springer handbook of acoustics
TRANSCRIPT
Springer Handbookof Acoustics
Springer Handbook providesa concise compilation of approvedkey information on methods ofresearch, general principles, andfunctional relationships in physicaland applied sciences. The world’sleading experts in the fields ofphysics and engineering will be as-signed by one or several renownededitors to write the chapters com-prising each volume. The contentis selected by these experts fromSpringer sources (books, journals,online content) and other systematicand approved recent publications ofscientific and technical information.
The volumes are designed to beuseful as readable desk referencebook to give a fast and comprehen-sive overview and easy retrieval ofessential reliable key information,including tables, graphs, and bibli-ographies. References to extensivesources are provided.
123
HandbookSpringerof Acoustics
Thomas D. Rossing (Ed.)
2nd editionWith 960 Figures and 90 Tables
EditorThomas D. RossingStanford UniversityCenter for Computer Research in Music and AcousticsStanford, CA 94305, USA
Additional material to this book is available athttp://extras.springer.com/2014/978-1-4939-0755-7
ISBN: 978-1-4939-0754-0 e-ISBN: 978-1-4939-0755-7DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-0755-7Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014953290
c© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2007, 2014This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the wholeor part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction onmicrofilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of thispublication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of theGerman Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, andpermission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations areliable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. inthis publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement,that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulationsand therefore free for general use.
Production and typesetting: le-tex publishing services GmbH, LeipzigSenior Manager Springer Handbook: Dr. W. Skolaut, HeidelbergTypography and layout: schreiberVIS, SeeheimIllustrations: Hippmann GbR, SchwarzenbruckCover design: eStudio Calamar Steinen, BarcelonaCover production: WMXDesign GmbH, HeidelbergPrinting and binding: Stürtz GmbH, Würzburg
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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
V
Preface
A handbook, according to the dictionary, is a book capable of being conveniently car-ried as a ready reference. Springer has created the Springer series of handbooks onimportant scientific and technical subjects, and we are happy that they have includedacoustics in this category.
We published the Springer Handbook of Acoustics in 2007, and it has had goodacceptance and is widely used and referenced. But in the intervening years, much re-search has occurred in the field of acoustics, and it is time for a second edition. Severalauthors have revised their chapters to include new material, and we have added twonew chapters on Microphone Arrays and on Acoustic Emission.
Acoustics, the science of sound, is a rather broad subject to be covered in a singlehandbook. It embodies many different academic disciplines, such as physics, mechan-ical and electrical engineering, mathematics, speech and hearing sciences, music, andarchitecture. There are many technical areas in acoustics; the Acoustical Society ofAmerica, for example, includes 14 technical committees representing different areasof acoustics. It is impossible to cover all of these areas in a single handbook. We havetried to include as many as possible of the hot topics in this interdisciplinary field, in-cluding basic science and technological applications. We apologize to the reader whosefavorite topics are not included.
We have grouped the 30 chapters in the book into seven parts: Propagation ofSound; Physical and Nonlinear Acoustics; Architectural Acoustics; Hearing and SignalProcessing; Music, Speech, and Electroacoustics; Biological and Medical Acoustics;Structural Acoustics and Noise; and Engineering Acoustics. The chapters are of vary-ing length. They also reflect the individual writing styles of the various authors, all ofwhom are authorities in their fields. Although an attempt was made to keep the math-ematical level of the chapters as even as possible, readers will note that some chaptersare more mathematical than others; this is unavoidable and in fact lends some degreeof richness to the book.
We are indebted to many persons, especially Werner Skolaut, the manager of theSpringer Handbooks, and to the editorial board for their advice, and especially to FanHo Ying and the staff at Springer for handling the revised manuscripts. Each chapterwas reviewed by authoritative reviewers, and we are grateful to them for their services.But most of all we thank the authors, all of whom are busy people but devoted muchtime to carefully preparing their chapters.
