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Trio Project PD 13195 Rev. 3(I)Capacity Building in Training in Planning and Management of Forest

Industries in ITFO Producer Member Countries

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International Tropical Timber Organisation - Trio

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Guide for Trainers

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ITFO ProjectPD 13195 Rev. 3(I)

Capacity Building in Training inPlanning and Management of

Forest Industries in

ITFO Producer Member Countries

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Financed by:

International Tropical Timber Organization (Trio)Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Finland

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Consultant for Trio Project PD 13195 Rev. 3(I) : FFP International Ltd, POBox 484, 00/01 Helsinki, Finland (WWW. ftpinternational. coin).

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February 2000

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Contents

PREFACE

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I. ORIENTAT^ON - LET'S SPEAKTHE SAME LANGUAGE

The Teaching. Learning Process

The Traditional Model of Learning

When learning fails

What is learning?

Dimensions of Learning

,.. 6 Motivation

Learning and teaching

2 TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Starting from the Present Situation

Collecting Data on Performance

3 FORMULATION OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Diagnosis of the target group

Some theories on learning objectives

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4 PLANNING ATM:IN^NG EVENT

The Communication Process - Available Teaching Methods

Lecture as a Teaching Method

Questioning as a Teaching Method

Task Work as a Teaching Method

Discussion as a Teaching Method

Group Work as a Teaching Method

Role Playing as a Teaching Method

Demonstration as a Teaching Method

Practical Training as a Teaching Method

^ridividual Training as a Teaching Method

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4. .. ,. Practical Training in Groups

Teaching Style

Making the Course Syllabus

Selecting the Teaching Methods According to the Course Syllabus40

Choosing the Training Materials

Making Training Materials

Practical Preparation for the Training

Promoting the Training Course

5 CONDUCTING THE TRA^N^NG

Lesson planning

Lesson Structure - Running the Session

Classroom Layout

Using Visual Aids in Teaching

Further References on Running a Training Session

6 EVALUATING AND IMPROVING THE TRAINING

6. .. Evaluation criteria

6.2 Evaluation levels

Evaluation Types

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Preface

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This manual is intended as a general guide fortrainersand managers organising and delivering trainingcourses in their workplace. It gives advice on theplanning, implementation and evaluation of a trainingprogramme.

For example, as a forest industry manager you may beresponsible for reviewing and improving workingpractices or for introducing a new working tool, suchas a newcomputersystem.

This manual is a resource covering the concept ofteaching and learning, assessment of training needsand planning of training programmes, implementationof training, including a guide on teaching practices,and evaluation of your programme s performance.

In other words, the manual is an overall resource fortraining programmes: for planners of the training andfor the trainers themselves. Even if you are already atrained trainer there should be some refereshinginformation in this manual to help you assess yourstyle and results.

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Orientation - Let s Speakthe Same Language

In this first chapter of our guide it is important for us tobe clear about what we mean by the terms teaching,training and learning.

Most of us have been teaching ortraining alsome timeor other and we have also experienced variouseducational situations in our own "school career". We

have probably therefore created our own ideas on theconcept of learning, how learning takes place and howit can be facilitated. Let us now look at how the

professionals in pedagocics describe learning, howwe can learn better and how we can facilitate the

learning processes of others.

.. .. The Teach rig Learning P ocess

Learning is the key activity taking place in a trainingcourse or a school classroom and teaching is one ofthe key activities making learning happen.

The teaching-learning process is a many-sided andcomplicated process and in order to select and useour teaching methods effectiveIy, an understanding ofthe learning processis needed.

There are many theories on how learning is actuallyhappening. 110 single one of these theories isgenerally accepted to work in every situation. But,generally, it is important to understand that learning isnot so simple. It is important to understand thatlearning is not an automatic result of teaching. It maytake place as a result of teaching, or it may not.Teaching is done by the teacher and learning is doneby the student. Learning is a demanding mentalactivity carried out by a learner.

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L. 2 The Traditional Model of Learning

Traditionally, it has been thoughtthat a studentis likea bowlinto which the teacher pours knowledge. Thestudent's role is to memorise the details and repeatthem without mistakes when requested. Ifthe studentsfail to do this, what went wrong? The teacher wouldassume that the fault lies with the students, that theyare perhaps lazy or underqualified - "Itaught, butthey did notlearn".

The basic shortcoming in this modelis a wrongunderstanding of the nature of learning. Learning isnotjust passively receiving and storing information, itis an active process. A teacher cannot just soakstudents from his own "bucket of knowledge" andexpectthatthey absorb everything he is delivering.

Teaching is tuning up, guiding and leading thelearning process. Ifthe learning process fails, it shouldbe asked whether it was the tuner (the teacher) thatwas inadequate, or the receiver (the student). Whatmakes it difficult to guide the learning process is thefact that mental processes are always very difficult toobserve.

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When learning fails

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Here are some examples of where Teallearninghas nottaken place.

I. An employee has learned everything by heartduring the course. He/ she has taken notes of allthe things the lecturers have said. When fellowworkers ask how this is going to affect performanceat work, he has no answer. He cannot explain whythese things were taught and what is essential inthem.

2. An employee has a clear idea of whatis essential inthe course content. He/ she can comment on and

assess the things taught butthere is no change inhis performance and he is not using the issueslearned. The new knowledge is like a separateisland in his mind, which has no connection to

previously learned and practised things.L

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3. An employee/student haslearned one work phasevery thoroughly and it has been practised manytimes. Later on, he/ she meets a situation which isslightly different from that practised. He fails andcannot do it properly. The learned pattern hindershim in being creative.

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There are many reasons why learning can fail.Here are some examples.

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Mistaken motivation

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. The matter to be learned has no personal meaningto the student.

. The study material was not challenging.

Weak outline and orientation of the contents in the

teaching

. The student has insufficient knowledge of thesubject.

. Difficult to self-orientate and find relevant parts.

, Ifthe teacher teaches too quickly, the studentcannot grasp the integrated whole.

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Learning is incomplete because it is without practicalapplications

. Student easily gets an illusion that he masters thematter after it is once explained.

. Without concrete, applied assignmentsthe studentis not obliged to make clear for himselfwhatis it allabout.

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A human being is a relatively weak memory machine.Trying to remember a series of letters which do nothave any logic is difficult, compared to rememberingone with at least some connection to what a personknows already. For example, compare trying toremember the following.

vgaelthiuqpraodzrroxcemarriageguidanceclinic

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A subject which is supposed to be learned must bemeaningful and relevant and it must have someconnection with real life. Meaningful learningcommences from real problems and Teal mentalconflicts.

When a studentis exposed to a problem, he/ she triesto orientate himselftowards it and to find as clear a

solution as possible. This solution is the orientationbasis for the actual learning. This is the decisive phase

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A good orientation basis presumes that a learnerhas asked: WHY?

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o0d orientation basis is like havin

It is not enough to know that something works. Weneed to know why it works. The teacher's task is toguide the studenttowardsfinding the answers to these"why" questions. The formed orientation basis canthen be used for practical problem solving, whichgives the studentthe possibility to evaluate the modeland his/ her own learning.

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Control andevaluation of

own learning

Content to be learned:

new activity model(orientation basis)

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Learner: thinking andactivity model

(orientation basis)

3 Internalization

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Getting motivated(a conflict)

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Use and app/ICatibn(accomplishment

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ModelofMeaningfulLearning

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Reallife: tasks and

problems

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I. .5 Dimensions of Learning

Learning means selecting, modifying, interpreting andapplying knowledge. It is an active and consciousactivity by which the learner tries to master hisenvironment and tasks more thoroughly.

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Relevant 10/10 learning, i. e. meaningful-discoverylearning requires that the learner is able to connectthe learning content with some previously learnedmatters. In this kind of learning a realprocess is takingplace in the brains of the students and it mostprobably has more permanentresultswhen comparedto 1111earning.

When self-directed, a student can seldom accomplishmeaningful, deep learning. A guided learning processusually leads to better and more independent masteryof the subject.

Learning is a many-sided process and can take placeon many levels simultaneously. Some of these learningoutcomes have actually been planned by the teacher,such as learning the safety measures of some actionwhile simultaneously learning the action itself. Some ofthese take place without the teacher's planning, suchas relevant clothing of the teacher when doing someexercises or good order of the tools in the storeroom.

The power of example is very importantto keep inmind in a teacher's work.

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Teachers have too roles in improving the students'learning results.

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The social side of teaching means that the teachermust create conditions under which learning can takeplace. The learning atmosphere in the classroom mustbe open and warm, encouraging the students toactively involve themselves in the teaching-learningprocess. The basic nature of the human being is toseek positive and pleasing experiences and to avoidexperiences which cause grief. This means that theteachershoulduse more methods and procedures thatproduce satisfying experiences than those whichcause displeasure.

The other role is the task-oriented side of teaching,which means to impart, by a variety of means,knowledge to the learners. It means explaining thingscarefully to the student in order to make learningpossible.

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Motivation

Motivation can be defined as the psycho-physicalstateof man and that which creates and maintains objective-oriented activity. Motives are our reasons for doingsomething naturally. It has also been found that thelevelofperformance is very much in line with the levelof motivation.

Motivation is dependent on both external and internalfactors. By external factors we mean pressure orincentives, such as college intake requirements orrewards which depend on performance. These cancreate an intention to learn actively. Internal factorsare a series of inner reasons or decisions which create

a desire to learn. It is often thought that internalmotivation factors are more effective in the learning

process and that the students' emphasis should bemore on that side. For example, instead of targeting astudent to pass the exam there should be a Teal,motivating interest in the subjectitself.

Somehow, this move can be seen also as a move froma lower to a higher levelofmotivation.

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An Individual's motivation is related to his/ her

needs.

