to Sncouraged to Sncouraged to Speak in Gpeak in Gpeak in Gpeak in Gpeak in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha (%)abha (%)abha (%)abha (%)abha (%)




EWR 28.6 24.0 23.1 24.4 4,880

EMR 26.0 23.1 25.0 25.9 1,838


Pradhan- male 22.1 22.8 28.0 27.1 461

Pradhan- female 18.6 23.3 26.7 31.4 907

Total Pradhans 19.8 23.1 27.1 30.0 1,368

Ward member-male 27.3 23.2 24.0 25.5 1,377




83


On the question whether they could freely raise any issue in the Gram Sabha, a large proportion (95%) of electedrepresentatives confirmed that they could. There was not much difference by position or by gender (Table 5.11).

“Gram Panchayat encouraged the community to participate in Gram Sabha meetings by rescheduling the timings andraising funds to compensate the laborers who have to give up their livelihood to attend such meeting. The EWRs particularlyencouraged women community members to speak up and they also raised issues related to women in the meeting” – FGD,FGD,FGD,FGD,FGD,VVVVVillage 22 PS Rajasthan.illage 22 PS Rajasthan.illage 22 PS Rajasthan.illage 22 PS Rajasthan.illage 22 PS Rajasthan.

TTTTTable 5.11: Raising Any Iable 5.11: Raising Any Iable 5.11: Raising Any Iable 5.11: Raising Any Iable 5.11: Raising Any Issue Fssue Fssue Fssue Fssue Frrrrreely during the Geely during the Geely during the Geely during the Geely during the Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)eeting (%)

Raising issue frRaising issue frRaising issue frRaising issue frRaising issue freely during Geely during Geely during Geely during Geely during Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetingabha meetingabha meetingabha meetingabha meeting



EWR 94.1 5.9 3,465

EMR 97.2 2.8 1,559









It is important to note that in a large proportion of wards (86.4%), the community's perception cohered with thisfinding (Table 5.12).

TTTTTable 5.12: Pable 5.12: Pable 5.12: Pable 5.12: Pable 5.12: Pererererercentage of centage of centage of centage of centage of WWWWWararararards ds ds ds ds WherWherWherWherWhere ERs Ee ERs Ee ERs Ee ERs Ee ERs Enfornfornfornfornforced their Iced their Iced their Iced their Iced their Ideas (%)deas (%)deas (%)deas (%)deas (%)




EWR 87.2 9.7 2.2 0.9 4,880

EMR 84.5 12.3 2.4 0.7 1,838


Pradhan- male 80.0 16.5 2.8 0.7 461

Pradhan- female 83.1 12.1 3.3 1.4 907

Total Pradhans 82.1 13.6 3.1 1.2 1,368

Ward member-male 86.1 10.9 2.3 0.7 1,377




Similarly, the views of the community were also ascertained to determine whether elected representatives tried to dominateGram Sabha meetings. The data in Table 5.13 show that in a large proportion of wards (89%) the community did notfeel that elected representatives tried to dominate Gram Sabha meetings.

84


TTTTTable 5.13: able 5.13: able 5.13: able 5.13: able 5.13: WWWWWararararards wherds wherds wherds wherds where ERs tend to De ERs tend to De ERs tend to De ERs tend to De ERs tend to Dominate Gominate Gominate Gominate Gominate Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)




EWR 88.7 8.7 2.0 0.6 4,880

EMR 87.9 9.9 2.0 0.2 1,838


Pradhan- male 84.4 12.6 2.6 0.4 461

Pradhan- female 85.1 10.5 3.7 0.7 907

Total Pradhans 84.9 11.2 3.4 0.6 1,368

Ward member-male 89.0 9.0 1.8 0.1 1,377




Though members of the community indicated that they could freely speak and raise issues, Table 5.14 shows that it wasonly in 6 percent of the wards that all three of the surveyed households confirmed that elected representatives heardthem out and took their concerns into account.

TTTTTable 5.14: Pable 5.14: Pable 5.14: Pable 5.14: Pable 5.14: Pererererercentage of centage of centage of centage of centage of WWWWWararararards wherds wherds wherds wherds where ERs took Ne ERs took Ne ERs took Ne ERs took Ne ERs took Note of the Concerns of the Community in Gote of the Concerns of the Community in Gote of the Concerns of the Community in Gote of the Concerns of the Community in Gote of the Concerns of the Community in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha (%)abha (%)abha (%)abha (%)abha (%)




EWR 62.4 21.7 10.1 5.8 4,880

EMR 56.3 26.0 11.3 6.4 1,838


Pradhan- male 49.7 28.4 14.5 7.4 461

Pradhan- female 47.6 28.0 15.7 8.7 907

Total Pradhans 48.3 28.1 15.3 8.3 1,368

Ward member-male 58.5 25.2 10.2 6.1 1,377




5.4 I5.4 I5.4 I5.4 I5.4 Issues Dssues Dssues Dssues Dssues Discussed biscussed biscussed biscussed biscussed by Ey Ey Ey Ey Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives during Ges during Ges during Ges during Ges during Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetingseetingseetingseetingseetings

As political functionaries, elected representatives are mandated to take up a range of issues in Gram Sabha meetings.Though the issues discussed by elected representatives often revolve around the development needs and aspirations ofthe local community, the preparation of the Village Development Plan is considered one of the most important functions.

85


Table 5.15 shows that the issues discussed by elected representatives were largely related to the review of existing projects,selection of local schemes, approval of village plans, planning for rural development works and identification of Below-Poverty-Line (BPL) families. There is not much disparity in the perceptions of male and female Pradhans and Wardmembers on the issues discussed.

It is important to note that a sizable proportion of elected representatives of all categories mentioned that they discussedthe Village Development Plan at Gram Sabha meetings. However, issues related to the planning for rural developmentworks and identification of BPL families were discussed mainly by the male Pradhans and Ward Members. The statewise data also show a similar trend (Table 5.15).

TTTTTable 5.15: Iable 5.15: Iable 5.15: Iable 5.15: Iable 5.15: Issues discussed bssues discussed bssues discussed bssues discussed bssues discussed by ERs Dy ERs Dy ERs Dy ERs Dy ERs During Guring Guring Guring Guring Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)

IIIIIssues discussed during Gssues discussed during Gssues discussed during Gssues discussed during Gssues discussed during Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetingabha meetingabha meetingabha meetingabha meeting

MMMMMalealealealeale FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMale ale ale ale ale WWWWWarararararddddd FFFFFemale emale emale emale emale WWWWWararararardddddPPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan MMMMMembersembersembersembersembers MMMMMembersembersembersembersembers

NNNNN %%%%% NNNNN %%%%% NNNNN %%%%% NNNNN %%%%%

Examine annual accounts and audit report 104 22.6 151 16.6 247 17.9 442 11

Consider taxation proposals 49 10.6 86 9.5 126 9.2 311 7.8

Consider budget proposals 79 17.1 130 14.3 224 16.3 370 9.3

Discuss report of the administration 71 15.4 77 8.5 155 11.3 274 6.9

Review existing schemes/works 205 44.5 279 30.8 419 30.4 840 21.1

Review panchayat activities 135 29.3 0.0 339 24.6 0.0

Review current and further programmes 158 34.3 236 26.0 357 25.9 697 17.5

Select local schemes 219 47.5 324 35.7 563 40.9 1,138 28.6

Approve village plan 195 42.3 333 36.7 496 36.0 1,098 27.6

Identify beneficiaries for govt. scheme 217 47.1 356 39.3 569 41.3 1,272 32.0

Identification of beneficiaries under NREGA 107 23.2 200 22.1 306 22.2 707 17.8(job cards)

Undertake programme for family welfare 85 18.4 0 0.0 211 15.3 0 0.0

Maintain register of development activities 78 16.9 0 0.0 225 16.3 0 0.0

Promote social harmony 60 13.0 0 0.0 159 11.5 0 0.0

Mobilize peoples participation 85 18.4 0 0.0 276 20.0 0 0.0

Planning for rural development works 236 51.2 0 0.0 693 50.3 0 0.0

Identification of BPL families 186 40.3 0 0.0 527 38.3 0 0.0

Right to information 30 6.5 0 0.0 96 7.0 0 0.0

Others 61 13.2 122 13.5 201 14.6 505 12.7

Prompt/Do not know 28 6.1 105 11.6 111 8.1 776 19.5

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 461461461461461 100100100100100 907907907907907 100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0 1,3771,3771,3771,3771,377 100100100100100 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973 100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

86


BoBoBoBoBox Nx Nx Nx Nx Nooooo. 3.3. 3.3. 3.3. 3.3. 3.3

The rThe rThe rThe rThe revieevieevieevieeview of rw of rw of rw of rw of recorecorecorecorecords of Mds of Mds of Mds of Mds of Minutes of Minutes of Minutes of Minutes of Minutes of Meeting (Meeting (Meeting (Meeting (Meeting (MoM) of last one yoM) of last one yoM) of last one yoM) of last one yoM) of last one year at Gear at Gear at Gear at Gear at Gram Pram Pram Pram Pram Panchayat Levanchayat Levanchayat Levanchayat Levanchayat Level shoel shoel shoel shoel shows the compliancews the compliancews the compliancews the compliancews the complianceof the aboof the aboof the aboof the aboof the abovvvvve mentioned issues discussed at the Ge mentioned issues discussed at the Ge mentioned issues discussed at the Ge mentioned issues discussed at the Ge mentioned issues discussed at the Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetings acrabha meetings acrabha meetings acrabha meetings acrabha meetings across suross suross suross suross survvvvveyeyeyeyeyed statesed statesed statesed statesed states

A total 1368 Gram Panchayats were covered during the survey. For each panchayat, the record of MoMs of Gram Sabhas wasreviewed in detail. The records indicate that the number of Gram Sabha meetings held in a year varied from 2 to 6 times acrossdifferent states. The venue of the meeting was usually Panchayat Bhawans, but in some villages it was also held in School Building,Village Choupal, Community Centre, and Village Temple/Mosque. The method of recording the attendance is generally done byputting up signatures or applying thumb impressions. The records show signs of quorum having been formed, but it was difficult tocount exact numbers because most of the participants had applied thumb impressions overlapping with each other.

PPPPParararararticipation of the community in Gticipation of the community in Gticipation of the community in Gticipation of the community in Gticipation of the community in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetings

It has been noticed that during Gram Sabha meetingspanchayat members maintain a register to record theattendance of participants. The eligible participants areregistered voters but any adult member could participate inthe meeting. The number of participants varies from stateto state. Usually it differs from 25-80 across states. In thestates like West Bengal, Kerala, Sikkim, Manipur, HimachalPradesh good number of females participate in Gram Sabhameetings (female-male ratio is 40:60), whereas in UttarPradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, males predominantly attendGram Sabha meeting.

IIIIIssues discussed in Gssues discussed in Gssues discussed in Gssues discussed in Gssues discussed in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetings

The broad issues discussed during these meetings in most ofthe villages were revolved around issues related to preventionof child marriage (Bal Vivah), construction of communityhall, construction of meeting hall, construction of Water Bound Macadam roads (WBM), construction of RCC road from village tothe main road, repair of the hand pumps, initiate Employment Generation Programmes and Rozgar Guarantee Schemes, digging ofcanals, installation of new hand pumps, maintain death and birth registration, creating opportunities for agricultural produce,expansion of pasture- land, construction of power house, renovation of the anganwadi centre, construction of godown for keepingperishable agricultural products, review of budgets, selection of beneficiaries, implementation of the family welfare programmes andother development works etc.

The identification of beneficiaries for rural development programmes like TSC-Swajaldhara, IAY, PMGSY and NREGA, andimplementation of such programme was a more common issue discussed in the north eastern states. Whereas in southern states thereview of works done under various schemes, budget issues, old age pension, mid day meal, water supply and sanitation related issues,irrigation issues were the important areas of discussion. In northern states the construction of roads, identification of beneficiary forNREGA programme, awareness generation for health related issues, construction of school building were the main issues discussed. Inthe west, water supply, sanitation and identification of BPL families for development programmes were the key issues discussed amongother issues.

PPPPPrrrrresence of goesence of goesence of goesence of goesence of govvvvvernment officialsernment officialsernment officialsernment officialsernment officials

In south particularly in Kerala - Panchayat Secretary, School Teacher, Officers from Line Department, BDO, Auxiliary NurseMidwife (ANM), Anganwadi Worker (AWW), Village Extension Officer, etc. were quite consistent in attending gram sabha meetings.In Tamil Nadu Panchayat Secretary, BDO, Anganwadi Worker, Health Officer, etc. attend Gram Sabha meeting. In Andhra PradeshPanchayat Secretary, Mandal Revenue Officers, Mandal Parishad Development Officer, NGO representatives were attending GramSabha meetings other than BDO and line department officials. In east and north-eastern states like Arunachal Pradesh only GP andAnchal Samity's Chairperson was present in such meetings. In Manipur, Assam, West Bengal, Orissa Panchayat Secretary, BDO,Agriculture Officer, Medical Officer, Village Level Worker, etc. were present in Gram Sabha meetings. In the states like Maharashtra,Gujarat from West and Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh from North most of the government officials were PanchayatSecretaries, BDOs, Development Commissioners Anganwadi Workers, Officials from Line Departments were the main officialsattending Gram Sabha meeting. Importantly, Panchayat Secretaries, BDOs, Anganwadi Workers were quite consistent in attendingGram Sabha meetings in most of the states.

87


5.5 I5.5 I5.5 I5.5 I5.5 Interaction with Gnteraction with Gnteraction with Gnteraction with Gnteraction with Gooooovvvvvernment Oernment Oernment Oernment Oernment Officialsfficialsfficialsfficialsfficials

The survey investigated the extent to which the elected representatives interact with the local bureaucracy, the linedepartments and the police while carrying out their duties as intermediaries between the people and the government.The all-India figure shows that more than half the total Pradhans maintained good relations with the local police. Bycontrast, only 31 percent of Ward Members reported interaction with the local police (Table 5.16). Among the electedwomen representatives, nearly 32 percent reported regular interaction with the police, in comparison to 45 percent ofthe men.

TTTTTable 5.16: Iable 5.16: Iable 5.16: Iable 5.16: Iable 5.16: Interactivnteractivnteractivnteractivnteractive Re Re Re Re Role of ERs (ole of ERs (ole of ERs (ole of ERs (ole of ERs (YYYYYes %)es %)es %)es %)es %)

RRRRRegularegularegularegularegular IIIIInteractionnteractionnteractionnteractionnteraction PPPPParararararticipatedticipatedticipatedticipatedticipated MMMMMet lineet lineet lineet lineet line TTTTTook assistanceook assistanceook assistanceook assistanceook assistance TTTTTotalotalotalotalotalinteractioninteractioninteractioninteractioninteraction with localwith localwith localwith localwith local in generalin generalin generalin generalin general dept. todept. todept. todept. todept. to frfrfrfrfrom Gom Gom Gom Gom Gooooovt. dept.vt. dept.vt. dept.vt. dept.vt. dept. (N)(N)(N)(N)(N)with policewith policewith policewith policewith police burburburburbureaucrateaucrateaucrateaucrateaucrat electionelectionelectionelectionelection discussdiscussdiscussdiscussdiscuss forforforforfor

campaigncampaigncampaigncampaigncampaign aboutaboutaboutaboutabout implementationimplementationimplementationimplementationimplementationschemesschemesschemesschemesschemes of schemes of schemes of schemes of schemes of schemes


EWR 31.7 31.8 24.3 24.9 40.8 4,880

EMR 44.5 54.3 51.2 49.0 53.0 1,824


Pradhan- male 67.0 80.3 61.8 74.2 81.3 461

Pradhan- female 44.5 63.5 40.4 55.8 61.1 907

Total Pradhans 52.1 69.2 47.6 62.0 67.9 1,368

Ward member-male 36.8 45.5 47.5 40.5 43.4 1,363




Besides the police, elected representatives also need to interact with the local bureaucracy for various developmentalissues. The women representatives are often shy and lack self-confidence. Not surprisingly, the survey bears out the factthat male representatives were more proactive in such matters. In all the surveyed states, the interaction betweenPradhans and local bureaucrats was observed to be good, but it was particularly high in Kerala, Karnataka, Assam,Tripura, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, etc. Conversely, the interaction of female Ward Members with the local bureaucracywas low in most of the states except Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Tripura (Table 5.17).

TTTTTable 5.17: Iable 5.17: Iable 5.17: Iable 5.17: Iable 5.17: Interaction of Pnteraction of Pnteraction of Pnteraction of Pnteraction of Pradhans with Local Bradhans with Local Bradhans with Local Bradhans with Local Bradhans with Local Bururururureaucracy - beaucracy - beaucracy - beaucracy - beaucracy - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)



All India 63.5 36.5 907 80.3 19.7 461

Andhra Pradesh 68.8 31.3 64 87.5 12.5 32

Karnataka 90.6 9.4 32 87.5 12.5 16

Tamil Nadu 71.9 28.1 32 93.8 6.3 16

Kerala 100.0 0.0 32 100.0 0.0 16


Assam 87.5 12.5 32 87.5 12.5 16

Manipur 81.3 18.8 16 100.0 0.0 8

Sikkim 18.2 81.8 11 15.4 84.6 13

88





Tripura 62.5 37.5 16 75.0 25.0 8

West Bengal 28.1 71.9 64 31.3 68.8 32

Orissa 93.8 6.3 32 100.0 0.0 16

Bihar 46.9 53.1 64 87.5 12.5 32

Madhya Pradesh 48.4 51.6 64 68.8 31.3 32

Chhattisgarh 59.4 40.6 32 68.8 31.3 16

Gujarat 51.5 48.5 33 80.0 20.0 15

Maharashtra 64.1 35.9 64 78.1 21.9 32

Rajasthan 76.6 23.4 64 96.9 3.1 32

Haryana 62.5 37.5 32 87.5 12.5 16

Punjab 66.7 33.3 33 66.7 33.3 15

Uttar Pradesh 48.9 51.1 94 88.0 12.0 50

Uttarakhand 63.6 36.4 33 93.3 6.7 15


Goa 86.7 13.3 15 100.0 0.0 9

Participation in election campaigns was reported by 31 percent of elected representatives. This was significantly higherin the case of Pradhans (48%) than Ward Members (28%). The gender-gap was also noteworthy, with 24 percent of thewomen and 51 percent of men reported participation in such campaigns (Table 5.16).

Most of the poverty alleviation and sector development programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development are beingimplemented through the Panchayati Raj system. Though training for elected representatives serves to provide information,the elected representatives' understanding of the technical aspects of schemes remains inadequate, requiring them tofrequently contact officials in the respective line departments for proper implementation. Such interaction was reportedby 68 percent of Pradhans vis-à-vis 38 percent of the Ward Members. However, the gender difference on this aspect waslower: 49 percent for men and 25 percent for women representatives (Table 5.16).

TTTTTable 5.18: Iable 5.18: Iable 5.18: Iable 5.18: Iable 5.18: Interaction of nteraction of nteraction of nteraction of nteraction of WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members with Local Bembers with Local Bembers with Local Bembers with Local Bembers with Local Bururururureaucracy - beaucracy - beaucracy - beaucracy - beaucracy - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)




Andhra Pradesh 22.6 77.4 283 59.2 40.8 98

Karnataka 54.2 45.8 144 81.3 18.8 48

Tamil Nadu 53.5 46.5 144 70.8 29.2 48

Kerala 86.0 14.0 143 93.9 6.1 49


Assam 43.8 56.3 144 41.7 58.3 48

Manipur 2.8 97.2 71 4.2 95.8 24

Sikkim 14.3 85.7 42 16.7 83.3 24

Tripura 36.6 63.4 71 56.0 44.0 25

West Bengal 17.9 82.1 280 32.7 67.3 98

89





Orissa 21.4 78.6 145 52.2 47.8 46

Bihar 14.3 85.7 287 32.0 68.0 97

Madhya Pradesh 5.2 94.8 289 32.2 67.8 90

Chhattisgarh 18.9 81.1 143 40.8 59.2 49

Gujarat 20.6 79.4 131 29.8 70.2 47

Maharashtra 25.9 74.1 278 54.2 45.8 96

Rajasthan 25.2 74.8 286 60.0 40.0 95

Haryana 16.1 83.9 143 48.9 51.1 47

Punjab 30.6 69.4 134 41.3 58.7 46

Uttar Pradesh 6.0 94.0 432 22.2 77.8 144

Uttarakhand 23.2 76.8 125 38.0 62.0 50


Goa 60.0 40.0 60 75.0 25.0 24

Other government officials are also charged with the task of helping elected representatives with information aboutvarious programme components such as the allotment of funds, beneficiary selection, provisions for marginalised andvulnerable groups, etc. All-India data show that 68 percent of Pradhans, compared to 38 percent of Ward Members,sought assistance from other government officials for the implementation of schemes. Not much difference was observedbetween male and female representatives in this regard. At the state level, the lowest performance of female WardMembers was recorded in Uttar Pradesh (6.7%) followed by Chhattisgarh (16.1%). However, in Assam, Sikkim, MadhyaPradesh, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab, the performance of the female Ward Members was found to be higher than thatof their male counterparts (Table 5.19).

Another important role of elected representatives is to interact with government officials regarding development-relatedworks. Usually, the Gram Sabha provides the platform for interaction for the elected representatives. Hence, electedrepresentatives were asked whether government officials participated frequently in the Gram Sabha meetings and a largeproportion (91%) of them confirmed this.

TTTTTable 5.19: Pable 5.19: Pable 5.19: Pable 5.19: Pable 5.19: Parararararticipation of Gticipation of Gticipation of Gticipation of Gticipation of Gooooovvvvvernment Oernment Oernment Oernment Oernment Officials during Gfficials during Gfficials during Gfficials during Gfficials during Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)

PPPPParararararticipation of goticipation of goticipation of goticipation of goticipation of govvvvvernment officials during Gernment officials during Gernment officials during Gernment officials during Gernment officials during Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetings



EWR 89.9 10.1 4,258

EMR 92.8 7.2 1,733









90


Table 5.20 provides details of the main attendees at such meetings: Block level officials, Panchayat staff, Auxiliary NurseMidwife (ANM), school teachers and Anganwadi workers (AWW). There was consensus on this among Pradhans andWard Members of both genders.

TTTTTable 5.20: Pable 5.20: Pable 5.20: Pable 5.20: Pable 5.20: Prrrrresence of Gesence of Gesence of Gesence of Gesence of Gooooovvvvvernment Oernment Oernment Oernment Oernment Officials in Gfficials in Gfficials in Gfficials in Gfficials in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha (%)abha (%)abha (%)abha (%)abha (%)

OOOOOfficials Pfficials Pfficials Pfficials Pfficials Prrrrresentesentesentesentesent PPPPPradhansradhansradhansradhansradhans WWWWWararararard memberd memberd memberd memberd member EEEEEWRWRWRWRWR EMREMREMREMREMR NNNNN

Block level officials / staff 76.2 67.1 67.5 72.8 3,757

Medical officer from PHC 24.4 18.3 19.0 21.2 1,068

ANM 40.6 32.6 34.1 35.1 1,871

Village health worker 21.3 17.8 17.9 20.1 1,010

Concerned panchayat staff 65.3 64.0 63.6 66.1 3,498

Teacher 45.6 34.0 35.5 39.1 1,988

AWW 43.0 35.6 38.0 35.5 2,027

Other government officers 22.4 16.0 16.4 19.7 947

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 1,2131,2131,2131,2131,213 4,2254,2254,2254,2254,225 3,8303,8303,8303,8303,830 1,6081,6081,6081,6081,608 5,4385,4385,4385,4385,438

The interaction of elected women representatives with government officials was reported to be low by the communitymembers (all three households in 12.3% wards confirmed this) (Table 5.21).

TTTTTable 5.21: able 5.21: able 5.21: able 5.21: able 5.21: WWWWWararararards wherds wherds wherds wherds where Ee Ee Ee Ee EWRs had IWRs had IWRs had IWRs had IWRs had Interaction with Gnteraction with Gnteraction with Gnteraction with Gnteraction with Gooooovvvvvernment Oernment Oernment Oernment Oernment Officials (%)fficials (%)fficials (%)fficials (%)fficials (%)




EWR 43.1 26.7 17.9 12.3 4,880

EMR 39.6 26.9 21.1 12.4 1,838


Pradhan- male 28.6 27.3 27.1 16.9 461

Pradhan- female 29.0 25.7 23.8 21.5 907

Total Pradhans 28.9 26.2 24.9 20.0 1,368

Ward member-male 43.3 26.8 19.0 10.9 1,377




5.6 P5.6 P5.6 P5.6 P5.6 Prrrrroactivoactivoactivoactivoactive Re Re Re Re Role of Eole of Eole of Eole of Eole of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

Being people's representatives at the lowest tier of Panchayati Raj, the denizens of Panchayati Raj institutions are responsiblefor taking initiatives to address local issues. Sometimes, the representation of such demands requires collective initiativesand therefore the survey asked them about their involvement in signing petitions, organising protest or demonstrations,joining election campaigns and interacting with state agencies.

Signing a mass petition is usually a non-controversial and relatively peaceful activity to draw the attention of higherauthorities on some specific local-level concerns or demands. The elected representatives play a vital role in organisingsuch petitions. Table 5.22 shows that around 42 percent of interviewed Pradhans reported that they had been involvedin signing petitions to place local demands to higher authorities or to the state or central governments. Only 20 percent

91


of Ward Members reported involvement in signing such petitions. Seen through the gender prism, a higher proportionof men (35%) than women (20%) mentioned such involvement.

Across states, Andhra Pradesh, Manipur, Bihar and Gujarat recorded less than 10 percent involvement by both male andfemale Ward Members in such initiatives. But in Arunachal Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh andHimachal Pradesh, male Ward Members were found to be more assertive about signing and submitting petitions thantheir female counterparts, whose participation was seen as less than 10 percent.

TTTTTable 5.22: Iable 5.22: Iable 5.22: Iable 5.22: Iable 5.22: Initiativnitiativnitiativnitiativnitiative e e e e TTTTTaken for Local-Levaken for Local-Levaken for Local-Levaken for Local-Levaken for Local-Level Iel Iel Iel Iel Issues (%)ssues (%)ssues (%)ssues (%)ssues (%)

SSSSSigned petition toigned petition toigned petition toigned petition toigned petition to PPPPParararararticipated in prticipated in prticipated in prticipated in prticipated in protest,otest,otest,otest,otest, AlerAlerAlerAlerAlertedtedtedtedted NNNNNotifiedotifiedotifiedotifiedotified TTTTTotalotalotalotalotaldemand frdemand frdemand frdemand frdemand from local,om local,om local,om local,om local, demonstration rdemonstration rdemonstration rdemonstration rdemonstration relatedelatedelatedelatedelated nenenenenewspaperwspaperwspaperwspaperwspaper,,,,, police orpolice orpolice orpolice orpolice or

state, or nationalstate, or nationalstate, or nationalstate, or nationalstate, or national to local people'sto local people'sto local people'sto local people'sto local people's radio or radio or radio or radio or radio or TVTVTVTVTV courcourcourcourcourt aboutt aboutt aboutt aboutt aboutGGGGGooooovt.vt.vt.vt.vt. interinterinterinterinterestestestestest about local about local about local about local about local local prlocal prlocal prlocal prlocal problemoblemoblemoblemoblem

prprprprproblemoblemoblemoblemoblem


EWR 20.1 20.3 15.0 32.2 4,880

EMR 35.3 38.4 30.9 43.8 1,824


Pradhan- male 56.2 43.6 52.7 62.0 461

Pradhan- female 34.4 29.9 35.4 44.4 907

Total Pradhans 41.7 34.5 41.2 50.4 1,368

Ward member-male 28.2 36.7 23.6 37.6 1,363




Besides submitting petitions, staging protests or other forms of demonstration are other ways of expressing people'sdemands in a democratic manner. The all-India figures show that one out of every three Pradhans surveyed, irrespectiveof gender, participated in a protest or demonstration to represent the interests of the local people. As expected, theparticipation of Ward Members was found to be lower (23%) in such activities, compared to that of Pradhans (35%).By gender, such participation was higher in the case of men (38%) than women (20%). In 11 of the 23 states surveyed,less than 10 percent of the total female Ward Members participated in such protests/demonstrations (Table 5.22).

The media plays a vital role in generating awareness about local, national as well as international issues. When probedabout elected representatives' initiatives to alert the local newspaper, radio/TV about local concerns, 41 percent ofPradhans claimed to have briefed the local media about such problems. However, the incidence of such events wassignificantly lower in the case of Ward Members (14%). The proportion of male representatives (31%) taking suchinitiatives was twice as high as that of female representatives (15%).

In cases of local disputes, the responsibility of ensuring peace within the village is usually that of the local electedrepresentative. In the northeastern states, there exists the institution of the village headman (known as Gaon Bura inAssam), which maintains law and order. In more complicated situations, of course, the local government notifies thepolice or the court to resolve the problems. Table 5.22 shows that half the Pradhans and one-third of the Ward Membershad notified the police or court during their terms about local problems. This was higher in the case of males (44%)than elected female representatives (32%).

92


Elected Women Representatives Presenting the PMSA Charter to the Chief Minister, Madhya Pradesh andMinister of Panchayati Raj

5.7 R5.7 R5.7 R5.7 R5.7 Role of the Gole of the Gole of the Gole of the Gole of the Gram Pram Pram Pram Pram Panchayat in Ianchayat in Ianchayat in Ianchayat in Ianchayat in Implementing Dmplementing Dmplementing Dmplementing Dmplementing Devevevevevelopment Schemeselopment Schemeselopment Schemeselopment Schemeselopment Schemes

The Gram Panchayats are empowered as institutions of local self-government for planning and executing village-levelpublic works and their maintenance, ensuring the welfare of the people of the village including health, education,communal harmony, etc. As political functionaries, the elected representatives are expected to perform these roles.

5.7.1 S5.7.1 S5.7.1 S5.7.1 S5.7.1 Selection Pelection Pelection Pelection Pelection Prrrrrocedurocedurocedurocedurocedure for Be for Be for Be for Be for Beneficiaries of Deneficiaries of Deneficiaries of Deneficiaries of Deneficiaries of Devevevevevelopment Schemeselopment Schemeselopment Schemeselopment Schemeselopment Schemes

The Gram Sabhas are empowered to function as grassroots-level parliaments, to whom the Gram Panchayats are solelyaccountable. In line with these objectives, the elected representatives were asked about the manner in which beneficiariesof different development schemes/programmes are usually selected in their respective panchayats. Table 5.23 providesdata pertaining to the selection of beneficiaries for development schemes in the panchayat.