Stanford, November 2013 Thomas D. Rossing
VII
List of Authors
Iskander AkhatovNorth Dakota State UniversityCenter for Nanoscale Science and Engineering,Department of Mechanical Engineering111 Dolve HallFargo, ND 58105-5285, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Yoichi Ando1-4-132-105 Hiyodoridai651-1123 Kita, Kobe, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Keith AttenboroughThe Open UniversityDepartment of Engineering and InnovationWalton HallMilton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Whitlow W.L. AuHawaii Institute of Marine BiologyKailua, HI 96734, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Rolf BaderUniversity of HamburgInstitute of MusicologyNeue Rabenstr. 1320354 Hamburg, Germanye-mail: r [email protected]
Kirk W. BeachUniversity of WashingtonApplied Physics Laboratory1013 NE 40th Str.Seattle, WA 98105, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Mack A. BreazealeThe University of MississippiDepartment of Physics and Astronomy123 Lewis HallUniversity, MS 38677, USA
James V. CandyLawrence Livermore National LaboratoryLivermore, CA 94551, USA
Antoine ChaigneUnité de Mécanique (UME)Ecole Nationale Supérieure de TechniquesAvancées (ENSTA ParisTech)828 Boulevard des Maréchaux91762 Palaiseau Cedex, Francee-mail: [email protected]
Perry R. CookPrinceton UniversityDepartment of Computer Science35 Olden StreetPrinceton, NJ 08540, USAe-mail: [email protected]
James CowanURS CorporationINCE Bd.Cert, Principal Engineer, Acoustics andNoise Control5 Industrial WaySalem, NH 03079, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Mark F. DavisDolby Laboratories100 Potrero AveSan Francisco, CA 94103, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Barbrina DunmireUniversity of WashingtonApplied Physics Laboratory1013 NE 40th Str.Seattle, WA 98105, USA
Neville H. FletcherAustralian National UniversityResearch School of Physics and EngineeringCanberra 0200, Australiae-mail: [email protected]
VIII List of Authors
Anders C. GadeTechnical University of DenmarkAcoustic Technology, Oersted.DTUBuilding 3522800 Lyngby, Denmarke-mail: [email protected]
Colin GoughUniversity of BirminghamSchool of Physics and AstronomyBirmingham, B15 2TT, UKe-mail: [email protected]
William M. HartmannMichigan State UniversityPhysics and Astronomy567 Wilson RoadEast Lansing, MI 48824, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Finn JacobsenTechnical University of DenmarkAcoustic Technology, Oersted.DTUOersteds Plads, Building 3522800 Lyngby, Denmarke-mail: [email protected]
Yang-Hann KimKorea Advanced Institute of Science andTechnology (KAIST)Department of Mechanical Engineering Center forNoise and Vibration Control (NOVIC)Acoustics and Vibration Laboratory373-1 Kusong-dongYusong-gu Daejeon 305-701, Koreae-mail: [email protected]
William A. KupermanUniversity of California at San DiegoScripps Institution of Oceanography9500 Gilman DriveLa Jolla, CA 92093-0701, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Thomas KurzDrittes Physikalisches InstitutUniversität GöttingenFriedrich-Hund-Platz 137077 Göttingen, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Marc O. LammersHawaii Institute of Marine BiologyKailua, HI 96734, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Werner LauterbornDrittes Physikalisches InstitutUniversität GöttingenFriedrich-Hund-Platz 137077 Göttingen, Germanye-mail:[email protected]
Björn LindblomStockholm UniversityDepartment of Linguistics10691 Stockholm, Swedene-mail: [email protected]
George C. Maling Jr.Institute of Noise Control Engineering of the USA60 High Head RoadHarpswell, ME 04079, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Michael McPhersonThe University of MississippiDepartment of Physics and Astronomy123 Lewis HallUniversity, MS 38677, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Nils-Erik MolinLuleå University of TechnologyExperimental MechanicsSE-971 87 Luleå, Swedene-mail: [email protected]
Brian C.J. MooreUniversity of CambridgeDepartment of Experimental PsychologyDowning StreetCambridge, CB2 3EB, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Kanji OnoUniversity of California, Los AngelesDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringLos Angeles, CA 90095, USAe-mail: [email protected]
List of Authors IX
Alan D. PierceBoston UniversityCollege of EngineeringBoston, MA 02215, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Thomas D. RossingStanford UniversityCenter for Computer Research in Music andAcoustics (CCRMA)Department of MusicStanford, CA 94305, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Philippe RouxUniversité Joseph FourierInstitut des Sciences de la Terre (ISTerre)38041 Grenoble, Francee-mail: [email protected]
Johan SundbergKTH–Royal Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Speech, Music, and HearingSE-10044 Stockholm, Swedene-mail: [email protected]
Gregory W. SwiftCondensed Matter and Thermal Physics GroupLos Alamos National LaboratoryLos Alamos, NM 87545, USAe-mail: [email protected]
George S.K. WongNational Research Council Canada (NRC)Institute for National Measurement Standards(INMS)1200 Montreal RoadOttawa, K1A 0R6, Canadae-mail: [email protected]
Eric D. YoungJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore, MD 21205, USAe-mail: [email protected]
XI
Contents
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................. XXI
1 Introduction to AcousticsThomas D. Rossing................................................................................... 11.1 Acoustics: The Science of Sound ..................................................... 11.2 Sounds We Hear ............................................................................ 11.3 Sounds We Cannot Hear: Ultrasound and Infrasound ...................... 21.4 Sounds We Would Rather Not Hear: Environmental Noise Control..... 21.5 Aesthetic Sound: Music .................................................................. 31.6 Sound of the Human Voice: Speech and Singing ............................. 31.7 How We Hear: Physiological and Psychological Acoustics ................. 41.8 Architectural Acoustics ................................................................... 41.9 Harnessing Sound: Physical and Engineering Acoustics ................... 51.10 Medical Acoustics .......................................................................... 61.11 Sounds of the Sea ......................................................................... 6References .............................................................................................. 7
Part A Propagation of Sound