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L. 7 Learning and teaching

It is crucial to have a deep and clear understanding ofwhat the qualifications are that the students aresupposed to have when they have completed thetraining course. In other words, what are the crucialthings the students should learn during the training.Traditionally, it has been thought that mastery of thekey elements of a subjectis the key point. This is stilltrue, although modern society is putting more andmore emphasis also on the students' skills in creativityand adjustability to changing conditions. This factshould also have an effect on the teaching-learning

and teachers should take this into accountprocess

when planning their educational activities.

The preparation of a lesson demands consideration ofmany aspects. In this planning process the selection ofthe correctteaching method is crucial in enabling thelearning process to take place effectiveIy. Effectivelearning is also connected with the selection ofrelevant teaching aids and materials. The teachershould compare and weigh up the different optionsand then choose the most appropriate ones under theprevailing situation. The basis for this weighing up andchoosing is an understanding of the communicationprocess in general.

Maslow published the well-known Hierarchy of Needs,in which the idea is that lower level needs have to be

met before a person can concentrate on meeting thehigher level needs. Although this hierarchy is notentirely foolproof, it can give us guidance in trying tounderstand motivation.

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The communication process is inten^oven with ourteaching methods. We will look at both of theseagain in section 5 - Conducting the Training.

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Training NeedsAssessment

Before we can even think of designing and deliveringa training programme we need to check the actualdemand for the training and exactly whatis requiredof the training. This is done with training needsassessment(IT^IA).

The training needs are quantitative, when referring tothe number of persons to be trained, and qualitative,indicating the expected level of skills, knowledge andattitudes after training.

1'1'aming needs will also be assessed differently fromthe viewpoints of different stakeholder groups. Agroup of employees, for example, may feelthe needto widen their knowledge in a certain aspect of theirwork whereas the employer may see that the actualworking technique requires improvement.

Often, certain groups or minorities may need specialconsideration, such as students, employees orconsumers of the services. They may be, for example,disabled employees, ethnic minorities or women inthe workforce.

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The present situation is the starting point in trainingneeds assessment. Surveying the present situation willtellus howwellpotentialtrainees master, for example,their everydaywork.

How do we assessthe presentsituation?

The work to be performed is divided into tasks, whichcan be divided into smaller and more specific units ofperformance called sub-tasks.

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Competencies represent the abilities or readiness(knowledge, skills and attitudes) needed to carry outthe tasks and these can be further divided into sub-

competencies. Every task and subtask requires acorresponding competence and sub-competence.

Training needs are actually expressed in the form ofproblems, arising from a "feeling" or message ofinadequate competencessomewhere along the line.

The required level of competence must be definedand the problem expressed by comparing it with theactual competence. This then allows us to define theactual training or educational needs.

However, it is good to remember that the deviationbet\Areen the two performances is not always due to alack of knowledge and skills. It may be due to anenvironmental deficiency, such as working conditionsand tools not being adequate for better performance.

Another reason for poor performance may also be aso-called motivation problem. Motivation problemsshould always be analysed carefully, since the mostobvious causes of these problems are not necessarilythe correct ones. For instance, lack of incentives (suchas money) are often said to be the reason for lowperformance, whereas the realreason may be lack ofappreciation shown for good work done. If lowmotivation does resultfrom negative attitudes, trainingmay help, although changing attitudes is always a longand demanding process.

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How can we identifytraining needs analysis?

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The problem-solving scheme described here isdesigned for helping in the processing of trainingneeds assessments. The steps in this scheme are:

I. Identifying and defining the problem.

2. Analysing the problem.

3. Arriving at appropriate alternative solutions.

4. Clarifying the consequences of each alternativesolution.

5. Selecting the best solution to the problem.

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Training Needs Assessment

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6. Analystng the consequences arising from thedecision.

Once the problem has been identified, one of the mostdifficult tasks is to describe the problem so thateveryone understands it clearly and in a similar way.Preferably, this is done in writing. Ifthe best solutionfor the problem is training, then the sixth step,analysing the consequences, is for rechecking that nounpleasant surprises will appear after the training.

If the identified problem is not solvable by training,the remaining alternatives may be to:

I. change the people who are doing the work or thepeoplewho are responsible forthework;

2. modify the working tools or environment; or

3. modify the contingencies, benefits, and rewards.

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2.2 Collecting Data on Performance

The data on current performance may be acquiredfrom records and reports or orally through interviewsand discussions. Oral data should be saved on audio

or video tapes, or in notes. Another option is toevaluate the quality or quantity of the work or productsproduced, such as saw logs, pieces of sawn timber, arealised marketing plan, different residues producedin the industrial processes, etc.

It is essential to separate the characteristics of thecurrent work performance and the desired one (seethe example TT^IA form at the end of this section).

For the following stage of analysis it is also importantto find outthe causes of the characteristics of observed

performance (lack of knowledge, skills and/ or rightattitudes). If we are dealing with formally trained oreducated people it is helpful to get acquainted withthe curricula of the training level that they haveattained.

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What are our sources of written information and

what are our data collection methods?

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A. Sources of written information

A major source of data is production records andreports. Within this category we include those recordsthat tell us about sales, customer complaints, rawmaterial stocks, half and end product stores, and allthe other data that is related to production. For a non-manufacturing organisation, the term production mayhave to be modified, but what you would seek arethose records that indicate how the organisation meetsits goals or accomplishes its mission.

One of the most used sources of information is the jobdescription. It is good to remember that jobdescriptions might also give misleading informationbecause the posts tend to develop independently inthe course of time and the people who occupy themmight carry out quite different tasks than thosedescribed in theirjob description.

Most organisations keep minutes of internal meetings.Some of these minutes may include very importantinformation about the work performance in acompany. Naturally, ifyou are not an employee of thatcompany yourself, you would need somebody s helpin the selection of right kind of information from themultitude of reports that an organisation produces.

B. Methods

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Not attofthe methods introduced here are meant to be

used in each training needs assessment;the main ideais to help you selectthe appropriate ones, taking intoaccount your mission andyourresources.

One method may be entirely appropriate but toocostly for the benefits that can be derived fromcollecting that information. The decision must be madeas to how much can be gathered when measuredagainst the cost in either direct expenditures or stafftime.

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The Interview

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The interview is a face-to-face situation between an

interviewer and one or more people. Iths a very activeprocess in that the respondent will be doing most ofthe talking, with the interviewer listening and takingnotes orrecording the interview on tape.

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The type of interview, group or individual, dependsvery much on the skill of the interviewer. Also, if thework performance is the result of group behaviour, agroup interviewmight be more appropriate.

The individual interview must be handled very openlybut cautiously. In order to get the most from aninterview, careful attention must be paid to climatesetting. The interviewee and those associated with theInterview must receive prior notice. This shouldinclude the time, place and purpose of the interviewand a clear indication that this has the support of thesupervisor of the person or group being interviewed.

There are differenttypes of interviews.

One type is closely allied with the questionnaire, theinterviewer being the one who writes down theanswers. As the questions are asked and theinterviewee responds, the interviewer records theresponses on the questionnaire form. The intervieweecan be presented with the questionnaire so that he/she can followthe questions asthey are asked.

Mailing questionnaires and expecting responses backby mailvery often leads to frustration since people areinclined not to fill in the questionnaires or to do themquickly. The response rate might be so low that anthework done forthe surveywillhave been in vain.

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Observing work being performed is one of the bestmethods that can be used, although it has itslimitations. When an employee is aware that hisperformance is being scrutinised, the performancewill probably be altered. When observation is used,the employee should be fully aware of the process.Observation should always be systematic andanalytical and, as such, it is also used as a part of aprocedure called task analysis.

Task analysis may be defined asthe processinwhichtasks in a particular work are identified and verified.The worker's tasks have a definite beginning andending point and usually consist of baro or moredistinct steps. For example, imagine the stepsinvolved in felling a tree.I~

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Typically, task analysis includes reviewing relevantliterature, developing the occupational inventory,selecting an employee sample, administering theinventory and analysing the collected information.

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Literature Review

Reviewing relevant literature examiningmeans

literature produced by others related to Our

occupational area. This review is useful in determiningthe extent to which other analyses may have alreadyconducted. If meaningful analyses have been done,there is usually no reason to go any further with ourown because we can use the results of other, previousresearchers.

A second use of the literature review is to develop listsof potential tasks and equipment associated with theoccupational area.

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Occupational Inventory

Developing an occupational inventory is aimed atproducing an equipment list which indicates whatinstruments or aids are used for different levels of

work performance. It also reveals any lack ofknowledge and skills aboutthe professional tools andtheir usewhich might prevailin the workplace.

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Employeesampling

Selecting an employee sample is needed wheninformation cannot be gathered from the entirepopulation of employees. Employees in a particularoccupational area may number several thousand.Thus, data must be gathered from an appropriatesample of that population. Sampling not only cuts thecosts, it also reduces the magnitude of data to beanalysed. Numerous references are available thatdescribe procedures for determining the appropriatesample size. Regardless of the sampling procedure tobe used, any sample selected must be trulyrepresentative of the population. An appropriate



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sampling technique will ensure that results from theworkersample can be generalised forthe population.

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At some stage of the analysis, data must besynthesized and organised so that we cancommunicate the findings to anthose involved.

There are many ways to synthesize and communicateOUT collected data. These depend upon the nature of

that will be involved in thethe work and the groupfeedback.

A common method is to list the individual steps ortasks that must be accomplished as a part of the workperformance. The listing will be sequential, in theorder that is required for the work to be performed.This is fairly straightforward where the work is in thearea of production or where the steps must beperformed in a given and fixed sequence. The levelofdetail should be sufficient to make it clear to all,

though it may not be necessary to describe each handmotion that is required as part of the tasks.

