sambor prei kuk,

KINGDOMOFCAMBODIANATIONRELIGIONKING

MINISTRYOFCULTUREANDFINEARTS

SAMBORPREIKUK,ARCHAEOLOGICALSITERepresentingtheCulturalLANDSCAPEofAncient

Ishanapura

REQUESTFORINSCRIPTIONONTHEWORLDHERITAGELIST

CambodianNationalCommissionforUNESCO

Glossary

Brahma ‐ The Creator of all things, originally conceived as the deification of Brahma,becomingtheprincipledeityoftherimurti(withVishnuandShiva).Brahmahasfourheads,andfourarmsholdingscepter,rosary,bowandalmsbowl.

Chenla–Thename“Chenla”,likethenameFunan,comesfromChinesereportsonCambodia.

Durga‐ConsortofShivainherterribleform;alsocalledKali,Chandri,Bhairavi.

Flyingpalace ‐ Term used to describe a small depiction of a building or celestial palacesupportedbywingedorflyingFig.soranimals.InHindumythologie,knownasthepalaceofIndra.

Funan‐TheoldestIndianizedstateintodays’SouthVietnamandprecursorofChenlaandnotknowninKhmerepigraphy.ThenameisonlyfoundinChineserecordsofcontactswithFunan,contactswhichbeganaround230A.D.

Gambhiresavara‐“TheGodofSeriousness”,“TheGodoftheDepths”or‘hiddenknowledge’andassociatedwith7thcenturyworshipderivedfromIndia.

Harihara‐‘Hari=Vishnu;‘Hara’=Shiva;Deitycombinationoftwogodsseenasthesynthesisof the twoHinducults.Harihara isdepictedwith theVishnu tiaraon theonesideandtheShiva’spleatedlocksontheother.

Indic‐refersto/relatedtoIndia

Isvara‐Sanskritmeaning‘lord’,generallyreferringtoShiva.

K‐Indicatestheinscriptionnumberasuniversalyinventorized.

kendi(kundika)‐formofpotterywithalongneckwithaspoutswellingatthebase.ItisfoundinHinduiconographyasanattributeofBrahmaandhissaktiBrahmaniandofSarasvatitheGoddessofLearning;associatedwithBuddhismasanattributeofAvalokitesvara.

Kudu‐Anichegenerallycontainingahead,decoratingthetransomsoftemplesinSouthIndiaandSoutheastAsia.

Makara‐Seamonsterwithscales,clawsandalargehead,oftenintheformofacrocodile,sometimeswiththetrunkofanelephant.

Mahishasura ‐ A demonwhowon a greatmythical battle against the gods and taken upresidenceintheirheavenafterhavingexpelledtowanderhomelessonearth.

Mandela‐InSanskritmeaningcircle;usedasatermforamodelfordescribingpatternsofdiffused political power distributed among principalities in early Southeast Asian history;

adaptedinthe20thcenturybyWesternHistoriansfromancientIndianpoliticaldiscourseasameansofavoidingtheterm“state”.

Mandapa‐Apavilionwithinofthetemplestructure,anantechamber infrontofthemainsanctuary.

Nagara‐Sanskritforcityorcapital(Angkor).

Narasimba ‐ Man‐lion; Vishnu is described as being in this form when he killedHiranyakashipu(BhagavataPuranaVII,8‐9);symbolofdivinestrengthandvalor.

Narasimbagupta‐Acombinationofthenarasimba(man‐lion)andguptaderivedfromgoptrimeaningmilitarygovernor,rulerorprotector;rulingdynastyofanempireinIndiac320CE‐c6thcenturyCE.

O‐Minorwaterstream.

Prahasiteshvara ‐ “The God of Smile”, officially introduced in Ishanapura by its founderIshanavarmanIinthe7thcentury.

Poñ‐AKhmertitleofauthority;chiefofasettlementorseveralhamlet–sizedcommunities.

Prasat‐Temple,homeofthegods.

Purana‐CollectionofHindumythsandlegends.

Sakti–Power,energy,anactiveforceofaGodpersonifiedinhisfemininecounterpart,alsospouseofaGod.

Sanskrit‐AncientIndianlanguageandscriptusedintheKhmerempire;alanguageintheIndo‐aryanbranchofIndo‐European,andtheliterarylanguageofHindureligioustext.

Shastra‐Instructionbookormanual

Silpashastra ‐ Ancient India texton art giving guidelines for architecture, sculpture, andpainting.

Steung‐Waterstream.

Vajimukha‐Sanskritfor‘horseface’;representsoneofthetwoequineformsofVishnu.

Vedic‐PertainingtotheVeda,thefoundationoftheHindureligion.

Vishnudharmottara‐AHindutextdedicatedtothearts;anappendixtotheVishnuPurana,afundamentalVishnucanon.

TimeLine

1st‐6thcentury:Funan,oneofitscapitalsAngkorBorei,firstIndianizedstate,geographicallysituatedinpresentSoutheastCambodiaandSouthVietnam.

Late6th‐8thcentury:Chenla,CapitalIshanapura,firstKhmerizedstate,geographicallysituatedinpresentcentralCambodia,provinceofKampongThom.

9th‐15thcentury:Angkor,capitalAngkor,GreatKhmerEmpirerulingoverlargepartsofSoutheastAsia.

1st‐6thcentury:Funan;Late6th‐8thcentury:Chenla;9th‐15thcentury:Angkor

AveryimportantfoundingperiodInmanyways theChenlastate,with itscapitalofAncientIshanapura (first known asBhavapura) can be seen as averyimportantfoundingperiodinthehistoryofSoutheastAsia:1. Religion:TheHindu andBuddhist religions,with theintroductionoftheHariharaandSakabrahmanacultsgetafirmholdintheregionandwilldefinethebeliefsystemsforcenturiestocome.

2. Ideology: The introduction of the God‐King conceptwith a centralized state administration will leave alastingimprintintheregionandwillonlydiminishinimportanceatthebeginningofthe20thcentury.

3. Language:ThefirstintroductionofKhmerasuniversallanguagenexttoSanskritwillhavealastingimpactonlanguagesstillspokenandwrittenintheSoutheastAsiaregion.

4. Technology/hydrology:ThetraditionofdrainingwaterinwaterrichareasintheMekongDelta(OcEo,AngkorBorei) for agriculture and navigation purposes istransformed to the techniqueof catchingand storingwaterindryerinlandareas(SamborPreiKuk,Angkor)

5. Architecture:Sandstoneelementsarebeingintroducedinapurelybricktradition.AfterSamborPreiKuk,moreand more sandstone elements will be used inarchitectureastocometothesoleuseof lateriteandsandstoneintheAngkorperiod.

Fig. 1 Prasat Chrei (N 18) is square in plan with three false storeys in gentle retreat. Its

walls are undecorated save for three false doors projecting from the central planes; the

false doors are modelled to represent miniature monuments. The fourth façade is

occupied by the single doorway; the jambs have an inscription from the time of

Ishanavarman I, (Brukoff, B. and Jessup, H.I., 2011, p. 19).

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Chapternumber

Pagenumber

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

1. IDENTIFICATIONOFTHEPROPERTY 14

2. DESCRIPTIONOFTHEPROPERTY 17

3. JUSTIFICATIONFORINSCRIPTION 60

4. STATEOFCONSERVATIONANDFACTORSAFFECTINGTHEPROPERTY

96

5. PROTECTIONANDMANAGEMENT 100

6. MONITORING 109

7. DOCUMENTATION 112

8. CONTACTINFORMATIONOFRESPONSIBLEAUTHORITIES 127

9. SIGNATUREONBEHALFOFTHESTATEPARTY 131

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

StateParty

KingdomofCambodia

State,Province,Region

KampongThomprovince,communeofSambor,anddistrictofPrasatSambor

NameofProperty

SamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteRepresentingtheCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapura

Geographiccoordinatestothenearestsecond

Point Zero: WGS84E 503808 ‐ N 1423012. Point Zero is situated on the point at theapproximatecenterofPrasatTaoGrouporCentralGroup(C)ofthemuchlargerSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteRepresentingtheCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapura

Textualdescriptionoftheboundaryofthenominatedproperty

The1354.2haislocatedonthewestbankoftheSteungSen(river)inanareathatcontainslowlands,amarsh,andplateau.Theentirepropertyissituatedonagentleinclinefromnorthtosouthinarelativelyflatareawithanelevationof2mto10m.Smallriverspunctuatethelowerareas.Theplaceisamixtureofricepaddy,tropicalforest,andsubsistencehabitation.TheareacomprisestheculturalsiteofSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalGroupestablishedbytheReformoftheRoyalDecreeof24December2014.

NominationFileforInscriptionontheWorldHeritageListofSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteRepresentingtheCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapura

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CriteriaunderWhichthePropertyisNominated

TheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteRepresentingtheCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapuraisnominatedfortheWorldHeritageListundercriteria(ii),(iii)and(vi):

Criteria(ii):exhibitanimportantinterchangeofhumanvalues,overaspanoftimeorwithinaculturalareaof theworld,ondevelopments inarchitectureor technology,monumentalarts,town‐planningorlandscapedesign.

Criteria (iii):bearauniqueor at least exceptional testimony to a cultural traditionor to acivilizationwhichislivingorwhichhasdisappeared.

Criteria(vi):bedirectlyortangiblyassociatedwitheventsorlivingtraditions,withideas,orwithbeliefs,withartisticandliteraryworksofoutstandinguniversalsignificance.

DraftStatementofOutstandingUniversalValue

(a) Briefsynthesis

TheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalandCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapura(firstknownasBhavapura),ancientcapitaloftheChenlaEmpire,isthemostimportantsitefor6th ‐7thCenturySoutheastAsia, showingavery complex cityplanningonmonumentalscale(harbor,causeways,hydraulicstructures,religiouscomplexesintroducingoctagonalarchitectureandmoatedhabitationzone)andauniqueiconographycurrentlyknownasthe“SamborPreiKukStyle”.

Politically,administrativelyandspiritually,thecapitalresonatedfarbeyonditsborderswithcentralrule(introductionoftheKing‐Godconcept)andadministrationtransferringtheuniversalityoftheSanskritlanguagetothedistinctKhmerlanguage.

Itwasaplacewheretravelersanddiplomaticmissionsfromas farasChina, IndiaandCentralAsiameteachotherandwhereasyncretismofHinduandBuddhistreligionswasestablished through the introduction of tolerant and peaceful cults aroundPrahasiteshvara,Gambireshvara,HariharaandtheSakabrahmana.

Thecombinationofthesenewanduniquefeatureswouldgivelifetoasocietythatwouldform the basis for themuch larger Angkor Empire a few centuries later. Many traitshowever,wouldliveontilltoday.

(b) Justificationforcriteria

Criteria ii: The Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological and Cultural Landscape of AncientIshanapurahasauniquearchitectureandtownplanning,whichisadistinctadaptationofIndianinfluence,introducingforthefirsttometheoctagonalbuildingandtranslatingitselfinnewaestheticforms,suchastheflyingpalacesandmedallions,carvedonthebrickwalls of temples and enclosures, stone lintels and sculptures currently known as the“SamborPreiKukStyle”.


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The landscapedesignwascarefully craftedandengineered to theneedsof this largecapitalwith the simultaneous introduction of three hydraulic systems tomanage andcontrolthewaterflow,providingacontinueswatersupplythroughouttheyear.

Criteriaiii:ThecivilizationofAncientIshanapuraunderwentdeepinfluencesfromtheIndian subcontinent in the form of social institutions, religion and art which wereassimilated into indigenous customs, ideology and artistic expressions. The ChenlaEmpirewasacentralizedstatefeaturingatolerantsyncretismofHindu(Prahasiteshvara,Gambireshvara, Harihara and Sakabrahmana) and Buddhist religions, having a lastingimpactonSoutheastAsiansociety.

The religious complex was the largest pilgrimage center in Southeast Asia. All thatremains architecturally of that civilization are its brick and stone structures, itsspiritualismandlanguagehowever,stillliveon.

Criteriavi:InSamborPreiKuk,weseethefirstofficialintroductionoftheHariharaandSakabrahmanacults,bothstrivingfortheuniversalvaluesoftoleranceandpeace.Italsoharbored the first inscription in SoutheastAsia referring to theuniversal teachingsofBuddhism.

Inscriptions also make use for the first time of the Khmer language next to Sanskritreferencingto itscentralizedsystemofrule,andintroductionoftheGod‐Kingconcept,whichwillstaycentralinCambodiansocietytillthebeginningofthe20thCentury.

Thebasreliefofalintelshowsusoneofthefirstrepresentationsofanorchestraandmusicinstruments,ofcriticalimportancefortheuniversalstudyofancientandcontemporarymusic.

AncientIshanapurathusembracedalanguage,religiousideasandconceptsofgovernanceofuniversalsignificance.

(c) Statementofintegrity

The extent of the nominated property under Royal decree of 24December 2014 (seeannexVI) includesall therelevanthistorical, cultural, religious, secular,archaeologicalandenvironmentalfeaturesandartefactsoftheancientcomplex,manifestedthroughitsmoated city, threemain temple complexes,hydraulic structures,monumental remainsandpristineforestedareafromwhichthesitebearsitsname.ALiDarsurveycarriedoutearly2015assistsinillustratingthestateofconservationofthesite(page19,fig.2.5).

Theancienthydraulicstructures(seeannexV)arestillinusetodayandalargenumberofdecorativeelementshaveremainedinsitu.SomeofthemasterpieceshavebeenstoredorareonexhibitinmuseumsthroughoutCambodia(seeannexIII).


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(d) Statementofauthenticity

TheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalandCulturalLandscapecontinuestobeusedforthepurposesofhumanhabitation,agricultureproduction,commerceandreligiousworship.

Mostoftheancienttempleshrinesarestillinuseforprayersandtheancientsiteisalsoconsideredadwellingplaceforpowerfulancestralspirits, forwhichspecialritualsarestillorganizedseveraltimesayear.

Lowdensityvillageswithtraditionalgardensandtreecoverlargelyretainthepatternofsettlementthatwouldhaveexistedinthehistoricurbancomplex.

This manifestation of continued old practices, assisted to maintain and preserve thearchaeologicalandculturallandscape.

(e) RequirementsforprotectionandmanagementTheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalandCulturalLandscapeisstronglyprotectedbytheRoyaldecree(PreahReachKret)NS/RKT/1214/1488dated24December2014,andtheCambodianHeritageLegislation.RoyalDegreeNS/RKT/0715/810dated31 July2015,establishestheorganizationandfunctioningoftheNationalAuthorityfortheProtectionandDevelopment of the Cultural Site of Sambo Pre Kuk. A Sambor Prei KukNationalAuthoritywillbeguidedbyaManagementPlan.NameandcontactinformationofofficiallocalagencySamborPreiKukNationalAuthority(SPKNA)KingdomofCambodiaHEMrs.PhoeurngSackonaMinistryofCultureandFineArts227KbalThnal,PreahNorodomBlvd,SangkatTonleBassac,KhanChamkarMon,PhnomPenh,CambodiaTel/Fax:(855)23218146/147/[email protected]\\:www.mcfa.gov.kh


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1.IDENTIFICATIONOFTHEPROPERTY

1.aCountry

KingdomofCambodia

Fig.1.1WorldmapindicatingCambodia’slocation

1. bProvince

Province:KampongThomDistrict:PrasatSamborCommune:Sambor

TheprovinceofKampongThomislocatedinapproximatelythecenterofCambodia,abouthalfway betweenPhnomPenh and SiemReap, 168 kilometers (km) from the capital,PhnomPenh. It covers 15,061sq.km,which is bordered by SiemReap provinceto thenorthwest,TonleSap(GreatLake)tothewest,KampongChamprovinceandKampongChhnangprovincetothesouth,SteungTrengprovincetothenortheast,Kratieprovincetotheeast,andPreahVihearprovincetothenorth.

Cambodia


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LocationoftheProperty:

Thenominatedpropertyis locatedinthenortheastofKampongThomprovince, inthecommuneofSamboranddistrictofPrasatSambor.Itisabout28kmfromtheprovincialcityofKampongThom,181kmfromthetemplesof theWorldHeritagesiteofAngkor,nearSiemReap,170kmfromtheWorldHeritagesiteofPreahVihear,and196kmfromthe capital, PhnomPenh.Theperimeterof the siteproposed fornomination toWorldHeritageStatusissituatedintheapproximatemiddleofthecountry.

Fig.1.2Cambodianmap indicating theprovinceofKampongThomandSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalGroup

Sambor Prei Kuk Group


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1. cNameofProperty

SamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteRepresentingtheCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapura

1. dGeographicalcoordinatestothenearestsecond

PointZero:WGS84:E503808,N1423012

PointZeroissituatedonthepointattheapproximatecenterofPrasatTaoGrouporCentralGroup(C)ofthemuchlargerSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteandCulturalLandscape.

1. eMapsandplans,showingtheboundariesofthenominatedpropertyandbufferzone

1.3 Reducedoriginal1/25,000aerialmap:TheenvironmentofSamborPreiKukanditsmonuments

with boundaries (red) and zoning (yellow): Ishanapura, Sambor Prei Kuk, Distribution ofArchaeologicalSites,SamborPreiKukConservationProject,MinistryofCultureandFineArtsandWaseda University, Ichita Shimoda 2010, Aerial Photograph Finnmap, 1992; the original1/25,000mapistobefoundattheendofthedossier.

1. fAreaofnominatedproperty(ha)andproposedbufferzone(ha)Areaofnominatedproperty:1,354.26ha.Bufferzone:2,009.30ha.Total:3,363.56ha.


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2.DESCRIPTION2.a DescriptionofPropertyThe7thcenturymegapolisofAsia,knowninChina,IndiaandChampa(MySonincurrentVietnam)asIshanapura,oneofthegreatpowercentersintheregion,wasanavewhichrepresentedboththecapitalcityofIshanapuraandtheKingdomofChenla.SamborPreiKukArchaeologicalGrouphasbeen identifiedas Ishanapura(cityofKingIshanavarmanI),thecapitalcityoftheChenlaEmpireinthelate6thearly7thcenturyCE.InmorerecenttimesIshanapurahasbecomeknownasSamborPreiKuk,whichtranslatesto“thetempleintherichnessofforest”.ThearchaeologicalgroupnameisacombinationofthreeKhmerwords:Sambormeansrichness,PreimeansforestandKukmeanstemple(Prasat).ThisnamecameintobeingduringtheearlydaysofexplorationwhentheFrenchexplorersAymonierandLajonquieredescribedthetemplesinreferencetoaneighboringvillagespelledSambour.ParmentieraddedthetwowordsPreiKuk.(Parmentier,1927)

SamborPreiKuk,theancientcityofIshanapura,isremarkableforitsgeographicalandculturalcentralitytotheKhmercivilization.ThesiteoccupiesacentralpositioninpresentdayCambodia. It enjoys a central position in the vast pre‐Angkor andAngkorEmpirestretchedalongWatPhuinthepresentLaotiansectoroftheMekongupstreamandtoOcEoalongthedownstreamMekonginpresentdaySouthVietnam.

The fluvialplain inwhich Ishanapura flourished isamosaicofaquatic landscapes: theSteung Sen River, the O Krou Ke stream, back marshes, valley plains, natural levees,meanderscrolls,abandonedchannels,watersurfacesandsandbars,eachoneinitsownwayexplainingthedynamicsandfloweringoftheIshanapuracivilization.TheSteungSenRiverbeinganimportantarteryforcommunicationandtradeplayedanimportantroleinthediffusionofKhmercivilizationsouthward.

Thetemplesarelocatedontheupland,whichisseveralmetershigherthanthefloodplain.Theuplandsurfaceisslightlyundulatedandwavyinshape,containingarangeofhigherandlowerareas.ThebuildersofIshanapuraanditstemplecomplexesmadeawonderfulchoicebyselectinguplands,afactwhichamplyexplainsthesurvivalofthesiteforaboutonethousandfivehundredyears.

Recentfieldsurveyshavedocumentedtheremainsofthisancientcity,includingthebricktemples and their embanked causeways, the moat and rampart of the city, andwaterworksforirrigationandtownsupply.Thisancientcityprimarilyconsistedofthreezones;thewesternhabitationzone,thecentraltemplezoneandeasterncausewayszone(fig:2.1).


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Fig.2.1Genericmapshowingonlytheboundariesofthenominatedsite(red)withcleardepictionofthetwocauseways(right),religiouscomplex(center)andmoatedhabitationzone(left),(I.Shimoda,2010,p.122)

Acomplexof291survivingarchitecturalfeatures

Severalmonumentandmanybrickstructuresareconcentratedinthecentraltemplezoneof the SamborPreiKukCultural andArchaeological LandscapeofAncient Ishanapura.However, many other remnants were also confirmed in the western area where thehabitationzone,surroundedbyamoatonthreesidesandariverontheother,islocated.A further temple group is located to the north in thenominatedproperty and can beconsideredasasatelliteofthecentraltemplezone.

The Sambor Prei Kuk Cultural and Archaeological Landscape of Ancient Ishanapura,contains numerous ancient temples and other structures. The number of identifiedindividualarchaeologicalstructures,excludingfeaturessuchaswalls,total291.Aportionofthe291structures,aregroupedtemplecomplexescomprisingofmultipleindividualstructuresandaccompanyingfeatures.Themajorityofthe291structuresarebuiltinbrickwithsomecontainingsandstonearchitecturalelementssuchaslintels,doorheads,sillsand jambs. There is one confirmed laterite building (K8) tower, and one sandstonebuilding(N17).Amorecompletedescriptiongivingthelocation,dimensionsandotherpertinentfactsaswellascurrentstateofconservationandimportanceofeachofthe291known structures and unexcavated mounds is contained in the Historical BuildingInformationSystem:AnnexI.


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Thecentraltemplezonecontainsthreemaingroupsofmonuments:PrasatSambor(NorthGroup)(M.020),PrasatTao(CentralGroup)(M.026)andPrasatYeayPoan(SouthGroupFig.2.1)(M.024)(Fig.2.4).Eachofthesetemplegroupscontainsacentralmaintoweronaraisedplatform,surroundedbysmallertowersandotherstructures.

Fig.2.2LittleremainsoftowerS3,theonceimportantgopura,orgateway,facingtheprincipletemple(S1)oftheSgroup,(Brukoff,B.andJessup,H.I.,2011,p.23).

TheuniqueoctagonaltemplesA peculiar and very unique aspect to the north and south groups is the presence ofoctagonalshapedtemples.SamborPreiKukassumesspecialimportanceintheglobalhistoryofarchitectureforitssurviving tenoctagonal temples: in theSouthGroup:S7,S8,S9,S10,S11; in theNorthGroup:N7;thetempleswithinventorynumbersZ2andZ6;PrasatYandKhnachTol.