TTTTTable 5.23: Mable 5.23: Mable 5.23: Mable 5.23: Mable 5.23: Manner in anner in anner in anner in anner in Which BWhich BWhich BWhich BWhich Beneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries are Se Se Se Se Selected for Delected for Delected for Delected for Delected for Differifferifferifferifferent Schemes (%)ent Schemes (%)ent Schemes (%)ent Schemes (%)ent Schemes (%)

List is prList is prList is prList is prList is preparepareparepareparededededed List is prList is prList is prList is prList is preparepareparepareparededededed GGGGGram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha is notabha is notabha is notabha is notabha is not DDDDDo noto noto noto noto not NNNNNin Gin Gin Gin Gin Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha prprprprpreviously andeviously andeviously andeviously andeviously and invinvinvinvinvolvolvolvolvolved in selection/ed in selection/ed in selection/ed in selection/ed in selection/ knoknoknoknoknowwwww

meetingmeetingmeetingmeetingmeeting apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvved in Ged in Ged in Ged in Ged in Gramramramramram apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvval ofal ofal ofal ofal ofSSSSSabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetingsabha meetings beneficiariesbeneficiariesbeneficiariesbeneficiariesbeneficiaries


EWR 55.9 29.6 5.4 9.2 4,880

EMR 56.8 35.8 5.2 2.2 1,824


Pradhan- male 70.9 26.9 2.2 461

Pradhan- female 62.4 33.0 1.8 2.9 907

Total Pradhans 65.3 30.9 1.9 1.9 1,368

Ward member-male 52.0 38.8 6.2 2.9 1,363




93


At the aggregate level, 65 percent of the Pradhans claimed that the list was prepared in the Gram Sabha, and 31 percentsaid it was prepared previously but approved in the Gram Sabha. Among the Ward Members, however, a little more thanhalf the Ward Members (53.8%) confirmed that the list was prepared in the Gram Sabha as per programme guidelines(Table 5.23).

In most of the states, Pradhans (female/male) mentioned that the list of beneficiaries for different schemes is prepared atthe Gram Sabha meeting. The exceptions were Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh,Manipur, Orissa and Gujarat, where the list is prepared in advance and formally approved at the Gram Sabha meetings.The female and male Ward Members also had more or less the same perception (Tables 5.24 & 5.25).

TTTTTable 5.24: Pable 5.24: Pable 5.24: Pable 5.24: Pable 5.24: Pradhans' Pradhans' Pradhans' Pradhans' Pradhans' Perererererceptions of Mceptions of Mceptions of Mceptions of Mceptions of Manner in which Banner in which Banner in which Banner in which Banner in which Beneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries are selected fore selected fore selected fore selected fore selected forDDDDDifferifferifferifferifferent Schemes - bent Schemes - bent Schemes - bent Schemes - bent Schemes - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


ListListListListList List isList isList isList isList is GGGGGram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha DDDDDooooo NNNNN ListListListListList List isList isList isList isList is GGGGGramramramramram NNNNNprprprprpreparepareparepareparededededed prprprprpreparepareparepareparededededed is notis notis notis notis not notnotnotnotnot prprprprpreparepareparepareparededededed prprprprpreparepareparepareparededededed SSSSSabha isabha isabha isabha isabha isin Gin Gin Gin Gin Gramramramramram prprprprpreviouslyeviouslyeviouslyeviouslyeviously invinvinvinvinvolvolvolvolvolved ined ined ined ined in knoknoknoknoknowwwww in Gin Gin Gin Gin Gramramramramram prprprprpreviouslyeviouslyeviouslyeviouslyeviously notnotnotnotnotSSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha butbutbutbutbut selection/selection/selection/selection/selection/ SSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha butbutbutbutbut invinvinvinvinvolvolvolvolvolved ined ined ined ined in

apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvved ined ined ined ined in apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvvalalalalal apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvved ined ined ined ined in selection/selection/selection/selection/selection/GGGGGram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha of beneficiarof beneficiarof beneficiarof beneficiarof beneficiaryyyyy GGGGGramramramramram apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvval ofal ofal ofal ofal of

SSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha beneficiarbeneficiarbeneficiarbeneficiarbeneficiaryyyyy

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 62.462.462.462.462.4 33.033.033.033.033.0 1.81.81.81.81.8 2.92.92.92.92.9 907907907907907 70.970.970.970.970.9 26.926.926.926.926.9 2.22.22.22.22.2 461461461461461

Andhra Pradesh 29.7 60.9 0.0 9.4 64 37.5 62.5 0.0 32

Karnataka 21.9 78.1 0.0 0.0 32 87.5 12.5 0.0 16

Tamil Nadu 37.5 56.3 6.3 0.0 32 37.5 62.5 0.0 16

Kerala 50.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 32 50.0 50.0 0.0 16

Arunachal Pradesh 18.8 68.8 12.5 0.0 16 62.5 25.0 12.5 8

Assam 78.1 21.9 0.0 0.0 32 87.5 12.5 0.0 16

Manipur 25.0 75.0 0.0 0.0 16 87.5 12.5 0.0 8

Sikkim 90.9 9.1 0.0 0.0 11 84.6 15.4 0.0 13

Tripura 75.0 18.8 6.3 0.0 16 87.5 0.0 12.5 8

West Bengal 90.6 7.8 0.0 1.6 64 96.9 3.1 0.0 32

Orissa 37.5 56.3 3.1 3.1 32 31.3 68.8 0.0 16

Bihar 87.5 6.3 3.1 3.1 64 81.3 15.6 3.1 32

Madhya Pradesh 59.4 28.1 0.0 12.5 64 81.3 15.6 3.1 32

Chhattisgarh 81.3 18.8 0.0 0.0 32 81.3 18.8 0.0 16

Gujarat 27.3 54.5 0.0 18.2 33 53.3 40.0 6.7 15

Maharashtra 59.4 37.5 3.1 0.0 64 65.6 34.4 0.0 32

Rajasthan 76.6 21.9 1.6 0.0 64 75.0 21.9 3.1 32

Haryana 84.4 12.5 3.1 0.0 32 68.8 18.8 12.5 16

Punjab 63.6 27.3 9.1 0.0 33 86.7 13.3 0.0 15

Uttar Pradesh 76.6 22.3 0.0 1.1 94 68.0 30.0 2.0 50

Uttarakhand 87.9 9.1 0.0 3.0 33 93.3 6.7 0.0 15

Himachal Pradesh 46.9 53.1 0.0 0.0 32 68.8 31.3 0.0 16

Goa 53.3 40.0 6.7 0.0 15 66.7 22.2 11.1 9

94


TTTTTable 5.25 : able 5.25 : able 5.25 : able 5.25 : able 5.25 : WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members' Pembers' Pembers' Pembers' Pembers' Perererererceptions of Mceptions of Mceptions of Mceptions of Mceptions of Manner in which Banner in which Banner in which Banner in which Banner in which Beneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries areneficiaries are Se Se Se Se Selected forelected forelected forelected forelected forDDDDDifferifferifferifferifferent Schemes - bent Schemes - bent Schemes - bent Schemes - bent Schemes - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


ListListListListList List isList isList isList isList is GGGGGram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha DDDDDooooo NNNNN ListListListListList List isList isList isList isList is GGGGGramramramramram DDDDDooooo NNNNNprprprprpreparepareparepareparededededed prprprprpreparepareparepareparededededed is notis notis notis notis not notnotnotnotnot prprprprpreparepareparepareparededededed prprprprpreparepareparepareparededededed SSSSSabha isabha isabha isabha isabha is NNNNNotototototin Gin Gin Gin Gin Gramramramramram prprprprpreviouslyeviouslyeviouslyeviouslyeviously invinvinvinvinvolvolvolvolvolved ined ined ined ined in knoknoknoknoknowwwww in Gin Gin Gin Gin Gramramramramram prprprprpreviouslyeviouslyeviouslyeviouslyeviously notnotnotnotnot knoknoknoknoknowwwww

SSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha butbutbutbutbut selection/selection/selection/selection/selection/ SSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha butbutbutbutbut invinvinvinvinvolvolvolvolvolved ined ined ined ined inapprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvved ined ined ined ined in apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvvalalalalal apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvved ined ined ined ined in selection/selection/selection/selection/selection/GGGGGram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha of beneficiarof beneficiarof beneficiarof beneficiarof beneficiaryyyyy GGGGGramramramramram apprapprapprapprapprooooovvvvval ofal ofal ofal ofal of

SSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha beneficiarbeneficiarbeneficiarbeneficiarbeneficiaryyyyy


Andhra Pradesh 36.7 40.3 0.7 22.3 283 31.6 55.1 3.1 10.2 98

Karnataka 77.1 17.4 2.8 2.8 144 72.9 27.1 0.0 0.0 48

Tamil Nadu 31.3 60.4 6.3 2.1 144 33.3 62.5 4.2 0.0 48

Kerala 40.6 59.4 0.0 0.0 143 40.8 59.2 0.0 0.0 49


Assam 72.9 23.6 2.8 0.7 144 70.8 25.0 4.2 0.0 48

Manipur 70.4 22.5 0.0 7.0 71 12.5 66.7 4.2 16.7 24

Sikkim 71.4 28.6 0.0 0.0 42 83.3 16.7 0.0 0.0 24

Tripura 84.5 12.7 2.8 0.0 71 88.0 12.0 0.0 0.0 25

West Bengal 74.3 23.9 1.1 0.7 280 82.7 17.3 0.0 0.0 98

Orissa 25.5 64.1 6.2 4.1 145 13.0 78.3 4.3 4.3 46

Bihar 53.3 20.2 17.4 9.1 287 38.1 43.3 16.5 2.1 97

Madhya Pradesh 57.1 18.7 2.1 22.1 289 48.9 36.7 5.6 8.9 90

Chhattisgarh 53.8 25.9 5.6 14.7 143 75.5 22.4 2.0 0.0 49

Gujarat 70.2 22.1 1.5 6.1 131 29.8 57.4 6.4 6.4 47

Maharashtra 50.4 32.7 6.8 10.1 278 62.5 33.3 2.1 2.1 96

Rajasthan 55.6 27.6 10.1 6.6 286 53.7 37.9 8.4 0.0 95

Haryana 81.8 11.2 6.3 0.7 143 61.7 23.4 10.6 4.3 47

Punjab 53.0 39.6 3.0 4.5 134 56.5 43.5 0.0 0.0 46

Uttar Pradesh 32.9 19.4 15.0 32.6 432 43.8 30.6 21.5 4.2 144

Uttarakhand 72.0 16.0 7.2 4.8 125 72.0 24.0 2.0 2.0 50


Goa 40.0 40.0 6.7 13.3 60 41.7 50.0 8.3 0.0 24

95


Smt. Savitri Jindal, Minister of State for Revenue & Housing in Rohtak district, Government of Haryana,inaugurating Panchayat Mahila Shakti Abhiyan

5.7.25.7.25.7.25.7.25.7.2 PPPPPrrrrreparation of List of Scheme/Beparation of List of Scheme/Beparation of List of Scheme/Beparation of List of Scheme/Beparation of List of Scheme/Beneficiaries as per Scheme Geneficiaries as per Scheme Geneficiaries as per Scheme Geneficiaries as per Scheme Geneficiaries as per Scheme Guidelinesuidelinesuidelinesuidelinesuidelines

The panchayats have been empowered as the grassroots-level implementing agency for most of rural developmentprojects. Accordingly, the Gram Sabha has been given wide powers, which includes the identification of schemes that arerequired to be taken up on a priority basis for the economic development of a village. It is mandatory for the panchayatsto follow the given guidelines strictly while identifying schemes and beneficiaries. In general, the people's perception isthat panchayats do not follow programme guidelines properly. Table 5.26 shows the responses of elected representativesto the question of the preparation of schemes/beneficiary lists as per programme guidelines. At the aggregate level,nearly 90 percent of Pradhans confirmed that lists were prepared as per the programme guidelines.

TTTTTable 5.26: Pable 5.26: Pable 5.26: Pable 5.26: Pable 5.26: Prrrrreparation of List of Beparation of List of Beparation of List of Beparation of List of Beparation of List of Beneficiaries as per the Peneficiaries as per the Peneficiaries as per the Peneficiaries as per the Peneficiaries as per the Prrrrrogramme Gogramme Gogramme Gogramme Gogramme Guidelines (%)uidelines (%)uidelines (%)uidelines (%)uidelines (%)

PPPPPrrrrreparation of list as per the preparation of list as per the preparation of list as per the preparation of list as per the preparation of list as per the programme guidelinesogramme guidelinesogramme guidelinesogramme guidelinesogramme guidelines

YYYYYes, alwayses, alwayses, alwayses, alwayses, always YYYYYes, sometimeses, sometimeses, sometimeses, sometimeses, sometimes NNNNNevevevevevererererer NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot awareeeee NNNNN


EWR 80.9 13.9 1.4 3.9 2,727

EMR 81.4 14.9 1.1 2.7 1,036


Pradhan- male 89.6 10.1 0.0 0.3 327

Pradhan- female 89.6 8.8 0.7 0.9 566

Total Pradhans 89.6 9.3 0.4 0.7 893

Ward member-male 77.6 17.1 1.6 3.8 709




96


“The identification of beneficiaries for different programmes is done by conducting a survey of APL and BPLfamilies. Subsequently, a list is prepared which is used to identify beneficiaries for different developmentprogrammes.”- FGD, FGD, FGD, FGD, FGD, VVVVVillage Nillage Nillage Nillage Nillage Noorpuroorpuroorpuroorpuroorpur, P, P, P, P, Punjabunjabunjabunjabunjab.

In all states, a relatively higher percentage of female Pradhans confirmed that the list of beneficiaries is prepared inadherence to programme guidelines. It is perhaps not surprising that a relatively lower proportion of Ward Membersconfirmed the preparation of schemes/beneficiaries list as per the programme guidelines (Table 5.27).

TTTTTable 5.27: Pable 5.27: Pable 5.27: Pable 5.27: Pable 5.27: Prrrrreparation of List of Beparation of List of Beparation of List of Beparation of List of Beparation of List of Beneficiaries as per the Peneficiaries as per the Peneficiaries as per the Peneficiaries as per the Peneficiaries as per the Prrrrrogramme Gogramme Gogramme Gogramme Gogramme Guidelines -uidelines -uidelines -uidelines -uidelines -PPPPPerererererception of Pception of Pception of Pception of Pception of Pradhans - bradhans - bradhans - bradhans - bradhans - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


YYYYYes,es,es,es,es, YYYYYes,es,es,es,es, NNNNNevevevevevererererer NNNNNototototot NNNNN YYYYYes,es,es,es,es, YYYYYes,es,es,es,es, NNNNNototototot NNNNNalwaysalwaysalwaysalwaysalways sometimessometimessometimessometimessometimes AAAAAwarwarwarwarwareeeee alwaysalwaysalwaysalwaysalways sometimessometimessometimessometimessometimes AAAAAwarwarwarwarwareeeee

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 89.689.689.689.689.6 8.88.88.88.88.8 0.70.70.70.70.7 0.90.90.90.90.9 566566566566566 89.689.689.689.689.6 10.110.110.110.110.1 0.30.30.30.30.3 327327327327327

Andhra Pradesh 84.2 15.8 0.0 0.0 19 58.3 41.7 0.0 12

Karnataka 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7 85.7 14.3 0.0 14

Tamil Nadu 83.3 16.7 0.0 0.0 12 66.7 33.3 0.0 6

Kerala 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16 100.0 0.0 0.0 8

Arunachal Pradesh 33.3 66.7 0.0 0.0 3 100.0 0.0 0.0 5

Assam 88.0 12.0 0.0 0.0 25 85.7 14.3 0.0 14

Manipur 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4 100.0 0.0 0.0 7

Sikkim 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10 100.0 0.0 0.0 11

Tripura 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12 100.0 0.0 0.0 7

West Bengal 82.8 15.5 0.0 1.7 58 83.9 16.1 0.0 31

Orissa 83.3 16.7 0.0 0.0 12 100.0 0.0 0.0 5

Bihar 98.2 1.8 0.0 0.0 56 96.2 3.8 0.0 26

Madhya Pradesh 89.5 10.5 0.0 0.0 38 96.2 3.8 0.0 26

Chhattisgarh 80.8 11.5 0.0 7.7 26 84.6 15.4 0.0 13

Gujarat 77.8 22.2 0.0 0.0 9 87.5 12.5 0.0 8

Maharashtra 89.5 5.3 5.3 0.0 38 71.4 23.8 4.8 21

Rajasthan 91.8 8.2 0.0 0.0 49 87.5 12.5 0.0 24

Haryana 96.3 3.7 0.0 0.0 27 90.9 9.1 0.0 11

Punjab 66.7 19.0 4.8 9.5 21 100.0 0.0 0.0 13

Uttar Pradesh 93.1 5.6 1.4 0.0 72 97.1 2.9 0.0 34

Uttarakhand 86.2 13.8 0.0 0.0 29 92.9 7.1 0.0 14

Himachal Pradesh 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15 90.9 9.1 0.0 11

Goa 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8 100.0 0.0 0.0 6

5.85.85.85.85.8 PPPPParararararticipation in Community Mticipation in Community Mticipation in Community Mticipation in Community Mticipation in Community Mobilisationobilisationobilisationobilisationobilisation

Effective participation is not adequately reflected in statistics on meeting attendance, but may also be tested by evaluatingthe elected representatives in terms of their articulation, openness to discussions, adopting issues and generally solvingproblems of the community. They are more effective when they succeed in mobilising the community about variousdevelopmental issues, and thus create awareness among the people. The study has explored this issue in detail.

Health is an indicator of well-being which has direct implications for the quality of life. People's access to healthcareservices should be facilitated by a comprehensive demand-driven delivery system. To ensure health services at the grassroot

97


level, the existing delivery system needs to work in close coordination with local self-governments and other village-levelinstitutions.

At the state-level, the survey queried the elected representatives whether they had taken part in any health-relatedcampaigns during their current term. Table 5.28 exhibits information pertaining to elected members' participation inany such campaign during their current term. At the all-India level, the percentage of the Ward Members (37.6%) whoparticipated in health related campaign was nearly half compared to the Pradhans (67.2%). On the other hand, the datadisaggregated by gender do not indicate much difference on this issue. A total of 43 percent of women representativesand about 47percent of men reported taking part in health-related campaigns.

TTTTTable 5.28: Pable 5.28: Pable 5.28: Pable 5.28: Pable 5.28: Parararararticipation of ERs in Hticipation of ERs in Hticipation of ERs in Hticipation of ERs in Hticipation of ERs in Health-Realth-Realth-Realth-Realth-Related Campaign in the Celated Campaign in the Celated Campaign in the Celated Campaign in the Celated Campaign in the Currurrurrurrurrent ent ent ent ent TTTTTerm (%)erm (%)erm (%)erm (%)erm (%)

PPPPParararararticipation of ERs in health rticipation of ERs in health rticipation of ERs in health rticipation of ERs in health rticipation of ERs in health related compaign in the currelated compaign in the currelated compaign in the currelated compaign in the currelated compaign in the current terment terment terment terment term



EWR 42.6 57.4 4,880

EMR 46.6 53.4 1,824









The involvement of elected representatives in health-related campaigns at the Gram Panchayat level was triangulatedwith the responses of community members. It is interesting to note that in 14 percent of the wards surveyed at the all-India level, all three households confirmed the involvement of elected representatives in awareness generation campaignsagainst diseases. There was no gender disparity here. It is a matter of concern that in about 50 percent of wards, none ofthe households could recall the involvement of their elected representatives. Again, there was no variation across gender.In 10 percent of wards across 14 states, none of the households confirmed the involvement of elected representatives inhealth campaigns. This was most evident in Arunachal Pradesh (78%) and Orissa (85%) (Table 5.29).

TTTTTable 5.29: Aable 5.29: Aable 5.29: Aable 5.29: Aable 5.29: Awarwarwarwarwareness Campaign/Deness Campaign/Deness Campaign/Deness Campaign/Deness Campaign/Drivrivrivrivrive against De against De against De against De against Disease in isease in isease in isease in isease in VVVVVillage billage billage billage billage by ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)




EWR 50.2 21.9 14.3 13.6 4,880

EMR 45.3 25.2 15.6 13.9 1,838


Pradhan- male 37.3 29.1 19.3 14.3 461

Pradhan- female 34.7 28.0 19.8 17.4 907

Total Pradhans 35.6 28.4 19.7 16.4 1,368

Ward member-male 47.9 24.0 14.3 13.8 1,377




98


At the village level, the outbreak of diseases is common enough. By the time the government takes steps to mitigate thesituation, the disease spreads to new areas and could also become fatal. Close integration between the existing health careservice delivery system and local self-governance is obviously helpful in identifying and reporting diseases at an earlystage and mobilising resources before it spreads to new areas. The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) has beenable to address the issue to a large extent5.

Table 5.30 illustrates the involvement of elected representatives in the prevention of diseases at the village level.At the all-India level, nearly 66 percent of the Pradhans were involved in the prevention of diseases at the villagelevel, compared to 44 percent of Ward Members. Disaggregated by gender, the data shows that 54 percent ofmale representatives, compared to 47 percent of females, reported their involvement in such community-levelactivities. At the state level, the participation of both men and women in such drives was reported to be thelowest at 9.7 percent and 21.5 percent respectively in Uttar Pradesh. Interestingly, in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat,Madhya Pradesh, Manipur and Sikkim, the involvement of female Ward Members was found more comparedto the males.

TTTTTable 5.30: ERs' Pable 5.30: ERs' Pable 5.30: ERs' Pable 5.30: ERs' Pable 5.30: ERs' Parararararticipation in the Pticipation in the Pticipation in the Pticipation in the Pticipation in the Prrrrrevevevevevention of Dention of Dention of Dention of Dention of Diseases at iseases at iseases at iseases at iseases at VVVVVillage Levillage Levillage Levillage Levillage Level (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)

ERsERsERsERsERs’ par’ par’ par’ par’ participation in the prticipation in the prticipation in the prticipation in the prticipation in the prevevevevevention of diseasesention of diseasesention of diseasesention of diseasesention of diseases



EWR 46.7 53.3 4,880

EMR 53.8 46.2 1,824









The opinion of community members was also ascertained regarding the involvement of elected representatives inproviding medical aid/treatment/counseling. In Table 5.31, the all-India data shows that in 9 percent of the wards, allthree households confirmed the involvement of their respective elected representatives in the disease-preventiondrives. There is no gender disparity among elected representatives. The major concern is that in more than half thesurveyed wards, all households denied the involvement of elected representatives in any type of disease preventiondrive at the village level.

55555 Mission Documents of National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)

99


TTTTTable 5.31: Iable 5.31: Iable 5.31: Iable 5.31: Iable 5.31: Invnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement in Aement in Aement in Aement in Aement in Activity for Pctivity for Pctivity for Pctivity for Pctivity for Prrrrrevevevevevention of Dention of Dention of Dention of Dention of Diseases at iseases at iseases at iseases at iseases at VVVVVillage Levillage Levillage Levillage Levillage Level (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)




EWR 50.1 21.9 14.3 13.6 4,880

EMR 45.3 25.2 15.6 13.9 1,838


Pradhan- male 49.7 26.5 14.1 9.8 461

Pradhan- female 45.4 26.6 16.5 11.5 907

Total Pradhans 46.9 26.5 15.7 10.9 1,368

Ward member-male 58.5 20.6 11.1 9.8 1,377




With a view to checking the rise in population, the existing health care service delivery system entrusts the PanchayatRaj institutions with the task of organising awareness-generation campaigns on the various issues related to familyplanning and the availability of family planning services. Training camps and awareness campaigns have been undertakento sensitise all concerned down to the Gram Panchayat level, including Standing Committee members and chairpersonswho are critical to the success of the programme.

The elected representatives were asked about their association with family planning campaigns during their currentterms. The data is presented in Table 5.32. At the all-India level, more than half the surveyed Pradhans (56%) confirmedtheir involvement compared to about 40 percent of the Ward Members surveyed. Among the elected representatives, 42percent of female representatives admitted their participation, though the rate of male participation was slightly higher(46.6%). At the state level, the involvement of the female Pradhans was recorded as less than 40 percent in Orissa, Bihar,Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh, whereas the involvement of the male Pradhans was recorded as less than 40percent in states like Assam, Bihar, Gujarat and Goa.

TTTTTable 5.32: ERs' Pable 5.32: ERs' Pable 5.32: ERs' Pable 5.32: ERs' Pable 5.32: ERs' Parararararticipation in Fticipation in Fticipation in Fticipation in Fticipation in Family Pamily Pamily Pamily Pamily Planning Campaigns at lanning Campaigns at lanning Campaigns at lanning Campaigns at lanning Campaigns at VVVVVillage Levillage Levillage Levillage Levillage Level (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)

ERsERsERsERsERs’ par’ par’ par’ par’ participation in family planning compaingsticipation in family planning compaingsticipation in family planning compaingsticipation in family planning compaingsticipation in family planning compaings



EWR 41.5 58.5 4,880

EMR 46.6 53.4 1,824









100


The recorded responses of the community members/households regarding elected representatives' involvement in familyplanning campaigns were similar to those reported by the Pradhans and Ward Members. At the all-India level not muchvariation by gender was noticed with respect to the involvement of elected representatives. Involvement by electedrepresentatives in these campaigns by unanimously witnessed, i.e. all three respondent households verified, in only 11percent of wards held by females and 13 percent of those that had male representatives (Table 5.33). Data by state showsthat the households of Arunachal Pradesh and Orissa mentioned limited involvement by women representatives in suchcampaigns.

TTTTTable 5.33: Iable 5.33: Iable 5.33: Iable 5.33: Iable 5.33: Invnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement in Counseling/Mement in Counseling/Mement in Counseling/Mement in Counseling/Mement in Counseling/Medical Aid for Fedical Aid for Fedical Aid for Fedical Aid for Fedical Aid for Family Pamily Pamily Pamily Pamily Planning (%)lanning (%)lanning (%)lanning (%)lanning (%)




EWR 53.4 21.5 13.8 11.4 4,880

EMR 48.9 22.9 15.5 12.8 1,838


Pradhan- male 40.6 28.2 18.4 12.8 461

Pradhan- female 41.2 24.5 20.0 14.3 907

Total Pradhans 41.0 25.7 19.4 13.8 1,368

Ward member-male 51.6 21.1 14.5 12.8 1,377




In order to improve access to elementary education, the Panchayat Raj Institutions have been entrusted with the task ofincreasing enrolment in schools. The elected representatives are required to create awareness in the community regardingthe importance of education and motivate BPL families to send their children to schools regularly. Table 5.34 presentsdata pertaining to any initiative taken by the elected representatives to increase enrolment.

TTTTTable 5.34: Iable 5.34: Iable 5.34: Iable 5.34: Iable 5.34: Initiativnitiativnitiativnitiativnitiatives es es es es TTTTTaken baken baken baken baken by ERs to Iy ERs to Iy ERs to Iy ERs to Iy ERs to Incrncrncrncrncrease Eease Eease Eease Eease Enrnrnrnrnrolment in School (%)olment in School (%)olment in School (%)olment in School (%)olment in School (%)

IIIIInitiativnitiativnitiativnitiativnitiatives taken bes taken bes taken bes taken bes taken by ERs to incry ERs to incry ERs to incry ERs to incry ERs to increase enrease enrease enrease enrease enrolment in schoololment in schoololment in schoololment in schoololment in school



EWR 62.3 37.7 4,880

EMR 74.3 25.7 1,824









101


The data reveals that at the all-India level, eight out of every 10 Pradhans surveyed took initiatives to increase enrolmentin schools. In the case of Ward Members, six out of every 10 members surveyed reported taking initiatives to increaseschool enrolment.

Across the 23 states, the role of elected representatives seems to have been fairly positive. More than 80 percent of femaleand male Pradhans confirmed that they took initiatives to increase enrolment in school. A relatively lower proportion offemale and male Ward Members also reported performing this role in their areas (58-69%). There is a gender disparitybetween female and male Pradhans and female and male Ward Members. Table 5.35 shows that in Assam, Orissa andGoa, a smaller proportion of Pradhans reported that they did not take any initiative to increase enrolment, whereas lessWard Members in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand andHimachal Pradesh confirmed having taken initiatives to increase enrolment in schools.

TTTTTable 5.35: Iable 5.35: Iable 5.35: Iable 5.35: Iable 5.35: Initiativnitiativnitiativnitiativnitiatives taken bes taken bes taken bes taken bes taken by Py Py Py Py Pradhans to Iradhans to Iradhans to Iradhans to Iradhans to Incrncrncrncrncrease Eease Eease Eease Eease Enrnrnrnrnrolment in school-bolment in school-bolment in school-bolment in school-bolment in school-by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)



All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 80.080.080.080.080.0 20.020.020.020.020.0 907907907907907 90.290.290.290.290.2 9.89.89.89.89.8 461461461461461

Andhra Pradesh 87.5 12.5 64 93.8 6.3 32

Karnataka 96.9 3.1 32 100.0 0.0 16

Tamil Nadu 90.6 9.4 32 100.0 0.0 16

Kerala 100.0 0.0 32 93.8 6.3 16


Assam 59.4 40.6 32 56.3 43.8 16

Manipur 68.8 31.3 16 87.5 12.5 8

Sikkim 100.0 0.0 11 92.3 7.7 13

Tripura 100.0 0.0 16 87.5 12.5 8

West Bengal 90.6 9.4 64 96.9 3.1 32

Orissa 40.6 59.4 32 75.0 25.0 16

Bihar 78.1 21.9 64 93.8 6.3 32

Madhya Pradesh 67.2 32.8 64 93.8 6.3 32

Chhattisgarh 84.4 15.6 32 100.0 0.0 16

Gujarat 90.9 9.1 33 73.3 26.7 15

Maharashtra 81.3 18.8 64 100.0 0.0 32

Rajasthan 84.4 15.6 64 96.9 3.1 32

Haryana 84.4 15.6 32 81.3 18.8 16

Punjab 81.8 18.2 33 100.0 0.0 15

Uttar Pradesh 74.5 25.5 94 92.0 8.0 50

Uttarakhand 75.8 24.2 33 73.3 26.7 15


Goa 60.0 40.0 15 55.6 44.4 9

102


TTTTTable 5.36: Iable 5.36: Iable 5.36: Iable 5.36: Iable 5.36: Initiativnitiativnitiativnitiativnitiatives taken bes taken bes taken bes taken bes taken by y y y y WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Members to Iembers to Iembers to Iembers to Iembers to Incrncrncrncrncrease Eease Eease Eease Eease Enrnrnrnrnrolment in School - bolment in School - bolment in School - bolment in School - bolment in School - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)




Andhra Pradesh 59.4 40.6 283 66.3 33.7 98

Karnataka 78.5 21.5 144 83.3 16.7 48

Tamil Nadu 69.4 30.6 144 70.8 29.2 48

Kerala 66.4 33.6 143 69.4 30.6 49


Assam 76.4 23.6 144 70.8 29.2 48

Manipur 73.2 26.8 71 66.7 33.3 24

Sikkim 92.9 7.1 42 87.5 12.5 24

Tripura 80.3 19.7 71 88.0 12.0 25

West Bengal 85.4 14.6 280 93.9 6.1 98

Orissa 44.1 55.9 145 56.5 43.5 46

Bihar 56.8 43.2 287 72.2 27.8 97

Madhya Pradesh 61.2 38.8 289 51.1 48.9 90

Chhattisgarh 58.0 42.0 143 71.4 28.6 49

Gujarat 71.0 29.0 131 59.6 40.4 47

Maharashtra 54.3 45.7 278 70.8 29.2 96

Rajasthan 54.9 45.1 286 74.7 25.3 95

Haryana 67.1 32.9 143 74.5 25.5 47

Punjab 72.4 27.6 134 84.8 15.2 46

Uttar Pradesh 20.4 79.6 432 47.2 52.8 144

Uttarakhand 43.2 56.8 125 64.0 36.0 50


Goa 40.0 60.0 60 66.7 33.3 24

The responses of the community regarding the initiatives of elected representatives in increasing the school enrolmentrevealed that around 40 percent of households were satisfied with the initiatives taken up by their respective electedrepresentatives. Interestingly, about 20 percent of wards "all three households" acknowledged the role of electedrepresentatives had female representatives, while the corresponding proportion for males was 21 percent (Table 5.37).