In the case of work thatis not sequential(for example,management, supervision or customer relations), thedata may be organised around areas, or similarity offunctions.

These might be, for example: writing, speaking,responding, questioning, or decision making.

Many types of performance also involve a personalrelationship, especially customer centred jobs, whichmeans that variations should be anticipated. The datamight be organised to indicate those activities that aresequential and those that are random.

The most important thing is that the tasks analysedform understandable entities which, in turn, will make

the learning of new competencies (knowledge, skillsand attitudes) logical.

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Practical examples of training needs analysisforms, interview types and analyses of them can befound from resource bookssuch as:

. "Training Needs Analysis" by Sharon Bartramand Blenda Gibson. Published by Cower Press,ui<. IsBN 0 566 o756i x.

. "Handbook of Training and Development"edited by John Prior. Published by CowerPress, Ul<. IsBN 0 566 07446 X.

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Formulation of LearningOb, ect, ves

Once you have came to the conclusion that the solutionto your problem(s) is training, it is time to start withproper planning of the training.

First, we must find out who our trainees are and howthey might be trained. The contents of the training areselected bearing in mind the extent ofl<nowledge andpractice needed to achieve the abilities stated in theobjectives. The available resources are then analysedand a budget made to guarantee the training event'seconomic feasibility. Also, an evaluation plan is alwaysattached to the training plan to find out if the trainingwas effective and ifthe objectives were met.

3 .. D agrios s of the ta get g oup

The diagnosis starts from defining the expectednumber of participants and arrangements for thetraining facilities and other physical pre-requisites.The job descriptions of the trainees are also takeninto accountto define the subjects in the training moreexactly.

Knowledge of the general background of theparticipants (age, sex, education, attitudes) is alsoimportant because it helps us to plan the trainingmethods. This information, for instance, indicates how

much you can utilise the former knowledge and skillsof the participants in the training.

Reasons for participation and motivation in generalare asked from the target group to find out if thetraining needs of the participants are similar to theemployers' expressed needs. Ifthe difference is big,serious motivation problems may occur. In thiscontext, the expectations of the trainees from thetraining can then be asked, which allows a betterorientation of the course towards the needs of the

target group.

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Information on abilities to study and learn are also

important. If necessary, the pre-course activities haveto be arranged to raise the trainees to the levelneeded at the training. The planner also has to thinkaboutwho will arrange and finance the preparation forthe course.

The differenttasl<s and performances to be learnedand the associated competency levels (knowledge,skills and attitudes) must be defined, as well as thepossible failures which can be made.

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3.2 Some theories on learning objectives

'7fyou don't know where you want to go, it is dimculttoselect a suitable means for getting there. After all,machinists and surgeons don't select tools until theyknow the operation they are going to perform. ..instructors simply function in a fog of their omi makingunless they know what they want their students toaccomplish as a result of theirinstruction"(Mager).

This comment was made by Mager already in 1955and although education theory has moved On

enormously since this time it will always be one of thefundamental truths.

Didactic science emphasises the learning process andthe learner's vision, instead of the teacher's point ofview; the teaching. Therefore, learning objectivesshould be developed, not teaching objectives. Theobjective must state an observable behaviour - whatwe can see the students doing with what they havelearned.

A learning objective may indicate the followingaspects aboutthe trainees'learning:

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. evidence of achievement;

. conditionsofperformance; and

. acceptablelevelsofperformance.

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During the history of didactics, various theories on thephenomenon called "learning" have been developed.The most importantfor the modern didactic approachare presented briefly here.

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Behavioural approach

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According to the behavioural approach, a learningobjective is a statement describing what the learnerwill be able to do after having been taken through theinstruction process.

Bloom developed a taxonomy to "assist in e. ^I'llcitformulation of the ways in which students are e. zipectedto be changed by the education process". Thistaxonomy perhaps best represents the behaviouralapproach.

Bloom divides the objectives into three domains,according to the different aspects of learning. Thecognitive domain includes the objectives forimproving the understanding (knowledge) of thetrainees, the affective domain describes the desiredmental changes (attitudes), and the psychomotordomain relates to the changes in the skills of thetrainees.

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Cognitive approach

This learning theory suggests that the subject mattersare to be looked at from the point of view of theinternal factors of teaching, following the direction ofthe learners' mental processes.

The purpose of a teaching objective is to direct thestudents towards internalismg the structure andentity of the subject matters learned and recognisingthe most essential elements. The principal idea is thatthe learners possess the greatest explanatory powerthemselves.

Orientation basis

The orientation basis serves to describe the cognitivemodel of post training performance. It is a tool tointerpret, organise and use recently learned materials.

A good orientation basis provides a clear, systematicoverallimage aboutthe particular content to be taughtand it reveals the inter-dependencies within thesystem. It describes the initial idea of the subject and

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the general principles, answering the question "why?"and leading to awide ranging transfer of information.

The orientation basis works as a model for goodperformance. That is, it introduces the essentialelements or phases of the subject matter to belearned. It also indicates to the learner how to control,

assess and correct his/ her own performance.

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back to Section I and thewish toYou gomay

Diagram of Meaningful Learning to become fullyfamiliar with the orientation basis.

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Many of the modern learning approaches andmethodologies are based on cognitive theory, such asexperimental learning, self-directed learning,cooperative learning and contsructivistlearning.

Experimental learning is based on the idea of"learning by doing". Learning proceeds throughreflection of concrete experiences and activitiestowards theoretical understanding. The objective oflearning is for students to formulate their own practicaltheories for learning.

Adult education in particular emphasises the activerole of the learner. A self-directed learner sets his own

individual learning targets. Learning is lead by selfassessment and reflection instead of external control

and evaluation. A typical self-directed learner is anindependent and critical thinker. He can prioritise andlink new knowledge and experience to his ownpersonal experience.

Cooperative learning is more of a learning methodthan a theoretical approach. Meaningful learning is:

. cooperative;

. self-directed;

. goaloriented; and

. closely linked to practice.

The constructivist learning approach is not a singletheory but a combination of various approaches.Learning is based on already existing knowledge andexperiences of the learner and the learning itselfis areconstruction, modification and enrichment of thisinformation. The pre-condition of learning is that the

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learner understands what he already knows. Theteacher or instructor is needed to guide and lead thelearning by setting the objectives (in collaborationwith the learner) and in assisting the learner to assessand reflect on the learning. The teacher should createa learning environment to promote knowledgebuilding.

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More about education theory can be found fromthe following classic references:

. Teaching in Further Education - an outline ofprinciples and practice, L. B. Curzon. 1990.IsBN 0-304-31961-9. This book covers in detailthe main schools of educational theory.

. Phsychology and the Teacher, Dennis Child.1993. IsBN 0-304-32649-6. Relating thepsychology of the human to the teaching andlearning process.

Both of these books are published by GassellEducational Ltd. , UK (41-47 Strand, London WC2N51E).

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4

Planning a Training Event

In this section we will cover a lot of ground. We startstart with a description of the various teachingmethods available to you and then go through to theplanning of the syllabus, the selection of the teachingmethods according to the syllabus, the selection oftraining materials, the sequencing of lessons andpractical matters for the course, such as promotion.

Planning is the most important part of your work as atrainer. Good preparation by the teacher will meanbetter learning results for the students.

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Communication can be defined in many ways.Generally, communication means "the flow ofinformation betInreen the message sender and themessage receiver".

Teaching is a communication process and not aprocess of just giving and taking information. There isalways some coding and noise between the two endsof the communication process and this is whyinteraction, not just giving and taking is important.There should always be a certain interaction betweenthe teacher and the student, in both directions, andalso betInreen fellow students. Students do not onlylearn from the teacher but also from each other.

Every teaching action must have a clear aim. Themessage sender, i. e. the teacher, must knowwhy he isusing this channel, i. e. teaching method, to transfer theknowledge and skills. The teaching action isintentional and target-oriented.

The communication processis not complete before themessage is understood. The teacher must make surethat the decoding on the students' side is taking placeas well as possible. Measures to collect different kindsoffeedback help to ensure this is happening.

Teach rig Methods

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4.2 Lecture as a Teaching Method

Pure lecturing is a one-way communication process. Itis the teacher's spoken message, without discussion,questions, teaching aids or materials, as is usually thecase in, for example, church services. The message ismoved from the sender to the receiver in a one waydirection. It does not, however, necessarily mean thatthe lecture is a bad partner in the learning process.When well prepared and presented, it can stay in thememory for a long time.

The lecture is very effective and economical methodfortransferring information to a greater group orwhenthere is a need to present a large amount ofinformation in a short period of time. The lecturerequires that the listeners are experienced inreceiving and differentiating the relevant and not-so-relevant matters. A general knowledge of the subjectmust exist among the listeners to a certain extent sothat the presentation is properly received andunderstood. On the other hand, effective time use

makes it possible to clarify more and explain theneeded background information.

The lecture is often a non-mustrative method. This is

why it requires the presenter to have goodpresentation skills. It is sometimes said that there aretoo types of lecturers: those who have their heads intheir papers and those who have their papers in theirheads! The latter ones are those who know the subjectthey are presenting so wenthatthey can maintain eyecontact with the listeners during the presentation.Lectures delivered by a skitful speaker can raiseinterest in the subject and lead to a morecomprehensive research into the contents. It maycause the listener to consider himselfas a member of a

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group and his role in it.

The subject matter must be divided into logical partsof the correct size. Since the capability for receivingoralinformation is limited, the lecture must be clearand it must emphasise clearly the main points. Also,the order of the lecture must be in a logical sequencein order to help the listener follow and understand thecontents properly.

A lecture can be written totally in advance. However, itis better when it is not wholly defined in advance butsome space has been leftforthoughts to be presented

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during the presentation. This will also increase thethinking process among the students.