2 A Brief History of AcousticsThomas D. Rossing................................................................................... 112.1 Acoustics in Ancient Times ............................................................. 112.2 Early Experiments on Vibrating Strings, Membranes and Plates ....... 122.3 Speed of Sound in Air .................................................................... 122.4 Speed of Sound in Liquids and Solids ............................................. 132.5 Determining Frequency ................................................................. 132.6 Acoustics in the 19th Century ......................................................... 142.7 The 20th Century ........................................................................... 172.8 Conclusion .................................................................................... 25References .............................................................................................. 25
3 Basic Linear AcousticsAlan D. Pierce .......................................................................................... 293.1 Overview....................................................................................... 313.2 Equations of Continuum Mechanics ................................................ 323.3 Equations of Linear Acoustics ......................................................... 393.4 Variational Formulations ............................................................... 443.5 Waves of Constant Frequency ......................................................... 493.6 Plane Waves.................................................................................. 513.7 Attenuation of Sound .................................................................... 533.8 Acoustic Intensity and Power ......................................................... 623.9 Impedance ................................................................................... 64
XII Contents
3.10 Reflection and Transmission .......................................................... 653.11 Spherical Waves ............................................................................ 693.12 Cylindrical Waves .......................................................................... 793.13 Simple Sources of Sound ................................................................ 863.14 Integral Equations in Acoustics ...................................................... 913.15 Waveguides, Ducts, and Resonators ............................................... 933.16 Ray Acoustics ................................................................................ 983.17 Diffraction .................................................................................... 1023.18 Parabolic Equation Methods .......................................................... 111References .............................................................................................. 112
4 Sound Propagation in the AtmosphereKeith Attenborough ................................................................................. 1174.1 A Short History of Outdoor Acoustics ............................................... 1174.2 Applications of Outdoor Acoustics ................................................... 1184.3 Spreading Losses ........................................................................... 1194.4 Atmospheric Absorption................................................................. 1204.5 Diffraction and Barriers ................................................................. 1204.6 Ground Effects .............................................................................. 1244.7 Attenuation Through Vegetation .................................................... 1354.8 Wind and Temperature Gradient Effects on Outdoor Sound ............. 1384.9 Concluding Remarks ...................................................................... 150References .............................................................................................. 151
5 Underwater AcousticsWilliam A. Kuperman, Philippe Roux ........................................................ 1575.1 Ocean Acoustic Environment .......................................................... 1595.2 Physical Mechanisms ..................................................................... 1635.3 SONAR and the SONAR Equation ...................................................... 1735.4 Sound Propagation Models ............................................................ 1755.5 Quantitative Description of Propagation ......................................... 1855.6 SONAR Array Processing .................................................................. 1875.7 Active SONAR Processing ................................................................. 1935.8 Acoustics and Marine Animals ........................................................ 2035.A Appendix: Units ............................................................................ 209References .............................................................................................. 209
Part B Physical and Nonlinear Acoustics
6 Physical AcousticsMack A. Breazeale, Michael McPherson ..................................................... 2156.1 Theoretical Overview ..................................................................... 2176.2 Applications of Physical Acoustics ................................................... 2276.3 Apparatus ..................................................................................... 2346.4 Surface Acoustic Waves .................................................................. 2396.5 Nonlinear Acoustics ....................................................................... 242References .............................................................................................. 245
Contents XIII
7 ThermoacousticsGregory W. Swift ...................................................................................... 2477.1 History .......................................................................................... 2477.2 Shared Concepts ............................................................................ 2487.3 Engines......................................................................................... 2527.4 Dissipation.................................................................................... 2577.5 Refrigeration ................................................................................. 2587.6 Mixture Separation ........................................................................ 261References .............................................................................................. 262