103


TTTTTable 5.37: Eable 5.37: Eable 5.37: Eable 5.37: Eable 5.37: Efforfforfforfforfforts made bts made bts made bts made bts made by ERs to Iy ERs to Iy ERs to Iy ERs to Iy ERs to Incrncrncrncrncrease Eease Eease Eease Eease Enrnrnrnrnrolment in School (%)olment in School (%)olment in School (%)olment in School (%)olment in School (%)




EWR 35.2 24.8 20.6 19.5 4880

EMR 31.6 23.5 23.8 21.1 1838


Pradhan- male 22.6 24.7 29.3 23.4 461

Pradhan- female 24.0 23.0 28.2 24.7 907

Total Pradhans 23.5 23.6 28.6 24.3 1,368

Ward member-male 34.6 23.1 22.0 20.3 1,377




The state-wise data shows that in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim, Tripura, and Rajasthan, all three households in 30-57percent of the surveyed wards confirmed that their elected representatives took initiatives to increase enrolment (Table5.38). Households in a high percentage of women-held constituencies in Orissa (76.8%) and Uttar Pradesh (48%)could not recall any effort by their representatives to reduce the school dropout rate.

TTTTTable 5.38: Community's Pable 5.38: Community's Pable 5.38: Community's Pable 5.38: Community's Pable 5.38: Community's Perererererception about Eception about Eception about Eception about Eception about Efforfforfforfforfforts made bts made bts made bts made bts made by their ERs to Iy their ERs to Iy their ERs to Iy their ERs to Iy their ERs to Incrncrncrncrncrease Eease Eease Eease Eease Enrnrnrnrnrolment - bolment - bolment - bolment - bolment - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


EEEEEWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs EMRsEMRsEMRsEMRsEMRs

NNNNNoneoneoneoneone OOOOOnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HH OOOOOnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HH All 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HH NNNNN NNNNNoneoneoneoneone OOOOOnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HH OOOOOnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HH All 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HH NNNNNconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed


Andhra Pradesh 34.9 23.9 28.2 13.0 347 34.6 32.3 22.6 10.5 133

Karnataka 6.3 11.9 24.4 57.4 176 10.9 14.1 23.4 51.6 64

Tamil Nadu 11.4 14.2 20.5 54.0 176 7.8 17.2 28.1 46.9 64

Kerala 33.7 34.3 20.0 12.0 175 30.8 30.8 32.3 6.2 65


Assam 44.9 25.6 15.9 13.6 176 39.1 28.1 21.9 10.9 64

Manipur 62.1 23.0 11.5 3.4 87 57.6 21.2 15.2 6.1 33

Sikkim 13.2 20.8 22.6 43.4 53 29.7 10.8 29.7 29.7 37

Tripura 12.6 18.4 29.9 39.1 87 6.1 21.2 30.3 42.4 33

West Bengal 27.6 26.2 25.9 20.3 344 24.6 25.4 27.7 22.3 130

Orissa 76.8 15.8 4.0 3.4 177 58.7 30.2 6.3 4.8 63

Bihar 29.3 26.8 24.5 19.4 351 20.2 29.5 26.4 24.0 129

Madhya Pradesh 46.5 24.6 14.7 14.2 353 45.2 19.8 15.9 19.0 126

Chhattisgarh 25.1 35.4 26.3 13.1 175 32.3 13.8 23.1 30.8 65

Gujarat 25.6 23.2 22.6 28.7 164 16.1 22.6 40.3 21.0 62

Maharashtra 45.9 29.5 15.2 9.4 342 35.7 28.7 27.9 7.8 129

104




EEEEEWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs EMRsEMRsEMRsEMRsEMRs

NNNNNoneoneoneoneone OOOOOnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HH OOOOOnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HH All 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HH NNNNN NNNNNoneoneoneoneone OOOOOnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HHnly 1 HH OOOOOnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HHnly 2 HH All 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HH NNNNNconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed

Rajasthan 17.7 27.4 22.6 32.3 350 18.5 23.1 23.8 34.6 130

Haryana 26.3 26.3 24.0 23.4 175 22.2 22.2 20.6 34.9 63

Punjab 38.3 30.5 18.0 13.2 167 45.2 24.2 19.4 11.3 62

Uttar Pradesh 48.1 21.9 19.2 10.8 526 46.9 14.9 20.6 17.5 194

Uttarakhand 27.2 27.8 28.5 16.5 158 21.5 32.3 26.2 20.0 65


Goa 44.0 25.3 17.3 13.3 75 39.4 18.2 21.2 21.2 33

To ensure elementary education to all children of school-going age, the rate of dropouts needs to be reduced. At thevillage level, the Village Education Committee (VEC) had been formed in most of the states. The VEC is supposed towork in close coordination with the panchayat. The panchayat has also been given the additional responsibility ofmonitoring the Mid-Day Meal scheme in schools. To ensure an increase in enrolment and a reduction in the dropoutrate, the elected representatives were expected to pay door-to-door visits and organise awareness-generation camps aswell as look into the reasons for dropouts and help to resolve them.

Table 5.39 shows that, across India, 79 percent of the surveyed Pradhans, compared to nearly 57 percent of WardMembers, involved themselves with awareness generation campaigns to reduce the dropout rate. Wide gender disparitywas recorded regarding the involvement of elected representatives: nearly 58 percent of women, compared to 72 percentof men, acknowledged their participation in campaigns to reduce dropouts.

TTTTTable 5.39: ERs' Pable 5.39: ERs' Pable 5.39: ERs' Pable 5.39: ERs' Pable 5.39: ERs' Parararararticipation in Campaigns to Rticipation in Campaigns to Rticipation in Campaigns to Rticipation in Campaigns to Rticipation in Campaigns to Reduce School Deduce School Deduce School Deduce School Deduce School Drrrrropouts (%)opouts (%)opouts (%)opouts (%)opouts (%)

ERsERsERsERsERs’ par’ par’ par’ par’ participation in compaigns to rticipation in compaigns to rticipation in compaigns to rticipation in compaigns to rticipation in compaigns to reduce school dreduce school dreduce school dreduce school dreduce school dropoutsopoutsopoutsopoutsopouts



EWR 57.9 42.1 4,880

EMR 71.7 28.3 1,824









At the state level, the lowest rate of involvement of female Ward Members in such campaigns was reported from UttarPradesh, Goa and Uttarakhand, whereas in the case of male Ward Members, the lowest rate of involvement was recordedin Uttar Pradesh.

The opinions of the community differ from the responses recorded from Pradhans and Ward Members regarding theefforts of elected representatives in reducing the dropout rate.

105


All-India data show that all three households recalling such efforts made by the elected representatives was found in only15 percent of female governed wards and 16 percent of wards with male representatives. In Orissa, households in a highpercentage of wards which had elected women in Orissa could not recall any effort by their representatives to reduce thenumber of school dropouts (Table 5.40).

TTTTTable 5.40: Eable 5.40: Eable 5.40: Eable 5.40: Eable 5.40: Efforfforfforfforfforts made bts made bts made bts made bts made by ERs to Ry ERs to Ry ERs to Ry ERs to Ry ERs to Reduce Deduce Deduce Deduce Deduce Drrrrropouts fropouts fropouts fropouts fropouts from School (%)om School (%)om School (%)om School (%)om School (%)




EWR 43.2 24.9 17.0 15.0 4,880

EMR 39.4 25.0 19.3 16.3 1,838


Pradhan- male 29.1 29.3 23.6 18.0 461

Pradhan- female 30.8 26.1 25.1 18.0 907

Total Pradhans 30.2 27.2 24.6 18.0 1,368

Ward member-male 42.8 23.6 17.8 15.8 1,377




An active and popular people's representative would be expected to keep in regular contact with the people. Indeed,elected representatives are required to attend meetings organised by constituents to discuss various issues and concernsrequiring immediate attention. Table 5.41 provides data regarding the attendance of community-level meetings byelected representatives.

All-India data reveal that nearly 83 percent of the total Pradhans surveyed reported attending such meetings. On theother hand, only 69 percent of the Ward Members did so. All the 23 states surveyed demonstrated a fairly highpercentage of participation among female and male Pradhans at such community meetings.

As expected, the data disaggregated by gender revealed that a higher proportion of male representatives were attendingcommunity-level meetings when compared to women (67.9%). Among states, Uttar Pradesh registered the lowestpresence of female Ward Members (16.2%) and male Ward Members (44.4%). Around 4 percent of Ward Membersreported that there was no meeting organised by the residents to discuss local community issues (Table 5.41).

TTTTTable 5.41: ER Aable 5.41: ER Aable 5.41: ER Aable 5.41: ER Aable 5.41: ER Attending Community Mttending Community Mttending Community Mttending Community Mttending Community Meetings to Deetings to Deetings to Deetings to Deetings to Discuss Local Iiscuss Local Iiscuss Local Iiscuss Local Iiscuss Local Issues (%)ssues (%)ssues (%)ssues (%)ssues (%)

ERs attending meeting of rERs attending meeting of rERs attending meeting of rERs attending meeting of rERs attending meeting of residents to discuss local community issuesesidents to discuss local community issuesesidents to discuss local community issuesesidents to discuss local community issuesesidents to discuss local community issues

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo MMMMMeeting not organisedeeting not organisedeeting not organisedeeting not organisedeeting not organised NNNNN


EWR 67.9 27.9 4.2 4,880

EMR 81.3 15.3 3.5 1,824


Pradhan- male 90.5 7.2 2.4 461

Pradhan- female 78.7 18.0 3.3 907

Total Pradhans 82.7 14.3 3.0 1,368

Ward member-male 78.1 18.0 3.8 1,363




106


5.9 R5.9 R5.9 R5.9 R5.9 Role of Eole of Eole of Eole of Eole of Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives in Ses in Ses in Ses in Ses in Standing Committeestanding Committeestanding Committeestanding Committeestanding Committees

The Standing Committees are expected to play an important role in the functioning of the Gram Panchayat, as well asin the implementation of the development works undertaken by it. Hence, they have been given wide-ranging powersat all three tiers of the Panchayati Raj structure, which includes preparation of proposals for the execution of schemeswithin budgetary provisions. It is provided that the elected heads at all three tiers of the panchayat structure should notsanction any fund for a scheme, programme or project without considering the views of the members of the StandingCommittee to whom powers have been delegated with respect to a particular scheme, programme or project. Therespective Standing Committees at the various tiers have also been given wide powers to call for information, and toinspect any work in progress. Thus, assessing the existence of Standing Committees and their effective functioningespecially with respect to the role of women representatives was another important area of probe for the study.

Elected Women Representatives Interacting with Standing Committee Members

5.9.1 P5.9.1 P5.9.1 P5.9.1 P5.9.1 Prrrrrooooovision and Evision and Evision and Evision and Evision and Existence of Sxistence of Sxistence of Sxistence of Sxistence of Standing Committeestanding Committeestanding Committeestanding Committeestanding Committees

All states have defined, in their respective Panchayati Raj Acts, the number of members to be present in the StandingCommittees at various levels. In most of the states, Standing Committees exists at all levels, whereas in Andhra Pradeshand Maharashtra they function only at the district level. In Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, there is no provision ofStanding Committees at any level.

The discussions held with the officials of Panchayati Raj departments across the surveyed states revealed that the standingcommittees ranges from 2 to 10 in number at different levels. The number of standing committees varies from one tier toanother tier: for instance, in Punjab it is 3 at the GP level and 5 at the ZP level. Similarly, in Madhya Pradesh it is 3 atGP level and 7 at ZP level. In Maharashtra there is no standing committee at GP and IP level, but at ZP level there are10 standing committees. Importantly, in West Bengal there are 5 standing committees at GP level and 10 each at IP andZP level. In Rajasthan there are 6 standing committees at each level. Interestingly, the Rajasthan state Panchayati Raj Acthas provision for creating one more committee for addressing special problems called “special committee”.

107


A Standing Committee has a Chairperson, who is one of the elected members of the Gram Panchayat. The selection ofother members is also done from among the elected members through a democratic procedure. A Chairperson of aStanding Committee cannot hold the same designation in another Standing Committee but can be a member of it. Thisis designed to create a more democratic system and to avoid monopolies by individuals. It is worth mentioning here thatin some states there is provision for co-opting members to Standing Committees. This happens in Orissa, Assam andWest Bengal, where not more than three members are selected. These co-opted members have experience and knowledgeof the subject assigned and are mostly selected from among banks and insurance companies functioning in their locales.In fact, the State Panchayati Raj Act of Orissa specifies that the provision of co-opting members should be subject to theprior approval of the Zilla Panchayat. It is important to note that the states which have provided for the constitution ofStanding Committees have also specified the inclusion of women members and members from SC/ST communities. InAssam, women members are present in the Standing Committees relating to Health and Social Welfare includingWomen and Child Development6. Similarly, SC-ST representative are present in the Standing Committees linked tothe welfare of their communities.

As much as 28 percent of elected representatives expressed their lack of awareness of the existence of different types ofStanding Committees at the Gram Panchayat level, while 18 percent said that no such committee existed. As seen inTable 5.42, the most common type of Standing Committees relate to education, rural water supply (known as VWSC),village development committee, social justice and social welfare committee, audit & budget committee and the childand women development committee.

TTTTTable 5.42: Aable 5.42: Aable 5.42: Aable 5.42: Aable 5.42: Awarwarwarwarwareness of eness of eness of eness of eness of TTTTTypes of Sypes of Sypes of Sypes of Sypes of Standing Committees at GP levtanding Committees at GP levtanding Committees at GP levtanding Committees at GP levtanding Committees at GP level (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)

PPPPPradhansradhansradhansradhansradhans WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers EEEEEWRWRWRWRWR EMREMREMREMREMR NNNNN

Education committee 49.3 36.3 38.9 39.1 2612

Social Justice & Welfare committee 21.2 11.3 11.0 19.6 895

Agriculture & Irrigation committee 14.3 8.5 8.2 13.7 649

Executive committee 14.0 4.3 4.9 10.1 424

Fisheries committee 1.9 3.1 1.6 6.4 194

Public health & rural water supply committee 35.2 27.4 29.0 29.2 1946

Relief & Public work committee 10.7 13.6 15.9 5.1 871

Establishment committee 5.6 1.8 1.9 4.3 173

Audit and Budget (finance committee) 18.5 9.4 8.4 18.8 755

Child and women development committee 17.5 11.2 11.3 15.6 837

Industry and allied activities including infrastructure 6.1 4.0 3.8 6.1 295committee

Village development committee 26.2 26.2 27.4 23.1 1757

Not aware of committees 12.9 31.9 31.7 18.2 1878

No such committees exist 19.2 17.0 16.1 21.2 1171

Other 6.9 2.8 2.9 5.6 245

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 1,3681,3681,3681,3681,368 5,3365,3365,3365,3365,336 4,8804,8804,8804,8804,880 18241824182418241824 6,7046,7046,7046,7046,704

5.9.2 E5.9.2 E5.9.2 E5.9.2 E5.9.2 Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentatives' Ies' Ies' Ies' Ies' Invnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement with Sement with Sement with Sement with Sement with Standing Committeestanding Committeestanding Committeestanding Committeestanding Committees

The assessment of the involvement of elected representatives with Standing Committees, the information pertaining totheir membership of such committees, and their regular attendance followed by the presentation of their opinionsduring the meetings was also collected in the survey. Of those Pradhans and Ward Members who confirmed the existenceof Standing Committees, 78 percent and 64 percent, respectively, reported being members of any such committee

66666 The Assam Panchayat Act, 1994.

108


(Table 5.43). Taken by gender, the difference was insignificant. The high proportion of membership observed for thePradhans was owed mainly to the fact that they were heads of the lowest tier of the panchayat system and were either ex-officio members of the existing Standing Committee or were chairpersons of more than one such body. In West Bengal,they are seen in the role of the chairman of the Finance & Planning Sub-Committee7.

TTTTTable 5.43: Mable 5.43: Mable 5.43: Mable 5.43: Mable 5.43: Membership of Sembership of Sembership of Sembership of Sembership of Standing Committee (%)tanding Committee (%)tanding Committee (%)tanding Committee (%)tanding Committee (%)

MMMMMembership of Sembership of Sembership of Sembership of Sembership of Standing Committeetanding Committeetanding Committeetanding Committeetanding Committee



EWR 67.5 32.5 2,550

EMR 67.7 32.3 1,105




Total Pradhans 77.8 22.2 929

Ward member-male 57.9 42.1 767




To execute their functions, the Standing Committees have fixed certain dates on which its members would meet anddiscuss issues. Those who reported being members of any Standing Committee were asked further questions regardingthe regularity of their attendance at its meetings. A high proportion (94%) reported attending these meetings regularly(Table 5.44). The attendance of the Pradhans (95%) was slightly higher compared to that of Ward Members (93%).Gender-wise, there is almost no difference on this aspect.

TTTTTable 5.44: Aable 5.44: Aable 5.44: Aable 5.44: Aable 5.44: Attending Sttending Sttending Sttending Sttending Standing Committee Mtanding Committee Mtanding Committee Mtanding Committee Mtanding Committee Meetings Reetings Reetings Reetings Reetings Regularly (%)egularly (%)egularly (%)egularly (%)egularly (%)

AAAAAttend Sttend Sttend Sttend Sttend Standing Committeetanding Committeetanding Committeetanding Committeetanding Committee UUUUUsually prsually prsually prsually prsually present opinion duringesent opinion duringesent opinion duringesent opinion duringesent opinion duringmeetings rmeetings rmeetings rmeetings rmeetings regularlyegularlyegularlyegularlyegularly such meetingsuch meetingsuch meetingsuch meetingsuch meeting



EWR 93.7 1720 97.1 1,611

EMR 93.2 748 98.6 697


Pradhan- male 97.7 297 98.3 292

Pradhan- female 93.6 392 93.9 368

Total Pradhans 95.3 689 95.8 660

Ward member-male 90.1 400 98.8 395

Ward member-female 93.7 1,219 98.1 1,196

Total Ward Members 92.8 1,619 98.3 1,591

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 93.593.593.593.593.5 24682468246824682468 97.597.597.597.597.5 2,3082,3082,3082,3082,308

77777 The West Bengal Panchayat (Amendment) Act, 2003.

109


Elected representatives who said they attend the Standing Committee meetings were further asked whether they expressedtheir opinions at such meetings. About 98 percent claimed doing so usually. This was equally true for both men andwomen representatives (Table 5.44).

5.9.35.9.35.9.35.9.35.9.3 EEEEEffectivffectivffectivffectivffectiveness of Seness of Seness of Seness of Seness of Standing Committeestanding Committeestanding Committeestanding Committeestanding Committees

Under the provisions of the Panchayat Act, the Pradhan should not sanction funds for projects without considering theviews of the members of the Standing Committee to whom powers had been delegated by the Gram Panchayat8 .Therefore, to gain an insight into the decisions being taken collectively during Standing Committee meetings, theelected representatives who said they were members and regularly attended the meetings of the Standing Committeeswere asked further questions. The majority of them (78%) said that certain decisions had been taken in the past one-year (Table 5.45), indicating that perhaps the purpose of having these Standing Committees has been achieved. A higherproportion of the Ward Members (81%) responded in the affirmative than Pradhans (69%). Among elected representatives,there was some gender disparity though it was not significant (73-79%).

TTTTTable 5.45: Dable 5.45: Dable 5.45: Dable 5.45: Dable 5.45: Decisions ecisions ecisions ecisions ecisions TTTTTaken and Iaken and Iaken and Iaken and Iaken and Implemented bmplemented bmplemented bmplemented bmplemented by Sy Sy Sy Sy Standing Committees in Last tanding Committees in Last tanding Committees in Last tanding Committees in Last tanding Committees in Last YYYYYear (%)ear (%)ear (%)ear (%)ear (%)

PPPPPassed decision inassed decision inassed decision inassed decision inassed decision in IIIIImplementedmplementedmplementedmplementedmplemented AAAAAble to addrble to addrble to addrble to addrble to addressessessessesslast one ylast one ylast one ylast one ylast one yearearearearear such decisionsuch decisionsuch decisionsuch decisionsuch decision village levvillage levvillage levvillage levvillage level concernsel concernsel concernsel concernsel concerns



EWR 79.4 1,611 96.3 1,279 91.0 1,611

EMR 73.2 697 93.3 510 88.8 697


Pradhan- male 73.1 217 93.5 203 89.2 265

Pradhan- female 65.6 257 94.2 242 86.5 339

Total Pradhans 68.8 474 93.9 445 87.7 604

Ward member-male 73.3 293 93.2 273 88.5 354

Ward member-female 83.8 1,022 96.9 990 92.5 1,127

Total Ward Members 81.2 1,315 96.0 1,263 91.5 1,481


The Standing Committees have been given wide powers to call for information, to inspect the immovable properties ofthe Gram Panchayat and inspect any work in progress. In view of this, the survey queried elected representatives aboutthe actual execution of such decisions. A sizeable proportion (96 %) confirmed implementation. There was no significantdifference either by position or by gender (Table 5.45).

About 90 percent of the elected representatives replied in the affirmative when asked about the ability of the StandingCommittees to address the important concerns of the Gram Panchayat. This implies that the head of the Gram Panchayat,i.e. the Pradhan, was in favour of collective decision-making by the Standing Committee for addressing importantcommunity-level concerns (Table 5.45). This perception was held by 88 percent of Pradhans and by a slightly higherproportion of Ward Members (92%). Gender-wise, it was higher in the case of women representatives (91%) than men(89%).

Overall, the quality of participation assessed across various dimensions turned out to be reasonably good. A sizeable 93percent of the male Pradhans reported performing their primary role of organising and attended Gram Sabha meetings.A significantly large proportion of female Pradhans (86%) performed the important role of being a local Panchayati Rajfunctionary. However, the participation of women citizens of the village was reported to be quite low (less than 25%),

88888 The West Bengal Panchayat (Amendment) Act 2003.

110


which points to the need for better community mobilisation by elected representatives. The satisfaction of the communitywith initiatives taken by their representatives regarding Gram Sabha meetings was neither too high nor too low. On theother hand, cases of elected representatives forcing their ideas on others by dominating the Gram Sabha was not reported(86-89%), but, at the same time, a substantial majority (61 %) denied their propensity to consider the community'svoice.

One-third of elected representatives reported having interacted with the police, local bureaucracy and officials in the linedepartments to discuss schemes or participation in general election campaigns. As could be expected, this was slightlyhigher in the case of male representatives and among Pradhans. Between 24 and 35 percent of elected representativesclaimed to have undertaken proactive steps in signing petitions, formulating Press statements and notifying police/courts about local problems.

The selection of beneficiaries for different schemes is usually done at Gram Sabha meetings (56%), but at least one-thirdof the time it is prepared previously and approved in the Gram Sabha (31%). Most of the time (81%), they appeared toadhere to programme guidelines while preparing the lists of beneficiaries. Initiatives taken by elected representatives inthe realm of public health, either in the form of awareness generation campaigns or disease prevention drives or offeringfamily planning counseling was mentioned by between 41 and 51 percent of community members, while 58-66 percentreported that their representatives' efforts for providing better education and increasing enrolment was satisfactory.However, the majority of respondents did not confirm such initiatives. This indicates there could be scope for improvementof performance by the representatives.

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6.6.6.6.6. RRRRROLE OF POLE OF POLE OF POLE OF POLE OF PARALLEL BODIES, COBARALLEL BODIES, COBARALLEL BODIES, COBARALLEL BODIES, COBARALLEL BODIES, COBs IN s IN s IN s IN s IN THETHETHETHETHEFUNCTIONING OF ELECTED REPRESENTFUNCTIONING OF ELECTED REPRESENTFUNCTIONING OF ELECTED REPRESENTFUNCTIONING OF ELECTED REPRESENTFUNCTIONING OF ELECTED REPRESENTAAAAATIVESTIVESTIVESTIVESTIVES

Panchayati Raj institutions form only one among a multitude of bodies at the local level. The next level of institutionalset ups are Parallel Bodies, the Community-Based Organisations (CBOs), etc. The parallel bodies, such as the VillageEducation Committees (VEC), Village Health Committees (VHC), Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSC),etc., often have a deleterious impact, as they are unelected bodies that are sometimes better funded than panchayats. Ina sense, their existence undermines the Panchayati Raj structure. The CBOs - such as Mahila Mandals, Self-HelpGroups (SHGs)- could also have positive implications for the functioning of elected women representatives. The surveysought to construct a map of the institutional density of the local bodies/organisation and to examine the impact ofthese on the functioning of elected women representatives.

6.1 M6.1 M6.1 M6.1 M6.1 Membership and Pembership and Pembership and Pembership and Pembership and Parararararticipation in Pticipation in Pticipation in Pticipation in Pticipation in Parallel Bodiesarallel Bodiesarallel Bodiesarallel Bodiesarallel Bodies

Many local-level parallel bodies9 like VEC, VHC, VWSC, Line Departments have mandatory provisions for theinvolvement of Panchayat members, especially the Pradhan. In many states, the VEC/VHC/VWSC has to have amember of panchayat, preferably a woman.

It is not surprising, therefore, that Pradhans, as compared to the Ward Members, are found to be more involved in theparallel bodies with 62 percent of them being members as compared to 31.2 percent of the Ward Members as presentedin Table 6.1. The involvement of elected women, however, is significantly lower than that of the men, with only 33.2percent of women being a part of such bodies, as compared to 49 percent of the men representatives.

TTTTTable 6.1: Mable 6.1: Mable 6.1: Mable 6.1: Mable 6.1: Membership in Pembership in Pembership in Pembership in Pembership in Parallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNNo Po Po Po Po Parallel Bodyarallel Bodyarallel Bodyarallel Bodyarallel Body NNNNN


EWR 33.2 60.3 6.6 4,880

EMR 49.0 44.0 7.0 1,838


Pradhan- male 70.5 23.2 6.3 461

Pradhan- female 57.7 35.8 6.5 907

Total Pradhans 62.0 31.6 6.4 1,368

Ward Member-male 41.8 51.0 7.3 1,377

Ward Member-female 27.6 65.8 6.6 3,973



There are also wide variations across states. Maharashtra, Tripura, Kerala, West Bengal and Himachal Pradesh have 91percent of their female Pradhans as members of parallel bodies. As presented in Table 6.2, there is significant differencebetween the involvement of male Pradhans as compared to female Pradhans, with close to 71 percent of the men beinga part of some committee in the village as compared to only 58 percent of the female Pradhans. Other than the five statesmentioned, all others reflect differences between male and female Pradhans' involvement in parallel bodies.

99999 Parallel Bodies do not include Standing Committees of Panchayats.

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TTTTTable 6.2: Mable 6.2: Mable 6.2: Mable 6.2: Mable 6.2: Membership of Pembership of Pembership of Pembership of Pembership of Pradhan in Pradhan in Pradhan in Pradhan in Pradhan in Parallel Bodies - barallel Bodies - barallel Bodies - barallel Bodies - barallel Bodies - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

PPPPPradhan Fradhan Fradhan Fradhan Fradhan Femaleemaleemaleemaleemale PPPPPradhan Mradhan Mradhan Mradhan Mradhan Malealealealeale

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNNo parallelo parallelo parallelo parallelo parallel NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNNo parallelo parallelo parallelo parallelo parallel NNNNNbodiesbodiesbodiesbodiesbodies bodiesbodiesbodiesbodiesbodies


Andhra Pradesh 50.0 28.1 21.9 64 62.5 12.5 25.0 32

Karnataka 56.3 40.6 3.1 32 68.8 25.0 6.3 16

Tamil Nadu 71.9 28.1 0 32 93.8 6.3 0 16

Kerala 96.9 3.1 0 32 100.0 0 0 16

Arunachal Pradesh 25.0 75.0 0 16 62.5 37.5 0 8

Assam 68.8 25.0 6.3 32 75.0 25.0 0 16

Manipur 37.5 50.0 12.5 16 50.0 50.0 0 8

Sikkim 27.3 27.3 45.5 11 38.5 15.4 46.2 13

Tripura 100.0 0 0 16 100.0 0 0 8

West Bengal 92.2 6.3 1.6 64 93.8 6.3 0 32

Orissa 34.4 65.6 0 32 50.0 50.0 0 16

Bihar 6.3 84.4 9.4 64 25.0 71.9 3.1 32

Madhya Pradesh 37.5 60.9 1.6 64 78.1 21.9 0 32

Chhattisgarh 62.5 34.4 3.1 32 62.5 37.5 0 16

Gujarat 42.4 36.4 21.2 33 86.7 13.3 0 15

Maharashtra 100.0 0 64 100.0 0 0 32

Rajasthan 39.1 59.4 1.6 64 71.9 28.1 0 32

Haryana 53.1 25.0 21.9 32 50.0 18.8 31.3 16

Punjab 12.1 63.6 24.2 33 46.7 13.3 40.0 15

Uttar Pradesh 75.5 24.5 0 94 70.0 28.0 2.0 50

Uttarakhand 51.5 45.5 3.0 33 80.0 20.0 0 15

Himachal Pradesh 90.6 6.3 3.1 32 75.0 25.0 0 16

Goa 60.0 33.3 6.7 15 66.7 22.2 11.1 9

Similar differences may be observed between male and female Ward Members, with less than 28 percent of the femaleWard Members reporting being a part of parallel bodies. Variations by state are presented in Table 6.3.

