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Running head: THE CHEMICAL SENSES

The Chemical Senses:

Gender, Menstrual Cycle, Pheromones,

and Memories

Amy R. Klebs

Wisconsin Lutheran College

April 4, 2003

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Abstract

The chemical senses of smell and taste have been found to correlate with each other, as well

as gender, menstrual cycle, pheromones, and memories. The current study attempts to measure

the degree of relationship between these variables among 25 men and women at a Midwestern

college in the United States. Instruments to measure the variables include a smell and taste test

using beer, as well as a demographics sheet with questions on dating status and menstrual cycle.

Participants are split into two different groups for each variable based on their answers for the

instruments, and descriptive statistics are obtained. According to the results, individuals that

passed the smell test were likely to pass the taste test. Females included in the pre-ovulatory high

hormone group appeared to be slightly better at smelling and tasting than males or the low

hormone group. Finally, those not involved in a dating relationship seemed to have a somewhat

better ability to discriminate stimuli based on smell than individuals involved in a dating

relationship.

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The Chemical Senses: Gender, Menstrual Cycle, Pheromones, and Memories

The current pilot study attempts to measure the differences between the strength of the sense

of smell and the sense of taste with smell. This study also includes gender differences between

taste and smell, as well as the relationship of smell with menstrual cycle and also with

pheromones. The researcher also collected associations of smell and taste with memories among

the participants. There are five main questions the research wishes to answer: a) are the variables

of taste and smell with the stimulus of beer correlated? b) is smell or taste better in women than

in men? c) during or near ovulation, is olfaction especially enhanced in women? d) do

pheromones also enhance olfaction? and e) what memories are associated with the smell and

taste of beer?

Previous findings indicate that women are better at recognizing smells than men, and this

reaches a peak during ovulation (Brand and Millot, 2001; Koelega, 1994; Forsyth, 1976). Since

the definition of flavor includes odor (Chifala and Polzella, 1995), then it follows that women

would be better at recognizing tastes, as well. Most mammals give off pheromones to attract the

opposite sex for reproduction, so it follows that humans may give off pheromones, too (Forsyth,

1976). Olfactory capability is determined through a smell test with the stimulus of alcoholic beer,

and taste capability is determined through a taste test with the same stimuli. Amount of

pheromones given off are operationalized through determining whether the participant is dating

anyone, with the thought that more pheromones are given off and taken in from one who is

single and looking to date.

Literature Review

Many researchers have studied taste and the mechanics behind it (Patton, 1950; Peron and

Allen, 1988). Patton (1950) found that taste buds respond to chemicals in the blood. For instance,

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if a person has a high amount of alcohol in the blood, there would be less of a need for alcohol

on the taste buds to respond. Conversely, a person with a low amount of alcohol in the blood

would need a higher concentration on the taste buds in order to respond. Taste has also been

found to be an effective tool for differentiation. Peron & Allen (1988) discovered that learning

by taste is the best way to differentiate between beers rather than through other methods such as

verbally learning the differences. In humans, Kunz (1993) found that men preferred lower priced

ice cream based on taste and women preferred higher priced ice cream according to taste. Neither

gender knew how much nor what brand the ice creams were.

Studies have observed gender differences associated with taste (Cailhol & Mormede, 2002;

Krecek, 1972). Krecek (1972) found that in a particular strain of rats, the sex differences in

tasting some substances begins during sexual maturation but can be combated by a dose of the

sex hormone testosterone. The study found this effective particularly when the rats tasted salt

(Krecek, 1972). Cailhol and Mormede (2002) found that in a strain of hyperactive rats, females

drank more alcohol than males after having an injection of ethanol paired with the sweet taste of

a sugar mixture and then later receiving free access to alcohol.

Many studies have also assessed gender differences and olfaction (Brand and Millot, 2001;

Koelega, 1994; Forsyth, 1976). Patton (1950) found that certain species of animals have different

sensitivities to particular scents. For example, since cats are carnivores, their olfaction is very

sensitive to blood and meat and not so much to flowers or plants (Patton, 1950). Brand and

Millot (2001) found that women have a higher opinion of their smelling capabilities than men.

