Social Psychology

Studying the way people relate to others.

Attitude Attraction Aggression

Group Behavior

•  Tries to explain how people determine the cause of the behavior they observe.

It is either a…. •  Situational Attribution •  Dispositional Attribution And •  Stable Attribution •  Unstable Attribution

Attribution Theory

Fundamental Attribution Error •  When people

overestimate the role of dispositional factors.

False Consensus

Effect When people assume

that most people think like them, sharing preferences, beliefs, opinions, values, and habits

How do you view your teacher�s behavior? You probably attribute it to his/her personality rather than the profession. But do you really know?

When you start a romance, you assume that your mate agrees with your world views….honeymoon period.

Attitudes •  Attitude = A set of feelings

based on beliefs. •  Advertising is ALL based

on attitude formation. •  #59 Mere Exposure Effect

(We prefer things that are familiar.)

•  Central Route to Persuasion (you choose to take part in conversation about a topic) vs. Peripheral Route to Persuasion (you see your favorite celebrity endorse it, so your attitude starts to change.(Mac vs PC)

Your Own Behaviors Can Lead to a Change in Your Attitudes.

So you use compliance strategies to change people’s behaviors and, therefore, their attitudes.

Compliance Strategies •  Foot-in-the-door

phenomenon •  Door-in-the-face

phenomenon •  Norms of reciprocity

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Festinger’s Cognitive

Dissonance Theory •  People want to have

consistent attitudes and behaviors….when they are not they experience dissonance (unpleasant tension).

•  Usually they will change their attitude so get some peace.

You have a belief that cheating on tests is bad.

But you cheat on a test!!!

The teacher was really bad so in that class it is OK.

Leon Festinger’s Experiment The Experiment: Sit at a table and work on dull, meaningless tasks for about an hour. Then brag about it. You are paid either $1 or $20 to do this. Suppose you were then asked to privately rate your enjoyment of the tasks on a questionnaire. After which amount do you believe your actual enjoyment rating of the tasks would be higher— $1 or $20?

The people who earned $20 enjoyed the task LESS. (Festinger and Carlsmith) Cognitive Dissonance can explain the findings. Those who received only $1 presumably had insufficient justification for their behavior, which led to dissonance, which, in turn, produced a change in attitude about the tasks. “All that work wasn’t worth $1. This stinks… I feel yucky inside… wait… if I enjoyed that activity, it was worth it. Okay, it was worth it because I actually enjoyed it. How does this relate to grades for school assignments?

Zimbardo�s Prison Study •  Actions Affect Attitudes •  Philip Zimbardo has students

at Stanford U play the roles of prisoner and prison guards in the basement of psychology building.

•  They were given uniforms and numbers for each prisoner.

•  Showed how we deindividuate (#27) AND become the roles (#11) that we are given.

Conformity Studies •  Adjusting one�s

behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

•  Mimicking -> prosocial behavior

Asch�s Study of Conformity

Asch�s Results

•  About 1/3 of the participants conformed.

•  70% conformed at least once.

To strengthen conformity: •  The group is unanimous •  The group contains at least three

people. •  One admires the group�s status •  One had made no prior commitment

Milgram�s Study Of Obedience

2009 Retest in England (part 1 & part 3)

Began in 1961. Milgram posed the question, "Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call them all accomplices?"

Results of the Milgram Study

What did we learn from Milgram?

•  Ordinary people can do shocking things when prompted by an authority figure.

•  Ethical issues…. •  Would not have received

approval from today�s IRB (Internal Review Board).

Social Facilitation Theory •  If you are really good at

something….or it is an easy task…you will perform BETTER in front of a group.

•  If it is a difficult task or you are not very good at it…you will perform WORSE in front of a group (#26 social impairment).

–  (pool players 71% -> 80% and 36% -> 25%)

–  60% of games are won by home team

–  Comedians are funnier in a packed house

#26 Social Loafing •  The tendency for people in a

group to exert less effort when pooling efforts toward a common goal than if they are individually accountable.

•  82% of max pull on tug-of-war

•  67% of max noise on clapping & shouting

•  Reasons… •  In a group you: •  Feel less

accountable •  Feel dispensable

#27 Deindividuation •  People get swept up in a group

and lose sense of self. •  Feel anonymous and aroused. •  Explains rioting behaviors. •  The Candy Lady (survey results)

#28 Group Polarization •  Enhancement of a group’s prevailing

tendencies •  Groups tend to make more extreme decisions

than the individual.