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TTTTTable 6.3: Mable 6.3: Mable 6.3: Mable 6.3: Mable 6.3: Membership of embership of embership of embership of embership of WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member in Pember in Pember in Pember in Pember in Parallel Bodies - barallel Bodies - barallel Bodies - barallel Bodies - barallel Bodies - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member - Fember - Fember - Fember - Fember - Femaleemaleemaleemaleemale WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Member - Member - Member - Member - Member - Malealealealeale

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNNo parallelo parallelo parallelo parallelo parallel NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNNo parallelo parallelo parallelo parallelo parallel NNNNNbodiesbodiesbodiesbodiesbodies bodiesbodiesbodiesbodiesbodies

All India 27.6 65.8 6.6 3,973 41.8 51.0 7.3 1,377

Andhra Pradesh 3.9 77.4 18.7 283 8.9 71.3 19.8 101

Karnataka 43.8 51.4 4.9 144 52.1 41.7 6.3 48

Tamil Nadu 19.4 78.5 2.1 144 33.3 64.6 2.1 48

Kerala 95.8 4.2 0 143 95.9 4.1 0 49

Arunachal Pradesh 22.4 75.9 1.7 58 52.2 47.8 0 23

Assam 63.9 35.4 0.7 144 72.9 20.8 6.3 48

Manipur 23.9 70.4 5.6 71 48.0 40.0 12.0 25

Sikkim 7.1 33.3 59.5 42 4.2 50.0 45.8 24

Tripura 69.0 28.2 2.8 71 88.0 12.0 0 25

West Bengal 69.6 28.6 1.8 280 83.7 9.2 7.1 98

Orissa 40.0 54.5 5.5 145 57.4 36.2 6.4 47

Bihar 3.5 92.0 4.5 287 11.3 83.5 5.2 97

Madhya Pradesh 6.9 91.0 2.1 289 31.9 67.0 1.1 94

Chhattisgarh 25.2 74.1 0.7 143 49.0 49.0 2.0 49

Gujarat 16.0 76.3 7.6 131 29.8 57.4 12.8 47

Maharashtra 54.3 43.9 1.8 278 84.5 15.5 0 97

Rajasthan 12.6 84.3 3.1 286 32.7 64.3 3.1 98

Haryana 16.1 66.4 17.5 143 23.4 51.1 25.5 47

Punjab 11.9 53.7 34.3 134 10.6 55.3 34.0 47

Uttar Pradesh 7.6 89.6 2.8 432 20.8 77.8 1.4 144

Uttarakhand 13.6 80.8 5.6 125 32.0 68.0 0 50


Goa 21.7 55.0 23.3 60 41.7 50.0 8.3 24

A Mahila Sabha Meeting in Progress

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The most common parallel body across states, which is common to the two categories of respondents, was that of theVEC. About 85 percent of female and 84 percent of male Pradhans, 66 percent of female and 69 percent of male WardMembers were its members. The VHC and VWSC were the next most common parallel body (Table 6.4). The compulsoryformation of VEC under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and the provision, in most states, of having at least one panchayatmember in these, seem to have been instrumental in bringing a large number of elected representatives into the VECs.Similarly, the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) and TotalSanitation Campaigns (TSC) envisage the formation of committees with the involvement of panchayat members. Thisperhaps explains the high rate of their membership of such bodies. There are no significant differences between maleand female Pradhans or even among male and female Ward Members as far as memberships in the different kinds ofparallel bodies is concerned (Table 6.4).

TTTTTable 6.4: able 6.4: able 6.4: able 6.4: able 6.4: TTTTTypes of Pypes of Pypes of Pypes of Pypes of Parallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)

VECVECVECVECVEC VHCVHCVHCVHCVHC VWSCVWSCVWSCVWSCVWSC 20 point20 point20 point20 point20 point AAAAAudituditudituditudit WWWWWomenomenomenomenomen OOOOOthertherthertherther NNNNNprprprprprogramogramogramogramogram andandandandand empoempoempoempoempowwwwwermentermentermentermentermentrrrrrevieevieevieevieeviewwwww BBBBBudgetudgetudgetudgetudget committeecommitteecommitteecommitteecommittee

committeecommitteecommitteecommitteecommittee (finance)(finance)(finance)(finance)(finance)


EWR 72.4 32.3 24.2 4.2 9.9 23.7 14 1,619

EMR 74.8 34 28.7 5.8 13.3 12.6 20 900


Pradhan- male 84.3 45.8 35.4 7.7 23.7 15.7 11.7 325

Pradhan- female 85.1 44.7 33.3 5.5 22.0 20.7 10.7 523

Total Pradhans 84.8 45.2 34.1 6.4 22.6 18.8 11.1 848

Ward Member-male 69.4 27.3 24.9 4.7 7.5 10.8 17.9 575




According to the villagers from WWWWWest Best Best Best Best Bengal,engal,engal,engal,engal, for education services at the GP level, there is the Village EducationCommittee (VEC) and the School Management Committee (SMC). For health services there is Village Health Committee(VHC) and Village Water and Sanitation Committee (VWSC). At the block level there is Block Family & WelfareCommittee and Rogi Kalyan Samity (for patients’ welfare).

Similarly, villagers in MMMMMaharashtraaharashtraaharashtraaharashtraaharashtra report the presence of VECs, VHCs, VWSCs, the Taluka Sah-Niyantran Samitis,Sarvangeen Vikas Mulyamaapan Samitis. The role of elected women representatives in such committees is to resolveproblems that might arise in relation to the Primary Health Centre, Anganwadi monitoring, attending meetings andparticipating in discussions, deciding upon expenditure, monitoring the food component of the Mid-Day Meal scheme,monitoring vaccination, etc..

In MMMMMadhya Padhya Padhya Padhya Padhya Pradesh radesh radesh radesh radesh VECs and VHCs exist. The elected women representatives are members and even head the committees.The villagers also inform that there is VWSC. The major responsibilities of the VWSC are to look for cleanliness of thevillage, construction of toilets in the village under the Total Cleanliness Campaign and monitoring.

As an indicator of the active role played by the elected representatives who were part of parallel bodies, such persons wereasked about their participation in the meetings of parallel bodies. An overwhelming 93 percent of both the female andmale Pradhans reported attending meetings and a similar high proportion was also reported by the female and maleWard Members. State-level variations were significant in Arunachal Pradesh (where 25% of female Pradhans, 60% ofmale Pradhans, 38% of female Ward Members and 25% of male Ward Members did not attend meetings); Manipur

115


(where 17% of female Pradhans , 25% of male Pradhans and 25% of male Ward Members did not attend meetings) andOrissa (where

36% of female Pradhans, 38% of male Pradhans, 12% of female Ward Members and 7% of male Ward Members didnot attend meetings (Table 6.5).

TTTTTable 6.5: Pable 6.5: Pable 6.5: Pable 6.5: Pable 6.5: Parararararticipation of ERs in Pticipation of ERs in Pticipation of ERs in Pticipation of ERs in Pticipation of ERs in Parallel Body Marallel Body Marallel Body Marallel Body Marallel Body Meetings - beetings - beetings - beetings - beetings - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan PPPPPradhan Mradhan Mradhan Mradhan Mradhan Malealealealeale WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Memberemberemberemberember WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md MemberemberemberemberemberFFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale


All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 92.792.792.792.792.7 523523523523523 92.992.992.992.992.9 325325325325325 89.389.389.389.389.3 1,0961,0961,0961,0961,096 91.191.191.191.191.1 575575575575575

Andhra Pradesh 93.8 32 95.0 20 100.0 11 100.0 9

Karnataka 100.0 18 100.0 11 93.7 63 100.0 25

Tamil Nadu 100.0 23 93.3 15 92.9 28 100.0 16

Kerala 100.0 31 100.0 16 99.3 137 97.9 47

Arunachal Pradesh 75.0 4 40.0 5 61.5 13 75.0 12

Assam 100.0 22 91.7 12 96.7 92 97.1 35

Manipur 83.3 6 75.0 4 100.0 17 75.0 12

Sikkim 100.0 3 100.0 5 100.0 3 100.0 1

Tripura 100.0 16 100.0 8 95.9 49 100.0 22

West Bengal 91.5 59 96.7 30 90.3 195 96.3 82

Orissa 63.6 11 62.5 8 87.9 58 92.6 27

Bihar 100.0 4 87.5 8 90.0 10 72.7 11

Madhya Pradesh 87.5 24 92.0 25 80.0 20 90.0 30

Chhattisgarh 95.0 20 100.0 10 86.1 36 91.7 24

Gujarat 92.9 14 76.9 13 85.7 21 85.7 14

Maharashtra 98.4 64 93.8 32 82.8 151 86.6 82

Rajasthan 88.0 25 95.7 23 88.9 36 87.5 32

Haryana 88.2 17 100.0 8 91.3 23 72.7 11

Punjab 100.0 4 85.7 7 68.8 16 80.0 5

Uttar Pradesh 84.5 71 97.1 35 54.5 33 76.7 30

Uttarakhand 100.0 17 91.7 12 88.2 17 100.0 16

Himachal Pradesh 93.1 29 100.0 12 90.7 54 95.5 22

Goa 88.9 9 100.0 6 84.6 13 90.0 10

Among the parallel bodies, elected representative's membership was found highest in the VECs, followed by VHCs.Membership of these bodies is seen as the first step towards ensuing the delivery of services that parallel bodies have beencharged with. What is more important is the next step of actually getting involved with the functionaries dealing withthe work done by these bodies. This demands that the elected representatives play a role in supervising and monitoringthe Anganwadi workers and local-level implementation of programmes. These were studied for further analysis.

The Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANM) is primarily responsible for running Sub-Centers. But she also does house-to-house visits for providing health-related advice and services. Her role in maternal and child health, along with familyplanning, requires her to interact with the community at frequent intervals. When the elected representatives were askedabout their interaction with the ANM in the course of their duty, almost 70 percent of the representatives replied in theaffirmative. There was a significant difference between the Pradhan and the Ward Members in terms of interaction, witha much higher proportion of Pradhans (88%) reporting that they interacted with the ANM as compared to 65 percentof Ward Members. There is no significant difference between the elected men and women in this respect.

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However, only 56 percent of the elected representatives were aware of the days on which the ANM visited their village.There was a significant difference between the awareness of the Pradhans (74%) vis-à-vis that of Ward Members (52%).There was, however, no significant difference between elected female representatives and their male counterparts, inspite of the fact that the work of the ANM is more closely associated with women and children (Table 6.6).

TTTTTable 6.6: Iable 6.6: Iable 6.6: Iable 6.6: Iable 6.6: Invnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement with Hement with Hement with Hement with Hement with Health Fealth Fealth Fealth Fealth Functionaries (%)unctionaries (%)unctionaries (%)unctionaries (%)unctionaries (%)

IIIIInteractionnteractionnteractionnteractionnteraction AAAAAwarwarwarwarwareness oneness oneness oneness oneness on NNNNN IIIIInteractionnteractionnteractionnteractionnteraction NNNNNwith ANMwith ANMwith ANMwith ANMwith ANM visit of ANMvisit of ANMvisit of ANMvisit of ANMvisit of ANM with ASHAwith ASHAwith ASHAwith ASHAwith ASHA


EWR 69.8 56.5 4,880 58.4 694

EMR 70.3 56.0 1,824 73.6 420

BBBBBy positiony positiony positiony positiony position

Pradhan- male 89.8 76.1 461 79.3 275

Pradhan- female 86.4 72.3 907 67.0 579

Total Pradhans 87.6 73.6 1,368 71.0 854

Ward Member-male 63.7 49.2 1,363 62.8 145

Ward Member-female 66.0 52.9 3,973 14.8 115

Total Ward Members 65.4 51.9 5,336 41.5 260

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 69.969.969.969.969.9 56.456.456.456.456.4 6,7046,7046,7046,7046,704 64.164.164.164.164.1 1,1141,1141,1141,1141,114

One of the key components of the National Rural Health Mission is to provide every village in the country with atrained female community health activist. This is the 'ASHA' or Accredited Social Health Activist. Selected from thevillage itself and accountable to it, the ASHA is trained to work as the interface between the community and the publichealth systems. The institutional support for her duties is intended to be provided by the Anganwadi Centre (AWC) andthe Gram Panchayats. So, she is supposed to work closely with the Panchayat and village-level organisations. Therepresentatives of the villages serviced by ASHAs were questioned about mutual interaction. While 64 percent of theelected representatives said they interacted with the ASHA, it was largely the Pradhans who did so. Compared to 71percent of the Pradhans, 42 percent of the Ward Members said that they interacted with ASHAs. Surprisingly, there isa significant difference between the male and female representatives. A larger proportion of the former (74%) interactedwith the ASHA, compared to the women representatives (58%).

In Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Kerala,more than 90 percent of the Pradhans reported having interacted with ANMs. On the other hand, in Arunachal Pradesh,Manipur, Goa, Orissa, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Bihar, more than 20 percent of the Pradhans said they did nothave such interaction.

“…both our Sarpanch and panch undertake house visits to find out whether our children have received the polio vaccine.They take keen initiatives to ensure that pregnant women have got TT shots and have been adequately immunized.Whenever we sit down together on some occasion, they discuss family planning and encourage adopting suitable birthspacing methods to limit family size. They try to clear our doubts about HIV/AIDS”- Female FGD, Noorpura, Fatehgarh,Punjab

“…our panch has placed a very impressive role not only in the last immunisation drive but throughout the year. In thelast immunisation drive we saw our panch actively participating in all activities… such as count of families, childrenwho were to be immunised, going door-to-door for mobilising the children and mothers. They have demonstrated theirimportance in making health, family planning, maternity, AIDS program, etc., drives successful. Now we feel moreinformed and aware on various issues...” – FGD, Ambegaon, Javale, Pune, Maharashtra.

The Panchayats are expected to perform a role as monitoring agencies for the various welfare programmes run by thegovernment. One of the important roles of the elected representatives is to supervise the activities of the functionariesworking at the village level. The devolution of functions to Panchayati Raj bodies has imposed a monitoring role to the

117


Panchayats to help improve service delivery and accountability, as well as, to maintain a level of transparency in thesystem.

The Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) is run by the Anganwadi Worker (AWW). She is responsible forrunning the Anganwadi Centre (AWC) and providing nutritional, maternal and child health care services in tandemwith the ANM of the village. When queried about the AWWs, 84 percent of the Pradhans answered in the affirmative.The variation between female and male Pradhans regarding their monitoring role vis-à-vis the AWW was significant: amuch higher percentage (90%) of male Pradhans as compared to 81 percent of their female counterparts reportedhaving monitored the AWWs (Table 6.7).

TTTTTable 6.7: Aable 6.7: Aable 6.7: Aable 6.7: Aable 6.7: Activities of Activities of Activities of Activities of Activities of AWW MWW MWW MWW MWW Monitoronitoronitoronitoronitored bed bed bed bed by Py Py Py Py Pradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan

PPPPPradhansradhansradhansradhansradhans NNNNN SSSSSupplementarupplementarupplementarupplementarupplementaryyyyy IIIIIrrrrrononononon PPPPPost-ost-ost-ost-ost- Ante- natalAnte- natalAnte- natalAnte- natalAnte- natal DDDDDo noto noto noto noto not NNNNNmonitoringmonitoringmonitoringmonitoringmonitoring nutritionnutritionnutritionnutritionnutrition tablets totablets totablets totablets totablets to natal carnatal carnatal carnatal carnatal careeeee carcarcarcarcare (Ie (Ie (Ie (Ie (Irrrrrononononon monitormonitormonitormonitormonitor

AAAAAWWWWWWWWWW adolescentadolescentadolescentadolescentadolescent for womenfor womenfor womenfor womenfor women and folicand folicand folicand folicand folic activitiesactivitiesactivitiesactivitiesactivitiesgirlsgirlsgirlsgirlsgirls tablets / syrtablets / syrtablets / syrtablets / syrtablets / syrup)up)up)up)up)

Pradhan- male 80.7 907 83.2 29.8 29.8 22.4 6.3 416

Pradhan- female 90.2 461 87.0 33.2 36.9 31.3 5.3 732

TTTTTotal Potal Potal Potal Potal Pradhansradhansradhansradhansradhans 83.983.983.983.983.9 1,3681,3681,3681,3681,368 85.685.685.685.685.6 32.032.032.032.032.0 34.334.334.334.334.3 28.028.028.028.028.0 5.75.75.75.75.7 1,1481,1481,1481,1481,148

State variations were also high, with more than 90 percent of the Pradhans in Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, and Punjab.Maharashtra, Sikkim, Karnataka, Kerala and Tripura reporting that they monitored the activities of AWWs. In contrast,Assam, Manipur, Goa, Uttar Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh and Orissa see hardly 25 percent of the Pradhans monitoringthe activities of the AWWs.

Those Pradhans who monitored the activities of the AWWs were asked about the particular functions monitored bythem. Not surprisingly, a very popular scheme for supplementary nutrition emerged as the major scheme that wasmonitored. By contrast, less than 35 percent of them reported monitoring the less visible activities like distribution ofIFA tablets to adolescent girls, mother and child care, etc.

A popular scheme for school-going children in primary schools is the Mid-Day Meal (MDM) programme, under whicha cooked meal is to be provided to children in schools. The scheme serves two purposes: attracting children to schoolsand helping improve their nutritional status. However, operational difficulties are known to bedevil the implementationof the scheme. Monitoring is an important way of ensuring that good quality food provided to the children. Whenelected representatives were asked if Panchayats monitored the programme, about 69 percent responded in the affirmative,while a small 3 percent also said that MDM was either not functional or that there was no school in the Gram Panchayatarea. A higher proportion of the Pradhans than Ward Members reported monitoring the MDM programme by Panchayats,and likewise a significantly higher proportion of elected men than women responded in the affirmative (Table 6.8).

TTTTTable 6.8: ERs Mable 6.8: ERs Mable 6.8: ERs Mable 6.8: ERs Mable 6.8: ERs Monitoring MDM pronitoring MDM pronitoring MDM pronitoring MDM pronitoring MDM programme - bogramme - bogramme - bogramme - bogramme - by Gy Gy Gy Gy Gender & Pender & Pender & Pender & Pender & Position (%)osition (%)osition (%)osition (%)osition (%)

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo MMMMMidday meal notidday meal notidday meal notidday meal notidday meal not NNNNNo schoolo schoolo schoolo schoolo school NNNNNoperationaloperationaloperationaloperationaloperational in villagein villagein villagein villagein village


EWR 65.4 31.7 1.7 1.3 4,880

EMR 77.6 19.5 1.7 1.3 1,824


Pradhan- male 92.4 5.9 1.5 0.2 461

Pradhan- female 83.9 15.0 1.0 0.1 907

Total Pradhans 86.8 11.9 1.2 0.1 1,368

Ward Member-male 72.6 24.1 1.8 1.6 1,363




118


In Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Sikkim, Karnataka and Tripura, more than 80 percent of the representativesreported that the Panchayats had monitored the MDM programme. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh, Goa, Uttarakhand,Orissa, Arunachal Pradesh and Bihar, less than 60 percent of the elected representatives had a similar story.

6.2 Association with Community B6.2 Association with Community B6.2 Association with Community B6.2 Association with Community B6.2 Association with Community Based Oased Oased Oased Oased Organisationsrganisationsrganisationsrganisationsrganisations

The elected representatives were asked about the presence of CBOs in their villages. The CBOs are referred to as Self-Help Groups (SHG), Women's Groups, Youth Clubs, Joint Forest Management Committees, etc. Of the total electedrepresentatives who reported the presence of CBOs, 63 percent were female Pradhans and almost 71 percent male. Theproportion was much lower among Ward Members, with 49 percent of the female Ward Members and 54 percent of themale Ward (Table 6.9).

Gujarat, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal registered a relatively lower proportion of female Pradhans in CBOs. Inthe case of female Ward Members, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh showed a very smallproportion associated with CBOs (Table 6.9).

TTTTTable 6.9: Association of ERs with CBOable 6.9: Association of ERs with CBOable 6.9: Association of ERs with CBOable 6.9: Association of ERs with CBOable 6.9: Association of ERs with CBOs - bs - bs - bs - bs - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Memberemberemberemberember WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md MemberemberemberemberemberFFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale


All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 63.063.063.063.063.0 806806806806806 70.570.570.570.570.5 427427427427427 49.449.449.449.449.4 3,0693,0693,0693,0693,069 53.753.753.753.753.7 1,1651,1651,1651,1651,165

Andhra Pradesh 84.4 64 81.3 32 72.3 282 59.4 101

Karnataka 65.5 29 68.8 16 59.0 134 65.9 44

Tamil Nadu 74.2 31 69.2 13 74.5 137 74.5 47

Kerala 87.5 32 75.0 16 89.4 142 73.5 49


Assam 56.3 32 31.3 16 56.6 136 55.6 45

Manipur 68.8 16 75.0 8 50.0 70 72.0 25

Sikkim 90.9 11 61.5 13 76.2 42 60.0 20

Tripura 93.8 16 87.5 8 58.7 63 52.0 25

West Bengal 46.8 62 68.8 32 40.6 256 52.2 90

Orissa 50.0 32 43.8 16 52.5 139 41.9 43

Bihar 28.6 35 63.6 22 29.5 112 31.9 47

Madhya Pradesh 55.8 52 89.7 29 29.7 182 44.8 67

Chhattisgarh 71.0 31 81.3 16 46.8 111 58.1 43

Gujarat 23.1 26 57.1 14 22.8 79 33.3 36

Maharashtra 84.4 64 93.5 31 58.4 269 79.4 97

Rajasthan 69.2 52 74.2 31 37.1 151 41.7 72

Haryana 64.3 28 84.6 13 42.7 103 39.5 38

Punjab 72.4 29 100.0 12 26.9 104 43.9 41

Uttar Pradesh 38.0 79 54.3 46 17.0 247 33.9 109

Uttarakhand 71.9 32 85.7 14 43.6 101 56.5 46


Goa 91.7 12 55.6 9 58.5 53 76.2 21

119


Table 6.10 shows that in a large number of the Gram Panchayats, there were cases of association with one or more typesof CBOs. Elected representatives who reported being a part of CBOs before they came into the panchayat were askedabout the type of CBOs with which they were involved. The highest proportion (70%) of women representativesreported that they were associated with SHGs, while 43 percent of the men reported being a part of a Youth Club.

TTTTTable 6.10: Association with Pable 6.10: Association with Pable 6.10: Association with Pable 6.10: Association with Pable 6.10: Association with Parallel Bodies and CBOarallel Bodies and CBOarallel Bodies and CBOarallel Bodies and CBOarallel Bodies and CBOs (%)s (%)s (%)s (%)s (%)

SHGSHGSHGSHGSHG YYYYYouthouthouthouthouth MMMMMahilaahilaahilaahilaahila CooperativCooperativCooperativCooperativCooperativeeeee VWSCVWSCVWSCVWSCVWSC VECVECVECVECVEC VHCVHCVHCVHCVHC OOOOOthertherthertherther NNNNNclubclubclubclubclub mandalmandalmandalmandalmandal societysocietysocietysocietysociety


EWR 69.6 3.7 32.2 4.9 1.6 8.5 3.2 5.9 1,211

EMR 13.5 42.9 0.0 25.5 2.7 16.6 3.7 23.2 517


Pradhan- male 11.7 42.9 3.7 36.2 2.5 12.3 4.9 24.5 163

Pradhan- female 61.1 5.6 37.6 7.7 3.4 9.0 3.8 9.0 234

Total Pradhans 40.8 20.9 23.7 19.4 3.0 10.3 4.3 15.4 397

Ward Member-male 14.4 42.9 2.5 20.6 2.8 18.6 3.1 22.6 354

Ward Member-female 71.6 3.3 29.5 4.2 1.1 8.4 3.1 5.2 977

Total Ward Members 56.4 13.8 22.3 8.6 1.6 11.1 3.1 9.8 1,331

TTTTTotal electedotal electedotal electedotal electedotal elected 52.852.852.852.852.8 15.515.515.515.515.5 22.622.622.622.622.6 11.111.111.111.111.1 1.91.91.91.91.9 10.910.910.910.910.9 3.43.43.43.43.4 11.111.111.111.111.1 1,7281,7281,7281,7281,728rrrrrepreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

According to villagers in Madhya P P P P Pradesh,radesh,radesh,radesh,radesh, the community members benefited from timely organised immunisationprogramme for children, nutritious food for children and pregnant women, education for children and especially frommotivating girl children to continue with their education. Students are motivated to attend school regularly and supervisionand monitoring is regularly done in the school.

Similarly, in M M M M Maharashtra,aharashtra,aharashtra,aharashtra,aharashtra, the villagers perceive that committees are associated with awareness generation activitiesamong people, encouragement is given to girls’ education, improved health on account of better education and reductionin dropout rate. In Ambegaon block of Pune district, 16 villages have won the Nirmal Gram Puraskar and 30-40 grampanchayats are preparing for it. The panchayat members of education committees meet the guardians and encouragethem to send their wards to school. Students who perform well are also rewarded.

6.3 P6.3 P6.3 P6.3 P6.3 Prrrrresence of Cesence of Cesence of Cesence of Cesence of Customarustomarustomarustomarustomary Py Py Py Py Panchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayats

Alongside the formally constituted and elected Panchayati Raj institutions, there also exist, in many places a range oflocal institutions organised around caste and other rallying causes. Many of them, such as caste panchayats or streetpanchayats, operate at the sub-village level. Social scientists have called these customary panchayats, which could beeither caste panchayats (whose jurisdiction is therefore limited to the particular caste group or sub-caste) or traditionalpanchayats consisting of all the caste leaders in the village and therefore having a wider jurisdiction. The latter deals witha variety of functions - from managing religious festivals and maintaining village tanks to dispute resolution. These areclearly informal political institutions, though they may claim to have a say in determining a candidate for election to theformal panchayat. The members of customary panchayats are not just village leaders but also important caste leaderswho perform other duties and responsibilities as leaders of their particular caste groups. Their legitimacy flows fromthis.10

In the survey, about one-third of the elected representatives reported the existence of such traditional institutions and

10 Kripa Ananthpur , Kripa Ananthpur , Kripa Ananthpur , Kripa Ananthpur , Kripa Ananthpur , Working Paper No. 187 IIIIInternternternternterfaces in Local Gfaces in Local Gfaces in Local Gfaces in Local Gfaces in Local Gooooovvvvvernance - A Sernance - A Sernance - A Sernance - A Sernance - A Study in Karnatakatudy in Karnatakatudy in Karnatakatudy in Karnatakatudy in Karnataka” , ” , ” , ” , ” , MIDS, Chennai

120


heads. The states where this phenomenon was reported by substantial numbers of representatives included Orissa (by62.5% of Pradhans and 53.1% of the Ward Members); Karnataka (73% of the Pradhans and 82.3% of the WardMembers); Rajasthan (74% of the Pradhans and 63% of the Ward Members); Andhra Pradesh (78% of the Pradhansand 87% of the Ward Members); Assam (94% of the Pradhans and 91% of the Ward Members); and Arunachal Pradesh(96% of the Pradhans and 89% of the Ward Members) (Table 6.11).

IIIIIn Sn Sn Sn Sn Sikkim,ikkim,ikkim,ikkim,ikkim, the traditional system of governance is known as “Dzumsas” which prevails in the villages of Lachen andLachung. It follows the tribal social organisational set-up, which renders its uniqueness. This traditional village-levelbody consists of all elders of every household of the village including women and lamas of the secular sect. Two persons areelected from among members of the Dzumsa and are known as the Senior and Junior Pipon. The Dzumsa performs allthe developmental functions that are assigned to the Panchayats in other areas and also have customary judicial powersfor trials of cases in their respective villages. All office bearers are directly elected by the village community. These twoDzumsas have been deemed to be Gram Panchayat units for the purpose of Sikkim Panchayat Act, 1996.

TTTTTable 6.11: Eable 6.11: Eable 6.11: Eable 6.11: Eable 6.11: Existence of xistence of xistence of xistence of xistence of TTTTTraditional raditional raditional raditional raditional VVVVVillage Hillage Hillage Hillage Hillage Heads - beads - beads - beads - beads - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

PPPPPradhansradhansradhansradhansradhans WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers

TTTTTraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Heads Eeads Eeads Eeads Eeads Existxistxistxistxist NNNNN TTTTTraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Heads Eeads Eeads Eeads Eeads Existxistxistxistxist NNNNN

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 35.335.335.335.335.3 1,3681,3681,3681,3681,368 31.531.531.531.531.5 5,3505,3505,3505,3505,350

Andhra Pradesh 78.1 96 86.5 384

Karnataka 72.9 48 82.3 192

Tamil Nadu 27.1 48 17.2 192

Kerala 35.4 48 22.4 192

Arunachal Pradesh 95.8 24 88.9 81

Assam 93.8 48 90.6 192

Manipur 16.7 24 16.7 96

Sikkim 0.0 24 4.5 66

Tripura 4.2 24 1.0 96

West Bengal 34.4 96 18.5 378

Orissa 62.5 48 53.1 192

Bihar 10.4 96 13.0 384

Madhya Pradesh 16.7 96 12.0 383

Chhattisgarh 16.7 48 17.2 192

Gujarat 25.0 48 14.6 178

Maharashtra 25.0 96 22.7 375

Rajasthan 74.0 96 62.8 384

Haryana 39.6 48 43.2 190

Punjab 47.9 48 27.6 181

Uttar Pradesh 3.5 144 1.9 576

Uttarakhand 27.1 48 28.0 175

Himachal Pradesh 6.3 48 1.1 187

Goa 12.5 24 7.1 84

121


Those elected representatives who reported the existence of traditional heads in their villages were further asked aboutthe involvement of traditional heads in community activities and the Gram Sabha. About 93 percent of them confirmedthe involvement of traditional heads in community-level activities, while 79 percent said they attended Gram Sabhameetings (Table 6.12).

TTTTTable 6.12: Pable 6.12: Pable 6.12: Pable 6.12: Pable 6.12: Parararararticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of TTTTTraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Heads in eads in eads in eads in eads in VVVVVillage Aillage Aillage Aillage Aillage Activities (%)ctivities (%)ctivities (%)ctivities (%)ctivities (%)

PPPPParararararticipate in Community Aticipate in Community Aticipate in Community Aticipate in Community Aticipate in Community Activitiesctivitiesctivitiesctivitiesctivities PPPPParararararticipate in Gticipate in Gticipate in Gticipate in Gticipate in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha NNNNN


EWR 92.1 77.5 1,563

EMR 94.0 81.7 605





Ward Member-male 93.1 80.0 450




Of those who reported that traditional heads attended the Gram Sabha, 49 percent stated that traditional heads regularlyattend the Gram Sabha meetings (Table 6.13).