They also found that differences in smelling capabilities between genders increase with age.

There also seems to be a physical difference in size between the nasal cavities of men and

women, with the sense of smell correlating positively with the size (Brand & Millot, 2001).

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Some studies have definitely shown that women have a better ability to smell biological scents

(Forsyth, 1976; Koelega, 1994). The sex differences that are observed are also found greater

during the female menstrual cycle, and it peaks during ovulation due to the hormones cycling

through the woman’s body (Brand & Millot, 2001; Forsyth, 1976). Many hormones have been

found to peak during ovulation (Berne and Levy, 1988). These hormones include estrogen,

progesterone, and testosterone, which could influence the chemical senses.

There have been few studies using alcoholic beverages as an effective measure for smell and

taste (Peron & Allen, 1988). Most have found results consistent with other studies indicating that

smell and taste are correlated (Chifala and Polzella, 1995; Charters, Lockshin and Unwin, 1999).

In the study conducted by Chifala and Polzella (1995), the researchers found that the flavor of

some alcoholic drinks is enhanced by the smell of these drinks. Charters, Lockshin and Unwin

(1999) found the most important qualities to the consumers on a wine label described taste and

aroma.

There may be some evidence showing that pheromones play a role in the sense of smell as

well (Forsyth, 1976). In the article, “Good Scents and Bad” Adrian Forsyth (1976) discusses the

difference between female and male scents and the manner in which males present their scents to

females. The author concentrates on animals, and gives examples such as beavers, which

produce pheromones containing over 50 different chemicals (Forsyth, 1976). Given most

mammals produce and use pheromones, it follows that humans may produce and use

pheromones as well. Many researchers have observed and investigated the hormone

androstenone, coming to the conclusion that it may possibly be the human equivalent to a

pheromone and that humans release and detect this chemical (Brand & Millot, 2001).

Other studies have shown that smell is correlated with memory imprinting (Glaeske and

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Boehlke, 2002; Forsyth, 1976; Erickson and Leide, 1992). Glaeske & Boehlke report that smell

receptors are connected directly to the limbic system, the place in the brain responsible for

memories. Erickson and Leide (1992) discussed a study done by National Geographic that

included one and a half million people. The magazine gave scratch and sniff strips with questions

about the memories they invoked. One of the things this study discovered was that the stronger

the odor, the more likely it would bring up a memory (Erickson & Leide, 1992). National

Geographic also found that bad odors bring up memories just as much as good odors do. Finally,

the study found that smells may bring up memories from many years before, not just recent

memories (Erickson & Leide, 1992).

The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between taste and smell and how

they relate to gender, menstrual cycle and pheromones, and also to determine what memories are

associated with the taste and smell of beer. The hypothesis is that the smell and taste of alcohol

are stronger in women than in men, and that the olfaction capabilities of women are at their

greatest during the middle of the menstrual cycle during ovulation. Furthermore, humans have

been found to release and detect the hormone androstenone, which acts as a pheromone. This

may aid in smelling capabilities of people who are single but looking for a relationship, although

there is no empirical evidence to support this operational definition. The researcher has

hypothesized that the lack of a dating relationship may positively correlate with smell

capabilities, and this may reflect the amount of pheromones, or sex hormones that are given off.

In other words, one who is single and looking for a dating relationship will give off more

pheromones than either one who is single and not looking or one who is currently dating.

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Method

Participants

The researcher used convenience sampling from the lab of a biology class to determine

participation. Permission was also obtained for using moderate amounts of beer on the college

campus. Twenty-five individuals from a small college in the Midwestern United States

participated in the sample, including 16 females (64 %) and nine males (36 %), ranging in age

from 18-36 (M = 21.92, SD = 4.38). The participants included 23 Caucasians (92 %) and two that

marked ‘other’ (8%). Of the 25 participants, two freshmen (8 %), three sophomores (12 %), eight

juniors (32 %), and 10 seniors (40 %) participated, with two that marked ‘other’ (8 %).