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ThesetenknownexamplesofoctagonaltemplesaretheoldestandonlyspecimenofthistypeinSoutheastAsia.TherearetwomoreinChampa(SouthVietnam),oneatBangAn,andtheotheratChanLo,buttheyarehowever,fromalaterperiod.TherearefiveoctagonaltemplesintheSouthGroup,S7,S8,S9,S10andS11,whiletheN7istheonlyoctagonalintheNorthGroup.NooctagonaltemplehasbeenreportedfromtheCentralGroup.The two templesof theZGroup,PrasatYandKhnackTol, are the fouroctagonaltemplesoutsidethethreemainS,NandC‐templegroups.TheIshanapuraexamplesofoctagonaltemplesfollowthegeneralprinciplesasexplainedin theancient IndianManualsofArchitecture,butnoexisting Indianoctagonal templeoffersaprototypefortheSamborPreiKukstructures,whichmakesthemall themoreunique.FromtheviewpointoftheancientIndianManuals,theSamborPreiKukoctagonaltemplesrepresenttheflyingoctagonalpalaceofIndraorVimanaTrivishtapa,theheavenofIndraandofthe33gods(Kramrisch,1946,281).Theinsideoftheoctagonsisparticularlyimpressive,withitslayersofbrick“reachingtotheheavens”(fig.2.3).Theornamentationoutside,mainlyconsistsofHinduiconography.TheiconographyforthefiveoctagonsoftheSouthGroupespeciallyconsistsinitsturnoftheveryrareandexquisitedepictionofsculptedflyingpalaces(fig.2.2andseefurther;aninventoryoftheflyingpalacesmaybefoundinAnnexII).

Fig.2.3FlyingpalacessculptedonthewallsoftheS‐group.

Fig.2.4ThesealinginsideofanoctagonaltempleoftheS‐group.


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Detailsofthemainsitefeatures

Thereareatotalof79monumentsinthethreemainN,CandStemplezonecomplexes.Twoconcentricbrickand/orlateritewallssurroundeachtemplecomplex;PrasatSamborwasrecentlydiscoveredtohaveathird,muchlargerenclosurethatis389moneachside.Thecomplexesareorientedonaneast‐westaxiswithtwomajorcausewayslinkingthetemplezonetotheriver(harbor?)eastoftheGroup.ThecausewaysoriginatefromtheeastgatesofPrasatSamborandPrasatYeayPoan,approximately600and700minlengthrunningparalleltotheeast.Thesecauseways,constructedinthefloodplainsoftherainyseason(clearlyvisibleonfig.2.5asthelargedarkercoloredareainthesoutheastcorneroftheLiDarimage),probablylinkedthecityandtemplecomplextoaharbor(fig.2.5).

There arevestigesof another causeway inbetween that linksPrasatTaowith apondcalledBoengKlaKramovandwhichmeasures250meast‐westand240mnorth‐south.ThiswaterbodyislocatedbetweenthecausewaysofPrasatSamborandPrasatYeayPoancomplexes (fig.2.5). Additionally there are 46 temples located outside themain threecomplexesinthetemplezone,Afurthertwocomplexes,PrasatSreiKrupLeakandPrasatRobangRomeas(Fig.2.6and2.7)arelocatedatthenorthendofthenominatedproperty,andconsistof16templestructuresthatareconsideredasasatellitezonetothetemplezone.


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Fig2.5Map,reproducedfromtheLiDarsurvey,showingthemainfeaturesofthesite.

Throughoutthemoatedcityareathereare143structures.Mostofthesestructuresareindividualbuildings/towers,smaller insizeandinaverypoorstateofpreservation.Therearethreeothersiteswithinthehabitationzonethathavesimilarfeaturesasthecentraltemplecomplex,andareinthesameverypoorstateofpreservation;RoungTrapangSroteiand(M.108,nonamedesignated,fig.2.5).FromtheLiDarsurvey(fig.2.5)andprospectionontheground,itisobviousthemoatedcitycomplexconsistedofanarrayofhabitatandtemplezonescrisscrossedbyanetworkofroadsandcanals,someofthemstillinusetoday.AmoredetailedanalysesoftheLiDarsurvey(carriedout inMay2015,with thesupportof theEuropeanResearchCouncil),which is currentlybeingconductedandfurtherarchaeologicalresearchshouldhowever,enlightenusonthestructure,useandoccupationofthisvastcitycomplex.

Thebuildingsofthetemplecomplexthatareinagoodtomoderatestateofpreservationcontainanimpressivearrayofdecorativeelements carved inbrick andsandstone.Thebrickartworksareintegratedintothelate6thearly7thcenturybuildingsandstructures.Manyofthebricktempleshavemultiplecarvingsontheirexternalwalls,includingfriezeswithgeometricandstylizedfloralandanimaldesignsaswellasauniqueiconographysuchasthe“flyingpalace”motifs(Fig.2.8&2.9).Eachflyingpalacemotifdepictstheresidenceofagodorking,keptaloftbywingedanimalsandhumanfigures.TheoriginoftheflyingpalacesistobefoundintheIndianflyingvehicleoriginallydesignated in Sanskrit as “ratha”, later referred to as “vimana”, also a word of Sanskrit originintegratedbothinancientandmodernKhmerlanguage.Theoriginalflyingvimana’softheSanskritepicsareflyingchariots.FlyingwheeledchariotstransportIndraandotherVedicgods.TheremainsofthepalaceofthelaterKingsoftheAngkorEmpire,atthecurrentWorldHeritageSiteofAngkor,is popularly knownasPhimienakas (vimana+akasha) or the celestial vimana inmodernKhmerlanguage.TheexpressioncarriesseveralmeaningsrangingfromtempleorpalacetomythologicalflyingmachinesdescribedinSanskritepics.ReferencestotheseflyingmachinesarecommonplaceinancientIndiantexts,evendescribingtheiruseinwarfare.TheBharavahakasinIndianepicsaretheprecursorsofthewingedanimalsatSamborPreiKuk,carryingthecelestialstructuresontheirstretchedoutpalms.

The site also contains a series of brick bas‐relief medallions (Fig. 2.10), in various stages ofcompletion and preservation condition, depicting mythical scenes carved along the wallsurroundingPrasatYeayPoan.ThesemedallionsareuniquetotheGroup;nosimilarcarvingshavebeenfoundatotherKhmersites.Additionally,thelintelsofthesameperiodhavesimilaritiesinsofarasmedallionsintegratedintotheoverallartisticdesignoftheSamborPreiKukstyle.

Fig.2.6Mapshowingthreemaingroupsofthetemplezone


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Fig.2.7MapshowingPrasatSreiKrupLeakandPrasatRobangRomeasgroups


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Fig.2.8FlyingPalacebas‐reliefinbrick,northfacewestsideoftheT1tower,PrasatTamon(M.061)

Fig. 2.9 Drawingofthe“flyingpalace”atthenorth‐eastfaçadeoftower(N16),afterUongVongin“SurveyReportoftheTemplesatSamborPreiKuk(KampongThom)”,bytheMinistryofCultureandFineArts,GeneralDepartmentofProtectionofCulture,DepartmentofPatrimony,EditorNouthNarang,MinisterofCultureandFineArts,(undated),pp.38.

Fig.2.10Engravedbrickmedallion theouterwallofPrasatYeayPoan(SouthGroup)depictsthemythicaleventwiththeGoddessDurgafightingthedemonMahishasura.


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The sandstone elements include lintels, statues, pedestals, colonnades and pediments.Manyarecarvedinthedistinctivelate6thearly7thcenturySamborPreiKukstyle.SamborPreiKuk style is theearliestknownconsolidationofKhmerartistic styleand includesimportant early masterpieces of Khmer art. Later artistic elements include the well‐preservedlintels,colonnadesandlionstatuesofPrasatTao(Fig.2.11),whichexhibitthetransition between pre‐Angkor and Angkor styles in the 8th century. Many of thesandstone elements remain in situ (Fig. 2.12) and several have been removed forsafekeeping(Fig.2.13&2.14).AcompleteinventoryofmovableobjectsistobefoundinAnnexIII.

Fig.2.11LionsguardingtheentrancetoC1(PrasatTao).ThehighlystylizedringletsoftheirluxuriousmanesareuniquetoSamborPreiKuk.Crouchingwithbindlegsbracedforinstantattack,theyarethemostanimatedofallKhmertempleanimals,(Brukoff,B.andJessup,H.I.,2011,p.24).

Fig.2.127thcenturyreliefof‘kudu’inSamborPreiKukstyle(PrasatS2)


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Fig.2.137thcenturylintelinSamborPreiKukstyle(PrasatN4)sandstone

(ConservationOfficeatSamborPreiKuk)

Fig.2.147thcenturysandstonestatueinSamborPreiKukstyle:DurgafromPrasatN9(left),Ka.1593(NationalMuseumPhnomPenh).


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Inscriptions

Contemporaryinscriptionsdocumentingthesitearetheauthenticsource to estimate its value as a cultural property of greatsignificance. The site thus narrates its history in its ownwords,using for the first time the Khmer language in the cultural andpoliticaldiscourseinthetimeofIshanavarmanI,thefounderofthecapitalcity.ThesedocumentselucidateIshanapura’sinternationallinkswithotherregionalpowerssuchasIndiaandChampa.

A total of 21 inscriptions have been found,mostly located on the door jambs of thetemplesandotherstructures.TheinscriptionsareinSanskritandoldKhmer(Fig.2.15),anddatedtothe6th,7th,10thand11thcenturiesduringthereignsofkingsIshanavarmanI(r.616‐637),BhavarmanII(r.637‐657),Rajendravarman(r.944‐968)andSuryavarmanI(r.1002‐1050).Theseinscriptionsconstituteanimportantpartofthehistoricalrecordofthecomplex,detailingdatesoftempleactivities,namesofkingsandotherpersonages,anddetailsofthereligiousandpoliticallifeofthecity.PrintsanddetailsofeachinscriptionarecontainedinAnnexIV.

Fig. 2.15Unpublished Inscription (K.1250) early 7th century (Ishanavarman I), Prasat Leang Preah. Theinscriptionisintwoparts:3linesofSanskritthatcommemoratestheinstallationofalingaofSivanamedSriPrayagesvarabyawoman(Jiva)whoisthewifeofadignitaryoftheking(Ranadrstavirya)and22linesinancient Khmer that list the gifts that include among other things slaves, cattle, rice fields, dancers andmusicians.


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ReferencewasalreadymadetothefluvialplaneinwhichIshanapura isgeographicallysituated. It is indeed a remarkable “water land” in the rainy season (indication offloodplains,fig.2.5),whichwascarefullyadapted,craftedandengineeredtotheneedsofthislargecapital(fig.2.16).ForthefirsttimeontheSoutheastAsianmainlandacarefullyengineered combination of three hydraulic systems was put in place to manage andcontrolthewaterflowandcatchmentastopreventfloodingintherainyseason,andmakesurewaterwasavailableinperiodsofdraught.AnInventoryoflargerhydraulicstructuresistobefoundinAnnexV.

ManandnatureThe natural environment in and around Ancient Ishanapura wascarefully chosen to implant the capital and then crafted andengineeredastocomplywiththeneedsofabigcity.Especiallyintermsofhydrologytheregionunderwentanintensetransformationwiththesimultaneous construction of the city moat, dykes and waterreservoirs,supplyingthecityandsurroundingareas.Thiswaywaterwasavailable for the inhabitantsandagriculturepurposes theyearround.

TherecentLiDarsurveyclearlyshowsthethreedifferentsystems(1.Moat(fig.2.17),2.Dams(fig.2.18)and3.(fig.2.19)waterreservoirs)simultaneouslyputinplaceforwatercontrolandcatchmentinandaroundtheancientcityofIshanapura.

Fig.2.16:Aerialphotographshowingthemoatandwalledembankmentoftheancientcity


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The following LiDar‐based maps may illustrate the functioning of these ingenioussystems, which are in fact simplified precursors of a much more complicated watermanagementsystemputinplaceafewcenturieslateratAngkor.

1. Thedesignofacitymoatanditsaffiliatedhydraulicstructures(fig.2.17):

Fig.2.17withinthegreencircle,themoatandaffiliatedstructuresareclearlyvisible.

SlightlysouthwesttothecentralpartoftheLiDar‐basedmap(Fig.2.17)theancientcitycenterofIshanapura,isclearlysurroundedbyamanmademoatontheNorth,WestandSouthsides,naturallyclosedontheEastbytheOKrouKestreamenveloping4‐5km2(seealsofig.2.5).Themanmadestructureatpresentisataverage,approximately1.5m.deep,butsedimentssuggestanoriginaldeptof2‐3m.,transformingitintoaformidablewaterreservoirwithitswidthof15m.

TheLiDarimageshowsthatthemoatissuppliedwithwaterinitsnortheastcornerbyanaffluentofsmallerstreams.Themapalsohighlightstheprovisionsmadeforthedrainageofsurpluswaterinthemoatthroughanartificialcanalinthemiddleofwesternpartofthe moat (remains of two 12th century temples are visible on the ground at theintersectionofmoatandcanal,fig.2.5),whichmayhaveservedasanirrigationcanalforagricultureat thesouthwesternpartof thecity,anartificial canal in themiddleof thesouthernpartofthemoat(connectingthemoattothewiderdownstreamoftheOKrouKe river) and the extreme southeastern point of the moat directly connected to thedownstream part of the O Krou Ke river. Thisway, themoat served amulti‐purpose


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system,providingforwaterthecity,agriculture,aswellas“defending”thecityagainstfloodsandeventualmilitarythreats.

This architecturalmoat designmay have certainly inspired the later engineers of theAngkorEmpire.

Remarkableisalsothatthesurplusofearthgainedfromdiggingthecanalinthemiddleofthewesternpartofthemoat,waspiledalongthecanalsdirectionformingadyke,usedfor the construction of a road. This roadwould later connect Sambor Prei Kuk to thecapitaloftheAngkorEmpire,AngkorThom(seealsofig.2.41).

2. Theconstructionofatleastsixdamsupstreamandparalleltothecity,toregulatethewaterflow(fig.2.18):

Fig.2.18Thesixolddamsareclearlyvisibleinbrowncolorwithintheyellowrectangular(thebrowncoloreddamnorthoftheyellowframeisamodernstructure).

TheLiDar‐basedmapshowsatleastsixmanmade,browncoloreddamsupstream,eastandparallelwith thecity regulating thewater flowwithin theyellowrectangular (fig.2.18).TheyareallconstructedindirectrelationtotheOKrouKestreamandservedtoslowdown,catchanddeviatethewater,whichcouldhavebeenused inthecity,serveagriculturalirrigationpurposesandprovidedwatertoartificialcanals,suchastheonetotheimmediatenortheastofthecity(fig.2.18,theblackarrow).Thiscanalmayhavebeenmadeasaconnectiontotheancientharborofthecity.


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Itisalsoclearthatupstreamthedamscontributedtocreatedeviationsandcatchareasfor agriculture irrigation purposes, and helping to supply a third systemput in place,namely themanmade reservoirs/containers, build to catch and storagewater for useduringdryperiods.Thisrathersimplesystemmaycertainlyhaveservedasanexamplefor the much more complicated dam construction program in and around Angkorcentury’slater,deviatingwaterfromtheKulenMountains,tosupplymoatsand“barays”(verylargewaterreservoirs)inandaroundthecapitaloftheAngkorEmpire.

3. Thebuildingofanimpressiveamountoflargerandsmallerwaterreservoirs/containers(fig.2.19):

Fig.2.19Thepurplecirclesindicatethewaterreservoirs/containers.

0n the LiDar‐based map, it is easy to observe a large amount of square/rectangularmanmadeshapesrepresentingwaterreservoirs/containersencircledinpurple(fig.2.18).Themostobviousreservoirwasconstructedattheaffluentofsomesmallerstreamsatthenortheastcornerofthecitymoat,highlightedinlightbluecolor(fig.2.19).Othersamplesofthesereservoirs,northofthecitymoat,havealsobeenhighlightedinpurplecolorontheLiDar‐basedmap(Fig.2.19).

Itishowever,easytodetectamuchlargeramountofsmallercontainers,bothsquareandrectangular,alloverthesite.Rainwater,andtheirrigationsystemputinplacewiththedams and artificial canals, could have easily filled this multitude of stock facilities,providingwater for the city and agriculture purposes in drier periods,makingwaterprovisionsecureallaroundtheyear. Interesting toobserve isalso, thatmanyof these


35

reservoirsareconstructed inareas,where thewater table isclose to thesurface.Asaresult,someofthemmayneverhavebeendry,asisstillvisibletoday.

Theshapeandsometimesemplacementofthesereservoirs/containers,suggeststheyarethepredecessorsofthemuchlarger“barays”(verylargewaterreservoirs),whichwouldbeanessentialpartoftheveryrefinedhydraulicandwatermanagementsystemputinplaceinAngkor.

2.b HistoryandDevelopment

TheSamborPreiKukCulturalandArchaeologicalLandscapeofAncientIshanapurahasbeen identifiedas Ishanapura(also identified through inscriptionsbysomeauthorsasBhavapura,cityofBhavavarmanandIshanavarmanI)),thecapitalcityofthefirstempire,and firstKhmerState inSoutheastAsia, late6thearly7th centuryAD.According to thetextualevidenceofSanskritandKhmerinscriptions,archaeologicalinvestigationsandarthistoricalanalysis,large‐scaleinhabitationandbuildingatthesitebeganinthelate6thearly7thcenturywiththeconstructionoftheurbancomplex,itstempleprecinctandthelandscape features of the site. Prior to this period,mainland Southeast Asia had beendominatedbythecoastalcentersoftheFunanEmpireintheSouth,AngkorBoreiandOcEo. With the decline of these cities, power moved inland to Sambor Prei Kuk. Thedevelopments that took place at the Sambor Prei Kuk Cultural and ArchaeologicalLandscapelaidthefoundationsforthelaterachievementsoftheKhmerEmpire,andinlaterperiodsintheSiamesekingdomsatAyutthaya,andSukhothai.Itmustbeconsideredthatuntilthebeginningofthe14thcenturymostofSoutheastAsiawascontrolledbytheKhmerEmpire,andthatSamborPreiKukwasthecatalystforthefuturedevelopmentofthatempire(fig.2.20).


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Fig.2.20MapindicatingtheextentofthesuccessiveEmpiresofFunan,ChenlaandAngkor.


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AveryimportantfoundingperiodInmanywaystheChenlastate,withitscapitalofAncientIshanapura(firstknownasBhavapura)canbeseenasaveryimportantfoundingperiodinthehistoryofSoutheastAsia:

1. Religion: The Hindu and Buddhist religions, with theintroductionoftheHariharaandSakabrahmanacultsgetafirmhold in the region and will define the belief systems forcenturiestocome.

2. Ideology: The introduction of the God‐King conceptwith acentralizedstateadministrationwillleavealastingimprintinthe region and will only diminish in importance at thebeginningofthe20thcentury.

3. Language: The first introduction of Khmer as universallanguage next to Sanskrit will have a lasting impact onlanguagesstillspokenandwrittenintheSoutheastAsiaregion.

4. Technology/hydrology: The tradition of draining water inwaterrichareasintheMekongDelta(OcEo,AngkorBorei)foragriculture and navigation purposes is transformed to thetechniqueofcatchingandstoringwaterindryerinlandareas(SamborPreiKuk,Angkor).

5. Architecture: Sandstone elements are being introduced in apurelybricktradition.AfterSamborPreiKuk,moreandmoresandstoneelementswillbeusedinarchitectureastocometothesoleuseoflateriteandsandstoneintheAngkorperiod.

Ishanapurawasconstructedasalargeintegratedcomplexcontainingavastnumberoftemples alongside a massive city. This complex was a symbol of economic prowess,religious devotion, and powerful centralized authoritarian rule that marked theemergenceofanewkindofstate;thefirstandlargestofitskindinSouthEastAsia(Fig.2.21).ThesiteisanoutstandingexampleofhowinfluencesfromIndiaintheformofsocialinstitutions, religion, art, architecture, design and language were assimilated intoindigenouscustoms,ideology,andartisticexpressions.TheSamborPreiKukCulturalandArchaeological Landscape of Ancient Ishanapura was constructed at a time when adistinctiveKhmercultureemergedfromthiscross‐culturalexchange.


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Fig.2.21Mapshowingtheextent(pinkcolor)ofinfluenceofIshanapura(SamborPreiKuk)basedonthelocationofinscriptionswithintheSoutheastAsianregion(afterHeng,2014)

Bhavavarman,MahendravarmanandIshanavarman:astrongShivaitetradition.

The5thcenturyinscriptionofWatLuangKaoatteststhepopularityofWatPhu(today’sSouthLaos)asaShivaiteseatperexcellence,wherethephallic‐shapedLingaparvatahadformedthenucleusofthemostsacredpilgrimage.It appears that Shivaism spread southward from thenorthern center ofWat Phu andgraduallyeliminatedthedominanceofVishnuism.AShivaitewavewasvirtuallylaunchedbytheso‐calledDangrek(mountainrange)Chiefs,whoinseveralphasesabsorbedtheterritoriesoftheFunanEmpireintheSouth.FollowingthedeclineoftheFunanEmpire,thetwoShivaitebrothers,BhavavarmanandMahendravarmanemergedasanewpolitical forceinthemiddleMekongvalleybytheendof the6th and thebeginningof the7th century. (Barth andBergaigne,1893, no3;Bhattacharya,1961,25).IshanavarmanI,sonofMahendravarmanandfounderofIshanapura(SamborPreiKuk),is supposed to have completed the annexation of the territories of the FunanEmpire.IshanavarmanIthuscamefromanexclusiveShivaitemilieu.Athisnewlyfoundedcapitalof Ishanapurahe installed theShivacultsof the“LordofSeriousness”(GambireshvaraShiva)andthe“LordofSmile”(PrahasiteshvaraShiva).TheIndianinfluenceisobvious,assmileandlaughterhavebeenpartofthephilosophicaldebateinIndiaformillennia.Twoexamplesmayillustrateitsimportance.


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ThefirstoneistheNatyashastra,atreatiseontheatre,danceandmusic,composedbytheIndiandramaturgeBharata(somewherebetween200BCand200AD),whichsaysthatthecomicsentimentarisesfromtheerotic.

ThesecondoneistheMatavilasa,or”TheMerryPranksofaDrunkard”,apurecomedywrittenbytheearly7thcenturySouthIndianKingMahendravarmanI(600‐630AD)fromthecityofKanchi(KanchipuraminmodernTamilNadu),thecapitalofhisrealm.Itisahumorousplayandacomedyfulloflaughter.