TTTTTable 6.13: Aable 6.13: Aable 6.13: Aable 6.13: Aable 6.13: Attendance of ttendance of ttendance of ttendance of ttendance of TTTTTraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Heads in Geads in Geads in Geads in Geads in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)

AAAAAttends all Gttends all Gttends all Gttends all Gttends all Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha AAAAAttends some Gttends some Gttends some Gttends some Gttends some Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabhaabhaabhaabhaabha NNNNN


EWR 49.6 50.4 1,212

EMR 47.0 53.0 494






Ward Member-female 51.5 48.5 942



122


BoBoBoBoBox Nx Nx Nx Nx Nooooo. 6.1. 6.1. 6.1. 6.1. 6.1PPPPPanchayats Eanchayats Eanchayats Eanchayats Eanchayats Extension to Schedule Arxtension to Schedule Arxtension to Schedule Arxtension to Schedule Arxtension to Schedule Areas (Peas (Peas (Peas (Peas (PESA, 1996) and ESA, 1996) and ESA, 1996) and ESA, 1996) and ESA, 1996) and TTTTTraditional Praditional Praditional Praditional Praditional Panchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayatsanchayats

PESA extends Part IX of the Constitution to Fifth Schedule Areas, subject to certain exceptions and modifications. Thefollowing nine States have Fifth Schedule Areas:- (i) Andhra Pradesh (ii) Chhattisgarh (iii) Gujarat (iv) HimachalPradesh (v) Jharkhand (vi) Madhya Pradesh (vii) Maharashtra (viii) Orissa and (ix) Rajasthan. The Act defines avillage as ordinarily consisting of a habitation or a group of habitations or a hamlet or a group of hamlets comprising acommunity and managing its affairs in accordance with traditions and customs. It stipulates that every village will havea Gram Sabha, which will be competent to safeguard and preserve the traditions and customs of the people, their culturalidentity, community resources and customary mode of dispute resolution. With respect to the manner of reservation ofseats at each Panchayat level the Act stipulates that reservation for the Scheduled Tribes shall not be less than half of thetotal number of seats and that all seats of Chairpersons of Panchayats at all levels will be reserved for the Scheduled Tribes.It has also been provided that State Government would nominate persons belonging to such Scheduled Tribes as have norepresentation in the Panchayat at the intermediate level or the Panchayat at the district level, not exceeding one-tenth ofthe total members to be elected in that Panchayat.

A duty has been placed on State Legislatures to ensure that Panchayats at the appropriate level and the Gram Sabha areendowed specifically with such powers and authority as enable them to function as institutions of self government. Theseare as follows:

1. Enforcing prohibition

2. Ownership of minor forest produce

3. Preventing alienation of land

4. Manage village markets

5. Exercise control over money lending

6. Exercise control over institutions and functionaries in all social sectors

7. Control local plans and resources for such plans including tribal sub-plans.

In the states with Schedule V areas (excluding Jharkhand), elected representatives were asked about whether their GramPanchayat came under PESA area or not. Those who were aware about the status of their Panchayat were then askedabout certain provisions under PESA by which Gram Sabhas are endowed with specific powers to reduce exploitation oflocal resources and tribal community.

Around 64 percent (N=88) of the elected representatives in the PESA areas reported that the present managementpractices with respect to natural resources are in line with customary laws and practices. There are no significant differenceson this issue either across position or gender.

When asked about whether permission is taken from the Gram Sabha for mining or minor minerals 44 percent (N=88)of the elected representatives reported fulfillment of this provision. There are no significant differences on this issue eitheracross position or gender. Elected representatives were also asked about the role played by the Gram Sabha in allowingland acquisition, to which 60 percent (N=88) of the elected representatives responded that prior permission of the GramSabha is obtained before acquiring land for development purposes. Almost 69 percent (N=88) of the elected representativesalso reported that the Gram Sabha worked towards regulating alcohol sales while 44 percent (N=88) reported that GramSabha works towards managing the village markets. A fairly low 33 percent (N=88) of elected representatives reportedthat the Gram Sabha exercised control, over money lending to tribals.

123


Figure 6.1: Districts under Schedule V Areas

6.4 R6.4 R6.4 R6.4 R6.4 Role of Pole of Pole of Pole of Pole of Parallel Bodies, CBOarallel Bodies, CBOarallel Bodies, CBOarallel Bodies, CBOarallel Bodies, CBOs & Os & Os & Os & Os & Other Ither Ither Ither Ither Institutionsnstitutionsnstitutionsnstitutionsnstitutions

The role of parallel bodies, CBOs and other institutions in the process of participation and functioning of electedrepresentatives has been analysed in the following sub-sections. The former refers to as how the elected representatives'association with such bodies helped them getting elected and latter provided them support in performing their duties.

Nasik

Nanded

Chandrapur

East Singhbhum

124


Line Department Officials Explaining Schemes to EWRs, Udupi, Karnataka

6.4.16.4.16.4.16.4.16.4.1 RRRRRole of Pole of Pole of Pole of Pole of Parallel Bodies and CBOarallel Bodies and CBOarallel Bodies and CBOarallel Bodies and CBOarallel Bodies and CBOsssss

In the course of the survey, the elected representatives were asked about their involvement with any parallel body orCBO before being elected. The objective was to understand whether their involvement with such bodies helped themgetting elected for the first time. Table 6.14 exhibits that 26 percent of all elected representatives were involved withsome local body/CBO before being elected. Of these, the majority of elected representatives were Pradhans (29%) thanWard Members (24%). Gender wise, a slightly higher proportion of men representatives (28%) than women (25%)admitted to this involvement.

TTTTTable 6.14: Iable 6.14: Iable 6.14: Iable 6.14: Iable 6.14: Invnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement with Pement with Pement with Pement with Pement with Parallel Body/CBO beforarallel Body/CBO beforarallel Body/CBO beforarallel Body/CBO beforarallel Body/CBO before Be Be Be Be Being Eeing Eeing Eeing Eeing Elected (%)lected (%)lected (%)lected (%)lected (%)



EWR 24.8 75.2 4,880

EMR 28.1 71.9 1,838









As described above, the elected representatives who had been associated with any local body/CBO were asked if thisassociation encouraged them to become elected representatives. Table 6.15 shows that a large proportion (64%) reportedbeing encouraged by some local body/CBO. Interestingly, there was a significant difference between the Pradhans and

125


Ward Members, as well as between elected men and women representatives, with a much higher proportion of Pradhansand a higher proportion of men reporting the same.

TTTTTable 6.15: Eable 6.15: Eable 6.15: Eable 6.15: Eable 6.15: Encouraged bncouraged bncouraged bncouraged bncouraged by Py Py Py Py Parallel Body/CBO to become ER (%)arallel Body/CBO to become ER (%)arallel Body/CBO to become ER (%)arallel Body/CBO to become ER (%)arallel Body/CBO to become ER (%)



EWR 61.9 38.1 1,211

EMR 67.1 32.9 517









6.4.2 R6.4.2 R6.4.2 R6.4.2 R6.4.2 Role of Cole of Cole of Cole of Cole of Customarustomarustomarustomarustomary Py Py Py Py Panchayatanchayatanchayatanchayatanchayat

The role of Customary Panchayats was also assessed with respect to their support to the elected representatives inperforming their functions. The following sub-section presents the nature of participation of traditional heads in termsof attending Gram Sabha meetings, presenting their opinion, motivating community members, interacting panchayatmembers on various issues, etc.

Table 6.16 shows that 76 percent of elected representatives said that traditional heads present their opinions on differentissues related to development of the village during Gram Sabha meetings. About 38 percent also confirmed that theymotivate community members to participate in Gram Sabha meetings, whereas around 15 percent of elected representativesmentioned that traditional heads exercise influence some issues during Gram Sabha meetings.

TTTTTable 6.16: Nable 6.16: Nable 6.16: Nable 6.16: Nable 6.16: Naturaturaturaturature of Ie of Ie of Ie of Ie of Invnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement of ement of ement of ement of ement of TTTTTraditional Leaders in Graditional Leaders in Graditional Leaders in Graditional Leaders in Graditional Leaders in Gram Sram Sram Sram Sram Sabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Mabha Meetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)

PPPPPrrrrresent theiresent theiresent theiresent theiresent their MMMMMotivotivotivotivotivateateateateate IIIIInteract only withnteract only withnteract only withnteract only withnteract only with UUUUUse theirse theirse theirse theirse their NNNNNopinion onopinion onopinion onopinion onopinion on community membercommunity membercommunity membercommunity membercommunity member panchayatpanchayatpanchayatpanchayatpanchayat influence oninfluence oninfluence oninfluence oninfluence on

differdifferdifferdifferdifferent issuesent issuesent issuesent issuesent issues (local people)(local people)(local people)(local people)(local people) membersmembersmembersmembersmembers some issues some issues some issues some issues some issues


EWR 75.1 37.0 18.3 15.8 1,212

EMR 78.1 40.5 18.6 13.6 494


Pradhan- male 79.9 44.8 18.7 16.4 134

Pradhan- female 74.8 41.1 20.7 19.3 270

Total Pradhans 76.5 42.3 20.0 18.3 404

Ward Member-male 77.5 38.9 18.6 12.5 360

Ward Member-female 75.2 35.8 17.6 14.8 942



126


When asked about the types of roles played by them in the village, 56 percent of the elected representatives reported thattraditional heads helped in resolving disputes, 42 percent said that they participated in development activities, 41percent revealed that they helped in organising religious activities in the village, etc. (Table 6.17).

TTTTTable 6.17: Nable 6.17: Nable 6.17: Nable 6.17: Nable 6.17: Naturaturaturaturature of Pe of Pe of Pe of Pe of Parararararticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of TTTTTraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Heads in eads in eads in eads in eads in VVVVVillage (%)illage (%)illage (%)illage (%)illage (%)

DDDDDisputeisputeisputeisputeispute OOOOOrganizingrganizingrganizingrganizingrganizing SSSSSocialocialocialocialocial HHHHHelp withelp withelp withelp withelp with PPPPParararararticipation inticipation inticipation inticipation inticipation in OOOOOthersthersthersthersthers NNNNNrrrrresolutionesolutionesolutionesolutionesolution rrrrreligiouseligiouseligiouseligiouseligious wwwwwelfarelfarelfarelfarelfareeeee worworworworworking ofking ofking ofking ofking of devdevdevdevdevelopmentelopmentelopmentelopmentelopment

activitiesactivitiesactivitiesactivitiesactivities EEEEEWRWRWRWRWR activitiesactivitiesactivitiesactivitiesactivities


EWR 54.8 40.6 29.9 17.0 40.9 2.7 1,563

EMR 59.0 42.0 30.1 13.6 45.6 1.7 605


Pradhan- male 60.0 42.6 32.3 16.1 53.5 1.3 155

Pradhan- female 47.3 44.8 25.3 18.0 40.9 2.1 328

Total Pradhans 51.3 44.1 27.5 17.4 44.9 1.9 483

Ward Member-male 58.7 41.8 29.3 12.7 42.9 1.8 450

Ward Member-female 56.8 39.4 31.1 16.8 40.9 2.8 1,235

Total Ward Members 57.3 40.1 30.6 15.7 41.4 2.6 1,685


The traditional heads also play an important role in influencing the nomination of candidates for panchayat elections asconfirmed by 38 percent of elected representatives (Table 6.18).

TTTTTable 6.18: Iable 6.18: Iable 6.18: Iable 6.18: Iable 6.18: Influence of nfluence of nfluence of nfluence of nfluence of TTTTTraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Hraditional Heads on the Neads on the Neads on the Neads on the Neads on the Nomination of Candidates (%)omination of Candidates (%)omination of Candidates (%)omination of Candidates (%)omination of Candidates (%)



EWR 37.6 62.4 1,563

EMR 37.0 63.0 605


Pradhan 37.3 62.7 483

Ward Members 37.5 62.5 1,685


Elected representatives were asked about the involvement of women in the functioning of traditional institutions, and47 percent of them - with no significant difference among the males and females - reported that women were involvedin the functioning of the traditional institutions (Table 6.19).

TTTTTable 6.19: Iable 6.19: Iable 6.19: Iable 6.19: Iable 6.19: Invnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement of ERs in the Fement of ERs in the Fement of ERs in the Fement of ERs in the Fement of ERs in the Functioning of unctioning of unctioning of unctioning of unctioning of TTTTTraditional Iraditional Iraditional Iraditional Iraditional Institutions (%)nstitutions (%)nstitutions (%)nstitutions (%)nstitutions (%)



EWR 46.4 53.6 1,563

EMR 48.1 51.9 605


Pradhan 49.9 50.1 483

Ward Members 46.1 53.9 1,685


127


6.4.36.4.36.4.36.4.36.4.3 RRRRRole of Oole of Oole of Oole of Oole of Other Ither Ither Ither Ither Institutionsnstitutionsnstitutionsnstitutionsnstitutions

Elected representatives were queried whether they had received any support from political parties or community groupswhile contesting elections. The purpose was to understand the various types of community support and also to assess theactual involvement of political parties in Gram Panchayat elections. Almost 32 percent of the elected representativesreported being affiliated or supported by political parties. Interestingly, while 43 percent of the Pradhans admitted tobeing affiliated or supported by some political party, 29 percent of the Ward Members stated the same. The variationacross the elected men and women was significant, with almost 40 percent of the men reporting affiliation/support incomparison with 29 percent of the women reporting affiliation or support from any political party (Table 6.20).

TTTTTable 6.20: Affiliation/Sable 6.20: Affiliation/Sable 6.20: Affiliation/Sable 6.20: Affiliation/Sable 6.20: Affiliation/Supporupporupporupporupport with Pt with Pt with Pt with Pt with Political Political Political Political Political Parararararty (%)ty (%)ty (%)ty (%)ty (%)



EWR 29.2 70.8 4,880

EMR 39.5 60.5 1,838









As presented in Table 6.21, there are wide variations across states with regard to support from political parties receivedby elected representatives during Gram Panchayat elections. In Tripura, Kerala, Assam, West Bengal and Sikkim, morethan 90 percent of the Pradhans reported having received support from a political party, while in Haryana, Bihar,Manipur, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh, less than 20 percent of the Pradhans reported such affiliation to any politicalparty.

TTTTTable 6.21: Affiliation/Sable 6.21: Affiliation/Sable 6.21: Affiliation/Sable 6.21: Affiliation/Sable 6.21: Affiliation/Supporupporupporupporupport frt frt frt frt from Pom Pom Pom Pom Political Political Political Political Political Parararararties (%) - bties (%) - bties (%) - bties (%) - bties (%) - by Sy Sy Sy Sy Statetatetatetatetate



All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 38.738.738.738.738.7 907907907907907 49.949.949.949.949.9 461461461461461 27.127.127.127.127.1 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973 3636363636 1,3771,3771,3771,3771,377

Andhra Pradesh 43.8 64 50 32 29.7 283 37.6 101

Karnataka 43.8 32 75 16 37.5 144 52.1 48

Tamil Nadu 28.1 32 31.3 16 15.3 144 27.1 48

Kerala 96.9 32 100 16 97.9 143 95.9 49

Arunachal Pradesh 50 16 50 8 32.8 58 39.1 23

Assam 96.9 32 93.8 16 66.7 144 62.5 48

Manipur 18.8 16 25 8 7 71 4 25

Sikkim 100 11 84.6 13 83.3 42 83.3 24

Tripura 93.8 16 100 8 100 71 88 25

West Bengal 96.9 64 93.8 32 94.6 280 94.9 98

128





Orissa 43.8 32 62.5 16 20 145 21.3 47

Bihar 12.5 64 21.9 32 3.8 287 11.3 97

Madhya Pradesh 26.6 64 46.9 32 8 289 28.7 94

Chhattisgarh 9.4 32 37.5 16 4.2 143 28.6 49

Gujarat 12.1 33 40 15 7.6 131 17 47

Maharashtra 40.6 64 40.6 32 29.5 278 42.3 97

Rajasthan 34.4 64 43.8 32 16.1 286 31.6 98

Haryana 12.5 32 18.8 16 6.3 143 12.8 47

Punjab 33.3 33 46.7 15 14.2 134 36.2 47

Uttar Pradesh 6.4 94 28 50 3.9 432 7.6 144

Uttarakhand 9.1 33 26.7 15 4.8 125 14 50

Himachal Pradesh 34.4 32 62.5 16 9.3 140 17 47

Goa 66.7 15 22.2 9 23.3 60 29.2 24

The community members of Namcheybong Gram Panchayat stated: “Here party system Panchayat exists. Thusonly the party members are informed about the Gram Sabha meetings and the community members have noinformation on the occurrence of these meetings”. (In Sikkim)

The villagers of 10 Daraf, Geyzing block of West Sikkim states, “The dates of the Gram Sabha are issued by theblock office. Based on the dates, letters are issued by the GPs mentioning the date and venue. The letters are issued15 days in advance”. (In Sikkim)

When asked about the type of support received from political parties, 83 percent of the elected representatives who hadadmitted to receiving support, reported that they were given party workers for campaigning. About 44 percent said thatthey were given campaign material. Out of these elected representatives, 26 percent also reported getting financialsupport from the political parties, along with 18 percent who received logistical support like arrangement of microphones,transportation, etc. (Table 6.22).

TTTTTable 6.22 : Nable 6.22 : Nable 6.22 : Nable 6.22 : Nable 6.22 : Naturaturaturaturature of Se of Se of Se of Se of Supporupporupporupporupport Rt Rt Rt Rt Receiveceiveceiveceiveceived fred fred fred fred from Pom Pom Pom Pom Political Political Political Political Political Parararararty to Contest Ety to Contest Ety to Contest Ety to Contest Ety to Contest Election (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)lection (%)

FFFFFinancialinancialinancialinancialinancial LogisticalLogisticalLogisticalLogisticalLogistical PPPPParararararty worty worty worty worty workerskerskerskerskers CampaignCampaignCampaignCampaignCampaign NNNNNsupporsupporsupporsupporsupporttttt supporsupporsupporsupporsupporttttt for campaigningfor campaigningfor campaigningfor campaigningfor campaigning materialsmaterialsmaterialsmaterialsmaterials


EWR 26.5 19.1 83.4 46.3 1,427

EMR 24.1 15.8 82.5 40.8 726


Pradhan- male 27.4 16.5 83.9 38.3 230

Pradhan- female 23.4 17.4 86.0 39.0 351

Total Pradhans 25.0 17.0 85.2 38.7 581

Ward Member-male 22.6 15.5 81.9 41.9 496




129


According to the villagers of MMMMMalda dialda dialda dialda dialda district of strict of strict of strict of strict of WWWWWest Best Best Best Best Bengal,engal,engal,engal,engal, the elected representatives have to endure politicalpressure all the time. Members of the ruling party enjoys more scope to work compared to others. Femalerepresentatives lack political knowledge. They sit quietly and party people perform everything on their behalf ”.

The villagers of Uttar Dinajpur district say, “Mahila members are in most cases illiterate and being illiterate theyface trouble to work. The fail to grapple with the issues discussed and so hesitate to take decisions. They only listento their party leaders. Opposition party members get less scope to work for the village”.

SHG Members Selling their Wares

The present chapter captures the role which parallel bodies, CBOs, traditional informal institutions and political partieshave played in shaping the careers of representatives and determines their participation in development projects. It isinteresting to note that while 93 percent of the elected representatives reported the presence of parallel bodies in theirvillages, only 38 percent said they were members of one or more such body. The significant difference between theinvolvement of the Pradhans as compared to the Ward Members again point to the major

role played by the Pradhan in the affairs of the village. The gender gap among the representatives, with 33 percent of theelected women in comparison to 49 percent of men, also highlights the fact that women representatives still lack a voicein the affairs of the village. There is also a marked difference among the states. Kerala, West Bengal, Tripura, Assam andMaharashtra have more than 90 percent of their female Pradhans in the parallel bodies, as compared Punjab, Rajasthan,Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar, where less than 50 percent of the female Pradhans reported being a part of somecommittee.

130


7.7.7.7.7. IMPIMPIMPIMPIMPAAAAACT OF PCT OF PCT OF PCT OF PCT OF PARARARARARTICIPTICIPTICIPTICIPTICIPAAAAATION ON TION ON TION ON TION ON TION ON WWWWWOMEN ANDOMEN ANDOMEN ANDOMEN ANDOMEN ANDCOMMUNITCOMMUNITCOMMUNITCOMMUNITCOMMUNITY DEY DEY DEY DEY DEVELVELVELVELVELOPMENTOPMENTOPMENTOPMENTOPMENT

The study on the role of elected women representatives completes its course with an assessment of the impact of theirwork. It is clear that good performance by elected representatives delivers positive results, benefiting both the providers(representatives) and the beneficiaries (the community). The present chapter discusses the perceived benefits that accrueto both.

7.1 P7.1 P7.1 P7.1 P7.1 Perererererception of Change in the Rception of Change in the Rception of Change in the Rception of Change in the Rception of Change in the Role of ERsole of ERsole of ERsole of ERsole of ERs

An individual's empowerment is facilitated when something changes in that person's life in a way that expands spaces,allowing him/her greater freedom to do the intended job11. This change could be analysed at the personal, householdand community levels, each of which represent a different type of space and are linked with one's identity. The surveytried to assess, at each level, the perceptions related to change in the role of elected representatives after their election.The discussion in subsequent paragraphs is built using the concept of 'space'12 (Figure 7.1).

Figure 7.1: Empowerment & Impact Parameters at Different Levels of ER's Environment

7.1.1 P7.1.1 P7.1.1 P7.1.1 P7.1.1 Perererererceivceivceivceivceived Eed Eed Eed Eed Enhancement in Snhancement in Snhancement in Snhancement in Snhancement in Self Esteem and Pelf Esteem and Pelf Esteem and Pelf Esteem and Pelf Esteem and Personal Eersonal Eersonal Eersonal Eersonal Effectivffectivffectivffectivffectivenessenessenessenesseness

The process of getting elected to institutions of local governance enhances one's self-esteem and steels the confidence,leading to heightened effectiveness. This transformation was studied in relation to both male and female representativesto facilitate a gender-based analysis. Three questions assessed the perceived change in image - 'Self-esteem', 'Respectwithin household' and 'Respect among the village community'. Personal effectiveness was assessed by capturing twoaspects - 'Change in self confidence' and 'Change in decision-making ability'.

As presented in Figure 7.2, a high proportion of elected representatives reported enhanced self-esteem (79%) andrespect within the household (67%). A sizeable 82 percent perceived improvement in the respect commanded frommembers of the village community. This was in line with the finding about the high proportion of respondents thatreceived recognition across various caste groups in the village (91%) and did not face conflict soon after being elected (asalready discussed in Chapter-4). Similarly, regarding personal effectiveness, the survey recorded significant improvementin perceived self-confidence (81%) and decision-making ability (74%).

11 Space is different from capability. The term ‘capability’ as used by Amartya Sen (1982) and developed by Martha Nussbaum (1995) signifiescharacteristics within human beings that are necessary for a human or a humane existence. Space, on the other hand allows a person to move,maneuver, and negotiate to develop capabilities.12 For detailed discussion of the use of ‘spaces’ as a concept to capture power and empowerment, see Deshmukh-Ranadive (2002).

131


Figure 7.2 Perception of ERs about their Image and Personal Effectiveness

A comparison by Position & Gender within the group that reported improvement in their self-image and greaterpersonal effectiveness has been presented in Table 7.1. It shows that the perception of enhanced self-image was higher inthe case of Pradhans and elected male representatives, in comparison to their respective counterparts across all the fourindicators.

TTTTTable 7.1: Pable 7.1: Pable 7.1: Pable 7.1: Pable 7.1: Perererererception of Iception of Iception of Iception of Iception of Imprmprmprmprmprooooovvvvvement in Iement in Iement in Iement in Iement in Image and Pmage and Pmage and Pmage and Pmage and Personal Eersonal Eersonal Eersonal Eersonal Effectivffectivffectivffectivffectiveness (%)eness (%)eness (%)eness (%)eness (%)

IIIIImprmprmprmprmprooooovvvvvementementementementement IIIIImprmprmprmprmprooooovvvvvementementementementement IIIIImprmprmprmprmprooooovvvvvementementementementement IIIIImprmprmprmprmprooooovvvvvementementementementement IIIIImprmprmprmprmprooooovvvvvementementementementement NNNNNin self-in self-in self-in self-in self- in rin rin rin rin respectespectespectespectespect in rin rin rin rin respectespectespectespectespect in self-in self-in self-in self-in self- in decisionin decisionin decisionin decisionin decisionesteemesteemesteemesteemesteem withinwithinwithinwithinwithin amongamongamongamongamong confidenceconfidenceconfidenceconfidenceconfidence making abilitymaking abilitymaking abilitymaking abilitymaking ability

householdhouseholdhouseholdhouseholdhousehold villagersvillagersvillagersvillagersvillagers


EWR 77.1 64.9 79.0 78.0 69.8 4,880

EMR 82.9 74.0 88.3 87.3 83.9 1,838


Pradhan- male 88.1 79.0 93.1 90.7 88.9 461

Pradhan- female 86.8 74.5 91.0 89.5 84.2 907

Total Pradhans 87.2 76.0 91.7 89.9 85.8 1,368

Ward Member-male 81.2 72.4 86.7 86.2 82.3 1,377

Ward Member-female 74.9 62.7 76.2 75.4 66.5 3,973


TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 78.778.778.778.778.7 67.467.467.467.467.4 81.581.581.581.581.5 80.680.680.680.680.6 73.773.773.773.773.7 67186718671867186718

7.1.27.1.27.1.27.1.27.1.2 PPPPPerererererceivceivceivceivceived Change in ed Change in ed Change in ed Change in ed Change in VVVVVoice in HH Doice in HH Doice in HH Doice in HH Doice in HH Decisions After Becisions After Becisions After Becisions After Becisions After Being Eeing Eeing Eeing Eeing Electedlectedlectedlectedlected

At the household level, the elected representatives' perceptions regarding changes in their role in decision-making onvarious household matters was also studied.

132


Table 7.2 shows that post-election; they began to take more decisions related to economic matters such as small or largehousehold purchases. Where seeking their opinions before making small purchases (67 percent before election) andlarge purchases (60 percent before election) is concerned, it was seen to have increased in the post-election period to 71percent and 66 percent respectively. Similar increase was seen with the proportion that reported that their opinions arenow considered about where a family member should be taken for treatment for minor or major illnesses. Rural womenordinarily face restrictions related to their mobility, for which they have traditionally required permission. The surveyshows that after getting elected, the need for them to seek permission before going out of the home, speaking tounrelated persons and attending social gatherings had declined.

TTTTTable 7.2: Pable 7.2: Pable 7.2: Pable 7.2: Pable 7.2: Prrrrroporoporoporoporoportion that Ption that Ption that Ption that Ption that Perererererceivceivceivceivceived Change in ed Change in ed Change in ed Change in ed Change in VVVVVoice in HH Doice in HH Doice in HH Doice in HH Doice in HH Decisions After Becisions After Becisions After Becisions After Becisions After Being Eeing Eeing Eeing Eeing Elected (%)lected (%)lected (%)lected (%)lected (%)

AspectsAspectsAspectsAspectsAspects BBBBBeforeforeforeforefore being electede being electede being electede being electede being elected After being electedAfter being electedAfter being electedAfter being electedAfter being elected NNNNN

PPPPPradhansradhansradhansradhansradhans WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers PPPPPradhansradhansradhansradhansradhans WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers

Making small purchases 69.0 67.0 74.9 70.4 4,880

Making large purchases 63.7 59.6 72.1 64.8 4,880

Place of treatment for minor illness 70.3 65.7 75.6 69.6 4,880

Place of treatment for major illness 68.1 64.0 73.6 68.1 4,880

PPPPPermission not neededermission not neededermission not neededermission not neededermission not needed

To go out from home 53.6 60.5 35.1 48.5 4,880

To speak to unrelated person 32.1 36.4 20.1 28.5 4,880

To attend social gathering 43.8 51.4 28.4 41.0 4,880

7.1.37.1.37.1.37.1.37.1.3 PPPPPerererererception of Change at the Pception of Change at the Pception of Change at the Pception of Change at the Pception of Change at the Panchayat Levanchayat Levanchayat Levanchayat Levanchayat Levelelelelel

The external environment beyond the domain of the household forms the next level of environment or space impactingthe performance of the elected representative. This space is further bifurcated into space related specifically to theprofessional aspect, and, the space where interaction with the community at large takes place. The community representsthe socio-cultural space where increase in recognition and support from different caste groups after election may indicatepositive impact and even empowerment. The same holds true for professional space also. To assess the impact of theelected representative with reference to this space, perceptions about change in the kind of recognition and supportreceived from officials as well as the community was also captured by the survey.

The responsiveness of the Block Panchayat and agencies of local government towards concerns raised by Pradhansreflect a positive impact. Almost three-fifths of the elected representatives interviewed said that the Block Panchayatstake into account 'a lot' of the concerns voiced by them. About 64 percent reported heightened response from localgovernment functionaries towards issues raised by them (Table 7.3).

TTTTTable 7.3: Rable 7.3: Rable 7.3: Rable 7.3: Rable 7.3: Responsivesponsivesponsivesponsivesponsiveness of Beness of Beness of Beness of Beness of Block Plock Plock Plock Plock Panchayat and Local Ganchayat and Local Ganchayat and Local Ganchayat and Local Ganchayat and Local Gooooovvvvvernment to Concerns Raised (%)ernment to Concerns Raised (%)ernment to Concerns Raised (%)ernment to Concerns Raised (%)ernment to Concerns Raised (%)

EEEEExtent to which block panchayat takes into account concerns vxtent to which block panchayat takes into account concerns vxtent to which block panchayat takes into account concerns vxtent to which block panchayat takes into account concerns vxtent to which block panchayat takes into account concerns voiced boiced boiced boiced boiced by Py Py Py Py Pradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan

A lotA lotA lotA lotA lot A littleA littleA littleA littleA little NNNNNot at allot at allot at allot at allot at all NNNNN

Female Pradhan 60.1 33.1 6.8 907

Male Pradhan 59.4 36.2 4.3 461

Total Pradhans 59.9 34.1 6.0 1,368

Change in attention frChange in attention frChange in attention frChange in attention frChange in attention from local goom local goom local goom local goom local govvvvvernment to Pernment to Pernment to Pernment to Pernment to Pradhan's issues after being electedradhan's issues after being electedradhan's issues after being electedradhan's issues after being electedradhan's issues after being elected

MMMMMorororororeeeee AAAAAbout the samebout the samebout the samebout the samebout the same LessLessLessLessLess NNNNN


Male Pradhan 62.9 30.8 6.3 461

Total Pradhans 63.8 30.2 6.0 1,368

133


In Bihar, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Assam, less than 50 percent of the female Pradhans report that theIntermediate Panchayat is responsive to their concerns. However, it is notable there is no significant difference betweenthe perceptions of female Pradhans and male Pradhans in these states.