8 Nonlinear Acoustics in FluidsWerner Lauterborn, Thomas Kurz, Iskander Akhatov .................................. 2658.1 Origin of Nonlinearity .................................................................... 2668.2 Equation of State .......................................................................... 2678.3 The Nonlinearity Parameter B/A ..................................................... 2688.4 The Coefficient of Nonlinearity β .................................................... 2708.5 Simple Nonlinear Waves ................................................................ 2718.6 Lossless Finite-Amplitude Acoustic Waves ....................................... 2728.7 Thermoviscous Finite-Amplitude Acoustic Waves............................. 2768.8 Shock Waves ................................................................................. 2798.9 Interaction of Nonlinear Waves ...................................................... 2818.10 Bubbly Liquids .............................................................................. 2838.11 Sonoluminescence ........................................................................ 2948.12 Acoustic Chaos .............................................................................. 301References .............................................................................................. 307
Part C Architectural Acoustics
9 Acoustics in Halls for Speech and MusicAnders C. Gade ........................................................................................ 3179.1 Room Acoustic Concepts ................................................................. 3189.2 Subjective Room Acoustics ............................................................. 3199.3 Subjective and Objective Room Acoustic Parameters ........................ 3229.4 Measurement of Objective Parameters ............................................ 3309.5 Prediction of Room Acoustic Parameters ......................................... 3329.6 Geometric Design Considerations ................................................... 3399.7 Room Acoustic Design of Auditoria for Specific Purposes .................. 3509.8 Sound Systems for Auditoria .......................................................... 362References .............................................................................................. 365
10 Concert Hall Acoustics Based on Subjective Preference TheoryYoichi Ando ............................................................................................. 36710.1 Theory of Subjective Preference for the Sound Field ........................ 36910.2 Design Studies .............................................................................. 37710.3 Individual Preferences of a Listener and a Performer ...................... 38610.4 Acoustical Measurements of the Sound Fields in Rooms .................. 393References .............................................................................................. 400
XIV Contents
11 Building AcousticsJames Cowan........................................................................................... 40311.1 Room Acoustics ............................................................................. 40311.2 General Noise Reduction Methods .................................................. 41611.3 Noise Ratings for Steady Background Sound Levels.......................... 41911.4 Noise Sources in Buildings ............................................................. 42111.5 Noise Control Methods for Building Systems .................................... 42211.6 Acoustical Privacy in Buildings ....................................................... 43511.7 Relevant Standards ....................................................................... 441References .............................................................................................. 441
Part D Hearing and Signal Processing
12 Physiological AcousticsEric D. Young ........................................................................................... 44512.1 The External and Middle Ear .......................................................... 44512.2 Cochlea ......................................................................................... 45012.3 Auditory Nerve and Central Nervous System .................................... 46512.4 Summary ...................................................................................... 468References .............................................................................................. 469
13 PsychoacousticsBrian C. J. Moore...................................................................................... 47513.1 Absolute Thresholds ...................................................................... 47613.2 Frequency Selectivity and Masking ................................................. 47713.3 Loudness ...................................................................................... 48413.4 Temporal Processing in the Auditory System ................................... 48913.5 Pitch Perception ............................................................................ 49313.6 Timbre Perception ......................................................................... 49913.7 The Localization of Sounds ............................................................. 50013.8 Auditory Scene Analysis ................................................................. 50113.9 Further Reading and Supplementary Materials ............................... 510References .............................................................................................. 511
14 Acoustic Signal ProcessingWilliam M. Hartmann, James V. Candy ..................................................... 51914.1 Definitions .................................................................................... 52014.2 Fourier Series ................................................................................ 52114.3 Fourier Transform .......................................................................... 52314.4 Power, Energy, and Power Spectrum .............................................. 52614.5 Statistics ....................................................................................... 52714.6 Hilbert Transform and the Envelope ............................................... 53014.7 Filters ........................................................................................... 53114.8 The Cepstrum ................................................................................ 55014.9 Noise ............................................................................................ 55114.10 Sampled Data ............................................................................... 552
Contents XV
14.11 Discrete Fourier Transform ............................................................. 55514.12 The z-Transform............................................................................ 55614.13 Maximum Length Sequences .......................................................... 55814.14 Information Theory ....................................................................... 561References .............................................................................................. 563