The researcher then split the participants’ answers from the demographics survey based on

either dating or not dating and pre-ovulatory or post-ovulatory status. According to their

responses, the researcher included fourteen participants (56 %) in the dating group and 11

participants (44 %) in the non-dating group. The researcher split the participants into a pre-

ovulatory or post-ovulatory group in two different ways. In the pre-ovulatory group, male

participants and female participants that marked they were at the end of their menstrual cycle, at

the beginning, or just past the middle were included in the low hormone group. The researcher

included female participants that marked they were near the middle of their cycle and ovulating

or had just finished menstruation (and expecting to ovulate) into the pre-ovulatory high hormone

group. Based on these criteria, participants in the low hormone group numbered 17 (68 %), and,

in the high hormone group, included eight (32 %). In the post-ovulatory group, all male

participants, as well as female participants that determined they were at the end of their

menstrual cycle, at the beginning of their cycle, or had just finished menstruation (before

ovulation) were considered low hormone. The researcher included females that were in the

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middle of their cycle and ovulating or just past the middle in the post-ovulatory high hormone

group. The participants in the post-ovulatory low hormone group included 21 (84 %) and

participants in the high hormone group included four (16 %).

Instruments

The researcher created a smell and taste assessment which included malt beverages (beer),

which served as the first instrument. The researcher brought each individual participant into a

quiet office where approximately 1 ½ ounces of three different brands of the beverage (Miller

High Life, Leinenkugel’s Original, and Pabst Blue Ribbon) had been poured into four 3-ounce

cups, with the first beverage repeated in one of the last three cups. The researcher consistently

used Miller High Life as the standard beverage, and, therefore, always had this brand in the first

cup, alternating which of the last three cups had Miller with each participant. This was done in

an attempt to control for carry-over effects among the participants. The researcher labeled the

location on the table where the cup was placed so that the participant could not see the label. The

participant then took one deep breath of each beverage through the nose lasting approximately

one to five seconds. The participant then replaced the cup and breathes air in and out through the

nose for 15 seconds between each smell of beverage, to avoid confounding the smells of the

beverages. The participant is only allowed to do the smell test once. The participant then drank

each of the five beers as the taste test, eating an unsalted soda cracker between each beer.

The second part of this study included a paper and pencil survey that required participants to

respond to specific questions regarding the smell and taste test and also serves as a guideline for

the tests (see Appendix A). The ‘Smell’ section of the survey instructs the participant, “As you

smell the beers, if any thoughts/memories/emotions come to mind, please report them.” It then

requires the participant to smell the first beer and supplies a space to allow participants to

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comment. The survey instructs the participants to inhale and exhale for 15 seconds, and these

same instructions and questions are repeated for the second, third, and fourth beers, with spaces

provided for thoughts. At the end of the ‘Smell’ section the participant is asked to rate which

beer, according to smell, is the same as the first beer. The ‘Taste’ portion of the survey includes

the same instructions, questions, and spaces for thoughts as the ‘Smell’ portion, only regarding

taste of the beer. The researcher asks the participant to eat an unsalted soda cracker between each

beer rather than inhaling and exhaling for 15 seconds. At the end of this section, the survey

requires the participant to rate which beer, according to taste, is the same as the first beer. The

researcher scores the survey based on nominal data, according to passing or failing the smell test

and passing or failing the taste test for each participant. There were no attempts to establish

reliability or validity scores for the smell and taste test at this point.

The third instrument includes a demographics survey constructed by the researcher (see

Appendix B). This survey addresses gender, age, year in school, and ethnical background. The

researcher included a question on the participant’s beliefs about his/her own abilities at

identifying scents. Also, the survey inquires on whether scents smell overwhelming to him/her

when others do not perceive scents. A question was included inquiring on their physical health to

determine if the participant had a cold, which may inhibit smelling and tasting abilities. Three

questions were also included about the beer stimulus; one requiring the participants to rate how

he/she likes the taste of beer, another requiring the participants to estimate the amount of beer

they drink per week, and the last requiring the participants to rate whether he/she drinks the beer

all at once or spread out through the week. The researcher also included a question in the

demographics regarding dating status of the participant. If the participant answered yes, that

he/she was dating someone, he/she was asked the length of time they had been with their

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significant other. If the participant answered no, he/she was asked if they were looking to date

anyone or preferred to be single. The final question was for female participants, dividing their

menstrual cycle into five parts: Beginning (having period), just finished period, middle (near

ovulation), just past middle (haven’t had period in 3-4 weeks), and end (expect period soon) and

requiring them to choose the answer that best applies to them. The researcher divided all

participants into one of two categories based on their answers for each of the following; the smell

test, the taste test, gender, dating status and menstrual cycle.