TTTTTable 7.4: Rable 7.4: Rable 7.4: Rable 7.4: Rable 7.4: Responsivesponsivesponsivesponsivesponsiveness of Beness of Beness of Beness of Beness of Block Plock Plock Plock Plock Panchayat to Concerns Raised banchayat to Concerns Raised banchayat to Concerns Raised banchayat to Concerns Raised banchayat to Concerns Raised by Py Py Py Py Pradhans, bradhans, bradhans, bradhans, bradhans, by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


A lotA lotA lotA lotA lot A littleA littleA littleA littleA little NNNNNot at allot at allot at allot at allot at all NNNNN A lotA lotA lotA lotA lot A littleA littleA littleA littleA little NNNNNot at allot at allot at allot at allot at all NNNNN


Andhra Pradesh 57.8 29.7 12.5 64 65.6 34.4 0.0 32

Karnataka 93.8 6.3 0.0 32 18.8 81.3 0.0 16

Tamil Nadu 65.6 25.0 9.4 32 75.0 25.0 0.0 16

Kerala 75.0 25.0 0.0 32 68.8 25.0 6.3 16


Assam 50.0 46.9 3.1 32 62.5 37.5 0.0 16

Manipur 81.3 6.3 12.5 16 12.5 87.5 0.0 8

Sikkim 90.9 0.0 9.1 11 92.3 7.7 0.0 13

Tripura 68.8 31.3 0.0 16 100.0 0.0 0.0 8

West Bengal 65.6 29.7 4.7 64 71.9 21.9 6.3 32

Orissa 68.8 31.3 0.0 32 100.0 0.0 0.0 16

Bihar 37.5 48.4 14.1 64 34.4 59.4 6.3 32

Madhya Pradesh 48.4 45.3 6.3 64 62.5 37.5 0.0 32

Chhattisgarh 62.5 34.4 3.1 32 68.8 31.3 0.0 16

Gujarat 84.8 12.1 3.0 33 73.3 20.0 6.7 15

Maharashtra 64.1 32.8 3.1 64 71.9 28.1 0.0 32

Rajasthan 62.5 31.3 6.3 64 59.4 34.4 6.3 32

Haryana 62.5 34.4 3.1 32 68.8 25.0 6.3 16

Punjab 51.5 42.4 6.1 33 40.0 53.3 6.7 15

Uttar Pradesh 42.6 42.6 14.9 94 42.0 44.0 14.0 50

Uttarakhand 42.4 42.4 15.2 33 40.0 60.0 0.0 15


Goa 73.3 20.0 6.7 15 44.4 33.3 22.2 9

“The elected representatives have now become more active…they take active part in all Panchayat activities, execute theirresponsibilities and also show eagerness in all Panchayat activities…due to this the level of women participation hasimproved substantially. The EWR do not lag behind EMR in any way, they perform equally well…” – BDO, KhwaiWest Tripura

134


As far as the responsiveness of the Block Panchayat to concerns raised by the Pradhan is concerned, about 64 percent ofthe women Pradhans agree that more attention is paid to them when they take some local issue to the officials. Again,there is no significant difference from the responses of the male Pradhans (63%). The pattern, by state, is not verydifferent as far as the responsiveness of Intermediate Panchayat to concerns raised by male and female Pradhans isconcerned (Table 7.5).

TTTTTable 7.5: Change in Aable 7.5: Change in Aable 7.5: Change in Aable 7.5: Change in Aable 7.5: Change in Attention of Local Gttention of Local Gttention of Local Gttention of Local Gttention of Local Gooooovvvvvernment to Local Iernment to Local Iernment to Local Iernment to Local Iernment to Local Issues Raised bssues Raised bssues Raised bssues Raised bssues Raised by Py Py Py Py Pradhan - bradhan - bradhan - bradhan - bradhan - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


MMMMMorororororeeeee AAAAAbout thebout thebout thebout thebout the LessLessLessLessLess NNNNN MMMMMorororororeeeee AAAAAbout thebout thebout thebout thebout the LessLessLessLessLess NNNNNSSSSSameameameameame SSSSSameameameameame


Andhra Pradesh 43.8 39.1 17.2 64 65.6 18.8 15.6 32

Karnataka 84.4 12.5 3.1 32 25.0 75.0 0.00 16

Tamil Nadu 56.3 21.9 21.9 32 62.5 25.0 12.5 16

Kerala 90.6 9.4 0.0 32 93.8 6.3 0.0 16


Assam 53.1 43.8 3.1 32 56.3 43.8 0.00 16

Manipur 75.0 18.8 6.3 16 12.5 75.0 12.5 8

Sikkim 72.7 27.3 0.0 11 76.9 23.1 0.00 13

Tripura 100.0 0.0 0.0 16 100.0 0.0 0.00 8

West Bengal 84.4 14.1 1.6 64 90.6 9.4 0.00 32

Orissa 75.0 18.8 6.3 32 100.0 0.0 0.00 16

Bihar 64.1 25.0 10.9 64 56.3 31.3 12.5 32

Madhya Pradesh 60.9 34.4 4.7 64 68.8 31.3 0.00 32

Chhattisgarh 68.8 31.3 0.0 32 56.3 37.5 6.3 16

Gujarat 51.5 48.5 0.0 33 46.7 46.7 6.7 15

Maharashtra 67.2 28.1 4.7 64 75.0 21.9 3.1 32

Rajasthan 64.1 26.6 9.4 64 62.5 31.3 6.3 32

Haryana 46.9 46.9 6.3 32 56.3 43.8 0.0 16

Punjab 54.5 45.5 0.0 33 40.0 53.3 6.7 15

Uttar Pradesh 57.4 35.1 7.4 94 54.0 32.0 14.0 50

Uttarakhand 51.5 45.5 3.0 33 66.7 33.3 0.0 15


Goa 73.3 26.7 0.0 15 55.6 33.3 11.1 9

Women representatives were asked about instances of gender-based discrimination in the panchayat. A good 60 percentsaid they never faced it, and did not feel ignored because they were women. As Table 7.6 shows, the proportion of WardMembers who faced discrimination was higher as compared to Pradhans.

135


TTTTTable 7.6: Iable 7.6: Iable 7.6: Iable 7.6: Iable 7.6: Instances when Enstances when Enstances when Enstances when Enstances when EWRs felt ignorWRs felt ignorWRs felt ignorWRs felt ignorWRs felt ignored in Ped in Ped in Ped in Ped in Panchayat because of Banchayat because of Banchayat because of Banchayat because of Banchayat because of Being a eing a eing a eing a eing a WWWWWoman (%)oman (%)oman (%)oman (%)oman (%)

OOOOOftenftenftenftenften SSSSSometimesometimesometimesometimesometimes NNNNNevevevevevererererer NNNNN



Female Ward Members 8.9 34.0 57.2 3,973

TTTTTotal Eotal Eotal Eotal Eotal EWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs 8.58.58.58.58.5 31.631.631.631.631.6 59.959.959.959.959.9 4,8804,8804,8804,8804,880

In Uttarakhand, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Rajasthan and Bihar, more than 10 percent of female Pradhansreported that they often felt ignored in the panchayat owing to their gender. Over 10 percent of female Ward Members- in Karnataka (17%), Uttar Pradesh (16%), Tamil Nadu (15%), Sikkim (14%) and Rajasthan (13%) - reported facinggender-based discrimination often.

In Sikkim, Chhattisgarh and Himachal Pradesh, more than 90 percent of women Pradhans reported never facing anygender-based discrimination in the panchayats. In Sikkim, Kerala and Himachal Pradesh, more than 80% of womenward representatives reported they never faced gender-based discrimination (Table 7.7).

TTTTTable 7.7: Iable 7.7: Iable 7.7: Iable 7.7: Iable 7.7: Instances when Enstances when Enstances when Enstances when Enstances when EWRs felt IWRs felt IWRs felt IWRs felt IWRs felt Ignorgnorgnorgnorgnored in Ped in Ped in Ped in Ped in Panchayat because of Banchayat because of Banchayat because of Banchayat because of Banchayat because of Being a eing a eing a eing a eing a WWWWWoman - boman - boman - boman - boman - by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)


OOOOOftenftenftenftenften SSSSSomeomeomeomeome NNNNNevevevevevererererer NNNNN OOOOOftenftenftenftenften SSSSSomeomeomeomeome NNNNNevevevevevererererer NNNNNtimestimestimestimestimes timestimestimestimestimes

All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 6.86.86.86.86.8 21.221.221.221.221.2 72.072.072.072.072.0 907907907907907 8.98.98.98.98.9 34.034.034.034.034.0 57.257.257.257.257.2 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973

Andhra Pradesh 7.8 23.4 68.8 64 3.2 35.0 61.8 283

Karnataka 12.5 78.1 9.4 32 16.7 43.1 40.3 144

Tamil Nadu 12.5 18.8 68.8 32 14.6 29.2 56.3 144

Kerala 9.4 9.4 81.3 32 9.1 10.5 80.4 143


Assam 9.4 12.5 78.1 32 6.3 31.9 61.8 144

Manipur 0.0 62.5 37.5 16 2.8 71.8 25.4 71

Sikkim 0.0 0.0 100.0 11 14.3 2.4 83.3 42

Tripura 0.0 31.3 68.8 16 5.6 19.7 74.6 71

West Bengal 6.3 9.4 84.4 64 6.1 15.4 78.6 280

Orissa 9.4 6.3 84.4 32 7.6 27.6 64.8 145

Bihar 10.9 17.2 71.9 64 16.0 35.5 48.4 287

Madhya Pradesh 0.0 18.8 81.3 64 6.6 53.6 39.8 289

Chhattisgarh 0.0 6.3 93.8 32 7.0 32.9 60.1 143

Gujarat 0.0 45.5 54.5 33 7.6 64.1 28.2 131

Maharashtra 7.8 23.4 68.8 64 6.5 23.4 70.1 278

Rajasthan 10.9 20.3 68.8 64 12.9 39.9 47.2 286

Haryana 9.4 21.9 68.8 32 7.7 58.7 33.6 143

Punjab 12.1 18.2 69.7 33 4.5 47.8 47.8 134

Uttar Pradesh 2.1 18.1 79.8 94 15.5 25.7 58.8 432

Uttarakhand 15.2 9.1 75.8 33 3.2 32.8 64.0 125


Goa 13.3 0.0 86.7 15 1.7 3.3 95.0 60

136


Getting recognition from other panchayat members for the efforts made by elected representatives was reported in 64percent cases. There was not much difference on this aspect between Pradhans and Ward Members, though, surprisingly,there was some difference by gender. A higher proportion of female representatives reported getting recognition ascompared to their male counterparts (Table 7.8).

TTTTTable 7.8: Rable 7.8: Rable 7.8: Rable 7.8: Rable 7.8: Recognition becognition becognition becognition becognition by Oy Oy Oy Oy Other Pther Pther Pther Pther Panchayat Manchayat Manchayat Manchayat Manchayat Members of Eembers of Eembers of Eembers of Eembers of Efforfforfforfforfforts Mts Mts Mts Mts Made bade bade bade bade by ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)y ERs (%)



EWR 65.4 34.6 4,880

EMR 58.7 41.3 1,824







Total Ward Members 63.9 36.1 5336

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 63.6 36.4 5336

Barring Kerala, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, UP and Goa, female Pradhans in the other states reported higherrecognition of their efforts by the other Panchayat Members. Female Ward Members also reported receiving recognitionfor their efforts in higher proportions than their male counterparts, except in Maharashtra and Orissa where male WardMembers received recognition in greater proportion. However, in this group, the difference is significant only in ArunachalPradesh (Table 7.9).

TTTTTable 7.9: Rable 7.9: Rable 7.9: Rable 7.9: Rable 7.9: Recognition becognition becognition becognition becognition by Oy Oy Oy Oy Other Pther Pther Pther Pther Panchayat Manchayat Manchayat Manchayat Manchayat Members of ERs' Eembers of ERs' Eembers of ERs' Eembers of ERs' Eembers of ERs' Efforfforfforfforfforts- bts- bts- bts- bts- by Sy Sy Sy Sy State (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)tate (%)

FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale FFFFFemale emale emale emale emale WWWWWarararararddddd MMMMMale ale ale ale ale WWWWWararararardddddPPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan MMMMMembersembersembersembersembers MMMMMembersembersembersembersembers


All IAll IAll IAll IAll Indiandiandiandiandia 65.565.565.565.565.5 907907907907907 56.056.056.056.056.0 461461461461461 65.365.365.365.365.3 3,9733,9733,9733,9733,973 59.659.659.659.659.6 1,3631,3631,3631,3631,363

Andhra Pradesh 89.1 64 84.4 32 79.9 283 82.7 98

Karnataka 100.0 32 31.3 16 84.7 144 68.8 48

Tamil Nadu 100.0 32 93.8 16 91.7 144 91.7 48

Kerala 96.9 32 100.0 16 90.9 143 89.8 49


Assam 96.9 32 100.0 16 90.3 144 91.7 48

Manipur 100.0 16 25.0 8 95.8 71 95.8 24

Sikkim 100.0 11 84.6 13 81.0 42 91.7 24

Tripura 100.0 16 87.5 8 95.8 71 88.0 25

West Bengal 96.9 64 96.9 32 87.9 280 91.8 98

Orissa 93.8 32 100.0 16 84.1 145 87.0 46

Bihar 42.2 64 31.3 32 55.7 287 48.5 97

Madhya Pradesh 25.0 64 9.4 32 56.4 289 28.9 90

Chhattisgarh 15.6 32 25.0 16 37.8 143 22.4 49

137



FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale FFFFFemale emale emale emale emale WWWWWarararararddddd MMMMMale ale ale ale ale WWWWWararararardddddPPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan MMMMMembersembersembersembersembers MMMMMembersembersembersembersembers


Gujarat 97.0 33 86.7 15 87.8 131 83.0 47

Maharashtra 93.8 64 96.9 32 84.9 278 87.5 96

Rajasthan 57.8 64 28.1 32 45.8 286 31.6 95

Haryana 34.4 32 31.3 16 54.5 143 34.0 47

Punjab 63.6 33 40.0 15 71.6 134 39.1 46

Uttar Pradesh 20.2 94 26.0 50 27.3 432 22.9 144

Uttarakhand 39.4 33 20.0 15 40.0 125 40.0 50


Goa 73.3 15 77.8 9 58.3 60 45.8 24

The level of acceptance of elected representatives and their voice in Gram Panchayat meetings was also assessed. Asalready discussed in Chapter 5, a sizeable proportion (95%) claimed that they could freely raise issues during GramSabha meetings and only 19 percent felt that their views were not considered by panchayat/Gram Sabha.

An analysis by Position & Gender shows that the ability to raise issues freely during Gram Sabha meetings was slightlyhigher in the case of Pradhans and male representatives than their respective counterparts. Similarly, a lower proportionof Pradhans and male representatives felt that their views were not considered. The inter-state variations are not significantin this respect, obviously due to the small base of respondents (Table 7.10).

TTTTTable 7.10: Aable 7.10: Aable 7.10: Aable 7.10: Aable 7.10: Acceptability in Gcceptability in Gcceptability in Gcceptability in Gcceptability in Gram Pram Pram Pram Pram Panchayat Manchayat Manchayat Manchayat Manchayat Meetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)eetings (%)

AspectsAspectsAspectsAspectsAspects BBBBBy Py Py Py Py Positionositionositionositionosition BBBBBy Gy Gy Gy Gy Genderenderenderenderender

PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers EEEEEWRWRWRWRWR EMREMREMREMREMR TTTTTotal ERsotal ERsotal ERsotal ERsotal ERs

n=1201n=1201n=1201n=1201n=1201 n-3823n-3823n-3823n-3823n-3823 n=3465n=3465n=3465n=3465n=3465 n=1559n=1559n=1559n=1559n=1559 n=5024n=5024n=5024n=5024n=5024

Able to raise issue freely during Gram 96.5 94.6 94.1 97.2 95.1Panchayat meeting

Instances when views were not considered 13.1 21.1 20.3 16.7 19.1by panchayat/ Gram Sabha

There were 899 elected representatives in our sample who served more than one term. They were interviewed to ascertaintheir perceptions on certain parameters, which could change over time with regard to interaction with line departmentsand parallel bodies. These are important agencies influencing the developmental capacity of the Gram Panchayat.Striking a synergy demands interaction between panchayat representatives and parallel bodies. This also results in avoidanceof conflicts and duplication.

As reported by around two-third of these elected representatives, the interaction with line departments and parallelbodies has increased and improved over time (Table 7.11).

TTTTTable 7.11 : Change in Iable 7.11 : Change in Iable 7.11 : Change in Iable 7.11 : Change in Iable 7.11 : Change in Interaction with Line Dnteraction with Line Dnteraction with Line Dnteraction with Line Dnteraction with Line Depareparepareparepartments & Ptments & Ptments & Ptments & Ptments & Parallel Bodies Ovarallel Bodies Ovarallel Bodies Ovarallel Bodies Ovarallel Bodies Over Per Per Per Per Period of eriod of eriod of eriod of eriod of TTTTTime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)ime (%)

HHHHHas Ias Ias Ias Ias Incrncrncrncrncreasedeasedeasedeasedeased NNNNNo Changeo Changeo Changeo Changeo Change HHHHHas Das Das Das Das Decrecrecrecrecreasedeasedeasedeasedeased NNNNN

Interaction with line departments of the ER 67.0 29.8 3.2 899

Interaction with parallel bodies of the ER 67.5 29.0 3.4 899

138


The analysis by Position & Gender shows that the increase in interaction with line departments and parallel bodies wasmuch higher in the case of Pradhans (80-82%) than Ward Members (60-61%), and among elected male representatives(72-75%) in comparison to the women (60-64%). Lower levels of interaction with line departments are largely explainedby the fact that it is usually the Pradhan or male representatives who remain in regular contact with the external bodiesand tend to play a more dominant representational role. The state variations do not appear to be significant, possiblydue to the small base of respondents (Table 7.12).

TTTTTable 7.12: Iable 7.12: Iable 7.12: Iable 7.12: Iable 7.12: Incrncrncrncrncrease in Iease in Iease in Iease in Iease in Interaction with Line Dnteraction with Line Dnteraction with Line Dnteraction with Line Dnteraction with Line Depareparepareparepartments & Ptments & Ptments & Ptments & Ptments & Parallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)arallel Bodies (%)

AspectsAspectsAspectsAspectsAspects IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease in interactionease in interactionease in interactionease in interactionease in interaction IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease in interactionease in interactionease in interactionease in interactionease in interaction TTTTTotal (N)otal (N)otal (N)otal (N)otal (N)with line deparwith line deparwith line deparwith line deparwith line departmentstmentstmentstmentstments with parallel bodieswith parallel bodieswith parallel bodieswith parallel bodieswith parallel bodies


EWR 59.8 64.0 478

EMR 75.1 71.5 421


Pradhan-male 83.9 82.0 161

Pradhan-female 79.9 78.4 134

Total Pradhan 82 80.3 295



Total Ward Members 59.6 61.3 604

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 67.067.067.067.067.0 67.567.567.567.567.5 899899899899899

Peer support to fulfill the designated roles and responsibilities is an organisational truism without which any personwould be unable to perform. Thus, elected representatives who had served more than one term were also asked whethertheir acceptability among colleagues had changed over time. An increase in this acceptability was reported by as many as76 percent. It was higher in case of Pradhans (83%) and male representatives (81%) than Ward Members (73%) andwomen representatives (72%), respectively (Table 7.13). The variations across states are, again, not significant.

TTTTTable 7.13: Change in Aable 7.13: Change in Aable 7.13: Change in Aable 7.13: Change in Aable 7.13: Change in Acceptability among Colleagues (%)cceptability among Colleagues (%)cceptability among Colleagues (%)cceptability among Colleagues (%)cceptability among Colleagues (%)



EWR 72.0 26.8 1.3 478

EMR 80.5 17.8 1.7 421


Pradhan- male 82.6 17.4 0.0 161

Pradhan- female 82.8 16.4 0.7 134

Total Pradhans 82.7 16.9 0.3 295





139


7.1.4 P7.1.4 P7.1.4 P7.1.4 P7.1.4 Perererererception of Change at Community Levception of Change at Community Levception of Change at Community Levception of Change at Community Levception of Change at Community Levelelelelel

Part of the objective of the entire process of empowering women through Panchayati Raj was to broaden the focus ofdevelopment to include issues that directly concern women. To assess the constructive efforts undertaken by electedrepresentatives for the development of the village community, their perceptions on various indicators was captured.These were sometimes triangulated with the perceptions of community members in order to derive a more authenticand complete picture, complete with information/feedback given by the elected representatives (providers) and receivers(community).

The initiatives taken by elected representatives at the community level involve providing an enabling environment forordinary citizens, especially women, both within and outside the household environment. As discussed earlier, thesurvey had ascertained the need for permission for certain household issues from elected women representatives. Thiswas also done by interviewing women in the household survey, to gauge whether women's representation also impliedpositive changes for the women of the village community.

The majority (61%) of the village women interviewed said they needed permission to leave their homes to attend totheir duties. About half (53%) sought permission to attend social gatherings and 33-38 percent said they needed permissionto speak to unrelated persons and for sending their daughters to school. The responses of women in wards representedby women were not significantly different (Table 7.14).

TTTTTable 7.14: able 7.14: able 7.14: able 7.14: able 7.14: WWWWWomen in the omen in the omen in the omen in the omen in the VVVVVillage Community Nillage Community Nillage Community Nillage Community Nillage Community Needing Peeding Peeding Peeding Peeding Permission at the Hermission at the Hermission at the Hermission at the Hermission at the Household Levousehold Levousehold Levousehold Levousehold Level (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)el (%)

AspectsAspectsAspectsAspectsAspects HH under EHH under EHH under EHH under EHH under EWRWRWRWRWR HH under EMRHH under EMRHH under EMRHH under EMRHH under EMR TTTTTotal ERsotal ERsotal ERsotal ERsotal ERs

n=14,407n=14,407n=14,407n=14,407n=14,407 n=5,406n=5,406n=5,406n=5,406n=5,406 N=19,813N=19,813N=19,813N=19,813N=19,813

Permission needed to go out from home 61.5 60.2 61.2

Permission needed to attend social gathering 53.1 51.9 52.8

Permission needed to speak to unrelated person 38.0 36.6 37.6

Permission needed to send girl child to school 33.1 31.3 32.6

Panchayati Raj was intended to encourage the participation of ordinary women citizens. One of the tasks expected of aneffective elected representative was to encourage these women to attend and participate in Gram Sabha meetings. Toassess the change in the involvement of women on the functioning of the panchayats, representatives who had beenelected for more than one term were queried about their views on the changes over time.

As reported by 74-78 percent of elected representatives, not only had the attendance of women in the Gram Sabhaincreased, the frequency of their raising issues has also gone up. The attention drawn by women towards issues of'women & children' and 'sanitation' has also, reportedly, increased (68-69%). A high proportion of elected representatives(75%) reported an increase in political awareness of ordinary women citizens of the village (Table 7.15).

TTTTTable 7.15: ERs' Pable 7.15: ERs' Pable 7.15: ERs' Pable 7.15: ERs' Pable 7.15: ERs' Perererererception of Change in the Pception of Change in the Pception of Change in the Pception of Change in the Pception of Change in the Parararararticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of WWWWWomen in the omen in the omen in the omen in the omen in the VVVVVillage (%)illage (%)illage (%)illage (%)illage (%)

HHHHHasasasasas NNNNNooooo HHHHHasasasasas NNNNNoooooIIIIIncrncrncrncrncreasedeasedeasedeasedeased ChangeChangeChangeChangeChange DDDDDecrecrecrecrecreasedeasedeasedeasedeased ChangeChangeChangeChangeChange

Attendance of women in Gram Sabha 77.5 20.2 2.2 899

Raising of issues by women during Gram Sabha 73.5 24.1 2.3 899

Consideration towards issues raised by women in 73.5 24.6 1.9 899decision making

Attention drawn by women towards issues of 68.0 29.8 2.2 899women and children

Attention drawn by women towards issues of sanitation 69.0 28.6 2.4 899

Political awareness of women 75.0 23.1 1.9 899

140


Table 7.16 presents the elected representatives' perception (disaggregated by Position & Gender) of the participation ofwomen in the village. It shows that a greater proportion of Pradhans than Ward Members held the perception thatwomen's participation had increased across all indicators. This perception was also held by a larger proportion of electedmen than women.

TTTTTable 7.16: ERs' Pable 7.16: ERs' Pable 7.16: ERs' Pable 7.16: ERs' Pable 7.16: ERs' Perererererceptions of Iceptions of Iceptions of Iceptions of Iceptions of Incrncrncrncrncrease in Pease in Pease in Pease in Pease in Parararararticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of ticipation of WWWWWomen in the omen in the omen in the omen in the omen in the VVVVVillage (%)illage (%)illage (%)illage (%)illage (%)

IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease inease inease inease inease in IIIIIncrncrncrncrncreaseeaseeaseeaseease IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease inease inease inease inease in IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease inease inease inease inease in IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease inease inease inease inease in IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease inease inease inease inease in NNNNNattendanceattendanceattendanceattendanceattendance ininininin considerationconsiderationconsiderationconsiderationconsideration attentionattentionattentionattentionattention attentionattentionattentionattentionattention politicalpoliticalpoliticalpoliticalpoliticalof womenof womenof womenof womenof women raisingraisingraisingraisingraising tototototowarwarwarwarwardsdsdsdsds drawn bdrawn bdrawn bdrawn bdrawn byyyyy drawn bdrawn bdrawn bdrawn bdrawn byyyyy awarawarawarawarawarenessenessenessenessenessin Gin Gin Gin Gin Gramramramramram of issuesof issuesof issuesof issuesof issues issues raisedissues raisedissues raisedissues raisedissues raised womenwomenwomenwomenwomen womenwomenwomenwomenwomen of womenof womenof womenof womenof womenSSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha bbbbby womeny womeny womeny womeny women bbbbby women iny women iny women iny women iny women in tototototowarwarwarwarwardsdsdsdsds tototototowarwarwarwarwardsdsdsdsds

in Gin Gin Gin Gin Gramramramramram decisiondecisiondecisiondecisiondecision issues ofissues ofissues ofissues ofissues of issues ofissues ofissues ofissues ofissues ofSSSSSabhaabhaabhaabhaabha makingmakingmakingmakingmaking women andwomen andwomen andwomen andwomen and sanitationsanitationsanitationsanitationsanitation

childrchildrchildrchildrchildrenenenenen


EWR 76.4 70.5 69.7 66.1 67.6 72.8 478

EMR 78.9 76.7 77.9 70.1 70.5 77.4 421


Pradhan- male 83.2 80.1 81.4 68.9 70.8 75.8 161

Pradhan- female 83.6 79.9 82.1 77.6 77.6 83.6 134

Total Pradhans 83.4 80.0 81.7 72.9 73.9 79.3 295

Ward Member-male 76.2 74.6 75.8 70.8 70.4 78.5 260



TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 77.577.577.577.577.5 73.473.473.473.473.4 73.573.573.573.573.5 68.068.068.068.068.0 69.069.069.069.069.0 75.075.075.075.075.0 899899899899899

It is common knowledge that among the household chores performed by rural women are the tasks of fetching drinkingwater, collecting fodder and fuel wood and cooking. Women often walk long distances to fetch water, a process thatimpacts their daily lives in important ways. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that the provision of drinking water - theconsumption of which is by no means limited to women alone - is a significant indicator of the efforts made to reducethe burden on women. When questioned about development in the village, a large proportion of elected representatives(76%) mentioned an increase in the number of functional safe drinking water sources. This perception was held by alarger proportion of Pradhans and elected male representatives in comparison to their respective counterparts (Table7.17).

TTTTTable 7.17: ERs' Pable 7.17: ERs' Pable 7.17: ERs' Pable 7.17: ERs' Pable 7.17: ERs' Perererererceptions about Change in ceptions about Change in ceptions about Change in ceptions about Change in ceptions about Change in VVVVVillage Dillage Dillage Dillage Dillage Devevevevevelopment Aelopment Aelopment Aelopment Aelopment Activities (%)ctivities (%)ctivities (%)ctivities (%)ctivities (%)


Change in functional safe drinking water sources 75.9 21.7 2.4 899

Change in number of HH sanitary latrines 72.1 23.9 4.0 899

Change in enrolment of girls in primary schools 80.3 18.4 1.3 899

Apart from drinking water, the provision of sanitary latrines is an important amenity that has been promoted by givingsubsidies to individual households and incentives to the Gram Panchayats in the form of Nirmal Gram Puraskar.Overall, a high proportion of elected representatives (80%) claimed that the number of households with sanitary latrineshad gone up. This was significantly higher with Pradhans (83%) than Ward Members (67%) and among elected malerepresentatives (76%) than women (69%) (Table 7.18).

141


TTTTTable 7.18: ERs' Pable 7.18: ERs' Pable 7.18: ERs' Pable 7.18: ERs' Pable 7.18: ERs' Perererererception about Iception about Iception about Iception about Iception about Incrncrncrncrncrease in ease in ease in ease in ease in VVVVVillage Dillage Dillage Dillage Dillage Devevevevevelopment - belopment - belopment - belopment - belopment - by Py Py Py Py Position & Gosition & Gosition & Gosition & Gosition & Gender (%)ender (%)ender (%)ender (%)ender (%)

IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease in theease in theease in theease in theease in the IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease in theease in theease in theease in theease in the IIIIIncrncrncrncrncrease in prease in prease in prease in prease in proporoporoporoporoportion oftion oftion oftion oftion of NNNNNfunctional safe drinkingfunctional safe drinkingfunctional safe drinkingfunctional safe drinkingfunctional safe drinking number of HHnumber of HHnumber of HHnumber of HHnumber of HH enrenrenrenrenrolment of girls inolment of girls inolment of girls inolment of girls inolment of girls in

water sourwater sourwater sourwater sourwater sourcescescescesces sanitarsanitarsanitarsanitarsanitary latrinesy latrinesy latrinesy latrinesy latrines primarprimarprimarprimarprimary schoolsy schoolsy schoolsy schoolsy schools


EWR 72.8 28.0 78.5 478

EMR 79.3 19.2 82.4 421


Pradhan- male 82.0 14.9 83.2 161

Pradhan- female 80.6 14.2 85.8 134

Total Pradhans 81.4 14.6 84.4 295





With a highly skewed sex ratio and a lower proportion of girls being sent to schools due to attitudinal and infrastructuralreasons, girls' education is an important area which was expected to improve with more women in governance, many ofwhom may not have had the opportunity to go to school. Around four-fifths of the elected representatives who servedmultiple terms said that there was an increase in the proportion of girls getting enrolled in primary school. Again, thisperception was held by a higher proportion of Pradhans and elected male representatives than their respective counterparts(Table 7.18).