It is interesting to note that thewriter of this Indian comedy is contemporary to twoKhmer kings, his homonymous Mahendravarman (600‐611 AD) and Ishanavarman I(612‐635AD),founderofSamborPreiKuk.Theearly7thcenturycityofIshanapurawasawareoftheintellectualandsocialmilieuofIndiathroughitsmanyexchangesasKanchiisdirectlymentionedina7thcenturyinscriptionofCambodia(Majumdar,no34,p.44).Itis also interesting to mention that the son in law of Ishanavarman I, the BrahminDurgesvamincamefromthesameregioninIndia.

ReligiouscentersofTheLordofSmile(Prahasiteshvara)inIndiaarealsoknowntohaveexisted in present dayPatna andVaranasi, although, there are no traces of the actualmonumentsanymore.

The Lord of Smile however, figures in three inscriptions belonging to the reign ofIshanavarmanI:K440,K442andK90.K440,isaSanskrittextinscribedoneachofthetwouprightsdoorslabsoftheeasterngateoftheouterenclosurewalloftheSouthGroupofthetemplesofSamborPreiKuk(fig.2.22).


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Fig.2.22InscriptionK440attheeastentranceoftheSouthGroup,praisinginveryflowerylanguagePahasitashvara


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The location itself clearly suggests that the principal god of this southern complex oftempleswasPrahasiteshvara.BothK440andK442praise inaveryflowerylanguagePrahasiteshvara.ThethirdinscriptionK90isinscribedontheTempleKukPreahKotintodays’provinceofKampongChamabout120kmsouthofSamborPreiKuk.

On the walls of the Sambor Prei Kuk Temples there are sculptures of flying palacesinhabitedbywomenandmen.AnumberofthesefiguresaresmilingundertheprotectionofPahasiteshvara(Fig.2.23,2.24and2.25).

Fig.2.23smilingfaceat“flyingpalace”. Fig.2.24smilingfaceat‘flyingpalace”insupportofacelestiallevel

Fig.2.25smilingfaceat“flyingpalace”


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Thisartistictraditionofportrayingsmilingfaces(Fig.2.23.2.24and2.25)isonethatwillcontinuefor600yearsthroughouttheAngkorEmpire.InfactitisaculturaltreattobefoundthroughoutSouthEastAsiatoday.WhilethisstrongShivaitetraditionwillcontinuetobetheprimecultinthepre‐Angkorempire,theofficialintroductionoftheHariharacult(acombinedShiva‐Vishnucult)leadstoaninclusivepolicytowardstheVishnuitesouth.TheHariharaCultandpoliticsofreconciliationSectarianissuesandviolenceinIndiabetweenthefollowersofShivaandthefollowersofVishnu,ledinthefirstcenturiesoftheChristianeratotheintroductionofaninclusiveformofreligioncalledtheHariharacultinwhichthedoubleimageofShiva‐Vishnuwasvenerated.TheancientcityofSirpurinCentralIndiaisagoodexampleoftheintroductionofthistolerantformofreligion(5th‐8thC.AD,seealso3.2:Comparativeanalyses).AswealreadyillustratedtherewasacontinuedandcloseexchangeofideasbetweenIndiaandSoutheastAsiainthefirstcenturiesoftheChristianera,anditisalmostcertainthattheconceptofHariharareachedtheshoresofIndochinaafteritspopularityinIndiainthefourthcenturyAD.Early imagesofHarihara in thesouthofCambodia,referredto inarecentstudyon“HariharaImagesofthePre‐AngkorPeriodinCambodia”(E.C.Bunker,2001)anddatingbacktothefifthcentury, indeedsupportthis theory. It ispossibletoarguethattheHariharacultandimagesweregraduallyadoptedbytheShivaitenorthforarapprochementwiththeVishnuitesouth.TheepigraphicsourcesrathersuggesttheuseofHariharaasadevisetoasserttheirpoliticalpowerandauthorityortoconsolidatetheirterritorialgains.AtleastthreeepigraphictextsofIshanavarmanI,K60,K22andK926mentionthecultofHarihara.Anumberofepigraphictexts,whichbelongtohisperiodofreign,butdonotmentionhisname,alsosuggestthatIshanavarmanIwasresponsibleforproliferationoftheHariharaimageaspartofhispoliticsofreconciliation.ThesouthgroupoftemplesatSamborPreiKukwascompletedinthearlystagesofthereignofKingIshanavarmanI.BesidesPrahasiteshvaraShiva,TheLordofSmile,whowasthe presiding deity in this group, it is supposed that stanza 31 of inscription K 440mentionsanimageofHarihara,whichthekinghadinstalledinthisgroup.ThemissingwordsinthestanzadonotallowustoassertthecertitudeofHariharainthesouthgroupof temples. But a beautiful image ofHarihara found from thenorth group, devoted toGambireshvaraShiva(fig.2.26),TheLordofSeriousness,andcontemporarytothesouthgroup, clearly attests that this composite formwas awell thought out addition to theShivaiteassemblyofgodsatSamborPreiKuk.


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Fig.2.26Harihara,7thCentury,SamborPreiKuk,PrasatN10,NationalMuseumPhnomPenh.

IshanavarmanI,thusforthefirsttimeofficiallyusesHariharaideologytowinoverthesouthnotsimplymilitarily,butthroughthesharingofaVishnuorientedideologydeartothisregion.ThecultofHariharapatronizedbyIshanavarmanI,will,some100yearslater,leadtothedevelopment of a city celebrating the name of this composite god, Hariharalaya, thepresent day Roluos (8th century AD), part of the Angkor World Heritage Site. Theidentification of Roluos with Hariharalaya is confirmed by the epigraphic sources.HariharalayawasalreadyacityofreputewhenJayavarmanII,founderofAngkor,camefromJavain802AD.


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It ishowever, interesting toobserve,especially through inscriptions foundthroughoutandoutsideCambodia,howtheHariharacultwillcontinuetospreadthroughtheempireatleasttillthe12thcentury.TheSakasandIshanapura’sexposuretoCentralAsiancultureThe Sakasor Scythians represent aCentralAsian tribewhosemovements indifferentregionsofAsiawereofgreatconsequences.TheirhomelandisgenerallyidentifiedwithmodernSeistaninEasternIran.OneofthefirstdetailedaccountsontheScythiansmaybefoundinBookIVof“TheHistories”ofHerodotus.ReferringtotheconquestsofDariusI,TheGreat,hegivesmanydetailsontheirlandandcustoms.SakainfiltrationintheextremenorthwesternandwesternbordersofIndiabegansomeconsiderable timebeforethebeginningof theChristianera.TheysoonadoptedIndiannamesandbecamefollowersofthedifferentIndianreligiouscreeds.TheIndianepicsoftheRamayanaandMahabharataplaceSakasettlementsinthesepartsofIndia.Fromthemid‐secondcenturyA.D. theSakasofwesternIndiabecamegreatpatronsofSanskritandofthenewliteraturewritteninit.IthasbeensuggestedthattheseSakarulerswereresponsible forcarryingSanskrit to Indochina,as faras Indonesia, leadingtothefirstepigraphictextsintheregion.Thememory of the Saka is also preserved in the Saka calendar.Many inscriptions inancientCambodia(alsoinSamborPreiKuk)areregularlydatedbytheSakaeracalendar.ThecalendarisstillinuseinsomepartsofIndiaandBali.Itisgenerallyagreedthatthiseraopenedat78A.D.,theinauguralyearofKanisha,afamousIndianruler.WiththehomelandoftheSakasisassociatedaparticulargroupofpriestsinancientIndiacalled the Brahmana from Sakadvipa or Sakabrahmana. These Sakabrahmana, underwhomorthodoxyofBrahmanismwasmuchrelaxed,werewellversed in theVedaandVedangasandareoftenassociatedwiththeworshipofthesun‐god,anancientIranianpractice(Sahai,2007,pp.70‐71).TheyalsoactedasthemostactiveagentsfordiffusingIndianculturalelementsinSoutheastAsia(Sahai,2007,p.71).AnumberofinscriptionsrangingfromtheseventhtothirteenthcenturiessuggestthattheSakabrahmanaswenttoCambodiafromvariouspartsofIndiaandbecamesopopularandpowerfulbytheirmagicpowersthattheyearnedthestatusoflocalgods(inscriptionsK.521,K.365,K.660andK.136).TheSanskrit inscriptionK438 from the7th Century, foundonadoorjambof thenowcompletelydestroyedtempleoftheNorthgroupN16,informsusthatDurgasvamin,theson in lawof the founderof Ishanapura, Ishanavarman I,wasaSakabrahmana (Sahai,unpublished,2015).


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Durgasvamin,aSakabrahmanafromDaksinapatha(SouthIndia),washonoredbyKingIshanavarman I, ruler of Sambor Prei Kuk, by the gift of his daughter. Endowedwithwealth on the occasion of hismarriageDurgasvamin installed a linga at templeN 16,followingtheprescribedrulesintheSakayear500.Heorhiskinsmenwasdeifiedfromatleasttheninthcentury(Sahai,2007,p.72).Infact,laterinscriptionsleadustobelievethatanumberoftemples,includingtheBayonofAngkorThom(attheWorldHeritageSiteofAngkor)werededicatedorpartiallydedicatedtotheSakabrahmanainthecourseofatleastfourcenturies.Notonlyinscriptions,butalsobas‐reliefs,enlightenusonthepresenceofSakabrahmanasinIshanapuraandthelaterAngkorEmpire.Itishowever,interestingtofirstgobacktosome of the early historical descriptions and depictions of Saka (Scythians), beforereflectingupontheimagesatSamborPreiKuk.

The Persian ruler, Darius I The Great (558‐530 B.C.),who defeated some of the Saka(Scythian)tribesonhisnumerousmilitarycampaignsfromPersiatoEgypt,distinguishes,intheinscriptionathistombofNacqs‐i‐Rustam(Iran)amongtheconqueredtribes,the“Scythianswiththepointedcap”(SakaTigraxauda).Bas‐reliefs,representingindividualsofthistribemaybefoundattheancientcityofPersepolis(fig.2.27)andBehistun,bothinIran.

Fig.2.27Representationof“Scythianswiththepointedcap”attheancientcityofPersepolis.

The tall cap was the trademark headwear of the Saka Tigraxauda. Xaud being theprecursorwordforpresentday“hood”inEnglishand“khud”,meaninghelmetinPersian.Thetallpointedshapeoftheheadwearindicatedstatus.Hewhoworethecapcouldbedistinguishedfromtherestofthetribe.Intheprocessionoftheninecaptivekingsatthebas‐relief of Behistun, the SakaKing Shunka,with his pointed hat, can be seen to theextremeright(fig.2.28).


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Fig.2.28Thebas‐reliefofBehistuninIran,showingtheScythianKingShunkawithpointedhatattheextremeright.

SakasoldiersinmilitaryattirearesometimesrepresentedontheBuddhistfriezesintheartofGhandara(1st‐2ndCenturyA.D.)intheIndiansub‐continent,andmoreparticularlyin the “Buner reliefs” (Peshawar, Pakistan). They are depicted dressed in tunics andtrousers,wearingapointedhatandcarryingstraightswords(Rosenfield,1967,pp.216‐226).Abas‐reliefofaflyingpalace(fig.2.29),sculptedontheEastfaçadeoftempleN15oftheNorthgroupofSamborPreiKuk(seealsotempleN15inannexII),showsatleastfivefigures (fig. 2.30) with pointed hat, carrying different attributes (possible lances orswords). It is no coincidence that the North group was already associated with theSakabrahmanaDurgasvamin,soninlawofIshanavarmanIandtheyshowtheimportanceoftheSakasin7thcenturyIshanapura.


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Fig.2.29EastfaçadeoftempleN15 Fig.2.30FivefigureswithpointedhatatN15DuringtheAngkorperiod,andmorespecificallythereignofJayavarmanVII,bas‐reliefsatthetempleofBateayChhmar,revealthepresenceofpointedhatcharactersataroyalaudience (fig. 2.31). This could be convincingly interpreted as a direct legacy ofIshanapura(Sahai,unpublished,2015).

Fig.2.31ThreefigureswithpointedhatarekneelingbehindthevizierinfrontofKingJayavarmanVIIatabasreliefofthetempleofBanteayChhmar,12centuryA.D.


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The presence of the Sakas, Saka calendar and Sakabrahmana‐cult are yet otherillustrations of close cultural and religious interconnectedness between India, theSoutheastAsiaregionandmoreinparticularIshanapura(SamborPreiKuk).Itishowever,tobeobserved,thatadaptationandreligiouspractice,gavetheSakabrahmanasaspecificlocalcharacter.

Indiarevisitedandadapted

SomeparallelsingovernancemayalsobeconcludedwiththeGuptaEmpireinIndia(4th‐7th century AD). Kings were the epicenter of the entire administration. The fact thatIshanapura standsaloneas themajorurbancomplexof that time is testament to thatcentralization of power. In the Indian empire, and likewise in the pre‐Angkor Khmerempire,theprovinceseachhadanappointedofficial frommembersoftheroyalfamilythatwereresponsibleforlocaladministration.Itappearsthatlocaladministrationwasallowedtogovernsomewhatautonomously.VillageswereorganizedunderruralbodiesconsistingofaheadmanandcouncilofeldersastodayinmodernCambodia.Thesystemprovided forastablegovernmentthatencouragedtrade,agriculture,architecture,artsandreligiousharmony.The parallels extend to the location and choice of sacred space andmaterials used intemple architecture. Theuseof temporarymaterials suchaswood, andbamboowerereplacedwithpermanentmaterialssuchasbrickandstoneinboththeGuptaandpre‐AngkorKhmerempires.Additionally,revenuesfortheempirewerederivedessentiallyfromtheuseoflandasacommercialactivitywithsurplusesastradecommodities.

Thematerialcultureofthesiteprovidesfurtherevidenceofthisexchange,suchastheadaptation of Indian design evident in details of the temples, including architecturalelements, and religious iconography (Indorf 2004;Beynon andDatta 2005;Datta andBeynon2008).Indianprecedentsarealsoapparentintheceramicsuncoveredatthesite,suchaskendi(spoutedvessels).Thekendi(kundika)sometimesreferredtoasasprinkler,isanIndianceramicdesignproducedbythewheeltechniqueandextensivelyadaptedinSoutheastAsia.SoutheastAsiastampedandmoldedceramicsormoldeddesign isalsoderivedfromIndianprototypes.Althoughsomemayhavebeenimported,itisbelievedthatstampedceramicsarealocalproductthatreflectsadaptationandadaptionofIndiantechniqueandstyle(Glover,Bellwood,2004,80‐83).RemnantsofkendivesselshavebeenfoundatSamborPreiKuk,identifiedbythemostnotablefeature,thespout(Fig.2.32&2.33).


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Fig..2.32and2.33KendivesselspoutremnantfromSamborPreiKukandrepresentativekendiexamplefromSophyVillage,BeanteayMeancheyprovince,datedtotheIronAgeSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalGroupoffersimportantevidenceforunderstandingthenuancesofreligiouspracticeduringthisperiod,anditsconnectiontostateformationandpoliticalpower.AtSamborPreiKuk,thetempleprecinctformedagatewaytotheurbanarea.Visitorstothecitywouldhavepassedfromthenearbyportalongthecauseways,still visible today, that lead to the main temple complexes before entering the urbancomplexlocatedbehindthereligiousprecinct.Moreover,theadjacentcitywasnotjustasupportcenterforpriestsandpilgrimstothetemples,butalsoamajorcenterofpoliticalpower.AtSamborPreiKuk,weseetheemergenceofanewrelationshipbetweenpowerfulrulersandreligiousideas.Itisalsothesiteofthefirstinscriptiontogivedivinetitlestosecularrulers.Thisisevidenceoftheadoptionoftheconceptofthegod‐kingfromIndia,anideologythatwouldformtheunderpinningsofthestateduringtheAngkorperiodandbeyond.Ancient Ishanapuramarks a change in emphasis in the SoutheastAsian expression ofHinduism.EarlierSoutheastAsiantempleshadbeendevotedtoamixofIndicdeities,bothBuddhist and Hindu. At Ancient Ishanapura however, the religious affiliation isemphaticallyShivaitewithanofficialintroductionoftheHariharacult.Withtheestablishmentofanewkingdom,thekingsmadeaconsciousefforttopromotephilosophicalunityinthedualityofhumblereligiousinfluenceandauthoritativesecularpowerintheking.

Anewurbanconcept,newhorizons

ItwasunderIshanavarmanI,inthe7thcenturythatmostoftheinitialphaseofbuildingtookplaceatSamborPreiKuk.Themaintwocomplexes,PrasatSambor(NorthGroup),andPrasatYeayPoan(SouthGroup)arebelievedtohavebeenbuiltunderthereignofIshanavarmanI.AfterIshanavarmanI’sdeath,thesitecontinuedasacapitalunderhissonandsuccessor,BhavavarmanII, thoughwhetherbuildingactivitytookplaceat thesite


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duringthistimeisunclear.Athirdmajorcomplex,PrasatTao,isdifficulttodate,asnorelated inscriptionshavebeenfoundand judgmentsof itsdatecarriedoutso farhavebeenbasedoncomparisonofartisticstyles.ThisgroupmayhavebeenconstructedasearlyastheregimeofBhavavarmanII(r.639‐655)oraslateasJayavarmanII’srule(r.802‐850)atthebeginningoftheAngkorperiod.The city of Ishanapuramarked the appearance of a new kind of urban complex. Theearliesturban settlements in SoutheastAsia, such asOc‐Eo andAngkorBorei, displaysomesimilarattributestoSamborPreiKuksuchasbrickstructures,ramparts,moatsandcanals,theirareashowever,beingsmaller.SamborPreiKukexhibits,bycontrast,amoredispersed pattern of occupation with large enclosures, widely separate shrines, andsubstantialwatermanagementfeatures.Thewallsofthecityaloneenclosealargearea,withevidenceofextensivesettlementbeyond(Stark2006,12).Accompanyingthecity,aswehaveseenearlier,wasasubstantialsystemofcanals,moats,pondsandotherwatermanagementfeatures.Watermanagementatthesitewouldhavebeencrucial,giventhattheregionissubjecttoannualfluctuationsinwaterflow(Nagumoetal2010).ThelocationofthecityonthebanksoftheSteungSen(SenRiver)wasanadvantageousone.Theriverprovidedbothlocalneeds(watersupply,fish,andaquaticvegetables)andaconnectiontothewiderworld.Upriver,theSteungSenprovidedalinktoforestedareaswhichsuppliedvaluabletradegoodslikefurs,tropicalhardwoods,andhoney.DownstreamwerethevastlakeofTonleSapandsprawlingwatersoftheMekongDelta, providing further resources and transport routes. The Mekong River providedfurthertradeaccesstotheSoutheastAsiancoastlineandmarkets forthe luxurygoodsfromtheforests.Suchaccesswould,however,havebeenseasonal,asthefluctuationoftheSteungSen'sheightandflowwouldhavemadepassagedifficultorevenimpossibleatsometimesoftheyear(Nagumoetal2010).Thesite'sinlandpositionwouldhavealsoprovidedproximitytooverlandtraderoutesbetweenChinaandIndia(Ferlus2012).Trade,howeverdifficulttomeasure,musthavecontributedlargelytothewealthofthecapital.Religious,ideologicalandmaterialevidencepointsinthedirectionofIndia,butearlywrittensourcesfromtheChineseSuiDynastyrevealadeeplyrootedconnectionwiththemiddleKingdomandavividdiplomaticexchange.ThecultoftheSakabrahmanaevenunveilsanindirectlinktoCentralAsia.Tothisdate,nomaterialevidencehasbeenfoundforcontactswithregionssuchasIraqandIran,but7th‐8thcenturyceramicsfromtheseregionshavebeenfoundfurthernorthinAngkorandtheKulenMountains.Itwillonlybeaquestionoftimebeforesuchcontactsarerevealedbyfutureexcavations(fig.2.34traderoutes).


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Fig.2.34TraderouteslinkingthesuccessiveEmpiresofFunan(1st‐6thcentury),Chenla(7th‐8thcentury)andKhmer(Angkor:9th‐15thcentury)toIndia,Chinaandotherpartsoftheworld.


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UniquearchitecturaldiversificationandconstructionmethodsThemonumentsattheSamborPreiKukCulturalandArchaeologicalLandscapedisplayaunique diversification of architectural ground plans and configurations attributed viaearlier Indian influences.Hindu templeswereaprototype for theKhmerarchitectsofIshanapura(Fig.2.35,2.36,2.37&2.88).DuringtheGuptaperiodofnorthernIndia(4th‐7thC),templeswerebasicallyanenclosedrectangularhallwithamulti‐tieredrooforsquarehallwithpillaredporchandflatroof.Asarchitectureandtheartsprogressedduringtheperiodthedecorationsbecamemoreelaborate,andtheroofwasmultipliedbyadditionalfalse stories diminishing in size, but not decoration, upwards in a pyramidal shape.Platformsand terraceswere added,wall spacewas coveredwith amultitudeof reliefcarvings,andstatueswereplacedinniches,onpedestalsandbesidedoorways(Mabbett,Chandler1995,184‐186).Thisset thestage forKhmerconstructiondesignkeeping inmindthatmuchoftheIndianconstructwasofstone.ThetowerdesignofpreviousperiodsborrowedfromIndiabecamemoreslender,bricksweresculptured,astuccofinishappliedtothesurface,andbrickswereadhesivelybondedtoformsmoothinnerandoutersurfaces.Thoughvaryinginsizethereisanattempttowardsstandardizationofconstructionnormsbyconformingthebricktosetproportions.