Part E Music, Speech, Electroacoustics
15 Musical AcousticsColin Gough ............................................................................................ 56715.1 Vibrational Modes of Instruments .................................................. 56915.2 Stringed Instruments ..................................................................... 58815.3 Wind Instruments ......................................................................... 63515.4 Percussion Instruments ................................................................. 675References .............................................................................................. 696
16 The Human Voice in Speech and SingingBjörn Lindblom, Johan Sundberg ............................................................. 70316.1 Breathing ..................................................................................... 70316.2 The Glottal Sound Source ............................................................... 71016.3 The Vocal Tract Filter ...................................................................... 71616.4 Articulatory Processes, Vowels and Consonants ............................... 72116.5 The Syllable................................................................................... 72916.6 Rhythm and Timing ....................................................................... 73316.7 Prosody and Speech Dynamics ....................................................... 73516.8 Control of Sound in Speech and Singing ......................................... 73816.9 The Expressive Power of the Human Voice ...................................... 740References .............................................................................................. 741
17 Computer MusicPerry R. Cook ........................................................................................... 74717.1 Computer Audio Basics .................................................................. 74817.2 Pulse Code Modulation Synthesis ................................................... 75117.3 Additive (Fourier, Sinusoidal) Synthesis .......................................... 75317.4 Modal (Damped Sinusoidal) Synthesis ............................................ 75617.5 Subtractive (Source-Filter) Synthesis............................................... 75817.6 Frequency Modulation (FM) Synthesis ............................................. 76117.7 FOFs, Wavelets, and Grains ............................................................ 76217.8 Physical Modeling (The Wave Equation) .......................................... 76517.9 Music Description and Control ........................................................ 76917.10 Language and Systems for Research and Composition ..................... 77117.11 Controllers and Performance Systems ............................................. 77217.12 Music Understanding and Modeling by Computer ........................... 77317.13 Conclusions, Communities, and the Future ..................................... 775References .............................................................................................. 776
XVI Contents
18 Audio and ElectroacousticsMark F. Davis........................................................................................... 77918.1 Historical Review ........................................................................... 78018.2 The Psychoacoustics of Audio and Electroacoustics .......................... 78318.3 Audio Specifications ...................................................................... 78818.4 Audio Components ........................................................................ 79318.5 Digital Audio ................................................................................. 80418.6 Complete Audio Systems ................................................................ 81118.7 Appraisal and Speculation ............................................................. 814References .............................................................................................. 815
Part F Biological and Medical Acoustics
19 Animal BioacousticsNeville H. Fletcher .................................................................................... 82119.1 Optimized Communication ............................................................. 82119.2 Hearing and Sound Production ...................................................... 82319.3 Vibrational Communication ........................................................... 82419.4 Insects .......................................................................................... 82419.5 Land Vertebrates ........................................................................... 82619.6 Birds............................................................................................. 83119.7 Bats .............................................................................................. 83219.8 Aquatic Animals ............................................................................ 83319.9 Generalities .................................................................................. 83519.10 Quantitative System Analysis.......................................................... 83519.11 Information Transfer ..................................................................... 839References .............................................................................................. 839
20 Cetacean AcousticsWhitlow W. L. Au, Marc O. Lammers .......................................................... 84320.1 Hearing in Cetaceans ..................................................................... 84420.2 Echolocation Signals ...................................................................... 85120.3 Odontocete Acoustic Communication .............................................. 85920.4 Acoustic Signals of Mysticetes ......................................................... 86520.5 Discussion ..................................................................................... 868References .............................................................................................. 869
21 Medical AcousticsKirk W. Beach, Barbrina Dunmire ............................................................. 87721.1 Introduction to Medical Acoustics ................................................... 87921.2 Medical Diagnosis; Physical Examination ........................................ 88021.3 Basic Physics of Ultrasound Propagation in Tissue ........................... 88621.4 Methods of Medical Ultrasound Examination .................................. 89521.5 Medical Contrast Agents ................................................................. 92021.6 Ultrasound Hyperthermia in Physical Therapy ................................. 92721.7 High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU) in Surgery ....................... 92821.8 Lithotripsy of Kidney Stones ........................................................... 930