The lecture method is generally considered unsuitablefor teaching skills or very detailed issues. A lecturecan be supported by visualisation or using some othermeans to increase the clarity, such as makingdrawings on the blackboard. Ifthis is possible, it mostprobably increases the chances for the students'effective learning. A lecture can also be combinedwith any other teaching method. A lecture withdemonstrations, questioning or practical training ismuch more effective than pure lecturing.

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. Irhe classical method. The lecture is divided into

broad sections, these sections into separate sub-sections and, perhaps again into smaller units.Setting outthe structure of a lecture in this ways islikely to improve its intelligibility to the teacher aswellas to the students.

. 'rl. e problem-centred method. This is useful forexamining alternative views and solutionstoproblems. They contain a statement of a problem,explicit or implicit criteria statements and valueoriented ones. This method is not only intellectuallystimulating, it is also, unfortunately, easy to make amess of!

. Irhe sequential method. This consists of a series oflinked statements which lead, usually, to aconclusion. It is the most difficult method for

making the contents meaningful and interesting.One has to ensure that the steps are within thegrasp of the students and to frequently summarisethe main steps and procedures.

. IrlLe comparative method. Comparison of furo ormore processes, themes, theories, ideas orsystems. It may be a search for similarities ordifferences, for advantages or disadvantages.

. The thesis method. This beginswith a hypothesisand proceeds to justify it by bringing together awiderange of evidence and arguments which maybe presented in majorsections orin a problemform. It may include theses and countertheses.

many possibilities for structuring a

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4.3 Questioning as a Teaching Method

"It ismore dimcultto askone good question than to givemanyrightanswers. "

Putting questions for the students to answer is a veryold method. A famous teacher in ancient Greece,

Socrates, made this method well known. He managedto create among his followers the feeling of beingclever themselves. The idea is to directthe students'

attention to a problem and its solution. This shouldcreate thinking in the brains of each student aiming tosolve the problem. Questioning is the most widelyused teaching method for activating the students andenhancing the learning.

In practice, questioning is not always so easy. Onereason is that the group can be very heterogeneousand anthe individuals do not have the same capacityto concentrate on thinking. Slow thinkers are often wellbehind the others. They are too easily considered tobe unmotivated or lazy when the reason is that theysimply lack time to recallthe needed facts for creativethinking. This means that part of the students hear theanswers ready-made from the fast thinkers withouthaving the possibility to find the answer forthemselves. The questions the teacher is asking mustbe prepared thoroughly in advancewhen planning thelesson and the students must be given enough time forthinking and experiencing the joy offinchng solutions.

With the help of the questions, students' thinking canbe activated and steered towards the objective of thelesson. Questions help to keep the interest levelin thesubject high. Good questions motivate the learnersand guide their reasoning in the right direction. It ispossible to collect feedback with the questions and toprevent misunderstandings.

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Good questions are different from each other. Theyguide students' thinking in different directions anddemand recalling matters on different levels. Thefollowing classification is based on Bloom's well-known taxonomy of objectives, which we metin theprevious section.

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Knowledge qtiestiozLs

These questions are used to test whether the studentsremember certain specific facts or not. Correctanswers are straightfonrrard, they are clearly right orwrong. These questions are easy to use, they do notneed such thorough preparation. This may be thereason why so many teachers tend to over-use thesequestions. They assess only superficial rememberingof exactfacts and do notrecalldeeper understanding.

Examples:

. Whatis this plant?

. Name the most importantfarm animal in Zambia.u What material is this wallmade of?

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Comprehension questions

These questions can be used when we are trying tohelp the students to find relationships bet\Areendifferentthings and organise them so that they are inlogical order. It sometimes requires students totranslate ideas from one medium to another, e. g. tointerpret a graph.

Examples:

. Compare the profitability of pine and eucalyptusproduction.

. Using the table of plant counts made between theyears 1983 - 1995, name the dominanttree speciesin the Western province.

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Application questions

Application level questions require the student to beable to apply a certain rule, process or phenomenonto the particular situation. He/ she must be able to seethe logic in the unclear situation and realise howgeneral rules are applicable there. In mathematicsthese questions are common.

Examples:

. Ifx=2, y=5, whatthen is 2<' + 2y ?

. Which of the following letter combinations does notbelongtothe group?PXNO, VRIM, AQESor GUVC

. Give an example of the law of the S curve.

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Analysis questions

Analysis type questions are very useful. They requirecritical thinking from the students. Simply repeatingwhat was taughtis not enough. Students have to beable to analyse the situation for different reasons.

. To identify motives, reasons and causes of aspecific occurrence.

. To consider and analyse available information inorder to reach the right conclusion.

. To analyse a conclusion, inference orgeneralisation based on evidence.

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Examples:

. Whatis your conclusion aboutthe factors affectingthe growth of the seedlings?

. Explainwhy this tractor can or cannot be used forploughing with these ploughs?

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Synthesis level questions require and also helpstudents to develop creative abilities. There can bemore than one correct answer and a variety ofdifferent, creative answers are possible (compare withapplication level questions which require exactanswers). Students have to form relationships betweendifferentthings and phenomena and arrange things ina logical order in a new or original way.

Examples:

. Whatwould happen ifBotswanawere to run out ofdiamonds?

. Produce a modelforteaching modernsawingtechniques to the first year certificate students.

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Evaluation questions

Students have to evaluate and learn to choose amongstalternatives by judging which is the best solution tothis particular situation. These questions can also beused to ask the students to offer their opinion and givetheir reasons. Often, there is not just one correctanswer but different possibilities, acceptable as longas they are logical and the reasons are explained.


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Examples:

. Read this statement andjudge should it bedefended orrejected.

. Why?

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How do we use questionsin practice?

Learning is usually enhanced when the learner'sparticipation is increased. Questioning is a good wayto improve the quantity and also the quality of astudent's participation.

The following techniques can be applied to help thestudents thinkwhen questions are addressed to them.

Pausing

"Rapid-fire" questioning does not stimulate thestudents' thinking or willingness to participate in thediscussion. Slow thinkers in particular feelthat theyare left out of the discussion. Pausing for attoast a fewseconds encourages more thoughtful answers andanswerswith more than oneword orshortstatement.

Prompting

Prompting can be usedwhenthe student cannot give aproper answer. He/ she might simply answer:"I don'tknow", give a very weak response or give a partly orcompletely incorrect answer.

To encourage better answers the question can berephrased and some hints can be given to help thestudent find the clue. Shy and uncertain students canbe encouraged by prompting.

Seeking clarification

A student's response can contain poorly organisedinformation, lack some relevant details, be wrong insome detail or be incomplete. To encourage thestudent to finalise his reasoning, questions seekingclarifications on some points can be used.

RefociisirLg

Sometimes, the teacher receives an answer thatmatches his ideas exactly. This can be used to create anatural and logical bridge to the next matter to bestudied. Refocusing the answer and giving outthe nextlogical question also helps the students see the

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The same question can be directed at many students,one after the other. The question should call foranswers with related facts or should allow a variety ofdifferent responses. This helps the students learn fromeach other, since they are talking more and theteacher talking less. The students also learn to listen toeach others' answers and learn to respond to eachother. At its best this can lead to a very fruitful shortdiscussion which is directed towards the learninggoal.

OILestiozLsthat require higher cognitive thinking

Ifthe teacher wants to encourage the students to thinknot only in terms of separate details but in deeper,reason-result relationships, he can teach them usingcorrect questions. Questions requiring higher levelcognitive answers stimulate higher levelthinking.

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The following instructions can be taken into accountwhen planning the questions to be addressed to thestudents:

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. A question must be clear and must not be open tointerpretation.

. A question must be challenging; too simplequestions do not serving their purpose.

. Plan your questions in advance as a part of yourlesson planning.

. Ask only one thing at a time.

. Deliver your questions evenly to the students.

. Take into account the personal differencesbet\Areen students.

. First ask your question - and only after a whilename the studentwho is to answer.

. The answer must not be included in the question(this is surprisingIy easy to do).

. A good question leads the 'story' fomrard.

. Do not use questions as a punishment.I~ '

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4.4 Task Work as a Teaching Method

Task giving can obviously be used to complement anyof the other teaching methods. It should be used as a

de-inotivator, suchinotivator, not as aas a

performance assessment would be. The idea is torequest the learner's activity in the training process.

Examples of taskwork are:

, An individual exercise, such as to practice a skill.

. A group exercise, such as an analysistask.

. Areading task, such as preparation for a discussiongroupwork.

. ACase study or projectwork, in a group orindividually.

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. Give praise for a good response.

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4.5 Discussion as a Teaching Method

Discussion means an eXchange of opinions:

. betweenthe teacher and the students; and

. betweenstudents.

Discussion is a teaching method which involves thegroup in the classroom or other place ofwhole

teaching. Its prerequisite is that the group is suitablysmall, the theme of the discussion is clear and welldefined and that the chairperson is equal to his/ hertask.

One reason why this method may not be so much inuse is that, often, students are not used to discussingpublicly. Moreover, the feeling of uncertainty, the fearof being laughed at, the risk offailing, etc. diminishesthe willingness of students to participate. Studentsmust be coached in the use of discussion as a learningaid, and only take this method into active use after this.Discussion requires open and warm relationships

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At the end of a training course, a test or exam may begiven to assess the progress of learning and also helpevaluate the teaching. This is obviously consideredmore of an evaluation method than a teaching method.

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among the people in the classroom. Possible tensionbetween the teacher and the students does not

encourage an atmosphere of discussion.

It is sometimes difficult to conduct a good discussionwhen the participants are sitting in a normal classroomarrangement. Good eye contact is essential for theparticipants and the desks should be arrangedaccordingly.