Fig.2.35Groundplansandbasicdesigns


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Fig.2.36Basicdoorplandesignvariations

Fig.2.37Roofplanandstepvariations

Fig.2.38Highandlowtierplanoftemples

Richcity,richculture

ChinesesourcesofferasmallglimpseintothenatureofthisPre‐AngkorEmpireduringthe7th century.Apassage inMaDuanlin's13th centurycompilationWenxianTongkao(Comprehensive ExaminationofLiterature)quotesfromtheHistoryoftheSui(compiledin 629–636CE) the following estimate of the size of the city and the territory that itcontrolled:

ThisprincemakeshisresidenceinthecityofI‐she‐na[Ishanapura],whichcontainsmorethantwenty thousand families. [...] The kingdom includes thirty other cities, eachpopulated byseveralthousandsoffamilies,andeachruledbyagovernor;thetitlesofstateofficialsarethesameasinLin‐yi.[...]ThenorthofChenlaisacountryofmountainsintersectedbyvalleys.The


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southcontainsgreatswamps,withaclimatesohotthatthereisneveranysnoworhoar‐frost;theearththereproducespestilentialfumesandteemswithpoisonousinsects.Rice,rye,somemillet,andcoarsemilletaregrowninthiskingdom.(QuotedinCœdès,1968,74&76;following1876–1883FrenchtranslationofMarquisd'HerveydeSaint‐Denis)

ThispassagegoesontodetailthecustomsofthecourtatIshanapura,paintingapictureofthesplendorthatsurroundedIshanavarmanI:

Inthemiddleofthecityisagreathallwherethekinggivesaudiencesandholdscourt. [...]Everythreedaysthekingproceedssolemnlytotheaudiencehallandsitsonacouchmadeoffivekindsofaromaticwoodanddecoratedwithsevenpreciousthings.Abovethecouchthererisesapavilionhungwithmagnificentfabrics;thecolumnsareofveinedwoodandthewallsofivorystrewnwithflowersofgold.Togetherthiscouchandthispavilionformasortoflittlepalace,atthebackofwhichissuspended,asinChih‐t'u,adiscwithgoldraysintheformofflames.Agoldenincense‐burner,heldbytwomen,isplacedinfront.Thekingwearsadawn‐red[page75]sashofki‐peicottonthatfallstohisfeet.Hecovershisheadwithacapladenwithgoldandpreciousstones,withpendantsofpearls.Onhisfeetareleather,orsometimesivory,sandals;inhisears,pendantsofgold.Hisrobeisalwaysmadeofaveryfinewhitefabriccalledpe‐tie.Whenheappearsbareheaded,onedoesnotseepreciousstonesinhishair.Thedressofthegreatofficialsisverysimilartothatoftheking.Thesegreatofficialsorministersarefiveinnumber.Thefirsthasthetitleku‐lo‐you[guru?].Thetitlesofthefourothers,inorderoftheranktheyoccupy,arehsiang‐kao‐ping,p'o‐ho‐to‐ling,she‐ma‐ling,andjan‐lo‐lou.Thenumberoflesserofficialsisveryconsiderable.

Thosewhoappearbeforethekingtouchthegroundinfrontofthemthreetimesatthefootofthestepsofthethrone.Ifthekingcallsthemandcommandsthemtoshowtheirrank,theykneel,holdingtheircrossedhandsontheirshoulders.Thentheygoandsitinacirclearoundthekingtodeliberateontheaffairsofthekingdom.Whenthesessionisfinished,theykneelagain,prostratethemselves,andretire.Morethanathousandguardsdressedinarmorandarmedwithlancesarerangedatthefootofthestepsofthethrone,inthepalacehalls,atthedoors,andattheperistyles.

The custom of the inhabitants is to go around always armored and armed, so thatminorquarrelsleadtobloodybattles.

Onlysonsofthequeen,thelegitimatewifeoftheking,arequalifiedtoinheritthethrone.Ontheday that anewking isproclaimed,allhisbrothersaremutilated. Fromonea finger isremoved,fromanotherthenoseiscutoff.Thentheirmaintenanceisprovidedfor,eachinaseparateplace,andtheyareneverappointedtooffice(ibid.74‐75).

ThesamesourcealsocontainsabriefaccountoftheeverydaylifeandmaterialcultureofIshanapura:

The men are of small stature and dark complexion, but many of the women are fair incomplexion.Allofthemrolluptheirhairandwearearrings.Theyarelivelyandvigorousintemperament. Their houses and the furniture they use resemble those of Chinh‐t'u. Theyregardtherighthandaspureandthelefthandasimpure.Theywasheverymorning,cleantheirteethwithlittlepiecesofpoplarwood,anddonotfailtoreadorrecitetheirprayers.Theywashagainbeforeeating,gettheirpoplar‐woodtoothpicksgoingimmediatelyafterwards,andreciteprayersagain.Theirfoodincludesalotofbutter,milk‐curds,powderedsugar,riceandalsomillet,fromwhichtheymakeasortofcakewhichissoakedinmeatjuicesandeatenatthebeginningofthemeal.


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Whoeverwishestomarryfirstofallsendspresentstothegirlheseeks;thenthegirl'sfamilychoosesapropitiousdaytohavethebrideled,undertheprotectionofago‐between,tothehouseofthebridegroom.Thefamiliesofthehusbandandwifedonotgooutforeightdays.Dayandnightthelampsremainlit.Whentheweddingceremonyisover,thehusbandreceivespartofthegoodsofhisparentsandgoestoestablishhimselfinhisownhouse.Atthedeathofhis parents, if the deceased leave young childrenwho are not yetmarried, these childrenreceivetherestofthegoods;butifallthechildrenarealreadymarriedandendowed,thegoodsthattheparentshaveretainedforthemselvesgotothepublictreasury.Funeralsareconductedinthisway:thechildrenofthedeceasedgosevendayswithouteatingshavetheirheadsasasignofmourning,andutterloudcries.TherelativesassemblewiththemonksandnunsofFo or thepriestsof theTao,whoattend thedeceasedby chantingandplayingvariousinstruments.Firstrepresentationofmusicalinstruments

SomeinstrumentsandamusicalorchestraaretobefoundinthebasreliefofalintelofthesiteofSamborPreiKuk(Fig.2.39).Theseareamongthefirstrepresentations(7thC.AD)ofmusic instruments andorchestra inSouthEastAsia, rendering themof criticalimportancetothestudyofancientandcontemporarymusic.

2.39,wecan identify four (highlighted) instruments:asitar,rattle,drumandharp.ThesitarandrattleasrepresentedinthebasreliefarestillinuseinCambodiancontemporarymusic(Kersale,2013).

The(deathsarethen)burnedonapyremadeofeverykindofaromaticwood;theashesarecollectedinagoldorsilverurn,whichisthrownindeepwater.Thepooruseanearthenwareurn,paintedindifferentcolors.Therearealsothosewhoarecontenttoabandonthebodyinthemountains,leavingthejobofdevouringittothewildbeasts(ibid.75‐76).TheIshanapura‐MySonAxis

Attheveryoutsetoftheseventhcentury,Mahendravarman,thefatherofIshanavarmanI, had realized the importance of the neighboringKingdomof Champa (current SouthVietnam)asanallyinordertorealizehisdreamofestablishingapowerfulKhmerstateintheMekongValley.SohesentoneofhisministerstothecourtatMySon,capitaloftheKingdom of Champa (and current World Heritage Site), with a mission to reinforcefriendly relations between the two countries. This crucial information is given in aSanskritinscription,K53dated667AD(Sahai,1970,ISC,IX,67,stanza8).


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TheinterestofIshanapuraintheaffairsoftheKingdomofChampacontinuedduringthefollowingreignunderIshanavarmanI,asattestedbyinscriptionC96,dated657AD,foundneartempleE6atMySon. IshanavarmanI’s interest inthepoliticsoftheneighboringstateofChampawasinstrumental inpromotingfuturecloserculturaltiesbetweenthetwo neighboring countries, especially in the field of the arts and architecture. TheinscriptionC96wasinstalledatMySonbytherulingKingofChampa,Prakashadharma(655‐690AD)whobelongedtoanewdynasty.

IntheinscriptionKingPrakashadharmaofChampaunveilshisoriginsbyreferringtohisexiledfatherJagadharmainBhavapura(Ishanapura),whomarriedSharvani,hismotheranddaughtertoKingIshanavarmanI(theinscriptiongivesmuchmoreinformationaboutthefamilyandespeciallyontheancestryofIshanavarmanIreferringtoMahendravarmanI,hisfatherandBhavavarmanI,hisuncle).

TheillustriousKingofChampa,PrakashadharmaandgrandsonofIshanavarmanI,wasthushalfKhmerandhalfCham,hisproudlineagegoingbacktothefoundersoftheChenlaEmpireandultimatelyIshanapura.

Several French archaeologists, art historians and historians such as Boisselier (2008,256),PhilippeStern(1942,81ff),andMus(1928,151‐152)alsorefertothesimilarityinart, architecture and religious symbolism produced by both Ishanapura and My Son.Boisselier(2008,256)observes:“TheaccessiontothethroneofanewdynastyinChampa,its family ties with Chenla (Ishanapura), and the role that the Khmer Kingdom hadnecessarily played in its formation, are no doubt sufficient to explain the artisticrelationshipofthetwoKingdomsofChampaandIshanapura…”

This intense relationship with the Kingdom of Champa will continue throughout theKhmerEmpire.

Continuingimportance

WiththeshiftofpowernorthtotheAngkorregion,thepoliticalpowerofSamborPreiKukdiminished.However,thecitycontinuedtoplayanimportantroleasaprovincialcenter.EvidenceoftheongoingimportanceofSamborPreiKukthroughouttheAngkorperiodexists in several forms. Themost important evidence relates to the revival of the cultpracticeattheNorthernGroupinthe10thcentury,includingthealterationandrenovationofPrasatSambor(ShimodaandNakagawa2008),theinstallationofinscriptionsK.148,K.436;K.443intheZGroupfromtheAngkorperiodandadditionalstatuary(thePreRupstyleVajimukhafromN7)duringthereignofRajendravarman(Fig.2.40).


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Fig.2.40:10thcenturystatueinPreRupstyleVajimukhafrom Prasat N7, Sandstone, MG. 18099 at the Muséenationaldesartsasiatiques‐Guimet,Paris

TheAngkorroadnetwork(Fig.2.41)extendedtoSamborPreiKuk,indicatingthatthesitecontinuedtobeofongoingimportanceasareligiouscenterandpossiblyasalinkbetweenthenortherncapitalsandsoutherntributarystates(Hendrickson2010,2011;Shimodaand Nakagawa 2009). Further evidence is provided by Khmer and Chinese ceramicsexcavatedatthesite.KhmergreenandbrownglazedpotsherdshavebeenfoundthataredatedtotheAngkorperiod.TheChineseceramicsarebluish‐whiteporcelainfromkilnsinFujianandJiangxiandhavebeendatedtothe11thand12thcenturies(Kuboetal2012,86).ApieceofYuanceladonfromthe13thor14thcenturyhasalsobeenfound(Heng2009,23). Thepresenceof such imported luxury goodsdemonstrates that SamborPreiKukcontinued to host members of the elite despite the center of power having movedelsewhere.


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Fig.2.41TheancientAngkorroadsystemindicatingtheroadnetworkfromAngkortoSamborPreiKuk.

Duringthislateperiodtheuseofbrickwithaccompanyingsandstoneelementssuchasdoorjambs,head,colonnades,andlintelscontinuedinthetraditionofSamborPreiKuk.However the particular and peculiar decorative elements such as medallions, flyingpalaces,andsculpturesintheSamborPreiKukstylearenolongertobefound.

LivingtraditionsContinuityThe Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological and Cultural Landscapecontinuestobeusedforhumanhabitation,agricultureproduction,commerceandreligiousworship.Mostoftheancienttempleshrinesareusedasplacesofworshipbythelocalpopulationaswellasvisitors.LocalcommunitiesconsiderAncient Ishanapuraas thedwellingplace for“NeakTa”(powerfulancestralsprits)whoareworshipped ineverydayritualsand twouniqueannualfestivals.

Thismanifestationofcontinuedpracticesassistedtomaintainandpreservethesite.


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Certainly, today, the temples of Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Site and CulturalLandscapeareregardedashavingstrongreligiousvalue.LocalcommunitiesregardPrasatSambor as the home of aNeak Ta (powerful ancestral spirit), who is worshipped ineverydayritualsandintwoannualfestivals(Fig.2.42).CurrentlyeightNeakTawoodenshrinessharespacewiththemonument.Manymorearescatteredthroughoutthesite.ThesefestivalscontainseveralelementsnotpracticedelsewhereinCambodia(Fig.2.43),includingthecreationofuniqueritualobjectsandtheuseofpowderfromthestonesoftheancientcausewaytoblessworshipperswiththepoweroftheNeakTa.Theageoftheseritualpractices isunknown,butmarkingson the stones causedby rubbinghavebeenfoundduringexcavations,suggestingthattheceremonieshavehistoricalroots.Mostofthe accessible temple shrines continue to be used as places of worship by both localvillagersandvisitorstothesite.Otherusesofthesitealsocontinue.Thesiteoftheancienturban complex continues to be used for human inhabitation. The historical hydraulicsystem of canals, dikes and other water features serve local communities as a watersupply.

Fig.2.42NeakTaceremony


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Fig.2.43Ceremonyaspartoftheannualploughingritual

3.JUSTIFICATIONFORINSCRIPTION

(a)BriefsynthesisSamborPreiKuk,theArchaeologicalandCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapura,isthemostimportantarchaeologicalsitefor6th‐7thCenturySoutheastAsiaandcapitaloftheChenlaEmpire.Itextendsoveraterritoryofapproximately25km2anditshowsusforthefirsttimeinSoutheastAsiaaverycomplexcityplanningwithacollectionofbuildingsona monumental scale (harbor, causeways, hydrologic structures, religious templecomplexesandmoatedhabitationzone)andaveryspecificiconographycurrentlyknownas the “Sambor Prei Kuk Style”. The city is strategically set in its geographicalenvironment.Inscriptions,iconographyandhistoricaldocumentsrevealthecapitalofanempire,whichruledoveravastareaofcurrentSoutheastAsia.The“HistoryoftheSui”mentions“…thethrivingcityofIshanapurawithmorethantwentythousandfamiliesresidingin,witharoyalaudiencehallinthecenterofthecity.TheterritoryofIshanapuraincludedthirtyother cities, each populated by several thousands of families, and each ruled by agovernor…”(Coedes,TheIndianizedStates,1968,74&76).

TheEmpirewasnotalandlockedstate,butwasoutwardlookingwithseaharborsintheNorthwest and Southeast. Politically, administratively and spiritually, the capitalresonatedfarbeyonditsbordersasafirstmetropolisofSouthEastAsia.

TheuniversalityoftheSanskritlanguagewastransferredtothedistinctKhmerlanguage,first used in Ishanapura for state and ruling purposes, soon to become the universallanguageoftheKhmerEmpire,nexttoSanskrit.


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ItwasaplacewheretravelersanddiplomaticmissionsfromasfarasChina,India,CentralAsia and neighboring countries livedwith the local Khmer community, establishing asyncretismofHinduandBuddhist(ItisthefirsttimethatBuddhismismentionedinaninscription in Southeast Asiawith reference to its universal learning and philosophy)practicessowellreflectedinitsinscriptionsandartandintroducingforthefirsttimetheoctagonalforminarchitectureintheSoutheastAsiaregion(fig.3.1).

Fig.3.1Octagonaltemple(N7).Reliefs,representingthesocalled“flyingpalaces”,decorateeveryfaçadeexcepttheonewheretheeast‐facingdoorwayisplaced,(Brukoff,B.andJessup,H.I.,2011,p.20).

Twogroupsofmonuments(theNorthandSouthgroups)withoctagonalbuildingsarededicated to the Lord of Seriousness (Gambireshvara) and the Lord of the Smile(Prahasiteshvara),aphilosophicalconceptreferringtouniversalhumancharacteristics(fig.3.2&3.3).Prahasiteshvara,theLordofthesmilelaterpavesthewayfortheBuddhistsmile,whichwillbothhaveaprofoundimpactonKhmericonography,architectureandcivilizationasawhole.


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Fig.3.2DrawingoftheOctagonaltempleN7afterUongVongin“SurveyReportoftheTemplesatSamborPreiKuk(KampongThom),bytheMinistryofCultureandFineArts,GeneralDepartmentofProtectionofCulture,DepartmentofPatrimony,EditorNouthNarang,MinisterofCultureandFineArts,(undated),pp.38.

Fig. 3.3 DrawingoftheprincipalfaçadeoftowerS9afterUongVongin“SurveyReportoftheTemplesatSamborPreiKuk(KampongThom),bytheMinistryofCultureandFineArts,GeneralDepartmentofProtectionofCulture,DepartmentofPatrimony,EditorNouthNarang,MinisterofCultureandFineArts,(undated),pp.38.

Inthe7thcentury, thecultofHarihara,an inclusive formofShiva‐Vishnuworshipping,originatingfromIndiawasofficiallyintroducedinIshanapura,tobindandcrystalizetheKhmerstatebyunitingtheVishnuworshippingoftheSouthandtheShivaworshippingfromtheNorthresultinginpoliticalempowermentofregionalrule,introducingarefinedlevelofspiritualityandreligioustolerancecontributingtotheuniversalvalueofpeace(fig.3.4&3.5).Ishanapuraisalsothesiteofthefirstinscriptiontogivedivinetitlestosecularrulers.Thisisevidenceoftheadoptionoftheconceptofthegod‐kingfromIndia,an ideology thatwouldunderpin thestateduring theAngkorperiodand lastuntil theearly20thCentury.


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Fig.3.4Harihara,6thCenturyPhnomDa?,TakeoProvince,Cambodia,MuséeGuimet,Paris,France.

Fig. 3.5 idem, back of Harihara, with cleardistinction in thehead‐dressbetween the straightcapofVishnuandcurlyhairofShiva.

IshanapuraalsoofficiallyintroducesforthefirsttimethedeityoftheSakabrahmana.AcultthathasitsoriginsinIranandwhichreachesSamborPreiKukviatheIndiansub‐continent.TheSakabrahmanawillhaveaprominentroleformorethanfourcenturiesinKhmerreligioussymbolismasreflectedinlaterinscriptionsandbas‐reliefsoftheAngkorperiod.SamborPreiKukthereforereflectstheuniqueaspectsofthepre‐Angkorcivilization,withitsveryparticularcultural,religiousandsymbolictraits,formingthebasisforthefuturehistory of Southeast Asia. It furthermore reflects a high architectural and artisticsignificancecementing the layers for stylesand traditions tocome, someofwhicharecontinuingtoday.

Severalcontemporaryvillagesaresituatedinandaroundthearchaeologicalsitemainlyliving from crop and livestock cultivation. The inhabitants conduct multiple religiousceremoniesperyearonsitedemonstratingthecontinuousreligiousandsymbolicvalueofSamborPreiKuk.Ancienthydraulicstructuresrelatedtowatersupplyandirrigationareusedbythelocalpopulationonadailybasesfordrinkingwaterpurposesandagriculture


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while its natural environment andmore specifically its waterways and little thrivingharborstillconnectsitsinhabitantstoothermerchantpartsofthecountry.

(b)JustificationforCriteriaCriteriaii:TheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalandculturallandscapeisanoutstandingexampleoftheinterchangeofhumanvaluesthattookplaceinthemonumentalartsinthelate6thearly7thcenturyinSoutheastAsia.Asevidencedbythesite,thepoliticalstructure,religious practices and material culture were important advances that had a lastingimpactintheregion.Thebuildings,artwork, inscriptionsandlandscapedesignoftheGroupconstitutethemostsignificantandcompleteearlyexpressionofadistinctKhmerculturethatdrewuponandadaptedIndianreligiousconceptsandiconographyandtheiraccompanyingartisticandarchitecturalstyles.ThesiteisanoutstandingexampleofhowinfluencesfromIndiaintermsofartandarchitecture,wereassimilatedandrefinedinthedistinctive “Sambor Prei Kuk Style”. The Indian concepts were modified to meet thespecificneedsofthisemergentempireanditssocial,religiousandagrarianorder,whichultimately evolved into a distinctKhmer culture that constitutes amilestone in urbanplanningandtheplasticartsfortheSouthEastAsiaregion.Itsuniquearchitecture,whichisadistinctandoriginaladaptationofIndianinfluence,introduces for the first time in the South East Asia region the octagonal form andtranslatesitselfinnewaestheticforms,suchastheflyingpalacesandmedallions,carvedonthebrickwallsofthetemplestructures,stonelintelsandsculpturescurrentlyknownasSamborPreiKukStyle.ThetownplanningofSamborPreiKuk,theancientcityofIshanapura,isalsoremarkableforitsgeographicalcentralitytotheKhmercivilizationanditscloserelationshipwiththesurroundingenvironment.Thefluvialplaininwhichitflourishedisamosaicofaquaticlandscapes: the Steung Sen River, the O Krou Ke stream, backmarches, valley plains,naturallevees,meanderscrolls,channels,watersurfacesandsandbars.

Itisindeedaremarkable“waterland”,whichwascarefullycraftedandengineeredtotheneedsofthislargecapital.ForthefirsttimeontheSouthEastAsianmainlandacarefullyengineeredcombinationofthreehydraulicsystemshasbeenputsimultaneouslyinplacetomanageandcontrolthewaterflowandcatchmentastoprovideacontinuouswatersupplyforthecityespeciallyinperiodsofdraught,preventfloodingintherainyseason,protect the city and contribute to the agriculture produce (see also Description ofProperty).

Theseextensivehydraulicworksprobablyalsoconnectedaharborviatwocausewaystothereligiouscomplexbeforeenteringawalledcity.


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Criteria iii: Sambor Prei Kuk, Cultural and Archaeological Landscape of AncientIshanapura,representstheremainsofaverywellorganizedurbancomplex,capitalofaunique past civilization, which introduced the first large empire in 6th‐7th CenturySoutheast Asia stretching from todays’ SouthernThailand to Southern Vietnam in theMekongDelta. The ancient city is an exceptional testimonyof a culture traditionwithcentralized political power, bearing Hindu and Buddhist religious features, having alasting impact on Southeast Asian society today. Its civilization underwent deepinfluencesfromtheIndiansubcontinentintheformofsocialinstitutions,religionandartwhichwereassimilatedintoindigenouscustoms,ideologyandartisticexpressions.TheSambor Prei Kuk Archaeological and cultural landscape was born at a time when adistinctiveKhmerculture/identityemergedfromthiscross‐culturalexchange.

Theextraordinaryarchitectureofthereligiousshrinesisintwodistinctivetemplegroups,dedicated to the Lord of Seriousness (Gambireshvara) and the Lord of the Smile(Prahasiteshvara),aphilosophicalconceptreferringtouniversalhumanCharacteristics.Prahasiteshvara,theLordofthesmilewillinfluencetheBuddhistsmile,andtheywillbothhaveaprofoundandlastingimpactonKhmericonography,architectureandcivilizationasawhole.Inscriptionsandbasreliefsrevealacapitalwithametropolitancharacterwheretravelersanddiplomaticmissions fromChina, India, CentralAsia andneighboring statesmixedwiththeKhmerpopulationclearlyextendingbeyonditsregionalinfluenceandwhichwillhaveafundamentalformativeroleforthefutureoftheregion.The religious complex was the largest pilgrimage center in South East Asia. All thatremains architecturally of that civilization are its brick and stone structures, itsspiritualismhowever,andlanguagestillliveon.Criteriavi:ItisatIshanapurathatwefindthefirstevidenceoftheofficialintroductionoftheHariharacult(originatingfromIndia)inSoutheastAsia–aninclusiveformofreligionvenerating thedouble imageof Shiva‐Vishnu ‐ for theestablishmentof avery specificuniversalvalue;“peace”.IshanavarmanI,rulerwithaShivaitefamilytraditionfromthenorth,introducesthecultwhichisgraduallyadoptedbythenorthforarapprochementwiththeVishnuitesouth,beingconqueredbytheempire.Epigraphicsourcessuggesttheuse of Harihara as a devise to assert political power and authority to consolidateterritorialgains.TheadoptionofthisinclusivereligionwillbecomesoimportantthatthelatercapitaloftheearlyAngkorEmpirewillbearitsnameintheformofHariharalaya.