Procedure

Participants gathered in a biology lab of the college in preparation for their class. The

researcher distributed and summarized the contents of an informed consent to the student before

beginning the study. Each student signed the informed consent, handing back one copy to the

researcher and keeping the other. The researcher informed the participants they could leave at

any time and may discontinue participation with no repercussion. The researcher then handed the

participants the demographics survey to complete. To avoid the influence of participants on each

other, the researcher individually took each participant in the office of the professor where the

four cups of malt beverages had been set up. Before the study began, the researcher collected the

demographics survey. The participant then began the first part of the smell test by breathing in

the smell of each beverage; with the 15 second break in between. The researcher asked the

participant to write down any thoughts, feeling, or memories that came to mind with each beer.

After the participant had answered which beer they thought was the same as the first, they

continued with the taste part of the test. Again, the researcher asked that any thoughts, feeling, or

memories of the participant be written down. After the participant finished the taste test, the

researcher told the participant which was the correct beer and thanked them for their time.

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Results

Smell and Taste

Multiple studies have been conducted on gender differences of taste and smell and the

relationship of these variables to pheromones and menstrual cycle. Since the definition of flavor

includes smell, the researcher has hypothesized that taste and smell are correlated. Out of the 25

participants, seven (28 %) passed the smell test and 18 (72 %) failed the smell test. Also, 12

(48 %) participants passed the taste test and 13 (52 %) failed the taste test. Out of the seven that

passed the smell test, six (86 %) also passed the taste test and one (14 %) also failed the taste

test. Out of the 18 participants that failed the smell test, six (33 %) also passed the taste test and

12 (67 %) also failed the taste test. This suggests that a participant who passes the smell test is

very likely to pass the taste test as well (see Table 1).

Table 1

Percentages of Participants That Passed or Failed the Taste and/or Smell Test

Pass Smell Fail Smell

Pass Taste

86 % 33 %

Fail Taste

14 % 67 %

Gender Differences

Based on previous research, the researcher also hypothesized that females possess better

abilities to smell and taste. Out of the nine males that participated (36 %), two (22 %) passed the

smell test and seven (78 %) failed the smell test. Out of the 16 females that participated (64 %),

five (31 %) passed the smell test and 11 (69 %) failed the smell test. Out of the nine males that

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participated, four (44 %) passed the taste test and five (56 %) failed the taste test. Out of the 16

females that participated, eight (50 %) passed the taste test and eight (50 %) failed the taste test.

These results suggest that women have a slightly better ability to identify the beers by smell or

by both smell and taste than males (see Table 2).

Table 2

Gender Differences in Tasting and Smelling

Total Pass Smell Fail Smell Pass Taste Fail Taste

Male 36 % 22 % 78 % 44 % 56 %

Female 64 % 31 % 69 % 50 % 50 %

Ovulation

Previous research has also shown that the ability of women to smell better than men is at the

greatest difference during ovulation. Therefore the researcher has hypothesized that the women

who are ovulating or near ovulation will do better on the test than men. The researcher divided

the participants into a pre-ovulatory and a post-ovulatory group. In the pre-ovulatory group, out

of the 25 participants, a total of 17 (68 %) were placed in the low hormone group and eight (32

%) were placed in the high hormone group. Out of the 17 participants included in the low

hormone group, five (29 %) passed the smell test and 12 (71 %) failed the smell test. Of the

participants in the low hormone group, seven (41 %) passed the taste test and 10 (59 %) failed

the taste test. Out of the eight participants that scored in the high hormone group, two (25 %)

passed the smell test and six (75 %) failed the smell test. Of these eight participants, five (63 %)

passed the taste test and three (38 %) failed the taste test. These results suggest that participants

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in the pre-ovulatory group included in the high hormone group were better at identifying the

beers by taste than the participants in the low hormone group (see Table 3).