Results are very much dependent on selection of theright theme. Secondary or otherwise irrelevantsubjects can cause boredom. The chairperson must becapable of guiding the group, warmly but firmly.

The chairperson must especially keep in mind that theaim is to create new learning experiences for theparticipants and possible listeners.

One aim of the discussion method is to teach the

students to listen constructiveIy in a discussion.Participants should listen to thoughts and not suddenlypick out small details, even if the details wereincorrect. They should appreciate good ideas andlisten to find the positive points and strengths, nottheweak points.

There are various methods which can be used for

conducting discussions. Besides the 'normalclassroom discussion' other special arrangements canbe made.

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PanelDiscussions

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When the group members' own resources are limited,outside experts can throw more light on a particularsubject. In a panel discussion, experts are invited toexpress their ideas on some particular topic and theaim is to look at different sides of that topic. The panelmembers are seated so that the whole audience can

see them and hear them talk. The success and the

results of panel discussions are very much dependenton the panel members. They must be carefullyselected. It is not always easy to find good membersfor the panel - those with enough expertise and alsoable to express themselves clearly. his also importantthat the audience has, at some stage, the chance toaddress questions to the panel members. This teaches

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students to respond to what they are hearing andpublicly express their ideas in front of an audience.

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A series of outlines or lectures are delivered on the

topic, usually by experts. Following thesame

presentations, the aim is to involve the whole group ina discussion. In symposia, as opposed to paneldiscussions, guided discussion is based on thepresentations and not on the presenters. As a result,new, creative ideas on that particular topic areproduced and a deeper understanding of the subjectachieved.

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One special way to arrange a discussion in theclassroom is with the buzz group method. This is aneffective method for involving students in the middleof the lesson. A buzz group consists of briefdiscussions of questions or problems posed by theteacher in groups of3-4 students.

The discussion time may be 3-10 minutes. This form ofdiscussion is easy to use, after proper planning, andinvolves everybody in the classroom. It gives awelcome break and activity to the students so that theyreturn to listening and note taking with renewedconcentration. Buzz groups allow anthe students to getinvolved, whereas questioning gives only a fewstudents the chance to express their ideas. The reportsfrom the groups also help the lecturer check if themain points of the topic are being understood. At theend, the teacher summarises the topic and reinforcesthe learning.

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Brainstorming

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Brainstorming is quite similar to the buzz groupmethod, only it is more target-oriented. The objectiveis to develop new ideas and solutions to existingchallenges. It is importantthat new, creative answers

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are sought and encouraged. It is a good method formotivating the participants during the session. It willalso give the teacher welcome guidance as to how thestudents are acquainted with the problem and whatare their opinions of the issue.

Both buzz group and brainstorming methods caneasily be used during a lesson to break the lecturemethod's boredom.

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4.6 Group Work as a Teaching Method

Group work is a method in which a group of peoplework together to attain a set goal. To achieve the goal,there is a more or less solid interaction within the

group betlitreen the participants. Group work gives thestudents the possibility to develop and fulfilthe needfor socialising. It increases the motivation and feelingof pleasure during the learning session, which, in turnimproves the learning results.

The precondition for a successful group work is thatthe participants have enough knowledge of thesubject. As group work is based a lot on discussion,many of the issues described above are also relevanthere.

Group work is a much used method in seminars andworkshops. It is also a very applicable method ineveryday training. It can enhance and ensure thelearning results.

A classic study of problem-solving groups byTuckman (1965) describes the four stages throughwhich a small group goes when beginning a groupwork.

I. FormingIn the group, there is some anxiety. There is a greatdeal of dependence on the leader (the teacher)and a great deal of behaviour directed towardsfinding outthe nature of the situation and also whatbehaviour is acceptable. At the same time, groupmembers attempt to find out whatthe task is, whatthe rules are for carrying out the task and whichmethods are appropriate.

2. StormingThere is now a conflict between sub-groups andalso rebellion against the leader. Opinions areextreme and there is resistance to group control.

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Role relations are not agreed upon. All thisbehaviour is a resistance to the demands of the

task.

3. NormingThe group develops cohesion: norms of behaviouremerge and participants begin to accept groupcontrol. Conflicts are forgotten and members beginto support each other. At this stage, cooperation isthe rule and there is an open eXchange of viewsand feelings aboutthe task and each other.

4. PerformingAnthe individuals' problems are resolved andthere is a great deal of interpersonal activity.Members' roles in the group now lose theirrigidityand become more functional. At this stage,solutions to the problems of the task are found. Allefforts are devoted to completing the task.

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4.7 Role Playing as a Teaching Method

A specialtype of group work is role playing. A fewmembers of the group demonstrate the issueconcerned by acting different roles in an inventedsituation. This method can be used wentn issues

concerning relationships in society, such as illustratinghow to solve tension creating situations in theworkplace. One student can play the boss's role andthe other can act as a subordinate.

This can illustrate and present things which will notcome up through discussions in standard group work.It does require some creativity from the participantsbut, generally, students learn to like role plays whenthey are given enough opportunity to practise them.Role plays are also quite demanding for the teacher.He/ she must be quite an innovative person.

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. 4.8 Demonstration as a Teaching Method

Demonstration involves presenting some activity orwork to the class. Explaining and showing what ishappening will enhance learning. The aim of ademonstration is to help students become acquaintedwith aworking skillor principle.

During a demonstration, students should be able tosee clearly whatis happening and be encouraged to

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take notes. Usually, after a process has been

presented, the students should have the chance to trythe same themselves.

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The following tips can help in planning an effectivedemonstration:

, Analyse the activity to be taught- what are the keystages?

. Make a list of the stages to be demonstrated.

. Plan the students' positions so that everybody cansee and hear.

. Arrange anthe necessary tools and equipmentbeforehand.

. Do notforget ergonomics andwork safety.

. When presenting, appeal to as many of thestudents' senses as possible (see the learningretention diagram below).

. Explain anthe essential details and repeatthem.

. Ifneeded, repeatthewhole demonstration.

. Immediately after your demonstration, give thestudents a chance to try for themselves.

. Follow-up their practising with comments andconclusions, according to your observations of howthey did the task.

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4.9 Practical Training as a Teaching Method

Practical training differs from the other teachingmethods in that it requires that something has alreadybeen absorbed and learned by the students.

Practical training is in one sense repeating and puttinginto practice what has already been learned. That iswhy it is sometimes not considered a 'pure teachingmethod'. The main aim is to do something once or torepeat it so many times that it can be mastered.However, in some cases during theory lessons ordemonstrations only the basic model of some processhas been perceived and the activity itself must belearned during the practical training. For example,welding is usually learned only through practicaltraining and not in the classroom situation. Whenlearning a skillis the objective, the importance of a

practical training cannot bestudents' Own

overestimated.

As one old Chinese proverb says:

"Ihear, andlforgetIsee, andlremember

Ido, andlunderstand. "

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4.1,0 Individual Training as a Teaching Method

Training for complicated skills which require verylong practice periods is almost always arrangedIndividually. For example, musicians learning to playan instrument.

Individual training often follows a demonstration. Itrequires that anthe necessary material and equipmentis available at every working point and that allstudents have access to them at the same time. This is

effective ifit can be arranged. The problem might beinadequate guidance: the teacher cannot beeverymrhere simultaneously and some mistakes thatneed correction can remain unnoticed. Dangerouswork cannot be practised without immediatesupervision however.

Dynamic training means that the students are movingfrom one place to another, where different stages arepractised.

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4. ..,. Practical Training in Groups

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Practical training in groups teaches the students tocooperate. There are several alternatives on how toarrange practical training in groups. One possibility isthat the teacher gives a demonstration of the work tobe learned to the whole group and after this thestudents break into smaller groups to practise underthe guidance of the teacher or other staff.

Another possibility is to break up into smaller groupsimmediately and for the teacher to demonstrate thework group by group. While waiting their turn tofollow the demonstration, the other groups are givenassignments. The optimal situation is when there areenough staff available for all groups to be taught bydemonstration at the same time.

The third choice is to demonstrate and letthe students

in one group practise for the whole session. The othergroups must have other assignments and be trainedduring the coming sessions. This could be awlse tacticif the work or process to be learned is complicatedand difficult.

In every case, good care must be taken that thestudents are getting enough guidance. Mistakelearning can be very troublesome, when the students

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I, Planning a Training Event Page 37

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4.1.2 Teaching Style

Differentteachers may use the same teaching methodsin a different way. In other words, every teacher hashis or her own style of teaching. Some styles tend to bemore effective than others,

must first unlearn the wrong habits before absorbingthe new, correct ones. The more guiding staff thereare available, the less is the likelihood of learning anywork wrongly or insufficiently. Also, through properadvance planning of the arrangements the risk ofmistake learning can be minimised.

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Teaching style can be developed. The followingpoints from Dr. Michael HerTick from the Universityof Botswana are a good guide.

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. Goal-setting

Good lecturers clearly have studentlearning goals inmind when they organise and present their courses.They want to communicate the excitement of theirdiscipline as well as the core knowledge of thesubject, particularly in its most up-to-date form.

. Preparation

Good teachers spend considerable time and effort onpreparation at the start of the semester, at thebeginning of the week and on the day (or night)before the lecture.

. Enthusiasm

This is probably the best known variable associatedwith good teaching. It is seen in enthusiasm for thesubject and enthusiasm for the students.

, Humour

Whether related to the subject or not, spontaneous orplanned humour establishes a bond between lecturer,students and subject.

. Performance

Many award-winning lecturers enjoy the performanceaspect of teaching. While they may not necessarily beShakespearean in quality, they make interesting and

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clear deliveries which hold the attention of the

students.

. Pride in their craft

There are manygoodteacherswho continually ponderthe question:"Whatis good teaching and learning"?They try new techniques, gain new insights from trialand error and learn that they are not alone.