7.2 D7.2 D7.2 D7.2 D7.2 Devevevevevelopmental Ielopmental Ielopmental Ielopmental Ielopmental Initiativnitiativnitiativnitiativnitiatives taken bes taken bes taken bes taken bes taken by Ey Ey Ey Ey Elected Rlected Rlected Rlected Rlected Repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

Panchayats are partly viewed as sources of information on schemes and developmental efforts that may or may not beutilised by the village community. In the era of mass media there are many other sources of such information. Theawareness of people regarding the various development and poverty-reduction schemes is an indication of the effortstaken by the elected representatives in disseminating information.

7.2.1 ER's effor7.2.1 ER's effor7.2.1 ER's effor7.2.1 ER's effor7.2.1 ER's efforts for Dts for Dts for Dts for Dts for Devevevevevelopment Pelopment Pelopment Pelopment Pelopment Prrrrrogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammes

Elected representatives were queried about the roles played by them for providing civic amenities like streetlights,drinking water, etc. during their current term. Almost 72 percent of them reported being involved, and, among them,there was again a higher proportion of Pradhans (89%) as compared to Ward Members. There was also the familiarvariation between male (76%) and female representatives (70%) (Table 7.19).

When questioned about the types of amenities they helped provide, the majority of elected representatives mentioneddrinking water (86.4%), followed by road construction (74.3%) and sanitation (70%). The comparison between thepriorities of the male and female representatives must be noted: a higher proportion of women reported they helpedprovide street lights (61% as compared to 57% males), drinking water (87% to 85%), construction of bus shelters (33%to 25%). However, no significant differences were observed between the two gender groups with respect to services likeelectricity connections, construction of roads or sanitation (Table 7.20).

Other than these developmental issues, the survey sought to test whether the process of empowerment through PanchayatiRaj had helped in other areas like increasing female literacy levels or check incidents of domestic violence. The womenrepresentatives were questioned about their involvement in promoting school enrolment of girl children and their rolein reducing incidents of domestic violence. Almost 78 percent of female Pradhans reported making special efforts toencourage girls to go to school, in comparison to 59 percent of the female Ward Members.

142


TTTTTable 7.20 : Eable 7.20 : Eable 7.20 : Eable 7.20 : Eable 7.20 : EWRs' EWRs' EWRs' EWRs' EWRs' Efforfforfforfforfforts for Ets for Ets for Ets for Ets for Encouraging Gncouraging Gncouraging Gncouraging Gncouraging Girls' Eirls' Eirls' Eirls' Eirls' Enrnrnrnrnrolment & Molment & Molment & Molment & Molment & Mitigating Ditigating Ditigating Ditigating Ditigating Domestic omestic omestic omestic omestic VVVVViolenceiolenceiolenceiolenceiolence

EEEEEncouraging girls' enrncouraging girls' enrncouraging girls' enrncouraging girls' enrncouraging girls' enrolmentolmentolmentolmentolment MMMMMitigating domestic violenceitigating domestic violenceitigating domestic violenceitigating domestic violenceitigating domestic violence

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN YYYYYeseseseses NNNNNooooo NNNNNot rot rot rot rot requirequirequirequirequirededededed NNNNN

Pradhan- female 77.9 907 78.5 14.2 7.3 288

Ward Member-female 58.8 3,973 58.1 30.6 11.3 1,078

TTTTTotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected rotal elected repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses 62.462.462.462.462.4 4,8804,8804,8804,8804,880 62.462.462.462.462.4 27.227.227.227.227.2 10.510.510.510.510.5 1,3661,3661,3661,3661,366

The women representatives were also asked about incidents of domestic violence and whether they had taken steps toreduce it. While 62 percent of them who admitted of having come across these incidences said they had tried to reduceit, about 11 percent also said that intervention was not required. About to 79 percent of the Pradhans who had comeacross such cases reported making some effort as compared to 58 percent of the female Ward Members (Figure 7.3).

TTTTTable 7.19: ERs' Iable 7.19: ERs' Iable 7.19: ERs' Iable 7.19: ERs' Iable 7.19: ERs' Invnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement in the Pement in the Pement in the Pement in the Pement in the Prrrrrooooovision of Civic Amenities (%)vision of Civic Amenities (%)vision of Civic Amenities (%)vision of Civic Amenities (%)vision of Civic Amenities (%)

IIIIInvnvnvnvnvolvolvolvolvolvement inement inement inement inement in TTTTType of civic amenitiesype of civic amenitiesype of civic amenitiesype of civic amenitiesype of civic amenitiesprprprprprooooovision ofvision ofvision ofvision ofvision of

civic amenitiescivic amenitiescivic amenitiescivic amenitiescivic amenities

YYYYYeseseseses NNNNN SSSSStrtrtrtrtreeteeteeteeteet DDDDDrinkingrinkingrinkingrinkingrinking SSSSSanitationanitationanitationanitationanitation EEEEElectricitylectricitylectricitylectricitylectricity BBBBBususususus ConstrConstrConstrConstrConstructionuctionuctionuctionuction NNNNNlightinglightinglightinglightinglighting waterwaterwaterwaterwater connectionconnectionconnectionconnectionconnection sheltersheltersheltersheltershelter andandandandand

maintenancemaintenancemaintenancemaintenancemaintenanceof rof rof rof rof roadsoadsoadsoadsoads


EWR 70.3 4,880 61.1 87.1 69.6 59.5 32.9 73.7 3,430

EMR 76.1 1,824 57.0 84.6 69.5 59.1 24.9 75.9 1,388


Pradhan- male 93.1 461 59.9 85.8 77.6 69.9 30.1 79.0 429

Pradhan- female 87.0 907 60.2 90.9 78.5 65.4 26.0 70.7 789

Total Pradhans 89.0 1368 60.1 89.1 78.2 67.0 27.4 73.6 1,218

Ward Member-male 70.4 1363 55.7 84.0 65.9 54.2 22.5 74.6 959

Ward Member-female 66.5 3973 61.4 86.0 67.0 57.7 35.0 74.6 2,641

Total Ward Members 67.5 5336 59.9 85.4 66.7 56.8 31.7 74.6 3,600

TTTTTotal electedotal electedotal electedotal electedotal elected 71.971.971.971.971.9 53365336533653365336 59.959.959.959.959.9 86.486.486.486.486.4 69.669.669.669.669.6 59.459.459.459.459.4 30.630.630.630.630.6 74.374.374.374.374.3 4,8184,8184,8184,8184,818rrrrrepreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

Our ward representative is educated; she regularly interacts with us for enrolment of children in school. She also speakswith children…makes them understand the importance of going to school regularly by impressing them to take benefitextended by government through school Mid-Day-Meal and subsidized fees…”- FGD, Village Kandhwar, districtSidhi, Madhya Pradesh

“Panchayat members take regular initiatives to increase the school admission. The elected member visits us and requestsus to send the children to the school” – FGD, Nabala, Nadia district, West Bengal

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Figure 7.3: ERs' Efforts towards Mitigating Domestic Violence

7.2.2:7.2.2:7.2.2:7.2.2:7.2.2: Community's ACommunity's ACommunity's ACommunity's ACommunity's Awarwarwarwarwareness ofeness ofeness ofeness ofeness of, and S, and S, and S, and S, and Satisfaatisfaatisfaatisfaatisfaction with Dction with Dction with Dction with Dction with Devevevevevelopment Pelopment Pelopment Pelopment Pelopment Prrrrrogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammesogrammes

Awareness regarding some of the better-known schemes and programmes of the Government was ascertained from thehouseholds. It was interesting to observe the variations in awareness levels, both across schemes and across the gender ofthe ward representatives. Indira Aawas Yojana (IAY) seems to be the most popular of all schemes, with more than 75percent of the households aware of it. But less than 50 percent of households were aware of the Sampoorna GrameenRozgar Yojana (SGRY), Sampoorna Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) and even the National Rural Employment GuaranteeProgramme (NREGP) (Table 7.21).

Interestingly, when a comparison is made of the experience in wards held by women with those that elected men, it isfound that there prevails relatively lower level of awareness in the former. Except for awareness about the pensionscheme, there is a significant difference among the households in these two categories of wards.

“Our Pradhan helps to settle local level issues like domestic fights or issues related to agriculture, drains, lanes etc.However issues of a serious nature are sorted elsewhere as they fall outside the panchayats purview” – FGD,Noorpura, Amloh Fatehgarh, Punjab

“… the panchayat is playing vital role in resolving local conflicts. During panchayat meetings local conflicts arepresented, where panchayat gives opportunity to both the parties for presenting their views. After listening to thepoints of both the parties’ panchayat arrives at the decision which is considered appropriate by the people presentin the meeting. The Pradhan has also involved police for solving certain issues” – FGD, Malwani Village, Ashoknagar,Guna, Madhya Pradesh

“The panchayat plays an important role by diffusing local disputes, domestic disputes etc through efforts at consensusbuilding. On more serious issues it consults and refers the matters to the officials” – FGD, Haryana

144


TTTTTable 7.21: Community's Aable 7.21: Community's Aable 7.21: Community's Aable 7.21: Community's Aable 7.21: Community's Awarwarwarwarwareness Reness Reness Reness Reness Regaregaregaregaregarding Sding Sding Sding Sding Some Common Schemes (%)ome Common Schemes (%)ome Common Schemes (%)ome Common Schemes (%)ome Common Schemes (%)


IIIIIn En En En En EWR goWR goWR goWR goWR govvvvvernedernedernedernederned IIIIIn EMR gon EMR gon EMR gon EMR gon EMR govvvvvernedernedernedernedernedwarwarwarwarwardsdsdsdsds warwarwarwarwardsdsdsdsds

N=14638N=14638N=14638N=14638N=14638 N=5513N=5513N=5513N=5513N=5513

Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) 30.9 32.6

Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna (SGSY) 21.6 22.9

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sarak Yojana (PMGSY) 41.8 44.5

Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) 50.9 52.7

National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS) 80.5 79.8

National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (NREGP) 45.0 47.1

Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) 77.0 79.1

The overall perception regarding beneficiary selection presents a bleak picture. Less than 50 percent of therespondents are aware of all but the NREGP. They say that the selection of beneficiaries was done through a fairprocess. A significant difference was also noticed between the perceptions of households in wards represented bywomen and those represented by men, with a higher proportion of the latter perceiving the beneficiary selection tobe fair (Table 7.22).

TTTTTable 7.22: Community's Pable 7.22: Community's Pable 7.22: Community's Pable 7.22: Community's Pable 7.22: Community's Perererererception about Fception about Fception about Fception about Fception about Fairness of Bairness of Bairness of Bairness of Bairness of Beneficiareneficiareneficiareneficiareneficiary Sy Sy Sy Sy Selection (%)election (%)election (%)election (%)election (%)



Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) 42.9 (N=4518) 47.2 (N=1799)

Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna (SGSY) 42.5 (N=3169) 44.4 (N=1261)

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sarak Yojana (PMGSY) 36.6 (N=6119) 38.9 (N=2455)

Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) 46.8 (N=7458) 49.5 (N=2904)

National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS) 52.9 (N=11777) 55.8 (N=4397)

National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (NREGP) 53.4 (N=6591) 53.5 (N=2595)

Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) 46.0 (N=11270) 48.0 (N=4363)

Participatory planning and implementation at the micro-level has been at the forefront of the bottom-up approach toensure that stakeholders are aware of, and take ownership for, the decisions. More than 50 percent of the householdswhich were aware of the schemes reported average to high levels of satisfaction with all but the Pradhan Mantri GramSarak Yojana (PMGSY), where less than 50 percent of the households, regardless of whether they were in wards representedby men or women, reported average to good level of satisfaction. This is also reflected in the satisfaction with thetransparency in implementation of the various schemes, though here again the PMGSY scores below all other schemes(Table 7.23 & Table 7.24).

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TTTTTable 7.23: Community's Sable 7.23: Community's Sable 7.23: Community's Sable 7.23: Community's Sable 7.23: Community's Satisfaction with Iatisfaction with Iatisfaction with Iatisfaction with Iatisfaction with Implementation of mplementation of mplementation of mplementation of mplementation of VVVVVarious Schemes (%)arious Schemes (%)arious Schemes (%)arious Schemes (%)arious Schemes (%)


IIIIIn En En En En EWR goWR goWR goWR goWR govvvvverned warerned warerned warerned warerned wardsdsdsdsds IIIIIn EMR gon EMR gon EMR gon EMR gon EMR govvvvverned warerned warerned warerned warerned wardsdsdsdsds

GGGGGoodoodoodoodood AAAAAvvvvverageerageerageerageerage PPPPPoorooroorooroor NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot awareeeee GGGGGoodoodoodoodood AAAAAvvvvverageerageerageerageerage PPPPPoorooroorooroor NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot awareeeee

SGRY 28.7 24.7 16.5 30.1 30.3 26.6 16.3 26.8

SGSY 31.5 21.8 14.9 31.8 34.7 21.9 14.6 28.8

PMGSY 25.0 22.2 17.5 35.3 27.5 23.4 16.1 33.0

TSC 35.1 22.5 16.2 26.3 22.7 37.4 24.8 15.1

NOAPS 38.5 23.9 17.8 19.7 22.7 41.8 24.1 16.5

NREGP 40.2 21.4 13.7 24.7 17.6 41.2 20.1 13.5

IAY 32.0 24.3 20.5 23.2 25.1 34.5 24.6 19.9

TTTTTable 7.24: Community's Sable 7.24: Community's Sable 7.24: Community's Sable 7.24: Community's Sable 7.24: Community's Satisfaction with atisfaction with atisfaction with atisfaction with atisfaction with TTTTTransparransparransparransparransparency in Iency in Iency in Iency in Iency in Implementation (%)mplementation (%)mplementation (%)mplementation (%)mplementation (%)



GGGGGoodoodoodoodood AAAAAvvvvverageerageerageerageerage PPPPPoorooroorooroor NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot awareeeee GGGGGoodoodoodoodood AAAAAvvvvverageerageerageerageerage PPPPPoorooroorooroor NNNNNot awarot awarot awarot awarot awareeeee

SGRY 26.2 24.3 17.4 32.1 27.7 25.9 16.3 30.1

SGSY 31.0 21.0 14.6 33.4 33.8 20.9 14.4 30.9

PMGSY 23.1 21.2 17.3 38.4 25.3 21.6 16.4 36.8

TSC 31.6 22.1 17.2 29.1 25.7 33.8 25.1 15.4

NOAPS 36.0 24.1 17.7 22.1 25.7 38.8 23.7 17.6

NREGP 37.2 21.1 14.1 27.6 19.9 38.8 19.7 13.8

IAY 29.4 23.8 21.1 25.7 27.7 31.0 24.9 20.4

Among the households interviewed for each of the Ward Members, there were some households that benefitted fromone or more programmes. The largest proportion of these households had gained from NREGP, followed by the TotalSanitation Campaign. There are significant differences across the two categories of households in terms of the proportionof households that had benefited from some of the schemes. A larger proportion of households in wards represented bymen are reported to be deriving the benefits of more than one scheme, as compared to households located in wardsrepresented by women (Table 7.25).

TTTTTable 7.25: Hable 7.25: Hable 7.25: Hable 7.25: Hable 7.25: Households that havouseholds that havouseholds that havouseholds that havouseholds that have Be Be Be Be Benefited under enefited under enefited under enefited under enefited under VVVVVarious Schemes (%)arious Schemes (%)arious Schemes (%)arious Schemes (%)arious Schemes (%)



N=11270N=11270N=11270N=11270N=11270 N=4363N=4363N=4363N=4363N=4363

SGRY 11.8 11.7

SGSY 10.1 9.9

PMGSY 8.0 8.1

TSC 16.5 19.1

NOAPS 14.8 16.5

NREGP 28.6 29.2

IAY 10.3 11.7

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7.2.3 Community P7.2.3 Community P7.2.3 Community P7.2.3 Community P7.2.3 Community Perererererceptions of Sceptions of Sceptions of Sceptions of Sceptions of Social Iocial Iocial Iocial Iocial Initiativnitiativnitiativnitiativnitiatives bes bes bes bes by ERsy ERsy ERsy ERsy ERs

The Panchayats have a responsibility towards society to ensure that the interests of the weaker sections are taken care ofand social problems like untouchability, alcohol-abuse and dowry are discouraged. Across the randomly selectedhouseholds, women members were queried about these social problems and whether their own homes were affected byany of them.

Alcoholism emerged as a major problem, with about 40 percent of households reporting its existence. In almost 7percent of surveyed households, all three households in a ward selected as sample reported being affected by alcoholism.Similarly, about 12 percent of households were affected by gambling, 20 percent by dowry-related issues, 12 percent byuntouchability, 10 percent by preference for a male child and about 8 percent by child marriage.

There does not seem to be any pattern in the prevalence of social problems across types of representatives except withuntouchability -- a relatively smaller proportion of households represented by male representative reported being affectedby it (Table 7.26).

TTTTTable 7.26: Sable 7.26: Sable 7.26: Sable 7.26: Sable 7.26: Social Pocial Pocial Pocial Pocial Prrrrroblems Affecting Hoblems Affecting Hoblems Affecting Hoblems Affecting Hoblems Affecting Households (%)ouseholds (%)ouseholds (%)ouseholds (%)ouseholds (%)


N=4880N=4880N=4880N=4880N=4880 N=1838N=1838N=1838N=1838N=1838

NNNNNoneoneoneoneone 1 HH1 HH1 HH1 HH1 HH 2 HH2 HH2 HH2 HH2 HH All 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HH NNNNNoneoneoneoneone 1 HH1 HH1 HH1 HH1 HH 2 HH2 HH2 HH2 HH2 HH All 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHAll 3 HHconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmed confirmed confirmed confirmed confirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed confirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmedconfirmed

Alcoholism 60.8 21.5 10.3 7.4 62.2 20.5 9.5 7.8

Gambling 87.9 7.7 2.5 1.9 87.8 8.1 2.4 1.7

Dowry 79.8 10.2 5.5 4.5 80.4 10.7 5.3 3.7

Untouchability 87.8 8.4 2.6 1.1 90.0 7.1 2.0 0.8

Preference for male child 89.1 7.4 2.4 1.1 90.4 6.7 1.9 1.0

Child marriage 92.7 5.4 1.3 0.6 93.3 4.5 1.5 0.8

The data pertaining to households reporting that some action had been taken by their Ward Members to address thesesocial problems has been presented in Table 7.29. Among the social issues, the discouragement of child marriage emergedas one which attracted the highest (70-71%) rate of intervention by representatives intervene, followed by male childrenobsessions (44%). The problems of gambling and alcoholism were, reportedly, addressed by representatives in 40-41percent and 25-26 percent of wards respectively (Table 7.27).

TTTTTable 7.27 : Pable 7.27 : Pable 7.27 : Pable 7.27 : Pable 7.27 : Perererererception of ERs Iception of ERs Iception of ERs Iception of ERs Iception of ERs Internternternterntervvvvventions to Aentions to Aentions to Aentions to Aentions to Addrddrddrddrddress Sess Sess Sess Sess Social Pocial Pocial Pocial Pocial Prrrrroblems (%)oblems (%)oblems (%)oblems (%)oblems (%)



Alcoholism 25.2 1912 26.6 695

Gambling 39.9 591 41.1 224

Dowry 20.8 986 22.5 361

Untouchability 31.1 594 47.5 183

Preference for male child 43.5 533 44.1 17

Child marriage 70.6 354 71.8 124

The positive impact of entering politics and working as a Panchayati Raj functionary is evident from the fact that asizeable proportion perceived an enhancement in their self-esteem (79%), confidence (81%) and decision-making abilities(74%). Becoming a Pradhan or Ward Member augments respect within the family (67%) as well as in the communityat large (82%). This change is more perceptible with elected women representatives who also perceive an increased voicefor themselves in decisions related to important issues, including economic ones, in their family (66-71%).

147


Shri Mani Shanker Aiyar, Union Minister for Panchayati Raj, at Mahila Shakti Abhiyan, Kokrajhar, Mizoram

Beyond the household domain and into the professional environment, an increase in attention from local governmentofficials (64%) is discerned. A slightly larger proportion of female Pradhans reports responsiveness of block panchayat(60%) and recognition from other Panchayat Members (65%). While no gender discrimination in the panchayat isreported by 60 percent of women representatives, 94 percent mentioned that they were now more acceptable at panchayatmeetings, which enables them to raise issues freely. The supportive professional environment evidently motivated themto perform better, as 60-64 percent reported an increase in their interaction with line departments and parallel bodies.Even the participation of common women reported an increase (68-78%). A large proportion (72%) was activelyinvolved in providing civic amenities, while 62% made efforts to increase enrolment and mitigate domestic violence.However, the community's perception about fairness of beneficiary selection for different schemes and also itsimplementation was not very high.

BoBoBoBoBox 7.1: Case Sx 7.1: Case Sx 7.1: Case Sx 7.1: Case Sx 7.1: Case Studytudytudytudytudy

The female Pradhan in Kusumkhera Gram Panchayat, district Nainital, Uttarakhand is from a seat reserved for women.She is a young widow who is able to spend a lot of time in panchayat works. She proactively moves out in the communityto address any problem, and frequently interacts with officers from line departments, Block panchayat or Zila panchayat.She also enjoys a good rapport with other elected representatives of the village. Gram Sabha meetings are organized twicea year. The Pradhan, with the help of her Ward Members visits each house to mobilise the community women forattending the meeting. The community identifies her as their enthusiastic leader who makes frequent visits to schools tomonitor the mid-day meal programme and supervise the activities of the anganwadi centre. She is known for her domineeringpersonality, working on an equal footing with male representatives as she has also undertaken several civil works such asconstructions of drains, installation of handpumps, street lights. The villagers expressed their satisfaction regarding theselection of beneficiaries for various schemes/ programmes and their Pradhan’s knowledge about these schemes.

148


8.8.8.8.8. DETERMINANTDETERMINANTDETERMINANTDETERMINANTDETERMINANTS OF ELECTED REPRESENTS OF ELECTED REPRESENTS OF ELECTED REPRESENTS OF ELECTED REPRESENTS OF ELECTED REPRESENTAAAAATIVES’TIVES’TIVES’TIVES’TIVES’PPPPPERFORMANCEERFORMANCEERFORMANCEERFORMANCEERFORMANCE

It is of general interest to know whether those who received training after getting elected would do better than thosewho have not received any training in terms of playing their role as elected representatives and discharging their duties;whether an elected representative from a reserved constituency would perform differently from one elected from ageneral constituency; whether performance is determined by gender or other aspects of the socio-economic back groundof the elected representative; whether there exists any relationship between the duration of exposure as panchayatmember and performance. Thus, are those who have been panchayat members for, say, more than four years, likely toperform better than those who have been members for, say, less than one year? Among the elected women, are those whoreported empowerment as a result of becoming an elected representative likely to perform better than those who reportedless or no empowerment? Performance could thus be dependent on a number of independent variables. However, thesevariables could be correlated among themselves. Hence there is a need for regressing the performance variable on achosen set of independent variables to single out the impact of an independent variable in which we have an interest onthe performance variable, after controlling for other independent variables. Accordingly, this chapter identifies certaindeterminants of the performance of elected representatives through a multiple regression model applied separately forfemale pradhans, male pradhans, female ward member and male ward male member. While applying this technique,assumptions of linearity, homoscedasticity and independence have been made as far as the error terms/disturbance termsthat appear in the models. To begin with simple models are usually considered to get some idea on the various questionsraised above.

8.1 Constr8.1 Constr8.1 Constr8.1 Constr8.1 Construction of Duction of Duction of Duction of Duction of Dependent and Iependent and Iependent and Iependent and Iependent and Independent ndependent ndependent ndependent ndependent VVVVVariablesariablesariablesariablesariables

DDDDDependent ependent ependent ependent ependent VVVVVariable: ariable: ariable: ariable: ariable: In accordance with the foregoing discussion, performance would be a response/dependent variable.As such, all the respondents were asked a series of questions addressing various aspects of their performance or functioningas elected representatives. In the case of Pradhans, given their expected role, the range of questions was larger than thatof Ward Members (BoBoBoBoBox 8.1x 8.1x 8.1x 8.1x 8.1). Based on the responses to these questions, a "performance index" was constructed. Themethodology adopted to work out the index involved a couple of steps. Firstly, all the variables that relate to performancewere converted into binary variables, having only two options, i.e. "1" or "0". Secondly, the Principal ComponentAnalysis (PCA) technique was used to generate weights for the binary variables considered. The observed scores werenormalised and aggregated after applying the weights. The pooled score, so obtained, for each representative indicateshis/her performance level. This index was used as the dependent variable.

BoBoBoBoBox 8.1x 8.1x 8.1x 8.1x 8.1IIIIIndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Deveveveveveloping Peloping Peloping Peloping Peloping Perererererformance Iformance Iformance Iformance Iformance Indexndexndexndexndex

• Membership of standing committee• Involvement in community mobilization• Interaction with ANM• Monitoring of AWC• Monitoring of ANM• Participation in Health related Campaigns• Participation in Prevention of diseases• Participation in Family Welfare issues• Initiatives to increase enrolment• Initiatives to reduce dropouts• Monitoring of teachers attendance• Monitoring of PDS• Provision of civic amenities• Attending meeting of residents• Meeting with local politician• Assistance for implementation of schemes• Interaction with bureaucrats

149


IIIIIndependent vndependent vndependent vndependent vndependent variables: ariables: ariables: ariables: ariables: In line with the interests mentioned in the opening paragraph of this chapter, a number ofvariables have been considered. A description is provided of the construction and rationale of considering the variablesas either independent and/or as control variables.

The duration of membership in the Panchayat was included as an important variable to understand its relationship withthe performance of elected representatives. Also considered were: number of years' experience in political activitiespreceding election; family background in politics, and, type of training received. Age, education level, type of occupation,religion, caste, family structure, economic status, level of empowerment within the household and the communitybefore becoming representatives, or improvement in empowerment level after becoming an elected representative, thelevel of decision-making or improvement in decision-making ability within the household, etc. were also assumed tohave some influence on performance. The type of seat contested was included as an independent variable. Most of thevariables were converted into dichotomous variables. However, variables such as the index of empowerment and theindex of household status, which were based on a set of questions given in BoBoBoBoBoxxxxxes 8.2 es 8.2 es 8.2 es 8.2 es 8.2 and 8.38.38.38.38.3, were developed on thelines mentioned in the case of the performance index. The index values attached to the elected representatives are usedin the multivariate analyses. In the case of variables like education, caste, religion and occupation, which are categoricalvariables, each category was considered as a dummy/binary variable. In the case of these variables, the break-up of avariable into several category variables help us to recognise which category has a relatively greater and more significantinfluence on the performance variable compared to other categories. An example which makes this clearer is the educationlevel of respondents: The categories are: illiterate, up to primary school, up to middle school, and middle school andhigher. If a respondent is illiterate he/she has been assigned '1 'otherwise '0'. Similarly, if respondent is completed up toprimary school but not completed Class V he/she has been given '1' otherwise '0' and so on.

BoBoBoBoBox 8.2x 8.2x 8.2x 8.2x 8.2IIIIIndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Deveveveveveloping Eeloping Eeloping Eeloping Eeloping Empompompompompowwwwwerment Ierment Ierment Ierment Ierment Indexndexndexndexndex

• Need to take permission to go out from the home

• Permission required to speak to unrelated persons

• Permission required to attend a social gathering

• Say in sending girl child to school

BoBoBoBoBox 8.3x 8.3x 8.3x 8.3x 8.3IIIIIndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Dndicators for Deveveveveveloping Heloping Heloping Heloping Heloping Household Sousehold Sousehold Sousehold Sousehold Statustatustatustatustatus

• Change in social interaction after being elected

• Change in time devoted to looking after children

• Change in involvement of other HH membersin sharing HH responsibilities after being elected

• Change in involvement of other HH membersin looking after children after being elected

• Change in self esteem, self confidence, respectwithin HH, respect among villagers, etc.

8.2 M8.2 M8.2 M8.2 M8.2 Mean and Sean and Sean and Sean and Sean and Standartandartandartandartandard Dd Dd Dd Dd Deviation of the eviation of the eviation of the eviation of the eviation of the VVVVVariablesariablesariablesariablesariables

Before conducting correlation and regression analyses, it is important to examine the distribution of these variables asindicated by their mean and standard deviations of the observed values in the data (Table 8.1).

The mean values of performance index were higher in case of male representatives than those of female representatives,both among Pradhans and Ward Members. A scan of the standard deviation for different respondent categories indicatesthat variation in the performance as measured by the performance index was the largest among female Pradhans, followedby male Pradhans, male Ward Members, the least being among female Ward Members. However, the relative standarderror of the performance index was the highest among the Ward Members compared to Pradhans. In fact, it was thelowest in the case of male Pradhans. The interpretation is that the higher the relative standard error, lower is the consistencyin a variable of our interest.

150


The negative mean value of female Ward Members should not be misconstrued as negative performance. The negativesign was there because of the scores being normalised. Nevertheless, with respect to performance, the female WardMembers were placed at the bottom with the least level of performance and with the highest level of relative standarderror.

The mean duration of exposure as elected representatives worked out to be more than 33 months, expectedly for all thecategories of respondents.

The mean proportion of respondents, who received training was worked out to be more in case of Pradhans than WardMembers, the lowest being that of female Ward Members.

On an average, male Pradhan were older (above 45 years), followed by male Ward Members (42) female Pradhans(40.3), while the female Ward Members were the youngest (40). In fact, the age differentials among female representativeswere statistically indistinguishable at a 95 percent level of significance.

The mean proportions of respondents who were illiterates were higher in the case of elected female representatives thanmales. Even among the educated, male representatives were better qualified than their women counterparts.

The proportion of respondents who reported that working for the Panchayat was their main occupation was reportedlymore among the men, especially male Pradhans. Even among female Pradhans, as many as half were housewives. Itcould well be that they are proxies for their spouses. In many states, like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, this is an opensecret and came across quite starkly during our field visits.

The distribution of respondents by religion shows that Muslim representation was significant in all categories ofrespondents though lower than their proportion in the general population. Interestingly, distribution by caste showsthat the proportion of representatives from the tribal community was higher than its share in the general population.

Economic indicators like type of house and poverty line status combine to show that the Ward Members come frompoorer communities in contrast to the Pradhans.

Improvement in decision-making abilities and empowerment after being elected seems to have a significantly higherpositive impact on female Pradhans than female Ward Members.

With regard to type of seat contested, as much as 90 percent of female representatives were elected from the constituenciesreserved for women. With the menfolk, 54 percent of Pradhans and 61 percent of Ward Members got elected fromreserved seats.

With respect to the elected representatives' involvement in political and social campaigns, it appears that male Pradhanshad significantly longer exposure (8 to 16 years), followed by male Ward Members (5 to 11 years), female Pradhans (4to 7 years) and female Ward Members in that order (4 to 6 years). By and large, most of the representatives came to theirposts with a few years social or political exposure.