#28 Group Polarization •  Can be good:

self-help groups, spiritual awareness, low prejudice

•  Can be bad: high prejudice, suicide bombers

•  Group members suppress their reservations about the ideas supported by the group so they can maintain group harmony.

•  More intense in highly cohesive groups.

•  Fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification, and group polarization.

•  Historical Cases: anticipating Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, escalation of Vietnam War, Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident, Challenger explosion.

#29 Groupthink

Groupthink ≠ Conformity

•  Conformity – when people don’t want to be different. They aren’t necessarily self-censoring. They’re going along due to normative or informational social influence.

•  Groupthink – when people suppress their opinions (aka self-censor) to maintain group harmony. –  Often happens when there’s a charismatic leader, everyone

seems to be going along with the leader, and it becomes difficult to speak out

Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice: •  Undeserved (usually

negative) attitude towards a group of people. Ethnocentrism is an example of a prejudice.

Stereotype: •  Overgeneralized idea

about a group of people.

Discrimination: •  An action based on a

prejudice.

•  Implicit prejudice - unconscious stereotypic attitudes (see Harvard website)

•  Patronize - to behave in an offensively condescending manner toward

•  Outgroup Homogeneity Bias –  We perceive that members outside our group are

all alike and the ones in our group are more diverse.

Is it just race?

NO

•  Palestinians and Jews

•  Northerners and Southerners

•  Men and Women

Culture ! Culture: behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values &

traditions shared by a group of ppl & transmitted to the next generation.

! Primates have primitive culture (local tool use, grooming rituals, & courtship)

! According to David Matsumoto, culture ≠ nationalities or ethic groups

! Matsumoto says a culture is made of people with ! Relative Affluence ! Population Density ! Technology Access ! Climate

Social Control and Sanctions ! Sanctions are positive or negative reactions

to the ways that people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for conformity and punishments for norm violators.

! Sanctions help to establish social control, the formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms and thus increase social cohesion.

Variations in Culture ! The dominant culture refers to the values, norms,

and practices of the group within society that is most powerful in terms of wealth, prestige, status, and influence.

! A subculture is a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle.

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Culture ! Norms = rules for accepted & expected behavior !  (Asians use only right hand for eating. British people

stand in line.) ! Pace of Life – Japanese walk quickly & pay constant

attention to time. Indonesians are much less concerned with time.

! Personal Space – Scandinavians, Brits, and North Americans like more space than Latin Americans, Arabs, and French. (standoffish vs. intrusive)

Violate a Social Norm (Candid Camera Elevator Experiment) (ABC Version – start at 2:40)

PUBLIC BEHAVIOR – WALK ON THE WRONG SIDE OF THE SIDEWALK – HAVE A ANIMATED CONVERSATION WITH YOURSELF IN PUBLIC – LOOK UP ALL THE TIME – SAY HELLO AND HOW ARE YOU TO EVERYONE, AND WAIT FOR A RESPONSE – WHEN PEOPLE ASK HOW YOU’RE DOING, TELL THEM ABOUT YOUR WHOLE DAY – WEAR YOUR CLOTHES BACKWARDS – VIOLATE PERSONAL SPACE (STAND/WALK CLOSE TO STRANGERS FOR SEVERAL MIN) – WHISPER WHEN YOU TALK / YELL WHEN YOU TALK

Violate a Social Norm PUBLIC BEHAVIOR – ASK STRANGERS IF YOU CAN CUT IN LINE. SAYING YOU DON’T FEEL LIKE WAITING. – FACE THE BACK OF THE ELEVATOR – GIVE HIGH FIVES TO TEACHERS / CLASSMATES – INTERRUPT CONVERSATIONS – BE TOO KIND TO OTHERS (JACKET OVER PUDDLES; OFFER FOOD TO STRANGERS) – WEAR THE WRONG CLOTHES (BUSINESS SUIT OR PROM DRESS, JEANS) – EAT DURING CHURCH – ASK A STRANGER TO DO A “QUICK BREATH CHECK”