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Independent of teaching style and selected teachingmethod, the key issue is proper and thorough advanceplanning and preparation, starting from an analysis ofthe student group. Ifthe teacher enters the classroomunprepared, without well organised and systematicnotes, the possibility of failure is always present. Bybeing punctual and showing real interest andcommitment to the subject, a teacher can createinterest also among students. Their motivation to learnwill be increased.

'7n his teaching, the wise man guides his students butdoes notpull them along; he urges them to go forwardand does riotsuppress them; he opens the waybut doesnot take them to the place. If his students areencouraged to think for themselves, we may call theman a good teacher. "(Confucius, c. 500 BC)

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4. L3 Making the Course Syllabus

When developing the syllabus of a short trainingcourse, the contents are defined according to thecourse objectives, where the level of knowledge andskills to be reached are indicated.

The bestway to map out yoursyllabusisto use a form,such as the one shown below, where you can decideand plan the course as a whole, from objectives totimings and teaching method.

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Course title:

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4. .. 4 Selecting the Teaching Methods According tothe Course Syllabus

As we have seen from our course syllabus, it is nowtime to plan the teaching methods we expect to use.This depends to a certain extent on the individualteacher, but we should also plan the methods inadvance, according to the objectives of the lessons.

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Equipment &materials

Planning the syllabus

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Much of the time, it will be quite obvious whichmethod to use, but if not, we can be guided by thefollowing methodology.

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1st phaser After having created an orientation basis,make the logical connections between the tasks clearto yourself. In other words, analyse and organise thecontent to be taught.

2nd phaser Divide the content into teaching phasesand define the educational function of each phase, sothat the phases form a "unit" to be trained. This unitwill directthe learning.

3rd phaser Define precisely the educational tasks,problems, exercises and their combinations which you

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are going to use during the teaching. Construct aseries of activating tasks which closely relate to thesubject matter. The difficulty of the tasks shouldincrease towards the end of the training.

Remember that a training event without tasks for thelearners is boring and inefficient. Even more boring istraining which includes tasks which do not arise fromthe orientation basis.

4th phaser Choose the best suitable teaching methodand social formation for each educational function and

take care to include sufficient variety and activity.

The external elements of teaching must also be takeninto account. Sitting too long in one place staring at thesame faces makes learning more difficult, no matterhow inspiring or demanding the subject matter.

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4.1.5 Choosing the Training Materials

Once the training methods forthe course are clear, theteachers can start with selection and, if necessary the

preparation of the training materials to be used.

The selection of training materials depends a lot on thetype of training. A very practical course where, forexample, working techniques are taught, demandspractical instruction, where the trainee is doing the job

technique and the tools,the Ornewusing

reproductions of the tools, required.

On the other end of the scale is the introduction of new

theories, such as new management approaches. Suchcourses may include major part of lecturing andwritten materials.

The objects and written materials used in trainingshould be as familiar as possible to the trainees. Forexample, some students would not be familiar withanalysing diagrams or playing learning games. Usingsuch materials needs consideration. A pre-analysis ofthe students is also necessary when planning trainingmaterials.

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:: Planning a Training Event

Some examples of training materials which can beused for various types of courses and teachingmethods are as follows.

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Manipiilative aids:

wooden. Samples and models, such as

reproductions of tools, parts of saw blades, etc. ;

. Board games, or even physical games; and

. Computer programs such as games or exercisesfor sawing patterns, accounting, etc.

Writtenmaterials:

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. Visual aids such as overhead projections anddiagrams. A good diagram can describe, in onepage, a concept which may others'ise take a wholechapter of written text to explain.

. Exercises and activities, such as an exercise to fillin a daily log sheet for a sawmill and calculate thevolume of incoming wood.

. Projects and case studies, such as planning a newsawmill operation by using a set of data providedin the case study and the methods for planninglearned in the class.

. Posters and extension materials.

. Reference books, course notes and handouts.Handouts are useful for students, in case they havenot understood during the class. They should notbe used as a substitute for teaching however.Copies of overhead projections (such as diagramsor bulleted lists) are also very useful, if this is themethod of teaching. These can be given before theclass so that students can write their own notes onto

them.

. Open and flexible learning materials. These arematerials that have been professionalIy prepared,mostly for distance learning courses. Someexercises can be useful also in classroom

situations. They tend to encourage open answers,where there is no exactly correct answer.

. Tests, assessments and checklists. These can beused for reinforcing learning in an informal andeven fun way. Checklists can be produced in classor discussed as topics of their own, for example, forsawmillsafety procedures.

Video aiLdio and mintimediapresentations:

normally. Video and audio presentationsexcellent quality training materials because they

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have been made by professional educators orpresenters, normally at high cost. Nevertheless,they may not completely fulfil your courseobjectives, or even topic objectives, since theyhave most likely been designed around somebodyelse's course syllabus. There are good libraries

practicalavailable however, particularly on

subjects. Always discuss such materials afterviewing or listening to them, since the content maynot necessarily agree with your own views orconditions.

. Multimedia presentations computer areOn

becoming more common and of better quality,although they are not yet at the same level offunctionality as video for the average teachingsituation.

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4.1.6 Making Training Materials

Before attempting to produce your own trainingmaterials, always check around for what's alreadyavailable. This may be from other teachers, fromlibraries, from the internet, or even from your oldcollege notes.

Once you have established that there is nothingalready available to suit your needs, you may wanttomake your own materials. It is very possible to makeyour manipulative aids, such as models, and with thecoming of the personal computer and desk toppublishing it is also very possible to make andreproduce your ownwritten materials.

Making written training materials does not have to bea complicated process. You might want to use verysimple layouts copied from other people, or createyou own.

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If you are new to making written materials, somebasic concepts are as follows:

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. Plan your materials according to the teachingobjectives - i. e. to support what you are going tosay, notjust a reproduction of your exactwords in aclass.


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. Use summaries (such as bulleted lists) anddiagrams more than written text. Remember thatthe materials are teaching and learning aids, notself-instruction manuals.

. Use a lot of space in the layout of your pages - forstudents to write their own comments and make the

key points clear.

. Use text boxes containing hints or diagrams forimportant points.

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Catalogue and shareyourwork

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When you have produced some materials, rememberto document and catalogue them properly so that youknowwhere to find them the nexttime you wantthem,whether it is from your bookshelves or inside yourcomputer. This may sound obvious, but it is verycommon to lose good work simply by losing acomputer file. Always keep back-ups of computerfiles, on diskette and hard disk drive.

Your materials should also be available for the use of

other teachers, particularly diagrams, exercises, casestudies, etc. These materials form part of theinstitutional memory and, over time, they will helpmake the difference benteen a young, immaturecourse syllabus and a mature and professional one.

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Test and improve your materials

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Written training materials are never finished. You willneed to test and evaluate them in your training as partof the general course evaluation. 'I'here are alwayschanges, updates and modifications of some sort tomake.

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Use appropriatematerials

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Some good computer soft!Mare for producing trainingmaterials is a program such as Microsoft PowerPoint.This can be used very easily for making materials such

soft\Arare for written training

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as overhead projections, posters, diagrams, summaryhandouts, etc.

This kind of soft\Arare (which is designed for makingpresentations)ISVery good because:

. text and images can be layered on top of eachother;

. diagrams can be made easily with the drawingtools; and

. different types of printout formats can be madefrom the same files, such as teachers' notes format(including guiding notes to the teacher) andoverhead projection format(printing the main slideinformation only).

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4J7 Practical Preparation for the Training

Selection of instructors for the training is important.When inviting specialists, make sure to invite themwellin advance and to remind them once again nearerthe time. Ifyou organise courses regularly, establish adata bank of specialists and their possible substitutes.

Determination of the final number of participants andthe dates of their participation also has to be done andtheir possible assistance in parts of the instruction hasto be confirmed.

Selection and preparation of training materials alsoincludes the selection of the training sites andequipment for practical exercises. The sites must beprepared beforehand so that time will not be used forarrangements after the participants arrive.

Special activities before or during the training, such astravel, transportation, excursions, accommodation,receptions and opening and closing ceremonies mustbe thought through beforehand. Also, it is importanthere that one person is responsible for each suchactivity and that he/she is available at antimes.

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It is well worth paying attention training materials.Good materials can help you teach more effectiveIy,motivate students and help them to learn.

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Informing the lecturers and coordinating people is oneof the key tasks of the course organiser, and one whichis crucial for the success of the course.

The final budgetis a description of the course in termsof money, and good accounting is a part of budgetmanagement.

Other necessary activities before or after the trainingcourse, such as payments, physical arrangements atthe course place (pre- and post course) and editingand printing of the materials should not be forgotten!

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4. ,. 8 Promoting the Training Course

Promotion of a training course is also important,especially in the case of courses organised on acommercial basis. One part of the publicity is theinvitation of participants, which has to be done in goodtime to allow them to make the necessary workarrangements. The invitation must always include theprogramme of the training.

In many countries, the inauguration of a course is amajor issue and invitations to the right people must bemadewellin advance.

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5

Conducting the Tra, n, rig

5 .. Lesson p ann rig

A lesson plan will provide you with a framework foryour teaching. It ensures that your vision and learningobjectives for the session are being followed and thatstudents are actually learning in the way you haveplanned. It also happens to provide a good way todocument what and how you have been teaching aparticulartopic; for future reference or improvements.

There are many different lesson plan formats, butevery lesson plan should include the followingelements:

. Objectives

. Methods

. Materials

Lesson plans are best kept simple and nottoo rigid informat. Some teachers prefer to put timings for eachpart of the lesson. Other, possibly more experiencedteachers may not.

An example of a lesson plan including timings is givenoverleaf. It basically provides an outline of the lessonnotes.