The indices of empowerment and decision-making, which indicate the status of women with respect to these aspectseven before their election, were also worked out so as to include them in regression analyses. There were apart fromthese, similar variables to measure improvement after being elected. These inclusions were necessitated because, in somestates like Kerala, women were already empowered to an extent, leading them in fact to contest even general seats anddisplay a better performance. For such individuals, there could be no improvement as such due to election, and theyreported 'remained the same' for the questions which are used for developing these indices. Table 8.1 shows that thenormalised values are very close to '0' at the national level. However, the values of the standard deviation indicate a goodspread of these values around their respective means, suggesting the need to include them in the Regression Analyses.

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TTTTTable 8.1 : able 8.1 : able 8.1 : able 8.1 : able 8.1 : VVVVVariations of Mariations of Mariations of Mariations of Mariations of Mean and Sean and Sean and Sean and Sean and Standartandartandartandartandard Dd Dd Dd Dd Deviationseviationseviationseviationseviations

VVVVVariablesariablesariablesariablesariables PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Membersembersembersembersembers

FFFFFemale (N=907)emale (N=907)emale (N=907)emale (N=907)emale (N=907) MMMMMale (N=461)ale (N=461)ale (N=461)ale (N=461)ale (N=461) FFFFFemale (N=3973)emale (N=3973)emale (N=3973)emale (N=3973)emale (N=3973) MMMMMale (N=1377ale (N=1377ale (N=1377ale (N=1377ale (N=1377

MMMMMeaneaneaneanean SDSDSDSDSD MMMMMeaneaneaneanean SDSDSDSDSD MMMMMeaneaneaneanean SDSDSDSDSD MMMMMeaneaneaneanean SDSDSDSDSD

Performance index 4.2 5.3 6.83 3.67 -0.38 1.80 0.31 1.53

Duration of being elected member currently 33.0 16.8 33.27 17.00 32.65 16.58 33.08 16.88(in months)

Whether received training 0.8 0.4 0.88 0.33 0.48 0.50 0.57 0.50

Age of elected representatives 40.3 10.9 44.71 11.15 39.82 10.57 41.92 11.33

Education: Illiterate 0.1 0.3 0.03 0.16 0.27 0.44 0.07 0.25

Education: Upto primary 0.2 0.4 0.08 0.28 0.19 0.39 0.11 0.32

Education: Upto middle 0.2 0.4 0.11 0.31 0.17 0.38 0.14 0.35

Education: Middle & above 0.5 0.5 0.78 0.41 0.37 0.48 0.67 0.47

Occupation: Farming 0.1 0.3 0.36 0.48 0.13 0.34 0.41 0.49

Occupation: Labourer 0.0 0.1 0.01 0.10 0.09 0.29 0.12 0.32

Occupation: Working for Panchayat 0.3 0.5 0.47 0.50 0.15 0.36 0.21 0.41

Occupation: Small Business 0.0 0.1 0.08 0.27 0.01 0.11 0.11 0.31

Occupation: Housewife 0.5 0.5 0.00 0.00 0.54 0.50 0.00 0.00

Occupation: Others 0.1 0.2 0.08 0.28 0.07 0.25 0.15 0.36

Religion: Hindu 0.8 0.4 0.86 0.34 0.86 0.35 0.85 0.35

Religion: Muslim 0.1 0.2 0.07 0.25 0.07 0.25 0.07 0.25

Religion: Christian 0.0 0.2 0.03 0.16 0.03 0.18 0.03 0.17

Religion: Sikh, Jain, Buddhist, & Others 0.0 0.2 0.04 0.20 0.04 0.20 0.05 0.21

Caste: General 0.3 0.5 0.31 0.46 0.28 0.45 0.27 0.45

Caste: SC 0.2 0.4 0.21 0.40 0.26 0.44 0.27 0.45

Caste: ST 0.2 0.4 0.18 0.38 0.12 0.33 0.14 0.34

Caste: OBC 0.3 0.5 0.31 0.46 0.34 0.47 0.31 0.46

Type of house: Kutcha 0.1 0.4 0.13 0.33 0.27 0.44 0.25 0.43

Type of house: Semi-Pucca 0.9 0.4 0.87 0.33 0.73 0.44 0.75 0.43

Type of house: Pucca 0.5 0.5 0.57 0.50 0.36 0.48 0.38 0.48

Economic status: APL 0.7 0.4 0.78 0.42 0.59 0.49 0.59 0.49

Economic status: BPL 0.3 0.4 0.22 0.42 0.41 0.49 0.41 0.49

Improvement in decision making after being elected 0.4 3.4 NA 0.00 0.25 3.06 NA 0.00

Improvement in empowerment after being elected 0.7 2.9 NA 0.00 0.23 2.42 NA 0.00

Household status index 1.5 3.3 0.85 2.41 NA 4.17 0.05 2.94

Reservation of seats 0.9 0.2 0.54 0.50 0.89 0.31 0.61 0.49

Years of social work 7.1 7.9 16.0 11.9 5.8 6.6 10.7 10.2

Years of political involvement 4.4 5.1 8.3 8.2 3.7 4.1 5.4 5.9

Involvement in group/committee 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.4

Empowerment Level of EWRs 0.0 2.3 NA NA 0.0 2.3 NA NA

Decision making Level of EWRs 0.0 2.8 NA NA 0.0 2.7 NA NA

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8.3 Corr8.3 Corr8.3 Corr8.3 Corr8.3 Correlation Coefficients betwelation Coefficients betwelation Coefficients betwelation Coefficients betwelation Coefficients between Peen Peen Peen Peen Perererererformance Scorformance Scorformance Scorformance Scorformance Scores and Ies and Ies and Ies and Ies and Independent vndependent vndependent vndependent vndependent variablesariablesariablesariablesariables

In statistics, the correlation coefficient indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.The value ranges between -1 and +1. In practice observed coefficients tend to the limits of -1 or +1 if there is a perfectpositive or negative relationship respectively. If there is no relationship, it would tend to '0'. Of course, there is a need tobe cautious of spurious correlations. That is, the correlations should be worked out only when there is a logical causalrelationship between two variables. The null hypothesis we test while working out correlations between two variables isthat there exists no correlation between the variables of interest, and we conduct test of significance to accept or rejectthe null hypothesis. In this study, correlation coefficients have been worked out between the "performance index" ofelected representatives and a set of "independent variables" (Table 8.2). We have indicated * or ** as super fix to thecomputed values to indicate that the null hypothesis is rejected with probability less than 5 percent (P<.05) or probabilityless than one percent (P<.01) respectively.

Table 8.2 shows that, out of the selected variables, many exhibited a significant relationship with the performance indexfor all the four categories of respondents. Here an attempt is made to interpret the results.

As expected, the number of years of exposure as an elected representative reflects a positive relationship with performance.This is evident among all the categories, except female Ward Members. For them, time served as a member has apparentlyno significant effect on their performance. The performance is also found to be strongly influenced by an educationalachievement of middle school and above. Lower levels of education show either no relationship or a negative one. Thissuggests that there is a need to impart threshold level of education for tangible results. Even in reserved constituencies,if candidates with a minimum educational level of middle school are chosen, there will be a positive impact on performance.Those who consider Panchayat work as their main occupation exhibited a better performance for all categories ofrespondents. This is a very manipulable variable in the sense that the elected representatives could be motivated todevote more time to Panchayat activities.

The training received by the respondents after getting elected as Panchayat Members does affect their performance. Anexamination of the subjects covered in the training course indicated that most of them received briefings on roles andresponsibilities as Panchayat Members and on administrative matters. This is a very consistent finding in the sense thatknowledge is a necessary pre-condition to performance, particularly because most of them were first timers. This is alsoa manipulable variable, because, imparting training on assumption of membership can be given due importance and bemonitored to ensure training is in fact given.

Caste categories did not seem to have a significantly positive relationship with performance. However, among theScheduled Tribes, it is negatively correlated. This implies that on the performance curve they were nearer the bottom,with most representatives from this category appearing not to perform well.

The sets of variables reflected positive impact of improvement in household status, decision-making status withinhousehold, and, empowerment within the household after becoming an elected representative on the performance ofelected women representatives.

Reservations may facilitate a critical breakthrough in the political career of elected representatives, but it does not havemuch impact on performance as political functionaries. Table 8.2 shows that, in general, the factor of reservation isnegatively correlated with the performance of elected representatives. The statistical test found this phenomenon significantat 95 percent level of confidence, particularly in the case of female Pradhan and female Ward Members.

Years of participation in social and political campaigns/activities have a significant and positive impact on the performanceof elected representatives during their current tenure as Panchayat member.

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TTTTTable 8.2 : Corrable 8.2 : Corrable 8.2 : Corrable 8.2 : Corrable 8.2 : Correlation Coefficients betwelation Coefficients betwelation Coefficients betwelation Coefficients betwelation Coefficients between Peen Peen Peen Peen Perererererformance Iformance Iformance Iformance Iformance Index and set of Index and set of Index and set of Index and set of Index and set of Independent ndependent ndependent ndependent ndependent VVVVVariablesariablesariablesariablesariables

PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Memberemberemberemberember

FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale(N=907)(N=907)(N=907)(N=907)(N=907) (N=461)(N=461)(N=461)(N=461)(N=461) (N=3973)(N=3973)(N=3973)(N=3973)(N=3973) (N=1377)(N=1377)(N=1377)(N=1377)(N=1377)

Duration of being elected member currently (in months) .144(**) .181(**) 0.03 .069(*)

Whether received training .254(**) .131(**) .302(**) .271(**)

Age of elected representatives -0.02 -0.07 -0.02 0.01

Education: Illiterate -.130(**) 0.01 -.147(**) -.081(**)

Education: Upto primary -.122(**) 0.00 -0.02 -0.03

Education: Upto middle 0.01 -0.04 -0.02 -0.02

Education: Middle & above .173(**) 0.03 .162(**) .075(**)

Occupation: Farming -0.04 -0.05 -.069(**) -.090(**)

Occupation: Labourer -.081(*) -0.07 -0.03 -.061(*)

Occupation: Working for Panchayat .223(**) .117(*) .174(**) .132(**)

Occupation: Small Business -0.04 -0.08 .033(*) 0.04

Occupation: Housewife -.158(**) NA -.076(**) NA

Occupation: Others 0.01 -0.02 0.02 -0.01

Religion: Hindu -0.01 .165(**) 0.00 0.00

Religion: Muslim -0.01 -0.03 0.02 0.04

Religion: Christian 0.05 -.158(**) .039(*) 0.01

Religion: Sikh, Jain, Buddhist, & Others -0.02 -.117(*) -.054(**) -.063(*)

Caste: General 0.06 -0.01 0.02 -0.01

Caste: SC -0.02 -0.01 .037(*) .097(**)

Caste: ST -.082(*) -.096(*) 0.01 -.107(**)

Caste: OBC 0.02 .104(*) -.056(**) 0.00

Type of house: Kutcha 0.00 0.01 -0.03 -.062(*)

Type of house: Semi-Pucca 0.00 -0.01 0.03 .062(*)

Type of house: Pucca -0.02 -0.05 -0.03 -0.02

Economic status: APL -0.01 -0.01 - -

Economic status: BPL 0.01 0.01 0.02 -0.01

Improvement in decision making after being elected 0.01 NA .037(*) NA

Improvement in empowerment after being elected 0.01 NA .095(**) NA

Household status index .283(**) 0.07 .297(**) .140(**)

Reservation of seats -.067(*) 0.02 -.032(*) -0.03

Years of social work 0.16(**) 0.02 0.13(**) 0.18(**)

Years of political involvement 0.111(**) 0.05 0.67(**) 0.10(**)

Involvement in group/committee 0.162(**) 0.12(**) 0.17(**) 0.14(**)

Empowerment Level of EWRs 0.176(**) NA 0.097(**) NA

Decision making Level of EWRs 0.056 NA 0.055(**) NA

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

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8.4 R8.4 R8.4 R8.4 R8.4 Regregregregregression Coefficients betwession Coefficients betwession Coefficients betwession Coefficients betwession Coefficients between Peen Peen Peen Peen Perererererformance Iformance Iformance Iformance Iformance Index and Index and Index and Index and Index and Independent ndependent ndependent ndependent ndependent VVVVVariablesariablesariablesariablesariables

In the previous section, we observed some variables exhibiting a significant positive correlation with individual

performances of different categories of respondents. The positive and significant correlation between performance

and any independent variable of interest, say training, indicates the combined effect of its own and the effects of a set

of other independent variables through the variable of interest, say training. Hence, there is a need to determine the

individual effect of the selected independent variables on performance, keeping other variables constant. This is

achieved through regression coefficient, the value of which indicates the extent of change in the dependent variable

for every unit change in the independent variable when other variables are kept constant. Hence, a linear regression

model has been adopted, wherein the performance variable has been regressed on the set of independent variables

separately for all the four categories of respondents. The results of the regression analyses are presented in Table 8.3.

in terms of regression coefficients (Beta coefficients which are standardised regression coefficients) for each selected

independent variable and R2 , which is called the coefficient of determination .While the former gives the extent of

change contributed by a given independent variable of our interest for every unit change in the independent variable

when other variables are kept constant, the latter indicates the extent of variation in the dependent variable being

explained jointly by the set of independent variables included in the model. The higher the value of the R2, likewise

the reliability and relevance of the model.

The R2 values presented in Table 8.3 are significant (conducted F test) for all the four categories of respondents, indicating

that the models considered are statistically valid. The higher values of R2 for female Pradhan and female Ward Members

compared to that of male representatives indicate that some other important variables were missing in the model in the

latter case. All possible variables covered in the survey were included in the model. The other reasons for low r values per

se could be the non-availability of variables which are programme-specific or other important variables which were not

envisaged at the time of designing the study. Nevertheless, further discussion is possible based on regression coefficients

as the models considered were statistically significant for all the four categories of respondents.

A scan of the regression coefficients in the model constructed on female Pradhan data shows that training, devoting

more time to Panchayat work, longer duration of being Panchayat member, better education levels (that is middle or

above), prior involvement in political or social activities and the level of perceived empowerment among female

representatives contributing significantly to performance. As regards the impact of the type of seat contested by an

individual representative on their performance, the corresponding regression coefficient is significant, but bears the

negative sign. This implies that those who contested and won from female reserved constituencies were not performing

much better than those elected from general constituencies. The latter group being small, the net impact of reservation

on performance turned out to be negative.

In the case of male Pradhans, it was neither negative nor significant. Here, the regression coefficients were significant for

training and for the duration of holding Panchayat membership. Caste was relevant insofar as the performance of those

from the Other Backward Communities category was better. In the case of female Ward Members and the regression

coefficients of the perceived improvement on their decision-making power, empowerment and social status or improvement

after becoming an elected representative, training, working for the Panchayat as their main occupation and other

occupations such as being engaged in small business etc., were found to be individually contributing significantly to

their performance.

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TTTTTable 8.3 : Rable 8.3 : Rable 8.3 : Rable 8.3 : Rable 8.3 : Regregregregregression Coefficients betwession Coefficients betwession Coefficients betwession Coefficients betwession Coefficients between Peen Peen Peen Peen Perererererformance Iformance Iformance Iformance Iformance Index and set of Index and set of Index and set of Index and set of Index and set of Independent ndependent ndependent ndependent ndependent VVVVVariablesariablesariablesariablesariables

PPPPPradhanradhanradhanradhanradhan WWWWWararararard Md Md Md Md Memberemberemberemberember

FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale FFFFFemaleemaleemaleemaleemale MMMMMalealealealeale(N=907)(N=907)(N=907)(N=907)(N=907) (N=461)(N=461)(N=461)(N=461)(N=461) (N=3973)(N=3973)(N=3973)(N=3973)(N=3973) (N=1377)(N=1377)(N=1377)(N=1377)(N=1377)

Education: Middle & above 0.11(**) 0.03 0.68 (**) 0.03

Age of elected representatives -0.069(*) - -0.003 -0.06(*)

Occupation: Working for Panchayat 0.144(**) 0.103 (**) 0.09(**) 0.04

Occupation Small Business - - 0.03(**) 0.54(*)

Caste SC - - 0.04(**) 0.95(**)

Caste: ST - - 0.45(**) -

Caste: OBC 0.04 0.12(**) 0.025 -

Whether received training 0.194(**) 0.10(**) 0.21(**) 0.21(**)

Duration of being elected member currently (in months) 0.14(**) 0.19(**) 0.006 0.01

Years of social work 0.09(**) -0.04 0.08(**) 0.15(*)

Years of political involvement 0.02 0.09 -0.023 0.01

Involvement in group/committee 0.114(**) 0.14(**) 0.09(**) 0.07(**)

Empowerment Level of EWRs 0.114 (**) NA 0.02 NA

Decision making Level of EWRs 0.016 NA 0.02 NA

Improvement in decision making after being elected - NA 0.02 NA

Improvement in empowerment after being elected - NA 0.06(**) NA

Household status index - 0.62 0.18(**) 0.08(**)

Reservation of seats -0.06(*) 0.05(**) -0.02(**) -0.03

Coefficient of Determination 0.18 0.10 0.18 0.13

**. Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Figure 8.1 Performance Index of Pradhan

156


Figure 8.2 Performance Index of Ward Members

BoBoBoBoBox 8.4x 8.4x 8.4x 8.4x 8.4

As revealed by performance score, the high performers of EWRs were from states like Kerala, followed by Karnataka,Tripura, Maharashtra, Sikkim and West Bengal. A detail analysis of the characteristics of these EWRs show thatthey were generally from younger age groups, had attained education up to middle school or above and theyprimarily spent time in Panchayat works. Such EWRs had also seen longer duration as being elected memberduring their current term and had larger number of political experience.

A gender gap of the performance of Pradhans and Ward members was observed largely in the states like Orissa,Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, etc.

Thus, the multivariate analyses among the four categories of respondents conclusively established that training is animportant determinant, followed by the extent of time devoted to Panchayat work, in positively affecting the performanceof elected women representatives. From the policy and programme point of view, these two emerged as important.Other casual determinants, although non-manipulable in the case of women, were: perceived levels of empowermentand better educational levels. The analysis also suggest that there is a need to encourage and enable, through policyinterventions, the women representatives who won from reserved-for-women constituencies, to effectively dischargetheir responsibilities as elected representatives.

157


9.9.9.9.9. CONCLCONCLCONCLCONCLCONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDAUSIONS & RECOMMENDAUSIONS & RECOMMENDAUSIONS & RECOMMENDAUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONSTIONSTIONSTIONSTIONS

This study analysed various issues related to elected women representatives vis-à-vis their male counterparts. It investigatedtheir socio-economic characteristics, tracked their political careers over the past three rounds of election, and, specificallyexamined the quality of their post-election participation in terms of performance of their roles, their synergy with theparallel bodies13 and community-based organisations. The study constructed a "Performance Index" which has scoresfor individual elected representatives. The individual scores are correlated with a set of independent variables to identifythe critical determinants of performance.

9.1 S9.1 S9.1 S9.1 S9.1 Study Conclusionstudy Conclusionstudy Conclusionstudy Conclusionstudy Conclusions

SSSSSocio-economic and demographic procio-economic and demographic procio-economic and demographic procio-economic and demographic procio-economic and demographic profile of elected women rofile of elected women rofile of elected women rofile of elected women rofile of elected women repreprepreprepresentativesentativesentativesentativesentativeseseseses

• The Pradhan is the senior-most Panchayati Raj functionary at the Gram Panchayat level, and this is reflected in thedata on age, which showed that Ward Members were generally younger than Pradhans. By gender, too, the seniorityof males in politics was marked as elected female representatives were found to be generally younger than theirmale counterparts.

• In terms of social groups, the distribution of elected representatives by caste reflects their distribution in the ruralpopulation. A large proportion of them are from the more disadvantaged sections of society (SC - 26%; ST -13%). About 28 percent belong to the general category.

• Generally, educational attainment was upto middle school or above among elected representatives (48%). Almostone-fifth were illiterate, but the gender gap was significant (women - 24%; men - 6%). As expected, the Pradhanshad higher levels of educational attainment than the Ward Members.

• Economic background, assessed across 'APL/BPL status' and the 'adequacy of food throughout the year,' revealedthat Pradhans had a better economic status, and there was not much difference on the basis of gender.

• The responsibilities that accompany a higher position in Panchayati Raj institutions are reflected in the higherproportion of Pradhans, as compared to Ward Members, spending the greater part of their time in panchayat-related works. Other than this, the main activities were found to be 'farming' for men and 'household work' forwomen, neither of which is a surprising finding.

PPPPPolitical carolitical carolitical carolitical carolitical career of Eeer of Eeer of Eeer of Eeer of EWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs

• Usually, the time gap between getting associated with local politics and contesting the local body election for thefirst time was found to be very small, implying that the majority of the elected representatives did not have long-standing political linkages. It was with a few representatives that we find evidence of early association with localpolitics serving them in good stead in the long run.

• In the case of women representatives, prior association with any form of politics was low, and for most women theact of contesting the first election signaled their entry into active politics. Whatever prior association they had wasof a limited nature.

• In the case of male representatives, on the other hand, association with some form of local politics seems to havebeen a characteristic of their political careers. Most of them had been involved with community activity or politicsin their youth before entering the panchayats. This early association may be indicative of their aspirations topursue politics as a career. In the case of women, it is clear that the provision of reservations had played a determiningrole. An analysis of this data, by state or by elected status, does not reflect much difference on this aspect.

13 This excludes Standing Committees provisioned in 73rd CAA.

158


• A family environment attuned to politics can be an important factor underlying the choice of politics as a career.However, as much as four-fifths of the elected representatives did not have anyone in their family affiliated withpolitics. This was more evident in the case of Ward Members as compared to Pradhans, and male representatives ascompared to their women counterparts.

• Husbands (30%) and other family members (12%) were reported as playing an important role in motivatingwomen representatives to contest elections the first time. By contrast, their male counterparts are usually self-motivated (40%).

• The majority of the elected representatives had contested only one election (87%) and hence the proportion of firsttimers in politics was also high (86%). Around 14 percent were re-elected more than once at the Gram Panchayatlevel.

• Reservation has played a significant role as four-fifths of all the representatives got elected from reserved seats.Reservation facilitated the first entry into politics for most of the elected representatives (83%). However, it didnot help much in continuing for second or third terms, as the proportion that got elected from the reserved seatswas 45 percent and 58 percent respectively. The role of reservation was also evident from the fact that it emergedas an important motivator (43%) for contesting the first election as much as its withdrawal was an importantreason for not contesting the election among former women representatives (39%).

• Ex- women representatives, who faced defeat in their attempts to continue their careers, accepted that there wasless social interaction and/or no proper campaigning (52%) on their part. The problem of unacceptability/conflictacross different social categories was another important reason mentioned by two-fifths of them.

• In line with the above discussion, and also based on the fact that 91 percent did not contest any intermediate/ ZillaParishad election, higher levels of political aspiration are generally not present among the Gram Panchayat- levelPanchayati Raj functionaries.

• After getting elected, acclimatisation to the Panchayati Raj system for effective performance is facilitated by firstundergoing a well-structured training programme. However, this opportunity was not available to a large proportionof newly elected representatives (43%). The chief reason was simple: 'training not being held (61%)', followed by'not called for training (22%).

• Training in 'Rules and Regulations of Panchayats' and in 'Roles and Responsibilities' are very critical for betterperformance, but these were attended by 57 percent of and 43 percent of representatives respectively. Irrespectiveof gender and position, three-fifths apparently felt the need for training on the 'Rules & Regulations of Panchayats'.

• High levels of satisfaction with different aspects of training such as logistical arrangements of training (seating,visibility of screen board, training material), quality of instructor (attitude and language) among those who attendedthe training further reinforces the importance of having a defined training programme for elected representatives.

• By and large, training programmes are perceived as participatory in nature (90%), where questions could be easilyasked (85%) and female representatives, reportedly, receiving treatment at par with male trainees (91%).

• The findings also indicate that, overall, elected women representatives' functioning within an enabling environmentat the level of the village community and the household.

QQQQQuality of Puality of Puality of Puality of Puality of Parararararticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of Eticipation of EWRsWRsWRsWRsWRs

• Overall, the quality of participation assessed across various dimensions turned out to be reasonably good. A sizeable93 percent of male Pradhans reported performing their primary role of organising and attending the Gram Sabhameetings. Though in smaller numbers than male Pradhans, a significantly large proportion of female Pradhans(86%) also reported executing this important role of being a local Panchayati Raj functionary. However, theparticipation of women citizens of the village was reported to be quite low (less than 25%) which points to theneed for better community mobilisation by elected representatives.

159


• The satisfaction of the community with elected representatives' initiatives regarding Gram Sabha meetings wasneither too high nor too low. Elected representatives forcing their ideas or dominating during Gram Sabha was notreported (86-89%), but, at the same time, their consideration of the community's voice was also not reported bya large majority (61%).

• One-third of elected representatives report interactions with the police, local bureaucracy and officials in the linedepartments to discuss schemes or participation in election campaigns. As expected, this was slightly higher in thecase of male representatives and among Pradhans. Taking proactive initiatives in signing petitions, participating inprotests, alerting media or notifying police/court about local problems was mentioned by 24-35 percent of electedrepresentatives.

• The selection of beneficiaries for different schemes is usually done during Gram Sabha meetings (56%). But atleast in one-third of the time, they are prepared ahead of the meetings for mere approval by the Gram Sabhas.(31%). According to the elected representatives, most of the time the programme guidelines related to drawing thelist of beneficiaries appear to be adhered to (81%). However, the community's perception about beneficiary selectionfor different schemes and its implementation were not that high.

• Elected representatives' initiatives for public health such as awareness generation campaigns, drives for the preventionof disease, counselling/providing medical aid for family planning were mentioned by 41-51 percent of communitymembers, while around 58-66 percent reported their elected representatives' efforts for providing better educationby efforts to increase enrolment and reduce dropouts from school. However, the majority of community membersdid not confirm such initiatives, indicating scope for further efforts on the part of their elected representatives.

• The performance index, computed by using a range of questions related to the role of elected representatives,shows that the important determinants of good performance include the following: a longer duration of being anelected representative, training, education upto middle school and above, and, active engagement in panchayatwork.

• As revealed by the performance index, the high performers among elected women representatives were from Kerala,followed by Karnataka, Tripura, Maharashtra, Sikkim and West Bengal. On the other hand, the performance scorewas on the lower side in Orissa, Arunachal Pradhesh, Bihar, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.

SSSSSynergy with Pynergy with Pynergy with Pynergy with Pynergy with Parallel Bodies/CBOarallel Bodies/CBOarallel Bodies/CBOarallel Bodies/CBOarallel Bodies/CBOsssss

• It is interesting to note that while 93 percent of the elected representatives reported the presence of parallel bodiesin their villages, only 38 percent of these reported being members of one or more than one such body.

• The significant difference between the involvement of the Pradhans as compared to the Ward members againpoints to the considerably more active role played by the Pradhan in the affairs of the village as compared to theWard members. The gender gap in this respect - with 33 percent of the elected female representatives as comparedto 49 percent of the men - also highlights the continuing lack of voice for women representatives in the affairs ofthe village.

IIIIImpact of parmpact of parmpact of parmpact of parmpact of participation of women and community devticipation of women and community devticipation of women and community devticipation of women and community devticipation of women and community developmentelopmentelopmentelopmentelopment

• The positive impact of entering politics and working as a Panchayati Raj functionary is evident from the fact thata sizeable proportion of women representatives perceive enhancement in their self-esteem (79%), confidence (81%)and decision-making ability (74%).

• Becoming a Pradhan or Ward Member augments respect within the family (67%) as well as in the community atlarge (82%). Encouragingly, this change is more perceptible in the case of elected women representatives who alsoperceive an increased voice in decisions related to economic matters and other issues in their family (66-71%).

• Beyond the household domain, and in the professional environment, an increase in attention from local government(64%), responsiveness of the Block Panchayat (60%) and recognition from other Panchayat Members (65%) is

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reported by a slightly higher proportion of female Pradhans. While no gender discrimination in the panchayat isreported by 60 percent of elected women representatives, acceptability in panchayat meetings and enabling themto raise issues freely was mentioned by 94 percent.

" A supportive professional environment evidently motivates elected women representatives to perform better, as60-64 percent reported an increase in their interaction with line departments and parallel bodies. Even theparticipation of common women citizens in various activities such as attending Gram Sabha meeting, etc. hasreportedly increased (68-78%).

" A large proportion (72%) reported having been actively involved in providing civic amenities, while 62% said theymade efforts in increasing enrolment and mitigating domestic violence.

9.2 S9.2 S9.2 S9.2 S9.2 Study Rtudy Rtudy Rtudy Rtudy Recommendationsecommendationsecommendationsecommendationsecommendations

The following recommendations have been made within the broad conceptual framework presented in Figure 9.1. Thissuggests that if women are adequately empowered through a political process, they would have enhanced capabilities fordecision making, which, in turn, would be reflected in the quality of participation, impacting performance as well as herown development.

Figure 9.1 : Participation and Women's Development

• The level of educational attainment seems to have played an important role in determining performance. Thoseeducated showed a significant positive correlation with better performance of elected women representatives. Onthe other hand, those who were illiterate or had been educated below the level of primary school did not performwell.

• The performance of women representatives who belonged to a younger age category (21-35 years) was better thanthose who were above 35. This finding was statistically significant, suggesting that younger women should beencouraged to join politics.

• Imparting training emerged as a critical determinant of the performance of elected women representatives. A largeproportion of women who received training have performed better. This was true for Pradhans (male/female) andWard Members (male/female), though the data also show that 43 percent of elected women did not receive anytraining in their current political term. Hence, training should not only be made mandatory for all electedrepresentatives, but it should also be organised regularly, covering multiple dimensions including rules andregulations, administrative issues, budgeting and finance and the implementation of development schemes.

• In order to increase the effective participation of women, they should be given more honoraria, as the findingsshow that the representatives who devoted more of their time in doing Panchayat work register better performance.This finding was statistically significant.

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• Membership of groups/committees plays an important role in terms of increasing the visibility of women in thevillage. A significant proportion of women representatives has said that they were earlier associated with groups/committees and confirmed that this association has helped them in joining politics. Thus, such entities should beprovided greater support.

• Reservation is an opportunity to bring women into the mainstream. It provides them with a platform to interact,participate and enhance their image. It becomes more meaningful when women can sustain their political activitythrough re-election. The data shows that 85 percent of the women representatives were first timers, and only 15percent could get re-elected in the subsequent terms. Further analysis showed that a majority of ex-womenrepresentatives could not get re-elected because the seat from where they were elected was de-reserved in the nextround. Hence, at the policy level, the rotation of seats may be discontinued for the women-headed Panchayats andWards.

• The data show that the duration (in years) of political involvement is directly proportionate to the performance ofwomen representatives. As women progress in their political career, they become better performers by virtue ofbeing politically more aware and experienced. Thus, the effort should be made not only to maintain the representationof women in politics in terms of their percentage, but also their ability to remain in politics.