Contents XVII
21.9 Thrombolysis ................................................................................. 93021.10 Lower-Frequency Therapies ........................................................... 93121.11 Ultrasound Safety .......................................................................... 931References .............................................................................................. 934
Part G Structural Acoustics and Noise
22 Structural Acoustics and VibrationsAntoine Chaigne ...................................................................................... 94122.1 Dynamics of the Linear Single-Degree-of-Freedom (1-DOF)
Oscillator ...................................................................................... 94322.2 Discrete Systems ............................................................................ 94722.3 Strings and Membranes ................................................................. 95322.4 Bars, Plates and Shells................................................................... 96022.5 Structural–Acoustic Coupling .......................................................... 96622.6 Damping ....................................................................................... 98022.7 Nonlinear Vibrations ..................................................................... 98722.8 Conclusion. Advanced Topics .......................................................... 998References .............................................................................................. 998
23 NoiseGeorge C. Maling Jr. ................................................................................. 100123.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................... 100223.2 Instruments for Noise Measurements ............................................. 100523.3 Noise Sources ................................................................................ 101023.4 Propagation Paths ......................................................................... 103123.5 Noise and the Receiver .................................................................. 103923.6 Regulations and Policy for Noise Control ......................................... 104623.7 Other Information Resources .......................................................... 1050References .............................................................................................. 1050
Part H Engineering Acoustics
24 Microphones and Their CalibrationGeorge S. K. Wong ................................................................................... 106124.1 Historic References on Condenser Microphones and Calibration ....... 106424.2 Theory .......................................................................................... 106424.3 Reciprocity Pressure Calibration ..................................................... 106624.4 Corrections .................................................................................... 106924.5 Free-Field Microphone Calibration ................................................. 107924.6 Comparison Methods for Microphone Calibration ............................ 107924.7 Frequency Response Measurement with Electrostatic Actuators ....... 108324.8 Overall View on Microphone Calibration ......................................... 108324.A Acoustic Transfer Impedance Evaluation ......................................... 108524.B Physical Properties of Air ............................................................... 1085References .............................................................................................. 1088
XVIII Contents
25 Sound IntensityFinn Jacobsen.......................................................................................... 109325.1 Conservation of Sound Energy ........................................................ 109425.2 Active and Reactive Sound Fields ................................................... 109525.3 Measurement of Sound Intensity.................................................... 109825.4 Applications of Sound Intensity ...................................................... 1108References .............................................................................................. 1112
26 Acoustic HolographyYang-Hann Kim ...................................................................................... 111526.1 The Methodology of Acoustic Source Identification .......................... 111526.2 Acoustic Holography: Measurement, Prediction and Analysis ........... 111726.3 Summary ...................................................................................... 113026.A Mathematical Derivations of Three Acoustic Holography Methods
and Their Discrete Forms................................................................ 1130References .............................................................................................. 1133
27 Optical Methods for Acoustics and Vibration MeasurementsNils-Erik Molin ........................................................................................ 113927.1 Overview....................................................................................... 113927.2 Measurement Principles and Some Applications.............................. 114327.3 Summary ...................................................................................... 1160References .............................................................................................. 1161
28 Modal AnalysisThomas D. Rossing................................................................................... 116528.1 Modes of Vibration ........................................................................ 116528.2 Experimental Modal Testing ........................................................... 116628.3 Mathematical Modal Analysis ......................................................... 117228.4 Sound-Field Analysis ..................................................................... 117428.5 Holographic Modal Analysis ........................................................... 117528.6 Experimental Modal Analysis for Microsystems ................................ 1176References .............................................................................................. 1177