In this section of the trainers' guide we finally reachthe classroom. We will be looking at preparations forthe Individual training sessions and providing somehints on how to actually conduct a training session.

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Lesson notes can also take a more "freestyleapproach, where the content and method are the mainfocus of notes handwritten on a sheet of paper.

Whatever the style, it is important to remember thatthere is never as much time in the classroom as youthink and realistic objectives and methods must be setin relation to the time of the lesson.

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Introduction, review

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5.2 Lesson Structure - Running the Session

Basically, a lessonwillconsist of three elements:

. Introduction - for arousal of interest, to focus on

the subject and to state the learning objectives ofthe session.

the. Central section (content) sequencing

information in a presentation or other teachingmethod, linking one sub-topic to the next, testingcomprehension and learning during the sessionwith methods such as recapitulation andquestioning.

. Conclusion- a final opportunity to consolidate andstrengthen what has been learned, to helpassimilation and retention. Conclusions should be

well planned and include a revision and summaryof the lesson.

Materials

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Example of a lessonplan, with timings

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^^ ^^^ Conducting the Training

An example of how a teacher would implement thecentral section of a lesson to learn a practicalsl<illis given below.

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1st step: Preparing the learner

. Find outwhatthe learners already know so that youorientationcan utilise their experiences as an

basis. This will help them to understand and torelate new knowledgewith earlier experiences.

. Encourage the trainee to find the relations benteenfamiliar concepts and new ones. This supports him/her in creating awhole picture on the issue.

2nd step:!reaching the task

. Teach the task creating the orientation basis(mental model) for the task, where you utilise theearlier experiences and knowledge of the learner.

. Define the performance clearly and divide it intoshorter phases in such a manner that the sub-tasksare easy to learn at once, butthe whole view of thetask remains.

. Explain the task well, so that the traineeunderstands it exactly, notforgetting to explain thereasoning behind the task. Describe the phases ofthe task in such a clear manner that the learner can

start practising as soon as possible. Demonstratethe correct performance again ifthe trainee makesmistakes during the practice.

. Emphasise the mastery of key points that join eachphase to the next. This helps the learner information of the whole picture on the job.

. Instruct clearly, calmly and accurately. The learnerfeels more confident with a personwho mastersthetask without problems. The detail should beenough but nottoo much, not making things toocomplicated.

. It is important not to teach too much at one time.We all have limitations in capturing so much in onego. Thus, divide the task into shorter phases, butkeep the logic and continued flow clear andrational.

3rd step= ^estingthe trainee's skills

. Letthe trainee perform the task independently, butcorrect mistakes immediately. If the trainee ispermitted to make mistakes in the beginning, it is

difficult to correct them later on. Aftervery

correcting mistakes, let the student try again. This

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: : Conducting the Training Page 49

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makes the student learn the correct method and

create self-confidence in doing the job.

. Make sure that the trainee understands what he/

she is doing, and why. A total understanding of thetask and its importance encourages students toachieve a quality performance.

, Carry on as long as you are sure that the studentisperforming satisfactorily. Teachers of practicalskills should not accept even partial mistakes, sincea mistake may cost a life or a lot of money in reallife.

4th step: Evaluating the resiLlts

. When finishing with the training, tenthe traineewhich person in the company will be available toinstruct him/ her later on, in case the student feelsunsure about performing the job well enough. It iscommon that, even though doing well under

student does not have thesupervision, a

confidence of doing the same thing alone. A follow-up after the training helps the trainee in gainingautonomy.

. Encourage the learner to ask questions. This is thebest way for him/ her to reach a fullunderstandingof the task. At the same time, the instructor can

verify the students' levelofknowledge.

. Leave trainees working on their own as much aspossible, allowing them to develop independencein the work. On the other hand, make frequentchecks during the practice period to correct badhabits and to encourage the apprentice to go on.During the practice, gradually shift over toordinary observation, so that the trainee smoothlymoves overto normal work.

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5.3 Classroom Layout

Some important factors to consider are good seatingarrangements, appropriate lighting and reduction ofpossible disturbances such as noise, movementsoutside the windows, etc.

Seating arrangements will depend on the type ofteaching method used. For example, groupwork ordiscussion requires seating in clusters, with or withouttables. A lecture or presentation may require a more

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5.4 Using Visual Aids in Teaching

Illustration with visual aids can fulfil various functions

in teaching:

. to give variety to teaching;

. to livenup atmosphere in the classroom;

. to describefunctions;

. to simplify things that are too big, small, quick,dangerous, ortoo far away;

. to illustrate amount, area, etc. ; and

. to describe a problem or a question.

After setting aims for the subject to be taught and afteranalysing the target group, a teacher should considera relevant illustration method. The participant's levelof background information and ability to interpretpictorial information also have to be considered.Illustration should be well planned and appropriate tothe environment and resources available.

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formal spacing and layout with chairs facing the front.Whatever your conclusion, the point is to make thestudents relaxed and comfortable and to make sure

that they can allhear and see the teacher clearly.

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Normally, using an example of the real thing is thebest way to illustrate, particularly for practicalsubjects.

Tools, measuring instruments and other real objectsshould be broughtinto the classroom at already thefirsttime they are mentioned.

Students would find it easier to recognise them and,often, their possible previous experiences can bebetter utilised when they see the real object. By usingthe real objects and environments, students canhandle, taste, smell or even hear the taught matter andgain personal experience. This is very desirable whenthinking of learning efficiency.

It is not always possible to demonstrate a realthing. Itmay not be available, may be too expensive, too

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fragile, too big, too small, etc. In these cases theteacher should try to invent different teaching aids,such as models.

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Models

The basic idea of illustration is to make the subject ofthe lesson concrete. It should also be used duringtheoretical lessons, keeping in mind that learning ismore effective when students both see and hear.

Variety also makes lessons more interesting andeasier to remember.

Even in conditions where no industrialIy mademustrative material is available there are manypossibilities for bringing about variation in lessons.

Different kinds of models can be constructed out of

wood, plastic bottles, cartons, spare parts, etc.

Also, maps, appropriate sections of maintenance andoperation manuals, etc. can be used to illustrateconstructions and details.

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Blackboards, Whiteboards and Flip Charts

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The board in front of the classroom is the basic tool of

instruction. It is probably the oldest and stinthe mostcommonly used classroom instructionalaid.

There are some useful hints to consider when usingblackboards orwhiteboards.

Keep the board clean

. This improves the contrast and appearance andeliminates needless distractions. Go over the entire

board regularly.

. Use chalk or penswith good contrast.

. Pens must be in good condition. Red and greenwhite board pens may be difficult to see.

PlanirLadvance

. Good planning helps the effective arrangement ofmaterial. An outline format helps students takemore organised notes and helps to emphasise the

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most important words and concepts. Putjust themainpoints on the board.

. Make letters and drawingSIarge enough.

. The text must be easily seen by the entire class.Adjustthe size of letter to the size of the board andclassroom, so that the letter is easy to see but alsoso that everything you planned can be put on theboard. It is better to use block letters than to write

in script.

Avoid talking to the board

. Turn frequently toward the class to maintain eyecontact and to discuss what you have written. In thisway the students get both sight and hearingstimulation for learning.

. Avoid blocking the view of students.

. Stand to one side as much as possible and use thepointer to direct attention.

. Prepare lengthy messages and complex drawingsin advance.

. Construct a major portion of the drawing on theboard in advance, and as you presentthe lesson tothe class, tintn the details and sections requiringspecial attention. Cover material that is not forimmediate use with sheets of paper or a clothcurtain.

The flip chartis another versatile and commonly usedinstructional aid. The flip chartis normally mounted onsome type of wooden or metal easelthat holds thepaper at a convenient working height. It is a veryuseful form of board because it is highly mobile.

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An overhead projector with transparencies is one ofthe most utilised teaching aid. It may also be the mostmisused one. The most common errors are: using toosmall letters; putting too much text on everytransparency; and that the teacher is just reading thetransparency aloud.


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Use of the projector

. When showing transparencies, the projector is inthe front of the room and the teacher should be

facing the class. The projector and the teachershould not block the view of anyone in the class.

. Normally, it makes it easier to see the screen ifthefront part of the classroom is darkened. At least,there should not be any glare from the windowonto the screen.

. Picture size should be adjusted by moving theprojector forwards or backwards. Be sure that thewhole picture is visible on the screen.

. Focusing should be done by lifting or lowering themirror with the adjusting knob. Check the focusbefore the lesson begins.

. The fan must be on to prevent overheating while inuse.

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. The projector should be turned off when notin use,to avoid distracting the students.

Irrarnsparencies

. When preparing transparencies, choose thecolours carefully. Often, red and green are difficultto read, so they should be used only forhighlighting the main points. It is wise to preparetransparencies in advance in order to save time inthe classroom.

. The transparencies must be legible: letters anddrawings must be clear and big enough. Normalsize typeface letters are too small.

. There should not be too much content on one

transparency. Putinjustthe main points. Do not usethe transparency as your teaching notes.

. After you have ensured that your students are ableto read your transparency, it is not necessary foryou to read them aloud. You must, of course, givestudents sufficient time to read and digest themessage of the transparency.

Maintenance of the projector

The worse thing for a teacher who has prepared asession based on the projector is when the projectorfails. To prevent failure at the critical moment, thefollowing advice will be useful.

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. Double check with the course organisers that theprojector actually works.

. Do not move the projectorwhile it is hot.

. Have a spare bulb available.

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Video Projectors

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Video projectors can be connected to a computer or avideo player and used to projectimages onto the wall,in a similar way to an overhead projector or traditionalfilm projector. They are still quite expensive items butsome training venues can supply these services andcomputer generated presentations can be shown.