Table 3

Smell and Taste of Pre-Ovulatory Group

Total Pass Smell Fail Smell Pass Taste Fail Taste

Low Hormone

68 % 29 % 71 % 41 % 59 %

High Hormone

32 % 25 % 75 % 63 % 38 %

In the post-ovulatory group, out of the 25 participants, a total of 21 individuals (84 %) were

placed into the low hormone group and four (16 %) were placed into the high hormone group. In

the low hormone group, six participants (29 %) passed the smell test and 15 (71 %) failed the

smell test. Of the participants in the low hormone group, 11 (52 %) passed the taste test and 10

(48 %) failed the taste test. In the high hormone group, one participant (25 %) passed the smell

test and three (75 %) failed the smell test. Of the participants that scored in the high hormone

Table 4

Smell and Taste of the Post-Ovulatory Group

Total Pass Smell Fail Smell Pass Taste Fail Taste

Low hormone

84 % 29 % 71 % 52 % 48 %

High hormone

16 % 25 % 75 % 25 % 75 %

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group, one (25 %) passed the taste test and three (75 %) failed the taste test. The same three

participants that scored in the high hormone group that also failed the smell test, failed the taste

test as well. The one participant that scored in the high hormone group that also passed the smell

test, passed the taste test as well (see Table 4).

Pheromones

Although there is no research stating that dating is correlated to pheromone production and

release, the researcher used dating to operationally define the amount of pheromones produced

and released. Therefore, the researcher hypothesized that an individual in a dating relationship

would have an reduced ability to smell. Out of the 25 participants, the researcher included 14 (56

%) as dating and 11 (44 %) as not dating, based on their answers. Out of the 14 participants that

were dating three (21 %) passed the smell test and 11 (79 %) failed the smell test. Of the 11

participants not dating, four (36 %) passed the smell test and 7 (64 %) failed the smell test. Of

the 14 participants that were dating, seven (50 %) passed the taste and seven (50 %) failed the

taste test. Out of the 11 participants that were not dating, five (45 %) passed the taste test and

(55 %) failed the taste test. These results suggest that participants in the category of “Not

Dating” did slightly better at identifying the beers by smell than participants in the “Dating”

category (see Table 5).

Table 5

Taste and Smell in Participants Dating and Not Dating

Total Passed Smell Failed Smell Passed Taste Failed Taste

Dating 56 % 21 % 79 % 50 % 50 %

Not Dating 44 % 36 % 64 % 45 % 55 %

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The memories of the participant associated with beer had some interesting results (see

Appendix C). First, only nine participants (36 %) wrote down memories they had associated with

beers. Of these nine participants, the results showed that six females (67 %) and three males

(33 %) wrote down memories. In addition, eight (89 %) had memories associated with smell and

five (56 %) had memories associated with taste. Finally, of the nine participants that wrote down

memories, all nine (100 %) had memories associated with Miller High Life, four (44 %) had

memories associated with Pabst Blue Ribbon, and four (44 %) had memories associated with

Leinenkugel’s Original.

Discussion

According to the results, there are hints of relationships among the variables of smell,

taste, pheromone release, menstrual cycle, and gender. Numerous studies have shown that smell

and taste are correlated (Chifala and Polzella, 1995; Patton, 1950; Peron and Allen, 1988). Based

on the percentages obtained, the results may imply that individuals who are able to discriminate

stimuli based on smell will also be better able to discriminate based on taste. Studies have also

shown that pheromones aid in smelling abilities (Forsyth, 1976; Brand & Millot, 2001). The

results may suggest that those individuals not involved in a dating relationship may have a better

ability to discriminate stimuli based on smell than those involved in a dating relationship.