Theofficial introductionof thenewdeityof theSakabrahmanaalso finds itsorigins inIshanapura.With the homeland of the Saka rulers (originating from Iran) in India isassociated a particular group of priests in ancient India called the Brahmana fromSakadvipa or Sakabrahmana. These Sakabrahmana, under whom orthodoxy ofBrahmanismwasmuchrelaxed,werewellversedintheVedaandVedangasandareoften


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associatedwiththeworshipofthesun‐god,anancientIranianpractice(Sahai,2007,pp.70‐71).TheyalsoactedasthemostactiveagentsfordiffusingIndianculturalelementsinSoutheastAsia (Sahai,2007,p.71), including theSanskrit language, leading to the firstepigraphictexts,andtheSakacalendarstillbeingusedinpartsofIndiaandinBali.Theinscriptions inancientCambodia (also inSamborPreiKuk)areregularlydatedby theSakaeracalendar.Infact,laterinscriptionsleadustobelievethatanumberoftemples,including the Bayon of Angkor Thom (at the World Heritage Site of Angkor) werededicated or partially dedicated to the Sakabrahmana in the course of at least fourcenturies.

Ishanapura furthermore introducesus to the first inscription inSoutheastAsiaon theBuddhistphilosophywithreferencetoitsuniversalcharacterof learningandteaching.ThroughoutKhmerhistorytheBuddhistphilosophywillhaveaprofoundimpactonitscultureandwillstayapredominantbeliefsystemintheregionuntiltoday.

SamborPreiKukisthefirstsiteinthisregionwhereinscriptionsarefound,givingdivinetitlestosecularrulers.Thisisevidenceoftheadoptionoftheconceptofthegod‐kingfromIndia,anideologythatwouldformtheunderpinningofthestateduringtheAngkorperiodandwouldseeitscontinuationtillthebeginningofthe20thCentury.

IshanapuraisalsothefirstplacewheretheancientKhmerlanguageisusednexttotheSanskrit language as a universally binding force, where it is introduced for state andadministrativepurposes, its legacybeing reflected indifferent languages inuse in theSoutheastAsiaregiontoday.

In terms of artistic expression, the appearance of some instruments and a musicalorchestraonthebasreliefofalintel,areamongthefirstrepresentations(7thCentury)ofmusicinstrumentsandorchestrainSoutheastAsiaandofcriticalimportancetothestudyofancientandcontemporarymusic.

Thesite,andmoreoveritssocietyandculturethusembracesalanguage,religiousideasandconceptsforgovernanceofoutstandinguniversalsignificance.

(c)Statementofintegrity

The extent of the nominated property under the Royal Decree of 24 December 2014includesalltherelevanthistorical,cultural,religious,secularandarchaeologicalfeaturesandartifactsof the ancient complex,manifested in itsmoated city, threemain templecomplexes, hydraulic features and number ofmonumental remainswithin its originalsetting.Theboundaryalsoincludesitspristineenvironmentwithforestedareafromwhichthesitebearsitsname.


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The Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological and Cultural Landscape has suffered from theravagesoftime,adifficultclimateandrecenthistoricevents.Theweatheringprocessandencroachment of vegetation causeddegradationof themonuments and in some casestheirentirecollapse.Overtime,partsofthemonumentsandobjectbelongingtothesitehavebeendislocatedand/orlooted.Thegravestharmtothesitehowever,camewiththeinternationalconflictwhichplungedCambodiainawarzonebetweenthelate1960’sandearly 1990’s. Severalmonumentswere severely hit by bombs, andmany remnants ofbombcratersarestillvisibletoday.Despitethesetragiceventsthesitehasbeenremarkablyconserved.Thepropertyretainsalargeamountofmonuments(291Bricktemples)andfeatureswhichdemonstratetheexceptionaltechnological,architectural,artistic,hydraulic,historicalandculturalvalueofthesite.Themajortemplesofthesiteretaintheiroriginalformandfabric.Modificationsandrepairswerecarriedoutatsomeofthebuildingsbetweenthe7thand11thcenturiesandpossiblyaslateasthe13thcentury.Anumberofthedecorativeelements,statuary,andinscriptionsfromthesemonumentshaveremainedinsitu.Alargepartofthemasterpieceshavebeenstoredorareonexhibitinmuseums inCambodiaandabroad (seeannex III).The systemofdykes, canals andhydraulicfeaturesstayintactandmanyarestill inusetoday(seeannexV).Excavationsurveys have also indicated thatmany of the buried structures are in good condition.ProtectionofthesiteissecuredbytheCambodianGovernmentauthorities,andregularclearingandrestorationeffortsinrecentyearshavecontributedtothepreservationthesite.

(d)Statementofauthenticity

TheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalandCulturalLandscapecontinuestobeusedforthepurposesofhumanhabitation,agriculturalproduction,commerceandreligiousworship.Mostoftheancienttempleshrinescontinuetobeusedasplacesofworshipbythelocalpeopleaswellasvisitors.Localcommunitiesfurthermore,considerancientIshanapuraasthedwellingplacefor“NeakTa”(powerfulancestralspirits)whoareworshippedineverydayritualsandtwouniqueannualfestivalswithpracticesnotusedanywhereelseinCambodia.Someshrines forthese“NeakTa”sharethespaceof themonumentsandmanymorearescatteredthroughoutthesite.Lowdensityvillageswithtraditionalgardensandtreecoverlargelyretainthepatternofsettlementthatwouldhavebeenexhibitedbythehistoricurbancomplex.As the inhabitants of ancient Ishanapura, local villagers today depend on agriculture,mostly rice cultivation and livestock such aswater buffaloes, cattle, pigs and chicken.


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Carbondatinghasevenindicatedthatwaterfeaturesandearthworksstillinusetodayarecontemporarytothehistoricbuildings.Theharbor,whichismostprobablysituatedatthespotoftheancientharbor,isasmallthriving commercial center, which uses the Steung Sen River to accept and transportgoodsaroundthecountry.Thismanifestationofcontinued,centuriesoldpractices,assistedtomaintainandpreservethearchaeologicalandculturallandscapeofthesite.

(e)Requirementsforprotectionandmanagement

Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Group is strongly protected by the Royal Decree ofDecember 2014, and Cambodian heritage legislation as described in section 5. TheNationalAuthorityforSamborPreiKuk(NASPK)undertheMinistryofCultureandFineArts,DepartmentofArchaeologyprovidestheframeworkfortheongoingconservation,preservation, restoration, revitalization and general management of the site, and theinterpretationofitsheritagevaluestovisitors.

Fig.3.6Visitorcenteroutside theSamborPreiKukarea

Fig. 3.7Visitorcenterwithtourismfacilitiessuchasrestaurantsandshopssellingtraditionalcrafts

TheauthorityisguidedbyaManagementplanforthesiteandisfurthersupportedbytheMinistryofTourismwhichisinchargeofvisitorsandprovidesamenitiesandfacilitiesatsiteliketheVisitorcenterbuildwithassistanceofADB.NASPK is further supported by a local NGO, the Sambor Prei Kuk Conservation andDevelopmentCommunity,establishedin2004withtheagreementwiththeMinistryofCultureandFineArtsandhasplayedacriticalroleinthesustainableconservationoftheculturalheritageanddevelopmentofthelocalcommunity.The boundary of the site is based on the cultural, archaeological and environmentalstudiesbeingconductedsince1995.


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3.2.Comparativeanalysis(includingstateofconservationofsimilarproperties)

TheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalGroupiscomparedtoelevenculturalheritagesiteson a national, sub‐regional, regional and international level, not only using theWorldHeritagecriteria,butalsoreflectingontheperiodoftime,characteristicsand/orfeaturessuchas influences,religion, language,governance,architecture,material,e.a.Thefirsttableunderneathliststhecomparativesites,theirlocation,name,timeperiodandWorldheritage Criteria. The followingmap shows the site distribution worldwide, and thesecond table lists characteristics and/or features. The reason of choice and a moredetaileddescriptionofeachofthesitesfollowsthetwotables.


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3.2Comparativeanalyses

Country SiteName TimePeriod WorldHeritage

I. NationalCambodia

AngkorBorei 2nd–6thCenturyAD. TentativeList

Roluos(AngkorWorldHeritageSite) 8th–9thCenturyAD. (i),(ii),(iii),(iv)

II. Sub‐Regional

Laos WatPhu(Worldheritagesite) 5th–15thCenturyAD. (iii),(iv),(vi)

VietnamOcEo 1st–7thCenturyAD.

NoWorldHeritageListing

MySon(WorldHeritageSite) 4th–14thCenturyAD. (ii),(iii)

III. Regional

China

BigWildGoosePagoda(SilkRoads:theRoutesNetworkofChang’an‐TianshinCorridorWorldheritageSite)

8thCenturyAD. (ii),(iii),(v),(vi)

India Sirpur 5th–8thCenturyAD. NoWorldHeritageListing

Japan

Hoku’endoandNan’endoHallsatKofukujiTemple(HistoricMonumentsofAncientNaraWorldHeritageSite)

8thCenturyAD. (ii),(iii),(v),(vi)

IV. International

Guatemala TikalNationalPark(WorldHeritageSite)

7th–10thCenturyAD. (i),(iii),(iv),(ix),(x)

Jordan QuseirAmra(WorldHeritageSite) 8thCenturyAD. (i),(iii),(iv)

ItalyEarlyChristianMonumentsofRavenna(WorldHeritageSite) 6thCenturyA.D. (i),(ii),(iii),(iv)


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Fig.


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National Sub‐regional regional internationalCambodia Laos Vietnam China India Japan Guatemala Jordan ItalySamborPreiKuk

AngkorBorei

Roluos WatPhu OcEo MySon BigWildGoosePagoda

Sirpur Kofukujitemple

Tikal QuseirAmra

BasilicaofSanVitale

Period:centuryA.D. 6th–12thC

2nd–6thC

8th–9thC

5th–15thC

1st–7thC

4th–14thC

8thC 5th–8thC

8thC 7th‐10thC 8thC 6thC

Influencesfrom: India x x x x x x x China x x x x x x x Others x x x x x x x x

religion Hindu x x x x x x x Buddhist x x x x x x x x Others x x x x

language Sanskrit x x x x x x x x Khmer x x x x Others x x x x x

governance King‐God x x x x x x x x xCentralized x x x x x x x x x x

City/architecture Urbanplanning

x x x x x x x x x x x

Temple x x x x x x x x x x xoctagonal x x x

material Brick x x x x x x x x xStone x x x x x x x others x x

hydrology drainage x x storage x x x x Moat x x x x Canal x x x x reservoir x x x navigation x x x x x

agriculture x x x x x x x Outsideinfluence Sub‐regional x x x x x x x x x

regional x x x x x x xinternational x x x x x x

commerce India x x x x x x x x x x xChina x x x x x x x x x x xothers x x x x x x x x x x x x


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I. National:3.2.1 Angkor Borei (Cambodia: 2nd‐6th Century A.D.) is on the Cambodian

TentativeListandisaprecursorofSamborPreiKuk,asoneofthecapitalsoftheFunanEmpire:

StateformationcamerelativelylatetoSoutheastAsiaandtheMekongdeltaincomparisonwithotherregionsof theworld.By theendof themid firstmillenniumA.D.,however,several coasts and river valleys of mainland Southeast Asia and the Mekong delta inparticular,containednucleated,hierarchicalcommunitiesandreligioussystems(Stark,M., 2003, p.89). Populations in these communities engaged in international commercethat linked Southeast Asia to China, India, and by extension the Mediterranean.Archaeological, epigraphic, and art historical research illustrate that theMekongdeltawasthecenteroftheregion’sfirstculturalsystemwithtrappingsofstatehoodsuchashighpopulationandurbancenters;theproductionofsurplusfoodthroughintensivericecultivation;sociopoliticalstratification,legitimatedbyIndicreligiousideologies;asystemofwriting,andavigorousnetworkoflongdistancetrade.ArchaeologicalresearchinVietnam’sMekongdeltaat“OcEo”site(asitelaterdescribedinthischapter)providesimpressiveinsightsonsettlementtraditionsandmaterialcultureoftheearlyhistoricperiod.Chinesedocumentaryaccountsandindigenousinscriptions,however,suggestthatthepoliticalcentersofFunanlayinthedelta’snorthernreaches.Forhistoricreasons,manyscholarsbelievethatthearchaeologicalsiteofAngkorBorei(incurrentCambodia’sTakeoprovince)wasonecapitalofthisFunanEmpire(Fig.3.8).


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Fig.3.8GeographicalsituationofAngkorBorei,OcEoandRachGiaintheMekongdelta

Angkor Borei is located on the southeastern edge of an elevated escarpment that issurroundedbyalow‐lyingdeltainalldirectionsexceptthenorthwest.Duringtherainyseason,floodwatersinundatemostofthesurroundingfields(geographicallyidealforricecultivation(Fig.3.9)).

Cambodia

Vietnam


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Fig.3.9FloodplainsintheAngkorBoreiregion

MostoftheMekongdeltahasanaltitudeofca.2metersabovesealevelandthealtitudearoundAngkorBoreivariesfromapproximately2‐10metersabovesealevel(comparabletothegeographicalsituationofSamborPreiKuk).Moreresearchandstudieswillhavetobecarriedout,butitisclearfromaerialphotographythatdrainageandnavigationcanals(linkingAngkorBoreitoOcEointhedelta)surroundedthecity.

AngkorBoreicontainssomeoftheearliestdatedKhmerinscriptions,brickarchitectureand statuary (fig.3.10and3.11) found inCambodia and is located in theproximityofPhnomDaMountain containing ancient temples andalso statuary associatedwith theearliestKhmerstyle.


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Fig.3.10Vishnu,6thCenturyA.D.,PhnomDa,NationalMuseumPhnomPenh.

Fig.3.11 Krishna,6th Century,PhnomDa,NationalMuseumPhnomPenh.

TheancientsiteofAngkorBoreiisnofewerthan3km2inarea(smallerthanSamborPreiKuk), the city wall encircles a D‐shaped elevated area. More than 151 possiblearchaeologicalfeatureswereidentifiedinsidethewalledareaofAngkorBorei,includingmorethan100watercontrolfeatures(e.a.,reservoirs,smallpoolsandnaturalpondsofvarioussizes).Mappingworkalsoidentifiedmonumentalarchitectureintheformofmorethanthirtybrickmasonryrubblemounds.ApparentlytherewasasuccessfullocalceramicproductionalbeitthediscoveryofimportedIndianceramics,showingadirecttradelinkwiththeIndiansubcontinent.

Both Hindu and Buddhist images (6th‐7th Century) have been recovered from AngkorBorei,suggestingthatbothreligionswereimportantatthetime.Epigraphicevidencealsooffersawindowintotherelationshipbetweenreligionandeconomy,illustratedbytheearliestKhmerinscription(K600/611)makingreferencetolargeofferingstothetemplegods,indigenousandShivaite,indicatingtheimportanceofthetempleeconomy.

AngkorBoreithusillustratesstateformationintheMekongdeltaandthelargerSoutheastAsianregion,whichwillformthebasisfortheestablishmentoflargerempires,suchasIshanapura(SamborPreiKuk),eventuallyleadingtotheemergenceofAngkorwhichwilldominate thewhole of the Southeast Asianmainland between the ninth and fifteenthCenturies.


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3.2.2 Roluos (Cambodia: 8th‐9th Century A.D.) as part of the Angkor WorldHeritageSiteandcapitaloftheearlyAngkorEmpirefoundedontheHariharacultandknownasHariharalaya:

Jayavarman II, founder of the Khmer Empire built four capitals for his Kingdom:Indrapura,Hariharalaya(identifiedasRoluos),AmarendrapuraandMahendrapura.ThemostimportantcapitalwasHariharalaya,“TheSeatofHarihara”,about15kmSouthEastfromAngkor, namedafter the syncretic deity inwhichVishnu and Shivamerged, andwhichwas introduced to the Khmer Empire, as illustrated above, by Ishanavarman I,founder of Ishanapura (Sambor Prei Kuk). Hariharalaya was the capital used byJayavarmanIIattheendofthe8thcentury.Therearehowever,nostructuresleftfromtheperiodofJayavarmanIIandthemonumentsfoundatthesitetoday,datebacktothe9thcentury.ThemainmonumentsatRoluosarePreahKôandBakong,bothdedicatedtoShiva,andLolei.

PreahKôisanelegantsmallbricktempleandthefirsttempletobebuilt inthecapitalHariharalayabyIndravarmanI(Fig.3.12).ItssurroundingmoatislargeinproportiontothetemplebuildingsandshouldhaveincludedtheRoyalPalace,ofwhichnotracesofarhasbeenfound.IndravarmanIhadthistemplededicatedon25January880inhonorofhispredecessors.Thedoorjambsofthethreefronttowershavelonginscriptionsonallsides,whereasofthebackrowonlythemiddlehasaninscription.Themiddletowerofthefrontrow,setbackslightlyfromtheothertwo,wasdedicatedtoParamesvara,“theSupremeLord”.ThiswasoneofthenamesofShiva,andinthiscasealsotheposthumoustitle of the founder of the Khmer Empire, Jayavarman II, and builder of Hariharalaya(identifiedasRoluos).

Fig.3.12Roluos,PreahKo,eastrow,northtower,westfaçade.Therecedingstoreysaredecoratedwithminiaturedepictionsoftowersandsupportedbyinteriorcorbeling,(Brukoff,B.andJessup,H.I.,2011,p.34).


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BakongistheStateTempleofIndravarmenIatHariharalaya,andisthefirstsignificanttemplemountain inwhatwill be theKhmerEmpire (Fig.3.13). It appears that itwaspreviously constructed in laterite by Jayavarman III, sonof Jayavarman II, and simplyfinishedinsandstonebyIndravarmanIashislastwork.

Therearehowever,alotofbrick/sandstonemonumentstobefoundatBakong(Fig.3.14).

Fig.3.13Roluos,Bakongfromthenorth‐west.Thefourlowerlevelsofthepyramidareexceptionallybroadandaddtothemonument’ssolidityandgrandeur.Theupperlevel’stowerisatwelfthcenturyadditionthatresemblesthetowersofAngkorWatinform,(Brukoff,B.andJessup,H.I.,2011,P.42).

Fig.3.14Roluos,Bakong,viewoftwoofthesubsidiarytowerssurroundingthetemple.ThepedimentsandguardianFig.sinarcuatednishesflankingthedoorsarecarvedfromthickstuccoandtheunderlyingbrick.Thecollonettesarecylindrical,asinseventh‐centurytemples…,(Brukoff,B.andJessup,H.I.,2011,p.44).

Lolei isan islandtemple in themiddleofa “baray”(largemenmadewaterreservoir),preparedbyIndravarmanIandfinalizedbyhissonYasovarman(893AD)(Fig.3.15).

Fig.3.15.Roluos,Lolei,thesanctuarytowersasseenfromthenorth‐west.


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Thebrickstructuresatthethreesites,intermingledwithlateriteandsandstoneclearlyrefertoatransitionperiodinconstructionandarchitecturebetweentheSamborPreiKukand Angkor eras, while society is still venerating Shiva and Harihara. Hariharalaya(identifiedasRoluos),showsinaveryvividwaytheinfluenceandimportanceIshanapura(SamborPreiKuk)hadonlaterstateformationintheKhmerEmpire.II. Sub‐Regional

3.2.3 OcEo(Vietnam:1st‐7thCenturyA.D.)asearlyurbancenterandaharborof

theFunan Empire reflecting urban aspects and hydraulic workswhichwillcontributetothefoundingoflaterandlargercitiessuchasIshanapura:

ThearchaeologicalsiteofOcEointheMekongDeltaoftoday’sSouthVietnam,usedtobeaveryimportantmaritimecityoftheFunanEmpire(1st‐7thCAD),connectedtotheSouthChinaSeaandtheGulfofThailand,throughitsseaportandsmallersettlementofRachGia(Fig.3.8).OcEowassurroundedbycanalsextendingintotheinnercity(oneofthelargercanalsconnectingitscentertotheharborofRachGiaononeside,andthecapitaloftheFunanEmpire,AngkorBorei,ontheother). GeographicallyOcEoissituatedintheMekongDeltaplains,subjecttomaritimetidesandtheinfluxofsediments.Waterworkswerethereforestrictlynecessarytodrainthewaterandtokeepthecanalsnavigable(Fig.3.16).

Fig.3.16AncientcanalsstillinuseintheOcEoregionviewedfromMountBathé


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ThispositionandtheimportanceofthehydrologyworksopenedmanymaritimehorizonsforthecitybeingcentrallypositionedbetweenthesailingroutestoIndiaandChina.Thisway, foreign contacts and cultural exchanges, especiallywith India,were assured andrenderedtheplaceacommercialvocation,whilethevastplainsinthehinterlandsecuredthefoodstaplefortheinhabitants.Apart from its proximity to the see there was another reason for the geographicalsituationofOcEo.ThesiteisatalittledistanceofMountBathé(Fig.3.17),alonelygraniteformation, visible from all directions over very long distances. In India summits areconsidered to be the houses of the gods and aroundMountBathé therewere a lot ofremnantsandpiecesofstatuesfound,predominantlyreferringtoimagesofVishnu.Aswehave seen earlier Oc Eo would have been part of a predominantly Vishnuite SouthconqueredbytheShivaiteNorthintheSamborPreiKukera.AerialobservationalsoleadstotheimpressionthatabeltofwaterwayswasconstructedaroundMountBathéwhichcould invoke the symbolism of the cosmic sea still present in amuch later Angkor (l.Malleret,1959,p.200).

Fig.3.17MountBathéviewedfromOcEosite

OcEowasacitysurroundedbyanimmenserectangularconsistingofasuccessionofsmallembankments andmoats (1500m by 3000m), at the same time providing water andsecurityfromtheexterior.Thissuccessionofsmallembankmentsandmoatscontainsa


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surfaceof4,5km2,whichmakesitslightlybiggerthenthewalledcityofSamborPreiKuk.Insidewemayobserveanextensionofthecanalstotheinnercityinaveryregularpatternandtherearehundredsofremainsofbricktemples,mainlyinapoorstateofconservation(Fig.3.18)andremnantsreferringtohousesbuiltonstilts.Thestronggeometryofthecitysuggestsacentralizedpowerwhichmusthaveoverseenitsplanningandconstruction.

Fig.3.18UnearthedbrickstructuresatthecenteroftheOcEoSite.

TheearlyIndianinfluence–andprobablythefirstoneontheSoutheastAsianmainland‐onthecityisclearassuggestedbythisregularpatternandthemanyobjects,especiallyreligious,foundonsite.OcEomaythereforebeseenasoneoftheprecursorsofSamborPreiKuk,whereIndianinfluenceandculturefirsttookroottolaterspreadinlandwithanadaptationtoKhmerneeds.