BATHROOMS – TALK TO OTHERS WHILE THEY ARE BUSY IN ANOTHER STALL – ASK FOR THEIR TOILET PAPER CLASSROOM – SIT IN SOMEONE ELSE’S SEAT. – NEVER MAKE/BREAK EYE CONTACT WITH THE INSTRUCTOR – WRITE WITH CRAYONS ON HUGE LINED PAPER – SIT ON THE FRONT ROW AND PICK YOUR NOSE

DINING – EAT EVERYTHING WITH YOUR HANDS – EAT OFF OTHER PEOPLE’S PLATES – USE OVERLY FORMAL EATING ETIQUETTE WHEN EATING WITH FRIENDS OR FAMILY – WALK THROUGH THE DRIVE THROUGH – ASK A STRANGER TO GET YOU A REFILL – ASK A STRANGER IF YOU CAN FINISH THEIR LEFTOVERS PHONE – SAY "I LOVE YOU" WHEN ENDING EVERY CONVERSATION (FRIENDS AND STRANGERS) – ANSWER THE PHONE AND WAIT FOR THE OTHER PERSON TO SPEAK FIRST. – DON’T ATTEMPT TO FILL IN UNCOMFORTABLE PAUSES IN CONVERSATIONS

Cultural Norms —In Bang Chan, Thailand, face-to- face conflict must be avoided at all costs. The polite way to say “no” is to giggle. —In many societies where hunger is endemic, fat women are viewed as much more attractive than slender ones. —Hissing is a polite way to show respect for superiors in Japan. —In Japan, parents often hire an agency to investigate the background of their daughter’s potential marriage partner.

Cultural Norms —Leaving some food on the plate in India indicates the generosity of the host who has put so much food out that no one could eat it all. —In Thailand, PDA between men and women is unacceptable. But men holding hands is considered a sign of friendship. —In Latin cultures, children, especially girls, are socialized to value conformity to social norms. Rebelliousness and delinquency are rare. Mexican adolescents seldom rebel because that might bring shame to their families.

Ways of looking at Cultures ! Ethnocentrism - the principle of using one’s own

culture as a standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than ones own are abnormal.

Introduction to Sociology: Culture

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Who wants a snack? Cicadas, grasshoppers, and other insects on skewers for sale in Donghaumen Night Market in Beijing, China.

Ways of looking at Cultures ! Cultural relativism - the principle of understanding

other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging according to one’s own culture.

! When studying any group, it is important to try to employ cultural relativism because it helps sociologists see others more objectively.

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Big Ideas ! Culture is a lens through which we

view the world around us. ! It is also a filter that we are (mostly)

unaware modifies our perception of reality.

! Culture is bequeathed to us from our ancestors and we recreate it through interaction with other people.

Individualism and Collectivism Individualist Culture – individual goals > group goals

! success is measured by how far one stands out from the crowd. (ex: strong, assertive, independent)

! members are responsible for themselves and, perhaps, their immediate families.

! USA, Germany, Ireland, South Africa, Australia Collectivist Culture - group goals > individual goals

! success is measured by one’s contributions to the group as a whole. (ex: generous, helpful, dependable)

! members are responsible for the group as a whole. ! Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan, Argentina, Brazil, India

Social Psychology

! Risky shift phenomenon: you will risk as a group what you won’t risk as an individual

! Minority influence: a minority of people holding firmly to a conviction is more likely to sway a group than a minority that waffles.

#39. Self-Serving Bias The common human tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal characteristics, and one’s failures to factors beyond one’s control. (Jim Mora)

If you win it is because you are awesome…if you lose, it must have been the coach or weather or….

Prejudices can often lead to a…. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy •  A prediction that

causes itself to be true.

•  Rosenthal and Jacobson�s Pygmalion in the Classroom experiment.

How does prejudice occur? Just world Phenomenon •  Same story, different

ending… •  With both endings, both

female and male listeners viewed the woman's (identical) actions as inevitably leading to the (very different) results.

In-Group versus Out-Groups. •  In-Group Bias

•  Scapegoat Theory

Combating Prejudice #76 Contact Theory •  Contact between hostile groups reduces animosity

if they are made to work towards a superordinate goal.