29 Microphone ArrayRolf Bader ............................................................................................... 117929.1 Overview....................................................................................... 117929.2 Array Geometries ........................................................................... 118029.3 Beamforming ................................................................................ 118229.4 Equivalent Source Methods ............................................................ 1187References .............................................................................................. 1204
30 Acoustic EmissionKanji Ono ................................................................................................ 120930.1 Background .................................................................................. 120930.2 Acoustic Emission Signals ............................................................... 121030.3 Source Location ............................................................................. 1215
Contents XIX
30.4 Sources of Emissions and Materials Behavior .................................. 121630.5 Structural Integrity Monitoring ....................................................... 1224References .............................................................................................. 1227
Acknowledgements ................................................................................... 1231About the Authors ..................................................................................... 1233Detailed Contents ...................................................................................... 1241Subject Index ............................................................................................. 1263
XXI
List of Abbreviations
1-D one-dimensional2-D two-dimensional2AFC two-alternative forced choice3-D three-dimensional
A
A/D analog to digitalABR auditory brainstem responsesAC alternating currentAC articulation classACF autocorrelation functionADC analog-to-digital converterADCP acoustic Doppler current profilerADP ammonium dihydrogen phosphateADSR attack time, decay time, sustain level,
and release timeAE acoustic emissionAF audio frequencyAFSUMB Asian Federation for Societies of
Ultrasound in Medicineand Biology
AG array gainAI articulation indexAIUM American Institute of Ultrasound in
MedicineALARA as low as reasonably achievableAM amplitude modulationAMD air moving deviceAN auditory nerveANSI American National Standards
InstituteAR assisted resonanceAR autoregressiveARMA autoregressive moving averageARP acoustic recording packageASA Acoustical Society of AmericaASHRAE American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-ConditioningEngineers
ASTM American Society for Testing andMaterials
ASUM Australasian Society for Ultrasoundin Medicine
ASW antisubmarine warfareASW apparent source widthATOC acoustic thermometry of ocean
climateATP adenosine triphosphateAUV automated underwater vehicle
B
BB bite blockBBN Bolt, Beranek, and NewmanBCC body-centered cubicBEM boundary-element methodBER bit error rateBF beam-formerBF best frequencyBH Bridge-HillBM basilar membraneBMUS British Medical Ultrasound SocietyBNR beam nonuniformity ratioBoSSA bowed sensor speaker arrayBR bass ratioBS beam splitter
C
CAATI computed angle-of-arrival transientimaging
CAC ceiling attenuation classCAD computer-aided designCCD charge-coupled deviceCD compact discCDF cumulative distribution functionCDMA code division multiple accessCF characteristic frequencyCFD computational fluid dynamicsCMU concrete masonry unitCN cochlear nucleusCND cumulative normal distributionCNG compressed natural gasCNMAT Center for New Music and Audio
TechnologiesCONCAWE CONservation of Clean Air and Water
in EuropeCOPV composite overwrapped pressure vesselCPA carotid phono-angiographyCPT current procedural terminologyCSDM cross-spectral density matrixCW continuous wave
D
D/A digital-to-analogDAC digital-to-analog converterDAFX digital audio effectsDAT digital audio tapeDAW digital audio workstation
XXII List of Abbreviations
DC direct currentDFT discrete Fourier transformDGC depth gain compensationDL difference limenDLF difference limen for frequencyDLS downloadable soundsDNL day–night average sound levelDOA direction of arrivalDOF degree of freedomDP data processingDRS directed reflection sequenceDSC deep sound channelDSI digital speckle interferometryDSL deep scattering layerDSP digital signal processingDSP digital speckle photographyDSPI digital speckle-pattern interferometryDT detection thresholdDVT deep venous thrombosis
E
EARP equal-amplitude random-phaseEC European CommissionECG electro-cardiographECMA European Computer Manufacturers’
AssociationECMUS European Committee for Medical
Ultrasound SafetyEDT early decay timeEDV end diastolic velocityEEG electroencephalographyEFSUMB European Federation of Societies
for Ultrasound in Medicine and BiologyEMI experiments in musical intelligenceEN European standardEOF empirical orthogonal functionEOH electro-optic holographyEPA US Environmental Protection AgencyEPNL effective perceived noise levelERB equivalent rectangular bandwidthESPI electronic speckle-pattern interferometryEU European Union
F
FCC face-centered cubicFCC Federal Communications CommissionFDA Food and Drug AdministrationFDTD finite difference time domainFEA finite-element analysisFEM finite-element methodFERC Federal Energy Regulatory CommissionFET field-effect transistorFFLAGS fast field program for air–ground systemFFP fast field program
FFT fast Fourier transformFGI Facility Guidelines InstituteFHWA US Federal Highway AdministrationFIR finite impulse responseFLAUS Latin American Federation of Ultrasound
in Medicine and BiologyFM frequency modulationFMDL frequency modulation detection limenFOF formes d’onde formantiquesFOM figure of meritFR felicity ratiosFRF frequency response functionFSK frequency shift keying
G
GA genetic algorithmGA geometrical acousticsGCC generalized cross-correlationGISD generalized internal source densityGPS global positioning system
H
HELS Helmholtz equation least squaresHI-FI high fidelityHIFU high-intensity focused ultrasoundHL hearing levelHTL hearing threshold levelHUD Housing and Urban DevelopmentHVAC heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
I
I-INCE International Institute of Noise ControlEngineering
IACC interaural cross-correlation coefficientIACF interaural cross-correlation functionIAD interaural amplitude differenceICAO International Civil Aviation
OrganizationICMC International Computer Music
ConferenceIDFT inverse DFTIEC International Electrotechnical
CommissionIEQ indoor environmental qualityIF intermediate frequencyIFFT inverse fast Fourier transformIHC inner hair cellIIC impact insulation classIIR infinite impulse responseIM intermodulationIMAC International Modal Analysis