3.2.4 MySon(Vietnam:4th‐14thCenturyA.D.) for itsWorldHeritagestatusandnominationundercriteriaiiandiiianditsclosehistoricandculturaltieswithIshanapura:

TheWorldheritageSiteofMySoninSouthVietnamiscontemporarytoSamborPreiKuk.They both owe their spiritual origins to the Hinduism of India and share a commonhistory,whichhasalastingimpactontheregion.


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InMySon this is graphically illustratedby the remainsof a seriesof impressivebricktowertemples(Fig.3.19&3.20),inalesserextendthoughthenSamborPreiKuk,formingthereligiousandpoliticalcapitaloftheChampaKingdomformostofitsexistence.

Fig.3.19&3.20ThetemplesatMySonaremadeofareddishbrick.Decorativecarvingshavebeencutdirectlyintothebricks.

MySonSanctuarydatesfromthe4thtothe13thcenturiesCE,andusesjustasSamborPreiKuk its natural environment for its foundation. The property is located in themountainousborderDuyXuyenDistrictofQuangNamProvince,incentralVietnam.Itissituatedwithinanelevatedgeologicalbasinsurroundedbyaringofmountains,whichprovidesthewatershedforthesacredThuBonRiver.ThesourceoftheThuBonRiverishereanditflowspastthemonuments,outofthebasin,andthroughthehistoricheartlandoftheChampaKingdom,drainingintotheSouthChinaSea.Thelocationgivesthesitesitsstrategicsignificanceasitisalsoeasilydefensible.

InfluencedbyHinduismoftheIndiansub‐continentmanytempleswerebuilttotheHindudivinitiessuchasKrishnaandVishnu,butaboveallShiva.AlthoughBuddhismpenetratedtheChamcultureandbecamestronglyestablishedinthenorthofthekingdom,ShivaiteHinduismremainedtheestablishedstatereligion.InSamborPreiKuk,thestatereligion,evenafter introductionof theHarihara cult andBuddhism,also stayedpredominantlyShivaite.

Themonumentsof theMySon sanctuaryare themost important constructionsof theChampa civilization. They are constructed in fired brick with sand stone pillars anddecoratedwithsandstonebas‐reliefsdepictingscenesfromHindumythology,verymuchlikeSamborPreiKuk.TheirtechnologicalsophisticationisevidenceofChamengineeringskillswhiletheelaborateiconographyandsymbolismofthetower‐templesgiveinsightintothecontentandevolutionofChamreligiousandpoliticalthought.

ThesiteofMySonhoweverisareligiousensemble,whereasSamborPreiKukisacitywithreligiouselements.SamborPreiKukhowever,remainspredominantinitscenturiesofglory,beingthe7thand8thcenturiesAD,withamajorinfluenceovertheregionandfarbeyond.Afterthat,itsinfluencecreatesthebasicsforthefoundationsofAngkor,whileits


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regionalmightisreduced.Champahowever,willcontinuetobeacenterofpowerrivalingitsneighborofAngkor.

3.2.5 WatPhu(Laos:5th‐15thcentury)foritsWorldHeritageStatusandasearlyShivaite center in Southeast Asia, birthplace of the dynasty whichwill ruleIshanapuraandwhichwillbepartofthePre‐AngkorandAngkorEmpirefromthe7th‐15thcenturies:

ThetemplecomplexofWatPhunearthemoderntownofChampassakinSouthwesternLaos isdistinguishedby itshills.Oneof thesehills is crownedbya rock resemblinga“linga”(Fig.3.21).ThismountainisnamedinseveralinscriptionsasLingaparvata.

Fig.3.21TheLingaparvataisvisibleinthebackgroundofthemonument.

TheearliestmentionofthissiteisintheinscriptionofKingDevanaka(K365),datingbacktothesecondhalfofthe5thcenturyA.D.,whoestablishedtheNewKuruksetra(KuruksetrabeingtheholyIndiancitywherethelastgreatbattleoftheMahabharatatookplace)atthefootofthismountain.AcultgrewarounditandcenteredontheimportanttemplecomplexofWatPhuat the footof themountain.The inhabitantssawthe landscape intermsofHindu cosmologywithWatPhuMountain as thehomeof thegods, particularly Shiva,while theMekong River represented the River Ganges and the surrounding universalocean.ReferringtoZhenla(Chenla),thepre‐AngkorEmpireofmainlandSoutheastAsia,the6th‐7thcenturyhistoryoftheChineseSuiDynastymentionsthismountainanditscultpracticesasfollows:


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“NearthecapitalisamountainnamedLing‐jia‐bo‐po,onthesummitofwhichatemplewasconstructed,alwaysguardedbyfivethousandsoldiersandconsecratedtothespiritPo‐do‐li,towhohumansacrificesaremade.Eachyearthekinghimselfgoestothistempletomakeahumansacrificeduringthenight.Itisthusthattheyhonorthespirits.”WatPhu,asdescribedearlier,issupposedtobeanareawheretherulingdynastyOftheZhenlaEmpire(Chenla)orpre‐Angkororiginated.Theoldcitywassettled5kmtotheeastof themountainonthebankof theMekong,surroundedbyadoubleenclosureofearthenwalls,rectangularingroundplan.Anearthenwalldividedthesettlementintotwohalves,spreadover4km2,aboutthesamesizeasSamborPreiKuk.Remainsofsome30bricktemples,residentialquartersandworkshopshavebeenexposed.Theancientcitywasbuilt inanareawitharichnaturalnetworkofsmallandmedium‐sizedriversandstreamsflowingfromthemountainintotheMekongRiver.Thethreeprincipalriverswerechanneledthroughtheancientcitytosupplywaterandcontrolflooding.FromthefifthcenturytilltheendoftheAngkorperiod(15thcentury),WatPhuremainedanimportantShivatemplesite,patronizedbytheKhmerkings.Eventoday,thousandsofpilgrimscometoWatPhu fromsouthernLaos foraBuddhist‐Hinduceremonyheld inFebruary,duringwhichyounggirlsinwhitepraytoShivaandbuffaloesaresacrificed.Althoughfoundedinthepre‐AngkorareaandcontributingtothehistoryofSamborPreiKuk,Wat Phu does not represent the specific andunique characteristics of the 7th‐8th

centurysiteofSamborPreiKuk,asitwasabsorbedintheAngkorstyleoflatercenturiesofwhichthemonumentalremainsarestillvisibletoday(Fig.3.22).

Fig.3.22AngkorStylesandstonemonumentatthesiteofWatPhu.


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III. Regional

3.2.6Sirpur(India:5th‐8thCenturyA.D.)foritsinterchangeofhumanvalues:

SirpurisahistoricaltownincentralIndiaonthebanksoftheriverMahanadi.ThetownofSirpurhasbeenmentionedinancientepigraphicrecords,datingbacktothe5thtothe8thcenturiesA.D.ThecitywasoncethecapitaloftheSarbhapuriyaandSomvanshiKingsofDakshin(south)Kosalastate.ItwasalsoanimportantcentreofBuddhismfromthe6ththe10thcenturyA.D.andwasvisitedbyHieunTsang,the7thCenturyChinesePilgrimandScholar. LikeSPKSirpur alsodemonstrates complex cityplanningandhydrologywithcollectionofremarkablecivicandreligiousbuildingsatamonumentalscale.AsperHindutraditionsthecityisplacedtowardsthewestofriverandtemplesarealignednorthsouthwithopeningtowardsthewesttogettherisingsun,thisisalsoaprominentfeatureoftemples at SPK with slight variations. The tolerance of the rulers is once againdemonstratedbythepresenceoftwinshrinestoVishnu&ShivacalledHariharatemples,thoughunlikeSPKthisdidnottransformintoasingleiconicrepresentation.AlongwithHindutemplestherearemanyBuddhistandJainshrineswhichhavebeenexcavatedinSirpur.

The7thcenturyLakshanaTemple(dedicatedtolordVishnu)isconsideredasoneofthefinest brick temples of Indiawith a stone doorframe (Fig.3.23&3.24). It is themostdevelopedamongthetemplesofthepost‐Guptaperiodandretainsmostof itsoriginalappearance and comparable to many temples at SPK in terms of their plan form,architecturalsimilaritiesincludingdecorations, iconography,constructionmaterialandtechniques.

Fig.s3.23&3.24Sirpur,theLakshmanaTemple,oneofIndia’sfinestbricktemplesevercreated.Aremarkableproductofuniquesymmetry,preciseconstructionandexquisitecarvingswasconstructedin650AD.

ThoughunlikeSPKmanyofthebricksherewerepre‐castedinrequiredshapesandnotcardedpostconstruction,ithasadevelopedsoclemouldingsandhasastoutbutslightlyincurvedshikhara.LikeSPKtemplebecomingpredesecortoAngkortemplesthistempleatSirpuralsomarkeda transitionbetween theGuptaand theearlymedieval temples,anticipating several features of the latter’. Its shikhara is highly decoratedwith large


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chaitya‐niches(horseshoelikewindow)abovethedooralsoacommonfeatureatSPKincludingavariantasseeninitsflyingpalaces.Themostnoticeablefeatureisadeeplyrecessedfalsewindowinthecenterofeachside;thisisdividedintopanelsbymullionsevidentlyderivedfromawoodenlatticeasalsoseeninSPKtemples.EvenwithmanysimilaritiesandevidencesofinterchangesSPKremainsauniquetypologyandsurpassesSirpurwithshearitsscaleandgrandeur.MoreoverunlikeSirpurwhichsawmanyalterationstoitsmonumentsbetween8thto12thcenturies,thenominatedpropertySPK retains the integrity and authenticity proving it with the OUV worthy for thenominationtotheworldheritagelist.

3.2.7 TheBigWildGoosePagodaaspartofthe“SilkRoads:theRoutesNetworkofChang’an‐TianshanCorridor”WorldHeritageSite(China:8thCenturyA.D.)asoneofthelargerearlybrickstructuresinChina,buildundertheTangDynasty, which had very close diplomatic relations with Ishanapura. ThePagodawasconstructedtohouseBuddhiststatuesandSanskrittextsbroughtfromIndiaearly8thCentury:

TheBigWildGoosePagodaofChang’an(todaysXi’an),Shaanxiprovince,China,originallybuiltin652ADunderthereignofEmperorGaozong(628‐683)oftheTangDynasty(618‐907),wasamudstructurecoveredbybricksandwaspartofthelargerDaCi’enTemplecomplex.Thepagodawasbuilt tohouse theSanskritBuddhist scriptures (sutras)andBuddharelicsandimageswhichtheprominentBuddhistscholarXuanzangbroughtbackfromIndia.HegotthepermissionoftheEmperortobuildthepagodaandwasalsotobethe first abbot of the Da Ci’en Temple complex.With the support of the Emperor hebroughtfiftyscholarstothetempletotranslatetheSanskritsutrasintoChinese,anoveltyinthehistoryoftranslation.The original 5‐story‐building roughly survived 50 years and collapsed because of itsstructural defaults. It was however, immediately rebuild under Empress Wu Zetianbetween701and704tobecomesquaretenstorybrickfacadebuilding.ThebrickfaçadewasrenovatedundertheMingDynasty.Thesevereearthquakeof1556destroyedpartofthepagodaandbroughtitdowntoitscurrentheightofsevenstories(Fig.3.25&3.26).


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Fig.3.25TheBigWildGoosePagoda. Fig.2.26 ViewonthePagodafromthetemplegardens.

The Big Wild Goose Pagoda became part of the China “Silk Road” World HeritageNominationinJune2014aspartofaninterconnectedwebofrouteslinkingtheancientsocieties of Asia, the subcontinent, Central Asia,Western Asia and the Near East andcontributedtothedevelopmentofmanyoftheworlds’greatcivilizations.

3.2.8 The Hoku’endo Northern and Nan’endo Southern Octagonal Halls ofKofukujiTempleaspartoftheWorldHeritageSite“HistoricMonumentsofAncientNara”(Japan:8thCenturyA.D.)becauseofitsroleasacapitalofacentralized empire and its artistic and architectural values including theoctagonalhallsatKofukujiTemple:

Untilthemid‐seventhcentury,everytimeanewemperorwasenthroned,theseatoftheimperialcourtofJapanwastransferredtoanewlocationinoraroundtheAsukaregion.EmpressGemmeibegantoconstructanewcapitalinNarain708A.D.andtransferredthecapitaltherein710A.D.TheNaraperiodlastedforasubsequent74years.InthisperiodofJapanesehistory,theframeworkofnationalgovernmentmademuchprogressonthebasisofthelegalsystemsfromtheTangDynastyinChina.TheconstructionoftheNaracapitalwascarriedout,seekingexamplesintheChinesecapitalofChang’an.Extending5.9kmEasttoWestand4.8kmNorthtoSouth(encompassing2,500ha),itisestimatedthattheNaracapitalhadapopulationof100,000residents.


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KofukujiTempleinNara,isanimpressivecomplexofwoodenbuildings,manyofwhichareNationalTreasures.In1998KofukujiTemplewasinscribedbyUNESCOasaWorldHeritageSiteaspartofthe“HistoricMonumentsofNara”listing.KofukujiTemplewasfirstestablishedin669A.D.inYamashinaSuehara(nowpartoftheKyotoPrefecture).In710however,withtheestablishmentofNarathecapital,KofukujiTemplewasmovedtoitscurrentsite.KofukujiTemplewasthefirsttempletobemovedtoNaraandwithitscentrallocationitgrewinpowerandwealth.TheoriginalHoku’endoNorthernOctagonalHallofKofukujiTemplewascompleted in721A.D.attherequestofEmpressGemmei(Fig.3.27).Themonumentunderwentmanyrestoration phases with the current building being completed around 1210 A.D. TheNorthernOctagonalHallhousesseveralnationaltreasures.

Fig.3.27TheHoku’endoNorthernOctagonalHallatKofukujiTemple.

TheoriginalNan’endoSouthernOctagonalHallwascompleted in813,but thecurrentbuildingisareconstructionof1789(Fig.3.28).TheSouthernOctagonalHallisstillaveryimportantBuddhistpilgrimagecenterasitistheninthtempleontheWestJapanThirtyThreeTemplePilgrimageRoute,housingseveralnationaltreasures.


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Fig.3.28TheNan’endoSouthernOctagonalHallatKofukujiTemple.

IV. International

3.2.9 Quseir Amra for its World Heritage Status and one of the mostprominentofthesocalled“DesertCastles”,EasternJordaniandesert(Jordan:8thCenturyA.D.)foritsuniqueandextraordinaryartisticvalue:

Quseir Amra, an exceptionally well‐preserved desert castle (nominated as a WorldHeritage Site in 1985), was built beside the Wadi Butum, a seasonal watercourse,sometimebetween723and743A.D.bothasafortresswithgarrisonandaresidencefortheUmayadcaliphs.ItisconsideredoneofthemostimportantexamplesofearlyIslamicartandarchitecture.Thebuildingistheremnantofalargercomplexthatincludedanactualcastleofwhichthefoundationremains.Whatstandstodayisasmallcountrycabin,meantasaroyalretreat,withoutanymilitaryfunction.Itisalowbuildingmadefromlimestoneandbasalt(Fig.3.29).


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Fig.3.29QuseirAmraintheEasternJordanianDesert.

Theexceptionallywellpreservedsmallpleasurepalacecomprisesareceptionhallandhammam(abathcomplexwithchangingroom,warmandhotrooms),allrichlydecoratedwithfigurativemuralsthatreflectthesecularartofthetime(Fig.3.30&3.31).

Fig.3.30RefinedwallpaintingsatQuseirAmra. Fig.3.31SecularartatQuseirAmra.The extensive fresco paintings of the bath building and reception hall are unique forIslamic architecture of the Umayad period. The wall paintings show influence fromclassical pagan themes, Byzantine style portraits and hunting scenes, depictions ofanimalsandbirds,andareaccompaniedbyinscriptionsinGreekandArabic.


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Thedesertestablishment,ofwhichthispleasurepalaceformspart,wasoneofseveralcreatedinthesemi‐aridareaEastofAmmanforthepurposeofinteractingwiththetribalregionoftheWadiButum.Assuch,QuseirAmraisanoutstandingexampleofaparticulartypeofarchitecturalandartisticensemblewhichrelatesspecificallytotheadministrativestrategyofthefirstIslamiccaliphate.3.2.10TikalNationalPark(Guatemala:7th‐10thCenturyA.D.)foritsWorldHeritage

Status,settinginthetropicalforestandtheverycomplexcityplanningwithacollectionofbuildingsonamonumentalscaleandhydraulicstructures:

TheWorldHeritageSiteofTikal,geographicallysituatedinalowlandtropicalforestarea,wasamajorPre‐Columbianpolitical,economicandmilitarycenter,andoneofthemostimportantarchaeologicalcomplexesleftbytheMayacivilization.Aninnerurbanzoneofaround4km2contains theprinciplemonumental architecture andmonumentswhichincludepalaces,temples,ceremonialplatforms,smallandmediumsizedresidences,ballgamecourts,terraces,roads,largeandsmallsquares(Fig.3.32).

Fig.3.32TheinnerurbancenterofTikal.

Recent research also reveals that the city’s inhabitants created a sophisticated watermanagementsystemtoseeitthroughperiodswhenitdidnothaveanyrain.ThewaterneedsofTikalweremetbyaseriesofpavedreservoirsthatheldrainwaterduringtheeightmonthlongwetseasonforuseduringdryperiods.At itspeakintheLateClassicperiod(682‐909A.D.)itspopulationisestimatedtobeashighas100,000people.Manyoftheexistingmonumentspreservedecoratedsurfaces, includingstonecarvingsandmuralpaintingswithhieroglyphicinscriptions,whichillustratethedynastichistoryof the city and its relationships with urban centers as far away as Teotihuacan andCalakmul in Mexico and Copan in Honduras. A wider zone of key archaeologicalimportance, around 1,200 ha, comprises more residential areas and historic waterreservoirs.Theextensiveperipheral zone featuresmore than25associatedsecondary


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sites,historicallyservingprotectivepurposesandascheckpointsfortraderoutes.Theperipheral areas also played a major role for agriculture production for the denselypopulatedcenter.Thediversityandqualityofarchitecturalandsculpturalensemblesservingceremonial,administrative and residential functions are exemplified in a number of exceptionalplaces,suchasthegreatplaza,thetwinpyramidcomplexesandirrigationstructures.

3.2.11.BasilicaofSanVitale(Italy:6thCenturyA.D.,EarlyChristianMonumentsofRavennaWorldHeritageSite),criteria(i),(ii),(iii),(iv),isoneofthethreereligiousoctagonalmonumentsbuild in brick, inRavenna (there are sevenreligiousoctagonalbuildings,buildinbrickinSamborPreiKuk)andthebestpreservedintermsofartisticexpression.

Fig.3.33OctagonalgroundplanoftheBasilicaofsanVitale.

Fig.3.34 Themagnificentlydecoratednaveof theBasilicawithmosaics.

ThecityofRavennainItalyhouseseightearlyChristianmonuments(5th‐6thCenturyA.D.)inscribedontheWorldHeritageList.Threeofthesemonuments(theArianBaptistry;theBaptistryofNeonortheOrthodoxBaptistryandtheBasilicaofSanVitale)allhavetheoctagonalarchitecture,whichwasquitecommonformonuments intheearlyChristianperiod (octagonal standing for the seven days of the week and “the eight day forresurrectionandeternallife”).


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For thecomparativestudy, focus isgiven to theBasilicaofSanVitale,oneof themostimportantexamplesofearlyChristianByzantineartandarchitectureinSouthernEurope(fig.3.33and3.34).

TheChurchwasbuiltattherequestofBishopEcclesiusin526andcompletedbyBishopMaximianofRavennainin547.ThemonumentcombinesRomanelementsandByzantineelementsandisbestknownforitswealthofexquisiteByzantinemosaics,thelargestandbestpreservedoutsideConstantinople.TheChurchisofextremeimportanceinByzantineart,asitistheonlymajorchurchfromtheperiodoftheEmperorJustinianItosurvivevirtuallyintacttothepresentday.

Themosaicsreflectimportantscenesfromthebibleandprofanelife(asSamborPreiKukreflects important scenes from the Hindu religion and scripts). So there are the veryfamouspanelsofJustinian(fig.3.35)andTheodora(fig.3.36),EmperorandEmpressoftheByzantineEmpire,whereJustinianisrepresentedwithahaloaroundhisheadgivinghimthesameaspectofChristemphasizingheisboth,headofchurchandstate.Onecanbutreflectonthegod‐kingprincipleintroducedinSamborPreiKuk…Itishowever,theexquisiteformofartisticexpressionandarchitecturalsymbolism,whichrelatebothsites.

Fig.3.35MosaicofEmperorJustinianus Fig.3.36 MosaicofEmpressTheodora

3.3ProposedStatementofOutstandingUniversalValue

(a)Briefsynthesis

The Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological and Cultural Landscape of Ancient Ishanapura,ancient capital of the Chenla Empire, is the most important site for 6th ‐7th CenturySoutheast Asia, showing a very complex city planning on monumental scale (harbor,causeways,hydraulicstructures,religiouscomplexesintroducingoctagonalarchitectureandmoatedhabitationzone)andauniqueiconographycurrentlyknownasthe“SamborPreiKukStyle”.


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Politically,administrativelyandspiritually,thecapitalresonatedfarbeyonditsborderswithcentralrule(introductionoftheKing‐Godconcept)andadministrationtransferringtheuniversalityoftheSanskritlanguagetothedistinctKhmerlanguage.

Itwasaplacewheretravelersanddiplomaticmissionsfromas farasChina, IndiaandCentralAsiameteachotherandwhereasyncretismofHinduandBuddhistreligionswasestablished through the introduction of tolerant and peaceful cults aroundPrahasiteshvara,Gambireshvara,HariharaandtheSakabrahmana.

Thecombinationofthesenewanduniquefeatureswouldgivelifetoasocietythatwouldform the basis for themuch larger Angkor Empire a few centuries later. Many traitshowever,wouldliveontilltoday.

(a) JustificationforcriteriaCriteria ii: The Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological and Cultural Landscape of AncientIshanapurahasauniquearchitectureandtownplanning,whichisadistinctadaptationofIndianinfluence,introducingforthefirsttometheoctagonalbuildingandtranslatingitselfinnewaestheticforms,suchastheflyingpalacesandmedallions,carvedonthebrickwalls of temples and enclosures, stone lintels and sculptures currently known as the“SamborPreiKukStyle”.

The landscapedesignwascarefully craftedandengineered to theneedsof this largecapitalwith the simultaneous introduction of three hydraulic systems tomanage andcontrolthewaterflow,providingacontinueswatersupplythroughouttheyear.