When considering purchasing your own videoprojector it is importantto buy good quality or, if not,to make sure that you have a very dark zoom in whichto use the projector. Cheaper projectors are not verybright and in the daytime, in a room with normalcurtains, it will be very difficult to see the projection.

Video projectors are also quite useful for group workexercises. For example, where a group is writing aproject or case study together, using aword processoror spreadsheet softInrare.r~

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Photographs and Slide Shows

Slides (DDLs)

Slides are the most commonly used form of photos inteaching because they can be projected onto the wallfor all to see. Modern slide projectors can also be setup to be operated in combination with a tape recorderfor audio-visual presentations.

The slide projector should be placed toward the backof the room on a high table. A greater distance fromthe screen will give a larger projected image. Thehigh table will ensure that the image projected issquare and not growing diagonally from the bottom.

Slides can be used to show close-ups of very smallitems. They can be used to highlight key steps inprocesses that are hazardous or that occur too rapidlyor over too long a period of time to be viewed easily

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by students in a classroom. Each slide can beprojected as long as is needed forthe class to study ordiscuss it.

Slides are easy to use, store and handle, especially ifyou are using a projector that holds slide trays. Sinceeach slide is an individual unit, the order ofpresentation is not fixed. You can easily change theorder, add slides, eliminates slides, or replace slidesof outdated material with new ones.

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Audio Presentations

Audio recordings (such as cassette tapes) may besimple buttheir value should not be underestimated,particularly in a region where the radio is a commonmethod of mass mediacommunication.

The good sides of audio recordings are that they forcethe learner to use his/ her own imagination. Everylistener must form their own mental picture of thematter handled. With audio recordings it is easy totransmitfeelings and atmosphere.

Cassettes are cheap and there is a wide assortmentavailable for educational purposes. With a taperecorder you can make your own recordings, such asfor recording sounds which cannot be otherurisereproduced in the classroom.

Good sound needs quality loudspeakers, and goodsound is essential to allow students to concentrate and

learn.

Remember however, that an audio programme whichmaintains a class's interest for more than 15 minutes is

an exception.

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Video Presentations

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Videos are good for showing movements, functionsand processes. For example, presenting a workfunction from a factory where noise would preventexplanations in real life situations. Many machinerymanufacturers also make commercial films of their

products, which can be used forteaching purposes.


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Normally, the classroom must be darkened forshowing videos. Because of the limited size of theordinary TV monitor, videos can be shown effectiveIyonly to small audiences, unless you have a videoprojector available. Remember to practise how thesystem is operated before starting your class.

Making your own videos is of course possible.However, making good educational videos is really ajob for professionals. The results of the average homevideo are normally so long and boring that the classhas drifted into sleep well before the teacher turns thelights back on.

When making videos, the objective and the targetgroup must be very well defined before making anyrecordings. Normally, a good video is able to transmitonly one idea. So, when writing a manuscriptthe mainidea, "the message", must be kept clearly in mind.

The manuscript must always be ready before startingthe recording. Also, no video is ready directly afterrecording, the material must be edited. Good soundand proper commentaries are also important, althoughcommentary can be done "live" by the teacher duringthe presentation of a silent video.

When learning a skill or how to make publicpresentations, a video camera can be a very useful forrecording the performance of the student so that theycan evaluate and improve their own performancesalongwith the teacher.

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5.5 Further References on Running a TrainingSession

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. Running an Effective Training Session, PatrickForsyth. 1992. Cower Publishing, Ul< (fax n0. +441252 344405). Price: GBP 13. IsBN 0-566-07619-5.This book gives clear advice on various methods ofpreparation, presentation, lesson structures, use ofvisual aids, and so on. It is based on managementtraining techniques.

. Creating Quality in the Classroom, Jamce Arcaro.1995. St. I^ucie Press, available from World

Executive's Digest, Manila (fax. +63 2 818 5177).Price: UsD 60. IsBN I-8840/5-57-3. Advice on

running a class to achieve qualitativeIy measurable

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results, including personal change and attitudeamong students'

an outline of, Teaching in Further Educationprinciples and practice, L. B. Curzon. 1990. GassellEducational Ltd. , UIC (41-47 Strand, London WC2N51E). IsBIT 0-304-31961-9. One of the classic workson teaching for the more traditional approach toteaching and learning.

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6

Evaluating and ^in provingthe Training

As we have seen throughoutthis guide, learning is notthe automatic consequence of teaching or training. Tobe sure that our plans were well founded, oureducational objectives correct and our implementationeffective we need to evaluate our training. Normally,we find that there is room for improvement, that wemust mature stage by stage as teachers and that ourcourse must mature to be an effective and smooth

educational event.

Evaluation of learning should coverthe whole durationof a training event-from the beginning to the end andbeyond into follow-up in the workplace.

A trainer is always responsible for the effectivenessand impact of the training and therefore makes surethat training events are monitored and evaluated.

fro

Monitoring and evaluation hasthree main purposes.

I. Improvement of training programmes and trainersperformances.

2. Assessment of the value of the training for theparticipants and their organisations.

3. Assessment of the value of the training and/ orextension services for the final beneficiaries.

6 I. Evaluat on criteria

The measurable objectives of the training provide thebasis for an evaluation of learning. The objectivesindicate the levels of knowledge, skills and attitudes tobe achieved during the training. Therefore, theevaluation of learning measures to what extent theobjectives have been met.

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The trainer should bear in mind the following aspectswhen planning and implementing the evaluation.

Validity: Am ITeally assessing whatl wantto assess?Am I, for example, measuring a trainee'sunderstanding of an experiment's results or his/ herEnglish language comprehension skills?

Reliability: Is the assessment free of unreliable orunmeasurable factors?Are the instructions clear?

Objectivity: Am I able to view a test paperobjectiveIy, as one amongst many rather than as thepaper of a trainee who does not normally have goodresults?

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6.2 Evaluation levels

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There are several levels upon which we should baseour evaluations.

Evaluation at training development level

Trainers conduct on-going evaluation during theplanning and implementation of training. Rather thantaking evaluation as a compulsory step at the end oftraining cycle, one should understand it as an integralpart of training programme development. It is acontinuous task made during the development of atraining event. The evaluation becomes combinedwith training needs assessment, the development ofobjectives and the training activities themselves.

EvaliiatiorL at participant reaction level

Collection and assessment of participants' reactionsduring a training event. Reactions should provide

the trainer's effectiveness andfeedback On

particularly on the effectiveness of the learningexperience. Did the event provide favourableconditions for learning and were the activitiesappropriate from a learning point of view?

The participants' reactions can be studied by usingstructured feedback forms at the end of each topic orpresentation, or at the end of the training event. Inaddition to the structured questions and statements, afeedback form provides an opportunity and enoughspace for participants' comments and suggestions. In

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most cases, feedback is better made anonymously, inorder to achieve valid responses.

Evaluation at participants'learning level

Measures the knowledge, skills and attitudes whichthe participants have gained during the training event.Did they achieve the learning objectives of the event?

Evaluation at work performance level

For assessing whether the participants apply theknowledge and skills learned. A teacher cannot tellhow effective the training is just by observing peoplein the training room. The only way to judge theeffectiveness of training is to see how the knowledgeand skills are understood and used in everydaywork.

In short, work performance can be understood asfollows:

Work performance = Capabilities + Wish.

This means that work performance is not an automaticconsequence of learning. Some amount of motivationand interest is also needed among the staffin order forthem to performwell.

The follow-up evaluation can be conducted in the formof a questionnaire, discussions, interviews orobservation at the working site. A questionnaireconsists of the following type of questions:

, Did you learn anything new during the course?

. What were the most useful things you learned inthe course from the point of view of your currentwork?

. Have you changed anything in your way ofworking?

Indicators of improvements or changes in workperformance after the training can also be found, forexample, from the following:

. Plans and reports on work operations

. New materials produced and utilised

Evaluation at organisational level

For assessment of whether the training has had anyimpactin the course participants' parent organisationsor companies through application of the new

knowledge and skills learned. At this level, we are

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measuring the changes in the participants' workperformance and the effects of the changes on theproductivity or efficiency of their departments andorganisations.

In order to assess the impact of training at theorganisational level, data is gathered on developmentof costs, quantity and quality of the products,increased sales, availability of extension services, etc.This means that training is evaluated in terms ofbenefits to the organisation. The training is closelylinked with the goals and objectives of theorganisation as a whole. In other words, the traininghas to be business and result-oriented in order to be

useful forthe management of the organisation.

Evaluation at target group level

the finalAssessing the training impacts on

beneficiaries of the organisation or company, such asconsumers or farmers. For instance, in the case oftraining the personnel of a rural development agency,whether any changes can be observed in farmingsystems or techniques, in tree management or in thevolume of tree planting. The art of this type ofevaluation has its roots in systematic observation fromtime to time.

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6.3 Evaluation Types

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Evaluation may take place at various stages of atraining event.

Diagnostic - before or at the beginning of a trainingevent.

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programme.

Final- at the end of the event or programme.

Follow-ILp - some weeks or months after the training.

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during the

Evaluating the Training

Evaluation of learning may be conducted in severalways.

course of the event Or

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essays, multiple choice, open. Written tests

questions, calculations, open bookanswer

examinations, etc.

. Oraltests

. Assignment tests or projects

. Observation of workperformance

The appropriate means of evaluation in trainingdepends on a number questions.

. What are the objectives of the training?

, Who 1sthe target group forthe training?

. What kind of testing is the target group familiarwith, whatwilltheyunderstand?

The appropriate means of evaluation are decided caseby case. Evaluation is the only way to find out howstudents or trainees are progressing, and if they areachieving any of the set objectives. Therefore,evaluation should never be neglected.

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s. , ginde -.-- -..- ,,,., ^ ;fs=== , for · meaningful, deep learning. a guided learning process...

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