ConferenceIMT intima-media thickness
List of Abbreviations XXIII
INCE/USA Institute of Noise Control EngineeringIP internet protocolIRF impulse response functionISI intersymbol interferenceISO International Organization
for StandardizationITD interaural time differenceITDG initial time delay gapIVP intravenous pyelogramIW internal gravity wave
J
JND just noticeable difference
K
KDP potassium dihydrogen phosphateKLOrk Kalamazoo Laptop Orchestra
L
L2Ork Linux Laptop Orchestra of VirginiaTech
LCMV linear constraint minimum varianceLDA laser Doppler anemometryLDEN day–evening–night levelLDV laser Doppler vibrometerLEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental
DesignLEF lateral energy fractionLEMUR League of Electronic Musical Urban
RobotsLEV listener envelopmentLF Liljencrants–FantLG late lateral strengthLL listening levelLNG liquefied natural gasLOC lateral olivocochlear systemLOL Laptop Orchestra of LouisianaLORkAS Laptop Orchestra of Arizona StateLP lens–pinhole systemLP long-play vinyl recordLPC linear predictive codingLS laboratory standardLTAS long-term-average spectrumLTI linear and time invariant
M
M/S mid/sideMA moving averageMAA minimum audible angleMAC modal assurance criterionMAF minimum audible field
MAP minimum audible pressureMASU Mediterranean and African Society
of UltrasoundMBP model-based processorMCR multichannel reverberationMDOF multiple degree of freedomMEG magnetoencephalographyMEM maximum entropy methodMEMS microelectromechanical systemMFDR maximum flow declination rateMFP matched field processingMI mechanical indexMIDI musical instrument digital interfaceMIMO multiple-input multiple-outputMIR music information retrievalMIREX music information retrieval evaluation
exchangeMLD masking level differenceMLM maximum-likelihood methodMLS maximum length sequenceMOC medial olivocochlear systemMPEG4 moving-picture experts group 4MRA main response axisMRI magnetic resonance imagingMSE mean square errorMSHA US Mine Safety and Health
AdministrationMoPho Mobile Phone OrchestraMTF modulation transfer functionMTS multichannel television soundMUSIC multiple signal classificationMV minimum varianceMVDR minimum variance distortionless
response
N
NC noise criterionNCB balanced noise criterionNCEJ Noise Control Engineering JournalNDE nondestructive evaluationNDRC National Defense Research CouncilNDT nondestructive testingNEMA National Electronic Manufacturers
AssociationNIC noise isolation classNIME new interfaces for musical expressionNIPTS noise-induced permanent threshold
shiftNLS nonlinear SchrödingerNM normal modeNMI National Metrology InstituteNPAL North Pacific acoustic laboratoryNR noise reductionNRC noise reduction coefficient
XXIV List of Abbreviations
O
OAE otoacoustic emissionOASES Ocean Acoustic Seismic Exploration
SynthesisODS operating deflexion shapeODS output display standardsOHC outer hair cellOITC outdoor–indoor transmission classOLO Oslo Laptop OrchestraONAC Office of Noise Abatement
and ControlOR or operationOSC open sound controlOSHA Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
P
PA public addressPA pulse averagePC personal computerPC phase conjugationPCM pulse code modulationPD probability of detectionPD pure dataPDF probability density functionPE parabolic equationPFA probability of false alarmPFO patent foramen ovalePhISEM physically informed stochastic event
modelingPI privacy indexPIV particle image velocimetryPL propagation lossPL pressure levelPLIF planar laser-induced fluorescentPLOrk Princeton Laptop OrchestraPLZT lead lanthanum zirconate titanatePM phase modulationPMA pre-market approvalPMF probability mass functionPR pseudo randomPRI pulse repetition intervalPRF pulse repetition frequencyPS peak systolicPS phase steppingPS probe sourcePSD power spectral densityPSK phase shift keyingPTC psychophysical tuning curvePVC premature ventricular contractionPVDF polyvinylidene fluoridePZT lead zirconate titanate
Q
QAM quadrature amplitude modulationQCPA quantitative phono-angiography
R
RAL German Institute for Quality Assuranceand Certification
RASTI rapid speech transmission indexRC room criterionRCA Radio Corporation of AmericaREL resting expiratory levelRF radio frequencyRIAA Recording Industry Association
of Americarms root mean squareRMS root mean squareROC receiver operating characteristicsRPM revolutions per minuteRT reverberation timeRUS resonant ultrasound spectroscopy
S
s.c. supporting cellS/N signal-to-noise ratioS0 mode zeroth order symmetric Lamb modeSA spatial averageSAA sound absorption averageSAC spatial audio codingSAM speckle average mechanismSAOL structured audio orchestra languageSARA simple analytic recombinant algorithmSAW surface acoustic waveSB spectral broadeningSBSL single-bubble sonoluminescenceSCBA self contained breathing apparatusSDIF sound description interchange formatSDIF spectral description interchange fileSDOF single-degree-of-freedomSDoT State Department of TransportationSE signal excessSE source energySEA statistical energy analysisSG spiral ganglionSI speckle interferometrySII speech intelligibility indexSIL sound intensity levelSIL speech interference levelSISO single input single outputSL sensation levelSL source levelSLOrk Stanford Laptop Orchestra
List of Abbreviations XXV
SM scala mediaSMA stone mastic asphaltSNR signal-to-noise ratioSNR signal-to-quantization-noise ratioSOC superior olivary complexSOFAR sound fixing and rangingSONAR sound navigation and rangingSOSUS sound ocean surveillance systemSP sound powerSP spatial peakSP speckle photographySPL sound pressure levelSPTP spatial peak temporal peakSR spontaneous discharge rateSRA source–receive arraySRATE sampling rateST scala tympaniST supportSTC sound transmission classSTFT short-time Fourier transformSTI speech transmission indexSV scala vestibuliSVR slow vertex responseSWAT2000 shallow-water acoustic technology
experiment
T
TA temporal averageTAO thermoacoustic oscillatorTCP transmission control protocolTDAC time-domain alias cancellationTDGF time-domain Green’s functionTEE trans-esophagealTG temperature gradientTGC time gain compensationTHD total harmonic distortionTI thermal indexTIA transient ischemic attacksTIB bone near the focus
TIC cranial bone near the skinTIS soft tissueTL transmission lossTLC total lung capacityTMTF temporal modulation transfer functionTNM traffic noise modelTP temporal peakTR time-resolvedTR time reversalTR treble ratioTRM time-reversal mirrorTS target strengthTTS temporary threshold shiftTV televisionTVG time-varied gain
U
UMM unit modal mass
V
VBR variable bitrateVC vital capacityVCA voltage-controlled variable-gain amplifier
W
WASPAA IEEE Workshop on Applicationsof Signal Processing to Audioand Acoustics
WFUMB World Federation for Ultrasoundin Medicine and Biology
WS working standardWWII World War II
X
XMF extensible music fileXOR exclusive or