Criteriaiii:ThecivilizationofAncientIshanapuraunderwentdeepinfluencesfromtheIndian subcontinent in the form of social institutions, religion and art which wereassimilated into indigenous customs, ideology and artistic expressions. The ChenlaEmpirewasacentralizedstatefeaturingatolerantsyncretismofHindu(Prahasiteshvara,Gambireshvara, Harihara and Sakabrahmana) and Buddhist religions, having a lastingimpactonSoutheastAsiansociety.

The religious complex was the largest pilgrimage center in Southeast Asia. All thatremains architecturally of that civilization are its brick and stone structures, itsspiritualismandlanguagehowever,stillliveon.

Criteriavi:InSamborPreiKuk,weseethefirstofficialintroductionoftheHariharaandSakabrahmanacults,bothstrivingfortheuniversalvaluesoftoleranceandpeace.Italsoharbored the first inscription in SoutheastAsia referring to theuniversal teachingsofBuddhism.

Inscriptions also make use for the first time of the Khmer language next to Sanskritreferencingto itscentralizedsystemofrule,andintroductionoftheGod‐Kingconcept,whichwillstaycentralinCambodiansocietytillthebeginningofthe20thCentury.


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Thebasreliefofalintelshowsusoneofthefirstrepresentationsofanorchestraandmusicinstruments,ofcriticalimportancefortheuniversalstudyofancientandcontemporarymusic.

AncientIshanapurathusembracedalanguage,religiousideasandconceptsofgovernanceofuniversalsignificance.

(b) Statementofintegrity

The extent of the nominated property under Royal decree of 24December 2014 (seeannex…)includesalltherelevanthistorical,cultural,religious,secular,archaeologicalandenvironmental features and artefacts of the ancient complex, manifested through itsmoated city, threemain temple complexes,hydraulic structures,monumental remainsandpristineforestedareafromwhichthesitebearsitsname.ALiDarsurveycarriedoutearly2015assistsinillustratingthestateofconservationofthesite(annex…).

Theancienthydraulicstructures(seeannex…)arestillinusetodayandalargenumberofdecorativeelementshaveremainedinsitu.SomeofthemasterpieceshavebeenstoredorareonexhibitinmuseumsthroughoutCambodia(seeannex…).

(c) Statementofauthenticity

TheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalandCulturalLandscapecontinuestobeusedforthepurposesofhumanhabitation,agricultureproduction,commerceandreligiousworship.

Mostoftheancienttempleshrinesarestillinuseforprayersandtheancientsiteisalsoconsideredadwellingplaceforpowerfulancestralspirits, forwhichspecialritualsareorganizedseveraltimesayear.

Lowdensityvillageswithtraditionalgardensandtreecoverlargelyretainthepatternofsettlementthatwouldhaveexistedinthehistoricurbancomplex.

This manifestation of continued old practices, assisted to maintain and preserve thearchaeologicalandculturallandscape.

(e)Requirementsforprotectionandmanagement

Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Site Representing the Cultural Landscape of AncientIshanapura, is strongly protected by the Royal Decree (Preah Reach Kret)NS/RKT/1214/1488dated24December2014,andtheCambodianheritagelegislation.ASamborPreiKukNationalAuthorityestablishedbyRoyalDecree04August2015willbeguidedbyaManagementPlan.


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4. STATEOFCONSERVATIONANDFACTORSAFFECTINGTHEPROPERTY

4.a Presentstateofconservation

(i) Pastintervention

Modern day research and conservation of the site beganwhen Sambor Prei Kukwasintroduced to the European community at the end of the 19th century by Leclère andsubsequent French explorers. Subsequently, several surveys were conducted byl’Écolefrançaised’Extrême‐Orientwhichestablishedthebasicboundariesofthecomplexand catalogued many of the monuments and features (Fig 4.1). Basic preservationmeasures,includingtheclearingofvegetationfrompartsoftheNorthandSouthGroups,wascarriedoutbyConservationd'Angkorin1927‐28,withfurtherconservationworkandarchaeologicalresearchbeingconductedduringtheperiod1958‐70.

DATE ACTIVITIES BIBLIOGRAPHY

1890–1900 Sitesurveyandreports;establishmentofletteredidentificationsystemformonuments

Leclere1894;Aymonier1900;Lajonquiere 1902; Morand1904

1910–1927 Intensive survey; architectural and artisticstudies;epigraphicstudies

Finot 1912& 1928;Parmentier1927&1935

1927–1928 Preservation works including clearance ofvegetation and soil at South Group and part ofNorthGroup,conductedbyVictorGoloubewandLucienFombertauxofConservationd'Angkor

Chronique 1927, 489‐492&1928,331–332

1958–1970 Historic preservation work, excavation andmapping

Groslier 1963; Rapport C. A.1908–1973

1990s–2001 MCFApreservationwork

Fig.4.1TimelineofresearchandconservationactivitiesconductedatSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalGroup(adaptedfromHengp44–45).

TherestorationandinvestigationofthesitewasdisruptedbytheoutbreakofcivilwarinCambodia in 1970. During the era of the international conflict in South‐east Asia, theSambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Site Representing the Cultural Landscape of AncientIshanapura suffered damage from all the hostile forces engaged in the struggle thatspannedover20years(early1970s‐early1990s).Theareawasthesceneofairraidsaswellasgroundconflicts.Duringthatperiodtheresearch,maintenance,andprotectionofthe monuments as well as movable artifacts gravely suffered. Degradation of themonumentswasunchecked,andartifactswere looted.Thenumberofpieces lootedordestroyedcanonlybeestimated.Veryfewlooteditemshavebeenrecovered.Wardamagewasalsoinflictedonseveralmonumentsandvaluablearchaeologicalfeaturesandalotofbombcratersarestillvisibleonsite,oftenfilledwithwater.


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(ii)Presentstateofconservation

From1995‐2001theMinistryofCultureandFineArtsworkedonconservationactivitieswiththeUNWorldFoodProgramcontributingtothemaintenanceofthesitebyprovidingfood in exchange for local labor at themonuments.During1995‐1997 theMinistryofCultureandFineArts,DepartmentofCulturalHeritagestartedworkingonprojectssuchasemergencysupportingandbackfillingoflootedpitsfromimportanttowers.

Fig.4.2&4.3:ThevillagersinvolvedintheclearanceworkofSamborPreiKuksitefrom2001

In1998theMinistryofCultureandFineArtsincooperationwiththeArchitecturalHistoryLaboratory ofWasedaUniversity conducted researchwork in Sambor PreiKuk. Since2001(Fig.4.2&4.3),theSamborPreiKukConservationProject(SCP)begansurveysandmaintenanceworkssuchasperiodicalweeding,cuttingbranches,removingtreedangerfromthemonuments,andinstallingemergencysupports.Theweedingworkisappliedregularlytothemonumentcomplexesincludingthemounds.Modernexcavationsurveysortheclearingofrubblefromthetempleshavetakenplaceonornear19monumentsaswell as the restoration of 7 pedestals. Moreover, SCP has also digitalized alldocumentation.

In2007,theMinistryofCultureandFineArtscontributedintheemergencyset‐upandrestorationworksforthetowersinthePrasatYeayPoangroup.2001–ongoing

SamborPreiKukConservationProject,ajointprojectbetweenMCFAandWasedaUniversity,Japan

SamborPreiKukConservationOffice

2013–2014 SamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteAdministrativeandConservationOfficeestablishedtoimplementSPK‐ManagementPlanonatemporarybasis.

Sambor PreiKukConservationOffice

2015 NationalAuthorityforSamborPreiKuk (NASPK) RoyalDecree


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4.b Factorsaffectingtheproperty

(i)DevelopmentPressures(e.g.,encroachmentadaptation,agriculture,mining)

Previouslyplannedroadnetworks,fundedbyADB,withinthenominatedpropertyhavebeenre‐routedaroundthenominatedproperty.Therearealsonumeroustrails,paths,andsmallunimprovedroadsintersectingwiththenominatedproperty,especiallyinthe‘cityzone’thatareusedcurrently.Theyarearesultof infrastructure development from ancient tomodern times, andwill require carefulmonitoring. The satellite zone, as defined by the Cambodian government, andadministeredonalocalandregionallevelwithenforceabilitythroughtheReformoftheRoyalDecree,beyondthebufferzoneisexpectedtoassistinthesustainabledevelopmentof the area through tourism facilities, products and services. The satellite zone issupportedbyCambodianMinistries,AsianDevelopmentBank,andUNESCO.TheSamborPreiKukNationalAuthoritywillmonitordevelopmentinitiativestoinsureconservationandprotectionofthenominatedandbufferzonesaremaintained.

(ii)Environnementalpressures(e.g.,pollution,climatechange,desertification)

TheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteandCulturalLandscapeissurroundedbyforestandagriculturelandawayfromtheindustrialanddevelopingareas.Climatechangeandenvironmentalhazardsarenotevident,howeverpossible.

Sincethemonumentsaresurroundedbyforest,toreducetheriskofanyincidentofatreefallingdownontemples,SCPhasregularlyclearedthetreethatmightcauseproblemtothemonuments.Monsoonrains,humidity,andrapidtemperaturechangeshaveaneffectonthemonumentsandfeaturestability.

Themonuments,andbuiltfeaturesarecomprisedofoneormoreprimaryconstructionmaterials; fired brick, sandstone, and laterite with rammed earth (sandy soil) as afoundationbase.Waterintrusionmayseriouslydestabilizethemonuments.

(iii) Naturaldisastersandriskpreparedness(earthquakes,floods,fires,etc.)

Cambodiaisnotinaseismiczone.Duetotheadvantagesofthenaturaltopography(forexample,swampsandSteungSenasreservoirs),ancientfunctioningartificialhydraulicworks, and the fact that most of the monuments are built on higher ground, themonumentshaveneverbeenaffectedbythefloodingproblems.Waterrun‐offfromthemonumentareas isapotentialproblemthat isbeingaddressed.Theriskof forest fireexists,butintentionalburninghasbeenmitigated.Moreover,theForestryDepartmentisalsoinvolvedineducationprogramsandthepreventionofforestfires.TheRoyalDecree


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on Environmental Protecting and Resources (NS/RKM/1296/36, dated 24 December1996)haslegislatedsuchprotection.

(iv)ResponsiblevisitationatWorldHeritageSites

Foreign visitors to the SamborPreiKukArchaeological SiteRepresenting theCulturalLandscape of Ancient Ishanapura currently cause no overcrowding or environmentalpressures. They generally spend around 2 to 3 hours at the site. Most visit themainmonuments. Upon inscription foreign visitation is anticipated to increase significantlywhileKhmervisitorsarealsoexpectedtoincrease.Theestimatedcarryingcapacityofthesiteatonetimeisdeterminedbythecurrentparkingfacilitiesatthevisitorcenter.Thefacilitiescancurrentlyaccommodate12buseswith45personsperbus,and38carswith5peoplepercarwithanestimateddailycapacityofinexcessof1,400persons..Thereisanestimatedtotal initialcarryingcapacityof504,000peopleannually.Electriccarandalternatetransportusagewithinthesitehasbeenplanned.Anticipatedfuturepressuressuch as increased tourism and special events are addressed in themanagement planwhichoutlineshowcurrentandfuturerelatedplanswilladdressdevelopmentpressureswithoutadverseeffects.

TheIsanboriCraftCenter(whichwasestablishedsince2005withsupportfromGermanOrganization for Technical Cooperation (GTZ)), is located near the new communitymarketwhichincludeSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteadministration,interpretationcenter, “Sambor Prei Kuk Community Market” and visitor amenities. Communitymembers for trainingon local craftsuse thecommunitymarket. Thenewcommunitymarketwasdesignedandconstructedwith theassistanceAsianDevelopmentBank inlocal architectural style in consultation with local authorities, departments, and theUNESCOPhnomPenhOffice.

Religiousactivitiesonalargescaleareheldseveraltimesayearandarewellattendedbythelocalpopulation.Individualworshipispresentbutnotobvious.TheseactivitiesareseenasaninherentrightofallCambodians,andtraditionsandlawguaranteetheirrespectforancientreligiouspractices.Thereligiouspracticesarenon‐intrusivetothemonumentsandthesurroundingenvironment.Religiousactivitiesinthefutureareexpectedtoattracttourists, and provide for tourist intangible cultural heritage education. Planningmitigationofpotentialriskswillbejointlyheldbyallstakeholders.

(v) Numberofinhabitantswithinthepropertyandthebufferzone Areaofnominatedproperty:886 Bufferzone:6,720 Total:7,606 Year:2014


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5. PROTECTIONANDMANAGEMENTOFTHEPROPERTY

5.a Ownership

Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Site Representing the Cultural Landscape of AncientIshanapura is the property of the Royal Government of Cambodia. This ownership isconferred under the provisions of the Law on the Protection of Cultural Heritage,NS/RKM/0196/26dated25January1996andtheLandLaw,NS/RKM/0801/14dated30August 2001. This legislation declares that the archaeological, cultural, historicalpatrimoniesandanypropertythatconstitutesanaturalreservearethepublicpropertyoftheStateandpubliclegalentities.SamborPreiKukwasdeclaredanarcheologicalsiteundertheactbytheRoyalDecreeonEstablishmentofSamborPreiKukTemplesitein2003.

5.b Protectivedesignation

TheSamborPreiKukArcheologicalSiteRepresentingtheCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapuraisasiteprotectedundertheNationalHeritageLaw.FurthertheRoyalDecreesestablish and allocate responsibilities among competent institutions for the site as awholealongwiththenotifiedareaofSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteRepresentingtheCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapuraanditsassociatedbufferzones.

Asummaryoftherelevantprovisionsundereachactisdescribedbelow:

(i)RoyalDecreeontheEstablishmentofSamborPreiKukTempleSite(RoyalDecree2003,2014)

The Royal Decree (Preah Reach Kret) NS/RKT/1214/1488 dated 24 December 2014encompassesallofthehistorical,archaeological,andculturalaspectsoftheOutstandingUniversal Value of the Sambor PreiKukArchaeological Site Representing theCulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapura.Thedecreeexpandedtheprotectedcorezoneproperty(nominatedproperty)from381.11hato1,354.26ha.followingtheboundariesformedbyroads, canals, rivers, property ownership demarcation lines, or administrativearrangements.

(ii)LawontheProtectionofCulturalHeritage

(RoyalDecree(PreahReachKret)NS/RKM/0196/26,dated25January1996)

This is the principal Cambodian national law applicable to the entire country for theprotectionofnationalculturalpropertyagainstillegaldestruction,actsofvandalism,illicittransferofownership,illicitexcavation,illicitexportandimport.Thislawshallapplytomoveable and immoveable national cultural heritage, whether publicly or privatelyowned, whose protection is in the public interest. Protected sites containingarchaeological reserves or other sites of archaeological, anthropological or historical


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interestcanbeestablished.TheboundariesofsuchprotectedsitesshallbedefinedbyRoyalDecreeattheproposaloftheSupremeCouncilonNationalCulture(SCNC).

TheSCNCisresponsibleforpolicyformulationinthedomainofnationalculturalproperty,inparticularfortheprotectionandenhancementofnationalculturalheritage,whiletheMinistryofCultureandFineArtsisresponsibleforpolicyimplementation.

(iii)Sub‐DecreeconcerningtheImplementationoftheLawontheProtectionofCulturalProperty

(Sub‐Decrees(Anu‐Kret)No.98,dated17September2002)

Thissub‐decreeisformulatedtosupporttheimplementationofthelawontheprotectionofculturalheritage(mentionedabove)byclearlydefining the termsculturalproperty,archaeologicalexcavation,andimport‐exportofculturalproperty.

(iv)LandLaw

(RoyalDecree(PreahReachKret)NS/RKM/0801/14dated30August2001)

Articles4and5ofthelawstate“thearcheologicalsite,culturalandhistoricalheritagesarewithinthepublicpropertyofthestateandpubliclegalentities”.

(v) LawonEnvironmentalProtectionandNaturalResourceManagement

(RoyalDecree(PreahReachKram)NS/RKM/1296/36datedDecember24,1996)

FulltextofallapplicableRoyalDecrees,LawsandlegislationareinAnnexVII

5.c Meansofimplementingprotectivemeasures

TheNationalAuthorityforSamborPreiKuk,(NASPK)undertheMinistryofCultureandFine Arts, department of Archaeology provides the framework for the ongoingconservation, preservation, restoration, revitalization and generalmanagement of thesite,andtheinterpretationofitsheritagevaluestovisitors.TheauthorityisguidedbytheManagementPlanforthesiteandisfurthersupported,bytheMinistryofTourismwhichis in chargeofvisitors andprovidesamenitiesand facilities at thesite like theVisitorcenterbuildwithassistanceofADB.NASPK is further supported by a local NGO, the Sambor Prei Kuk Conservation andDevelopmentCommunity,establishedin2004withtheagreementwiththeMinistryofCultureandFineArtsandhasplayedacriticalroleinthesustainableconservationanddevelopmentoftheculturalheritageandcommunityofSamborPreiKuk.


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PartofthenominatedareaalsofallswithintheProtectedForestfortheConservationofPlantandAnimalGeneticsandundertheenvironmentalprotectionandnaturalresourcemanagement of theMinistry ofAgriculture, Forests and Fisheries, and theMinistry ofEnvironment. They are major partners in management. The Ministry of LandManagement,UrbanizationandConstruction,theMinistryofTourismandothernationalandprovincialauthoritiesarealsoinvolvedinrelevantaspectsofthemanagementsystemsuchasland‐use,lifestyles,housing&construction,andfarminginboththenominatedpropertyandbufferzones.

Coordinationmechanism

TheNationalAuthorityforSamborPreiKukwillbelocatedattheentranceofthesite,andwillperformtechnicalwork,researchandmanagementofthesite,itssitedirectorunderthe president is the primary point of contact. The authority will be responsible tocoordinate all the efforts of other departments, ministries, NGO’s etc. towards theconservationandmanagementofthesite.The proposed structure of this authority is based on prior experience of otherworldheritagesitesinCambodiai.e.APSARAforAngkorandNAPVforPreahVihearasperannexVI.

5.d Existingplansrelatedtomunicipalityandregioninwhichtheproposedpropertyislocated

Thereareseveralapprovedprojectscurrentlyunderwaytoimproveinfrastructureinthearea surrounding the Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Site Representing the CulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapura,andtoprovidesustainablelivelihoodopportunitiesforthe surrounding communities. These projects include the Rural Road ImprovementProject(MinistryofRuralDevelopment)andtheImprovementofMarketAccessforthePoorinCentralCambodia(MinistryofTourism),bothfundedbytheAsianDevelopmentBank (ADB; Initial Environmental Examination issued February 2013).With financialsupport from ADB, a visitor interpretation center and parking area, alongwith officeaccommodationsforadministrationoftheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSitehasbeenbuilt just outside the Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Site Representing the CulturalLandscapeofAncientIshanapuranominatedproperty.ThisfacilityservesasafocalpointforSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteactivities.

5.e PropertymanagementplanorothermanagementsystemTheSamborPreiKukManagementPlan(SPK‐MP)willprovidetheframeworktoconservethe cultural heritage assets of the inscribedWorldHeritage site, and includes but notlimitedtoprotection,conservationofandrestorationofthearchitectural,archaeological,landscape, natural and sacred assets, and their geological sittings, improving theunderstanding of the site, its interpretation, and most importantly ensuring and


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supporting local community in its cultural, social and economic vitality. The plan isdesignedtocreateabalancebetweeneconomicgains,socio‐culturalneeds,andculturaland conservation values. Additionally, the plan is designed to create sustainabledevelopment and sustainable tourism that will contribute to both conservation anddevelopmentobjectivesaswellassafeguardingsocialequalityandreligiousandculturalvalues.

TheunderlyingprinciplebywhichtheSPK‐MPisasfollows:

۩ complywithcurrentlaws,regulations,legislation,andRoyalDecrees,Sub‐Decrees,andculturalnorms;

۩ preventallimpairmentoftheOUVandotherresourcesandvaluesofSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalGroup;

۩ ensurethatconservationwillbepredominantwhenthereisaconflictbetweentheprotectionofresourcesandtheiruse;

۩ emphasize consultation and cooperation with local, provincial, and nationalentitiesaswellasUNESCOandotherinstitutionsworldwide;

۩ supportpursuitofthebestcontemporarybusinesspracticesandsustainability;

۩ encourageconsistencyofapplicationacrossalldisciplines,andincorporatepolicyrevisionsinatimelymanner;

۩ reflectSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteManagementgoalsandacommitmenttocooperativeconservationandcivicengagement;

۩ affirm theNational Authority for Sambor Prei Kuk commitment to the public’sappropriate use and enjoyment, including education and interpretation, of allculturalandnaturalresourcesandvalues,whilepreventingadverseimpactstothevaluesofthesite;

۩ ensurethatsustainabledevelopmentconceptsareimplementedacrossallsectorsofsociety inthe immediatesurroundingareasthat includethecore(nominatedpropertyforWorldHeritage),bufferandcommercialzones;.

۩ promote the ecological aspects providing interactive natural educationalopportunitiesforvisitorsandlocalcommunities;

۩ insure that heritage landscape management plans are congruent and fullyintegrated with the current living traditions, landscape usage, and rights ofresidentstopursuesustainabledevelopmentactivities;

Theimplementationoftheseobjectiveswillbeachievedthroughaseriesofactionsandprogramsinaphasedmannerasperanagreedpriorityamongthestakeholders.


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ThefollowingaretheSPK‐MPcurrentissuesandobjectives:

Gaining a better and ongoing holistic understanding of the Sambor Prei KukArchaeologicalSite;

ImprovingthesettingoftheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSite;

ConservingthehistoricfabricoftheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSite;

Promotingsiteinterpretationandfacilitateeducationaloutreach;

Managing visitation in ways that enhance visitor experience andminimize theimpactofvisitationonthesite;

Managingexistingandpotentialriskstothesite;

Encouraging sustainable tourism foreconomicdevelopmentof theSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSite;

ProvidingSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSitewithworldclassadministration;

Encouraging and facilitating foreign participation in the research, conservationand;sustainabledevelopmentofSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSite.

The plan provides a holisticmanagement perspective that incorporates conservation,restoration,revitalization,administration,funding,riskmanagement,healthandsafety,planning,monitoring,religiousrequirements,andchangeofmanagement.Eachelementwill be treated as a “life cycle” in a continuous improvement process of preparation,elaboration,implementationandreview.

The SPK‐MP determines and establishes the appropriate strategies, objectives andmanagement structure to safeguard the OUV including its cultural heritage, balancedifferentneeds,andusethehistoricareasandtheculturalheritageasdevelopmentassets.