•  Serif camp study – formation, conflict, resolution

Psychology of Aggression Two types of aggression 1. Instrumental Aggression 2. Hostile Aggression Theories of Aggression: •  Bandura�s Modeling •  Frustration-Aggression

Hypothesis

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Influences on Aggression Genetic Influences: Animals have been bred for aggressiveness for sport and at times for research. Twin studies show aggression may be genetic. In men, aggression is possibly linked to the Y chromosome. Neural Influences: Some centers in the brain, especially the limbic system (amygdala) and the frontal lobe, are intimately involved with aggression. Biochemical Influences: Animals with low amounts of testosterone (castration) become docile, but when injected with testosterone aggression increases. Prenatal exposure to testosterone increases aggression in female hyenas.

Acquiring Social Scripts

•  Movies and tv shows give us social scripts (mental images of how situations should play out).

•  When confronted with new situations, individuals rely on social scripts.

•  If social scripts are violent in nature, people may act them out.

•  Examples: Dating, Marriage, Insults, XXX

Do Video Games Teach or Release Violence?

Catharsis Hypothesis Violent video games breed violence.

Adolescents who play violent video games:

•  view the world as hostile •  get into more arguments

•  receive bad grades after playing such games.

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Summary

Attraction

3 Factors of Attraction

Proximity •  Geographic nearness Mere exposure effect: Repeated exposure to

something breeds liking. •  Taiwanese Letters

Similarity

•  Opposites do NOT attract.

•  Birds of the same feather do flock together.

•  Similarity breeds contentment.

Physical Attractiveness

The Hotty Factor •  Physically

attractiveness predicts dating frequency (they date more).

•  They are perceived as healthier, happier, more honest and successful than less attractive counterparts.

•  Luckily, attractiveness is NOT an indicator of self-confidence and happiness. Shew!

What is beauty?

Beauty and Culture

Obesity is so revered among Mauritania's white Moor Arab population that the young girls are sometimes force-fed to obtain a weight the government has described as "life-threatening".

Reciprocal Liking

•  You are more likely to like someone who likes you.

•  (Except in elementary school)

Are these cultures really that different?

•  We will: – Like people whose behavior is rewarding

to us – Continue relationships that offer more

rewards than costs

•  Proximity – easier to be together •  Attractive – socially rewarding &

aesthetically pleasing •  Similarity – validates our own opinions

& values

Reward theory of attraction

Two-factor theory of love

•  = physical arousal + cognitive appraisal •  (arousal from any source can enhance

any emotion, depending on how we interpret the arousal)

Suspension Bridge Experiment •  Aroused men were more attracted to an

attractive woman (and more likely to call her later)

•  passionate love – temporary romantic thrill •  compassionate love – enduring, deep,

affectionate attachment •  equity theory of relationships – when it exists

freely, marriage is more likely to last (#3 on a list of what’s important in marriage)

•  self-disclosure breeds liking and liking breed self-disclosure – deepens intimacy – writing about your feelings can also deepen them

What’s Love Got to Do with It?

Prosocial Behavior •  Kitty Genovese case in

Kew Gardens NY led to studies in altruism.

Bystander Effect: •  Conditions in which

people are more or less likely to help one another. In general, the more people around, the less chance of help… because of…

Diffusion of Responsibility Beach Blanket Experiment

Pluralistic Ignorance •  People decide what to

do by looking to others.

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Bystander Intervention The decision-making process for

bystander intervention.

The Norms for Helping

Social Exchange Theory: Our social behavior is an exchange process. The aim is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

!  Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that we should return help and not harm those who have helped us.

!  Social–Responsibility Norm: Largely learned, it is a norm that tells us to help others when they need us even though they may not repay us.

Graduated & Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT): This is a strategy

designed to decrease international tensions. One side recognizes mutual

interests and initiates a small conciliatory act that opens the door for reciprocation

by the other party.

Proven to increase trust and cooperation.

Peacemaking

Prisoners’ Dilemma

Conflict

Conflict is perceived as an incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

A Social Trap is a situation in which the

conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually

destructive behavior.

•  Nash explains the Prisoner’s dilemma •  Dilbert Prisoner’s Dilemma

A Game of Social Trap

By pursuing our self-interest and not trusting others, we can end up losers.

Win-Win Orientation

Vs.

Win-Lose Orientation

Halo Effect •  Without realizing it, we let one characteristic affect

our judgment of a whole person/object.

•  The attractive person is seen as kinder, healthier, etc.

•  The “warm” professor was seen as more attractive, with more likeable mannerisms and an appealing accent… but the respondents could not explain why they rated him that way, even when asked if their liking of him affected their judgment of him.

•  In business: “Harvard Classics” and designer jeans