Perhaps those not dating are physiologically set to receive signals while those dating have

reduced their receptors. Other studies have determined that females are better at smelling and

tasting than males, and it reaches a peak during or near ovulation (Brand and Millot, 2001;

Koelega, 1994; Forsyth, 1976). The results of this study show that females do have a slightly

better ability to discriminate between stimuli based on smell or smell with taste than males. The

results also show that high levels of hormones during or right before ovulation may aid in

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identifying and discriminating between stimuli. It is also interesting to note that those considered

having high hormones during or right after ovulation either passed both tests or failed both tests.

This may imply that amount of hormones and ability to smell or smell and taste are directly

related. Further research should be conducted to determine whether there are any direct and

significant relationships of smell and smell with taste to gender, pheromones, and menstrual

cycle.

Although the researcher did not make a specific hypothesis on the correlation of memory with

smell and taste, some interesting results were observed. First of all, more females than males

recorded memories from the smell and taste of the beers, which may mean that females have

more of an emotional response to smells and tastes than men. Also, more individuals wrote down

memories associated with smell than memories associated with taste, which supports the

research stating that olfaction is directly connected to memory. Finally, more individuals wrote

down memories associated with Miller High Life than for Pabst or Leinenkugels by a ratio

slightly greater than 2:1. There may be at least two reasons for this difference. First, Miller High

Life was used as the standard. In other words, all participants smelled Miller first and compared

the other beers to this one. Perhaps if the other beers were also used as the standard, the ratio

would be different. The second reason for the difference is that all the participants in the study

attended a school in the Milwaukee area, and this city is known for its breweries, especially

Miller breweries. Furthermore, the German-American culture tends to accept beer drinking at

social gatherings and sometimes children are even allowed to taste it, perhaps leading to an

increase in memories associated with the beers.

Other limitations exist in this study. First, the individuals participated based on volunteering

and convenience from a biology lab. The sample is not representative to any population except

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itself. Second, although the sample size was adequate for a pilot study, the female to male ratio

was not. The amount of males numbered only half that of females, which may have skewed the

data. Also, the instruments have no reliability or validity scores because the researcher made

them, so the test may not actually be consistently measuring the correlations between the

variables. For example, the question on dating has no empirical evidence to support the

researcher’s hypothesis that dating increases pheromone production and release. In addition, the

participant was able to use their smelling abilities in tasting the beer, which would explain the

significant correlation among smell and taste. There may also be some social desirability in the

answers to the questions on dating and menstrual cycle, or perhaps the females did not know

exactly where they were in their cycles. Also, young females are relatively irregular in their

cycles, which may contribute to confounding of hormones groups. Another confounding variable

brought to the researcher’s attention was that some women in the study might be on birth control

for various health reasons. Since women on birth control do not ovulate, this may have

confounded the results for the correlation of taste and smell and menstrual cycle.

Many questions arise from the results of this study. First of all, previous research has

determined that there is a gender difference in smell and taste and this study shows only some

advantage for females. Therefore it would be of interest to conduct many more replication

studies on different samples to see when a significant difference is observed. Also, perhaps a

different stimulus should be used instead of beer, such as soda or food. In addition, maybe many

foods or smells should be used to observe differences in many different types of smells and

tastes. Perhaps a longitudinal study would be of some help in determining whether the menstrual

cycle and/or estrogen does play a role in smelling and tasting abilities. Other studies that could

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better operationalize pheromones may be important in determining their correlation with the

variables of taste and smell, as well.

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References

Brand, G., and Millot, J. L. (2001) Sex differences in human olfaction: Between evidence and

enigma. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54B, 3, 259-270.

Berne, R. M., and Levy, M. N. (Eds.). (1988) Physiology (2nd ed.). St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co.

Cailhol, S., and Mormede, P. (2002) Conditioned taste aversion and alcohol drinking: Strain and

gender differences. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63, 1, 91-99.

Charters, S., Lockshin, L., and Unwin, T. (1999) Consumer responses to wine bottle back labels.

Journal of Wine Research, 10, 3, 183-195.

Chifala, W. M., and Polzella, D. J. (1995) Smell and taste classification of the same stimuli.