5.f Sourcesandlevelsoffinance

Asthesitehasalreadybeendeclaredaprotectedzoneofculturalandnaturalimportance,andisundertheNationalAuthorityforSamborPreiKuk,astatebudgetaryallocationisprovidedforitsmaintenanceandpreservation.Potentialadditionalfundscanbeforeseenfromvarioussources:

- Subsidiesfromnationalandprovincialauthorities- Donations,legaciesandinternationalsubventions- Revenuefromticketing- Profitsfromselecttouristservices


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TheMinistryofCultureandFineArts,throughtheNASPKprovideanadequatefinancialsource for the Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Site for restoration, conservation andmanagementof thesite.Additionally, funds frominternationalgovernmentalandnon‐governmentalorganizationsaresolicitedtofillbudgetarygaps,andinitiaterevitalizationprojects.

5.g Sources of expertise and training in conservation and managementtechniques

TheNationalAuthorityforSamborPreiKukwillbestaffedbyspecialistsinarchaeology,architecture,culturalheritageconservation,andvisitorservices.Additionalexpertisewillbe available as required through the participation of Cambodian and internationalheritageexperts.

Theauthoritywillprovidetrainingforlocalpeopleasguides,maintenanceworkersandconservation assistants. The organization also conducts community forums, at whichcommunitymemberscanlearnaboutactionsthattheycantaketoprotecttheSite,andprovidefeedbackonmanagementmatters.TheAuthoritywillensurethedevelopmentofsustainablelivelihoodsforlocalcommunitiesandtheirparticipationindecision‐makingprocessesTheir training and employment programs recognize the vital importance oflocal community support in the ongoing sustainable management of the Site. TheauthoritywillengagewithlocalgroupsformulatedundertheMinistryofCulture&FineArts,theMinistryofTourismandtheMinistryofEnvironmenttoachievetheobjectivessetwithinthemanagementplan.

TheAuthoritywillsourcesomeitsstafffromRoyalUniversityofFineArtswhichprovidestrainingforyoungCambodiannationalsinheritageconservation.aswellasfromAPSARA(AuthorityfortheProtectionandManagementofAngkorandtheRegionofSiemReap)whichhasdevelopedconservationexpertisespecifictothemanagementofCambodianculturalheritageproperties. APSARA&NAPVemployeeswillbe importantsourcesofexpertiseinconservationandsitemanagementofSamborPreiKuk.

TheMinistryofCultureandFineArts(MCFA)willcontinuetoprovideguidancetotheNASPKtoensurethattheoperationoftheauthorityisconsistentwithinternationalbestpractice. International experts in various fields will also provide vital training andassistanceonaregularbasis.

5.h Visitorfacilitiesandstatistics

TheannualnumberofvisitorstoSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteascompiledbytheSambor Prei Kuk Conservation & Development Community (2009‐2013) has beenincreasingsteadilyinrecentyears.Visitornumbersin2013wereapproximately30,000and is likely to grow by ten times by 2018. Visitor numbers are subject to seasonalfluctuation,withahighseasonfromDecembertoMarch.


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MONTH

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Foreign Khmer Foreign Khmer Foreign Khmer ForeignKhmer Foreign Khmer

January 436 2000 1200 11011 1826 559 1592 596 2563 933

February 426 1000 1710 1503 2018 761 2050 365 2047 608

March 117 500 1626 738 1938 1013 1504 585 1549 819

April 185 500 291 1087 989 3432 693 3000 714 4200

May 431 500 490 722 708 271 395 215 407 301

June 166 500 214 1074 374 346 437 340 450 476

July 704 500 657 482 741 935 436 763 4491068.2

August 328 500 966 1260 1099 102 1046 407 1077 569.8

September 645 500 330 746 280 120 250 115 258 161

October 577 500 825 746 393 123 555 790 572 1106

November 175 750 801 550 1515 293 2295 485 2364 679

December 799 750 1343 410 1509 690 1691 2792 17423908.8

Total 4989 850010453

20329 13390 8645 12944

10453 14191

14830

Fig.5.1:Mapoftouristconnectionsfrom/toSamborPreiKuk,KampongThom

Futuredestination

Directpresentroute

Indirectpresentroute

PreahKhan

KohKer

Angkor

PreahVihear

SteungTreng

Kratie

KampongCham

KampongChhnang

PhnomPenh

SamborPreiKuk


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TheKampongThomMuseumhostsanexhibitiononSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteand other sites, featuring inscriptions, artworks and other artifacts that have beenremoved from the site for safekeeping. It is proposed to implement an educationalexhibitionlocatedatthesitehousingtheobjectsfromtheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSite.

Interpretativematerialsareprovidedatthesiteintheformofleafletsexplainingthesite'sheritage values, and through an onlinewebsite. Guides are also available, and can beorganizedthroughlocalhotelsandtouristagencies.Atpresent,onlyEnglishandKhmerspeakingguidesareavailable.

The Isanborei Community Tourism Project, a program of community‐based tourismenables visitors to explore the site and to engage with the local communities. Theemphasisoftheprogramisonlow‐impactactivitiesthatenhancevisitorexperienceandencouragevisitorstolengthentheirstayatSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSite.Visitorsareabletoparticipateinsupervisedtempleexcavationandrestorationwork,andbicycleandoxcarttoursofthetemplesandtheirsurroundings.Picnicmealsatthesitecanalsobearranged.Home‐stayaccommodationisavailablewithlocalcommunitymembers.Theprogram also includes other activities, such as rice planting and harvesting, cookingclasses and craft workshops. The Conservation and Development Community alsooperatesawebsitethatprovidesvisitorswithextensiveinformationabouttheSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSite.

The new low impact visitor facilities, constructed with the assistance of the AsianDevelopmentBankandtheMinistryofTourism,intraditionalarchitecturalstyle,includesanenlargedticketingofficeandcarandbusparkingareaaswellasrestaurants,toilets,andavisitorinformationcenter.

5.i Policiesandprograms related to thepresentationandpromotionof theproperty

Inconjunctionwithlocal,nationalandinternationalorganizations,theRoyalGovernmentofCambodiapromotesSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSitethroughavarietyofpoliciesandprograms,includingthefollowing:

Thevisitorinformationcenterhasbeenestablishedatthenominatedpropertyandprovidesvisitorswithanintroductiontothesiteandfacilitatesaccesstootherservicessuchasguidedvisits.

TheMinistryofCultureandFineArtssupportsanongoingandregularresearchprogramatthesite,currentlyruninconjunctionwithWasedaUniversity.Aswell as enhancing scholarly understanding of the site, the program alsopromotespublicengagementinopportunitiesforstudentsandothervisitorstothesitetocontributetosupervisedarchaeologicalinvestigations.


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Websites and brochures provide information on Sambor Prei KukArchaeological Site and its environs, including details of local communityactivitiesandfestivals.

StatuesandotherartworksfromthesitearedisplayedattheNationalMuseuminPhnomPenh, theProvincialMuseum inKampongThomcity, and thesiteconservation office educational exhibition. TheMinistry of Culture andFineArts also facilitates the loan of these artworks to international institutions.National and international exhibitionspromote interest in SamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteandhelptocommunicatethe importanceofSamborPreiKukstyleinthedevelopmentofCambodianplasticarts.TheMinistryofCultureandFineArtshasapolicyoffacilitatingtheinternationalloanofworksaspartofitseffortstopromoteCambodianculturalheritageandtoraiseawarenessabouttheillegaltraffickingofantiquities.

SamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSitecanbeconvenientlyvisitedaspartofajourney toCambodia'sotherWorldHeritagesites,PreahVihearandAngkorArchaeologicalPark.Visitingthesitesinconjunctionwithothersitesenablesabetterunderstandingofthedevelopmentofthepre‐AngkorcultureofSamborPreiKukArchaeologicalSiteintotheflourishingKhmerEmpireatAngkorandPreahVihear.Touristoperatorsofferpackagetoursthatcombinethesesites.

5.j Staffinglevels(professional,technical,maintenance)TheNationalAuthorityforSamborPreiKuk,initiallyplansforthefollowingstaffingwithprovisionsforexpansionastheneedsrequire:

Director/SiteManager(1) AssistantstotheDirector(2) Administrator(1) Administrativeassistants(2) Archaeologists(2) Architects(restoration)(2) GISexpert(1) Conservators(2) Documentationexpert(1) Communicationperson(1) Logistics/technician(1) Workers(15skilledlaborers,30unskilledlaborersasrequired) Heritageprotectionpolice(5) Touristpolice(3) Guardsonsite(15)


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FurtherthestaffofSamborPreiKukConservationProjectoffice,undertheMinistryofCultureandFineArtswhichincluded1chiefarchitect/conservator,1sitedirectorand6technicalstaffmemberswhowereresponsiblefortechnicalaspectsandmanagementofthesitetillnowwillalsobeabsorbedwiththeNASPK.TheAuthoritywillbeatthecenteroftheadministrativenetworkandwillundertakeregularmaintenance,fieldresearchandextensivelysurveythesitetoproduceconservationplansincollaborationwithvariousnationalandinternationalpartnersensuringefficientandcooperativeworkteams.

Bothskilledandunskilledlaborerswillbeselectedfromthecommunitiessurroundingthesite.Inthefuture,itisintendedtheproposednumberofofficestaffandlaborerswillbeincreasedtocarryouton‐sitework.AcommunityconsultativeprogrambetweentheMinistryofCultureandFineArts,supportedbytheUnitedNationsWorldFoodProgram,commencedsince1995withthelocalcommunitywillbegovernedbytheAuthoritywithassistance of the local NGO the Sambor Prei Kuk Conservation and DevelopmentCommunity.

The Kampong Thom Provincial Department for Culture and Fine Arts will also beresponsibleforprovidingbackupandtechnicalassistancewhenneeded.

6. MONITORING

6.a Keyindicatorsformeasuringstateofconservation

MonitoringMeasuring the progress is essential to adapt and improve the conservation andmanagement of the site. For this it is important to create a base line data for bothenvironmentalandculturalassetsofthesitebasedonwhichitsconditioncanbeassessedperiodically. The qualitative annual review, combined with a series of objectivemonitoring indicators against which the progress of the condition of the site will bemeasuredare:


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Indicator PeriodicityLocationofRecords

Percentageof73structureswithplanshapeidentifiedunchangedsince2014

Annual

MCFA

Percentageof43structureswithwallsremainingunchangedsince2014

Annual

MCFA

Percentageof64collapsedstructureswithsandstoneelementsunchangedsince2014

Annual

MCFA

Percentageof111structuresinrubblemounds/littletracesunchangedsince2014

Annual

MCFA

Changesinidentifiedriskfactorsassignedto60structuresPercentagechangeinassignedriskfactors

Annual

MCFA

(categories1‐4)assignedtoFlyingPalacessince2014 Annual MCFA

Percentageofmovableandnon‐movableartisticelementsunchangedorimprovedsince2014

Annual

MCFA

Annualnumberoftraumaticeventscausingdegradationinstructures Annual

MCFA

Rateatwhichcurrentlandelementsarebeingintentionallymodified

Annual

MCFA

Otherindicatorstoincludeincreaseinvisitornumber,visitorfacilities,satisfaction,improvedaccesstothesite,improvedcommunityfacilitiesandlivelihoodopportunities,improvedenvironmentalconditionsincludingtreeplantationandrevivalofwaterbodiesetc.

6.b AdministrativearrangementsformonitoringthepropertyConservation and management of the WHS is a dynamic process, new information,changedperceptionsorprioritiescan impacttheconservationandmanagementof thesite. Thus regular review andmonitoring is required to provide and incorporate thisinformation.Since1995,CambodianauthoritiesfromboththeMinistryofCultureandFineArtsandtheprovincialauthoritieshaveensuredfollow‐upproceduresforsafetymeasuresatthesite;includingmineclearance,securityguardsanddailymaintenance.ThereviewprocesswillnowbetheresponsibilityoftheNASPKandwillbeoverseenbytheMinistryofCulture&FineArts.TheannualreviewsmeetingswillbeheldatsitewherealltheconcernedstaffoftheNASPKwillbeencouragedtoattend.


111

Theproposedperiodicreviewswillconsistof:i.AnnualReviews:

Yearlyprogressreviewwillbebasedonannualworkplanwhichwillbedevelopedbasedon the set priorities from the programs of action and the key monitoring indicatorsderivedfromtheobjectivesofthemanagementplan.Thiswillensureincorporatingshorttermupdates,neededformoreeffectivemanagementofthesite.

ii.Reviewsevery5years:Comprehensive review of the conservation and management of the site, issues andprogramsofactionareproposedtobedoneeveryfiveyears.Thereviewmechanismwillalsocorrespondwiththe'periodicassessmentcycle'fortheWorldHeritagesites.The Management Plan will also be reviewed every five years, to keep it relevant tochangingscenariosandconditions.

6.c ResultsofpreviousreportingexercisesSince 1995, annual reportsshow that thesiteis monitored, remedial actions taken,restoration is proceedingand key monuments are maintained. A series of monthlyprogress reports from 2004 to the present has been made by the Sambor Prei KukConservationProject team in cooperationwithWasedaUniversity and theMinistryofCultureandFineArts.Someofthesereportsfigureintheannexes.


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7. DOCUMENTATION

7.a Photographs,slides, image inventoryandauthorization tableandotheraudiovisualmaterials

Id.N Format(Slide/print/video)

Caption Date ofPhoto(Mo/yr.)

Photographer/Director of thevideo

Copyright owner(if different thanphotographer/directorofvideo)

Contact details ofcopyright owner(Name, address,tel/fax,andemail)

Non‐exclusivecession ofright

1 jpgfile IshanapuraNW

2011 NaraUniversity

NaraUniversity NaraUniversity yes

2 jpgfile PrasatTao 03/2009

SoSokunTheary

SoSokunTheary [email protected]

yes

3 jpgfile PrasatN1 07/2011

HengSophady HengSophady Ministry of Cultureand Fine [email protected]

yes

4 jpgfile Prasat Chrei(N18)

SoSokunTheary


yes

5 jpgfile S10 temple ,octagonalshape, viewfromSouth

03/2007

HengSophady HengSophady Ministry of Cultureand Fine [email protected]

Yes

6 jpgfile ReliefofKuduofPrasatS2

10/2012

yes

7 jpgfile AerialPhoto 9/2013 IshitaShimoda IshitaShimoda [email protected]

yes

8 jpgfile Asram MohaRussei(N17)

6/2011 SoSokunTheary


yes

9 jpgfile Medalliondepictingtwohuman Fig.sfighting alion‐Lbokator

10/2011

SoSokunTheary


Yes

10 jpgfile RobangRomeas L6(Srei KroupLeakGroup)

4/2013 HengKamsan HengKamsan [email protected]

Yes

11 Jpgfile Dossierpictures thisdocument

9/2014 PhannNady PhannNady [email protected]

Yes


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7.b Textsrelating toprotectivedesignation,copiesofpropertymanagementplansordocumented management systems and extracts of other plans relevant to theproperty

- HistoricalMonumentInventory(AnnexIofthisdocumentandManagementPlan)

- InventoryofInscriptions(AnnexIIofthisdocument)‐ InventoryofHydraulicSystems(AnnexIIIofthisdocument)

- InventoryofFlyingPalaces(AnnexIVofthisdocument)

- RoyalDecreesandLegislativeActions(AnnexVofthisdocument)

- Conservationreports(annexVII)

- InventoryofMovableObjects

- InventoryofOldPhotographs

- DetailofComparativeSiteAnalysis

- CurrentPhotographs

- SiteMapsfromMinistries

- ChronologyofWorkDoneon‐sitefrom1992‐2014

7.c Formanddateofmostrecentrecordsorinventoryofproperty

National inventory 2008, accessible by CISARK; http://cisark.org (currently beingupdated);hardcopiesavailableatMinistryofCultureandFineArtsupdatedregularly;

Bruguier,B.;Lacroix,J.:SamborPreiKuketlebasinduTonléSap,GuideArchéologiqueduCambodge,TomeII,LeséditionsduPatrimoine,2010,242p.

7.d Addresswhereinventory,recordsandarchivesareheld

MinistryofCultureandFineArts#227(KbalThnal),PreahNorodomBlvd,SangkatTonleBassac,KhanChamkarMon,PhnomPenh,CambodiaTel/Fax:(855)23218148E‐mail:[email protected]:www.mcfa.gov.kh

CambodianNationalCommissionforUNESCO#74,PreahNorodomBlvd,PhnomPenh,CambodiaTel/Fax:(855)23210369E‐mail:[email protected]

NationalMuseumofCambodiaStreet13,CheyChumneas,DaunPenhPhnomPenh,CambodiaTel:(855)23211753Email:[email protected]

DepartmentofCultureandFineArtsofKampongThomProvinceNationalRoadNo.6,KrongSteungSen.KampongThom,Cambodia


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7.e Bibliography

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Musées,pp.480.Bart,A.etBergaigne,A.1882.InscriptionsSanscritesduCambodge,Rapport,ExtraitduJournalAsiatique,pp.448.

Béguin,G.1992,L’IndéetLemonde indianiséauMuséenationaldesartsasiatiques‐Guimet. Paris:

Réuniondesmuséesnationaux,171p.

Bénisti,M.1967,Notesd’iconographiekhmére:3.Ausujetd’unlinteaudeSamborPreiKuk,BEFEO,

no53(1).

1969,Recherchesurlepremierartkhmer:2.Labandeáchatonscritèrechronologique?,Artsasiatiques,no20.

1970, Rapports entre le premier art khmer et l’art Indien (2 vol.) Paris: Mém.Archéologiquesdel’EFEO,no5,126.

1973,Recherchesurlepremierartkhmer:4.Piédestauxdécorés,Artsasiatiques,no30.

1974,Recherchesurlepremierartkhmer:6.Linteauxinéditsetlinteauxméconnus,Artsasiatiques,no30.

1977,Recherchesurlepremierartkhmer:7.LeproblèmedeSamborS1,Artsasiatiques,no33.

Bhatthacharya,S.

1961,NaikiofChanda,IIJ5/2,pp.85‐117.


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Boisselier,J.

1955,UnestatueféminineinéditedustyledeSambor,Artsasiatiques,no2(1).

1966,Asiedu Sud‐Est: I,LeCambodge. Paris: Picard,Manuel d’archéologie d’Extrême‐Orient.1,479p.

1970,Nouvelles données sur l’art préangkorien. Le groupe voisin deRobangRomeas,Calcutta:R.C.MajumdarFelicitation.

1978,AsiaduSud‐Est,Cambodge,Lagrammairedesformesdesstyle‐Asie.Fribourg:Officedulivre.

1986,IISud‐EstAsiatico.Turin:StoriaUniversaledell’Arte.

Briggs,L.P.

1951,TheAncientKhmerEmpire.Philadelphia:AmericanPhilosophicalSociety,vol.42.

Bühler,G.

1964,LawsofManu,translationfromSanskrit1886,LibraryofAlexandria.

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8. CONTACTINFORMATIONOFRESPONSIBLEAUTHORITIES

8.aPreparerName:PhoeunSackona,PresidentoftheNASPKTitle:MinisterofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)12‐618499E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:PrakSonnaraTitle:Director‐GeneralofCulturalHeritageAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)12‐870705or15‐551173or97‐8833907E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:HabTouchTitle:Director‐GeneralofCulturalTechniquesAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)12‐621522E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:HengSophadyTitle:DeputyDirector‐GeneralofCulturalHeritageAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)92‐997166E‐mail:[email protected]:PhannNadyTitle:Director,DepartmentofAntiquitiesAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)12‐882368E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:HengKamsanTitle:DeputyDirectorofArchaeologyandPrehistoryDepartmentAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)89‐810089E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:ChanVitharongTitle:DeputyDirector,DepartmentforSafeguardingandPreservationofMonumentsAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)16282773E‐mail:[email protected]


128

Name:ChhayVisothTitle:DirectorofTuolSlengGenocideMuseumAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)12233304E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:CharlotteEmmaCrawTitle:ExpertofCulturalHeritageManagementAdvisortotheMinistryofCultureandFineArtsE‐mail:[email protected]

Name:RobertF.McCarthyTitle:Archaeologist,ProjectandHeritageManagerAdvisortotheMinistryofCultureandFineArtsAddress:Japan‐APSARAProjectOfficeComplex,SiemReapMobilephone:(855)92‐252206E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:SoSokunthearyTitle:ExecutiveDirectorofSamborPreiKukConservationProjectHonoraryHeadofDepartmentofArchitectureandUrbanismofNortonUniversityMobilephone:(855)12‐968302E‐mail:[email protected]

8.b InternationalExpertsName:AzedineBeschaouchTitle:PermanentScientificSecretaryoftheICC’sforAngkorandPreahVihearEmail:[email protected]:SachchidanandSahaiTitle:NationalProfessorEpigraphyandHistory,IndiaEmail:[email protected]:DivayGuptaTitle:Architect,ConservationspecialistICOMOSEmail:[email protected]:PhilippeDelangheTitle:Archaeologist,AdvisorEmail:[email protected]


129

8.c OfficialLocalInstitution/Agency

Name:PhoeurngSackonaTitle:MinisterofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)12‐618499E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:ChuchPhoeurnTitle:SecretaryofStateAddress:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)97‐9556017E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:TanTheanyTitle:SecretaryGeneralAddress:CambodianNationalCommissionforUNESCO,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)23‐210369or16‐925933E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:RosBorathTitle:PresidentoftheNationalCommitteeforWorldHeritageAddress:CambodianNationalCommissionforUNESCO,PhnomPenh,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)12‐843084E‐mail:[email protected]

Name:PrakSonnara

Title:Director‐GeneralofCulturalHeritage

Address:MinistryofCultureandFineArts,PhnomPenh,Cambodia

Mobilephone:(855)12‐870705or16‐698045or97‐8833907

E‐mail:[email protected]@gmail.com

Name:ChhangKangTitle: Director of Department of Culture and Fine Arts of the Kampong ThomAddress:DepartmentofCultureandFineArtsoftheKampongThomProvinceKampongThomProvince,CambodiaMobilephone:(855)17‐914737


130

8.d OtherLocalInstitutions

GeneralDepartmentofCulturalHeritage#227 (KbalThnal), Preah Norodom Blvd., Sangkat TonleBassac, Khan ChamkarMon,PhnomPenh,CambodiaTel/Fax:(855)23218146/147/148Mobilephone:(855)12‐870705or16‐698045or97‐8833907

E‐mail:[email protected]@gmail.com

NationalMuseumofCambodiaStreet13,CheyChumneas,DaunPenhPhnomPenh,CambodiaTel:(855)23211753Email:[email protected]

GovernorofKampongThomprovinceH.E.Mr.OuchSamAnMobilephone:(855)12488377

8.e OfficialWebaddress

http:www.mcfa.gov.khContactname:H.E.Mr.ChuchPhoeurnE‐mail:[email protected]


131

9. SIGNATUREONBEHALFOFTHESTATEPARTY:KINGDOMOFCAMBODIA

Signature:

Name: HEDr.SokAn

Designation: PresidentoftheCambodianNationalCommissionforUNESCO


132

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