Journal of General Psychology, 122, 3, 287-295.

Erikson, L., and Leide, K. (1992) Touch, taste, and smell the memories. Activities, Adaptation,

and Aging, 16, 3, 25-39.

Forsyth, A. Good scents and bad. (1976) Natural History, 85, 11, 25-32.

Glaeske, K. W., and Boehlke, P. R. (2002) Making sense of terpenes: An exploration into

biological chemistry. American Biology Teacher, 64, 3, 208-211.

Koelega, H. S. (1994) Sex differences in olfactory sensitivity and the problem of the generality

of smell acuity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 1, 203-213.

Krecek, J. (1972) Sex differences in salt taste: The effect of testosterone. Physiology & Behavior,

10, 4, 683-688.

Kunz, J. (1993) Ice cream preference: Gender differences in taste and quality. Perceptual and

Motor Skills, 77, 3, 1097-1098.

Patton, H. D. (1950) Physiology of taste and smell. Annual Review of Physiology, 12, 469-484.

Peron, R. M., and Allen, G. L. (1988) Attempts to train novices for beer flavor discrimination: A

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matter of taste. The Journal of General Psychology, 115, 4, 403-418.

The researcher would like to thank Dr. Paul Boehlke and Dr. Leanne Olson for their help in

writing this document.

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Appendix A Smell

As you smell the beers, if any thoughts/memories/emotions come to mind, please report them.

Carefully smell beer #1: Any thoughts? _____________________________________________

Inhale and exhale for 15 seconds.

Smell beer #2: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________

Inhale and exhale for 15 seconds.

Smell beer #3: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________

Inhale and exhale for 15 seconds.

Smell beer #4: Any thoughts? _____________________________________________________

Which beer, according to smell, is the same as beer #1? _________________________________

Taste

As you taste the beers, if any thoughts/memories/emotions come to mind, please report them.

Eat a saltine cracker.

Carefully drink beer #1: Any thoughts? _____________________________________________

Eat a saltine cracker.

Drink beer #2: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________

Eat a saltine cracker.

Drink beer #3: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________

Eat a saltine cracker.

Drink beer #4: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________

Which beer, according to taste, is the same as beer #1? _________________________________

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Appendix B

Demographics Survey

Gender: M_____ F_____

Age: ________

Grade: Fresh___ Soph___ Jr___ Sr___ other/none___

Major: CHE___ BIO___ PSY___ other/none___

Race: Caucasian___ Afr.Amer.___ other___

Do you think you’re good at identifying scents? Y___ N___

Do scents smell overwhelming to you when they don’t to others? Y___ N___

Do you have a cold? Y___ N___ If yes, where? Nose/sinuses___ other___

Do you like the taste of beer? Yes___ Okay___ Not preferable___ Not at all___

How often do you drink beer: less than 2 glasses per week____ 3-7 glasses per week____ more than 8 glasses per week____

Do you drink them all in one time or spread them out through the week: All at once_____ Spread out____

Are you dating anyone: Y____ N____ If yes, for how long: <1 mo.____ 1-4 mos.____ 5-9mos____ over 10 mos.____ If no, are you looking to date, or do prefer to be single? Looking to date___

Prefer to be single___ LADIES ONLY: (you do not have to answer if uncomfortable, just say, “I’ll pass on this question.) If we divide your menstrual cycle into five parts, where are you in your cycle? Beginning (having period)____ Just finished period____ Middle (near ovulation, haven’t had period in 2-2 ½ weeks)____ Just past middle (haven’t had period in 3-4 weeks)____ End (expect period soon)____

Senses 23

Appendix C

Memories & Associations:

“Friday…meetings”

“Monday: drank too much”

“Relaxing, bars…good memories…hot tub…Saturday night”

“Summerfest…my dad…fun at the bar…at home”

“Pleasant, brewery tours as child”

“Going out with friends to the bar…Summerfest…going to Chancery”

“Party where [I] got sick”

“Summerfest 2002…people at [a bar]”

“Lemon”

“My dad’s beer…weird…going to cottage, my dad”