roman senate

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Roman Senate

The Roman Senate was a political institution in ancientRome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Ro-man history, being established in the first days of the city(traditionally founded in 753 BC). It survived the over-throw of the kings in 509 BC, the fall of the Roman Re-public in the 1st century BC, the division of the RomanEmpire in 395 AD, the fall of the Western Roman Em-pire in 476 AD, and the barbarian rule of Rome in the5th, 6th, and 7th centuries.

During the days of the kingdom, it was little more than

an advisory council to the king. The last king of Rome,Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown following acoup d'état led by Lucius Junius Brutus, who founded theRepublic.

During the early Republic, the Senate was politicallyweak, while the executive magistrates were quite power-ful. Since the transition from monarchy to constitutionalrule was probably gradual, it took several generations be-fore the Senate was able to assert itself over the execu-tive magistrates. By the middle Republic, the Senate hadreached the apex of its republican power. The late Re-public saw a decline in the Senate’s power, which began

following the reforms of the tribunes Tiberius and GaiusGracchus.

After the transition of the Republic into the Principate,the Senate lost much of its political power as well as itsprestige. Following the constitutional reforms of the Em-peror Diocletian, the Senate became politically irrelevant,and never regained the power that it had once held. Whenthe seat of government was transferred out of Rome, theSenate was reduced to a municipal body. This decline instatus was reinforced when the emperor Constantine theGreat created an additional senate in Constantinople.

After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, the Senatein the west functioned for a time under barbarian rule be-fore being restored after the reconquest of much of theWestern Roman Empire’s territories during the reign ofJustinian I. The Senate in Rome ultimately disappearedat some point between 603 and 630. However, the East-ern Senate survived in Constantinople, until the ancientinstitution finally vanished there with the capture of thecity in 1204.

1 Senate of the Roman Kingdom

Main articles: Senate of the Roman Kingdom andConstitution of the Roman Kingdom

The senate was a political institution in the ancientRoman kingdom. The word senate derives from the Latinword senex , which means “old man"; the word thus means“assembly of elders”. The prehistoric Indo-Europeanswho settled Italy in the centuries before the legendaryfounding of Rome in 753 BC[1] were structured into tribalcommunities,[2] and these communities often included anaristocratic board of tribal elders.[3]

Theearly Roman family was called a gens or “clan”,

[2]

andeach clan was an aggregation of families under a commonliving male patriarch, called a pater (the Latin word for“father”).[4] When the early Roman gentes were aggregat-ing to form a common community, the patres from theleading clans were selected[5] for the confederated boardof elders that would become the Roman senate.[4] Overtime, the patres came to recognize the need for a singleleader, and so they elected a king (rex ),[4] and vested inhim their sovereign power.[6] When the king died, thatsovereign power naturally reverted to the patres .[4]

The senate is said to have been created by Rome’s first

king, Romulus, initially consisting of 100 men. The de-scendants of those 100 men subsequently became thepatrician class.[7] Rome’s fifth king, Lucius TarquiniusPriscus, chose a further 100 senators. They were chosenfrom the minor leading families, and were accordinglycalled the patres minorum gentium.[8]

Rome’s seventh and final king, Lucius Tarquinius Super-bus, executed many of the leading men in the senate,and did not replace them, thereby diminishing their num-ber. However, in 509 BC Rome’s first consuls, LuciusJunius Brutus and Publius Valerius Publicola chose fromamongst the leading equites new men for the senate, these

being called conscripti

, and thus increased the size of thesenate to 300.[9]

The senate of the Roman kingdom held three principalresponsibilities: It functioned as the ultimate repositoryfor the executive power,[10] it served as the king’s coun-cil, and it functioned as a legislative body in concert withthe people of Rome.[11] During the years of the monar-chy, the senate’s most important function was to electnew kings. While the king was technically elected by thepeople, it was actually the senate who chose each newking.[10]

The period between the death of one king, and the elec-

tion of a new king, was called the interregnum,[10] dur-ing which time the Interrex nominated a candidate toreplace the king.[12] After the senate gave its initial ap-

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2 2 SENATE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

proval to the nominee, he was then formally electedby the people,[13] and then received the senate’s finalapproval.[12] At least one king, Servius Tullius, waselected by the senate alone, and not by the people.[14]

The senate’s most significant task, outside of regal elec-

tions, was to function as the king’s council, and whilethe king could ignore any advice it offered, its growingprestige helped make the advice that it offered increas-ingly difficult to ignore. Technically, the senate couldalso make new laws, although it would be incorrect toview the senate’s decrees as “legislation” in the modernsense. Only the king could decree new laws, although heoften involved both the senate and the curiate assembly(the popular assembly) in the process.[11]

2 Senate of the Roman Republic

Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic andSenate of the Roman RepublicWhen the Republic began, the Senate functioned as an

Representation of a sitting of the Roman senate: Cicero attacks

Catiline , from a 19th-century fresco in Palazzo Madama, Rome,

house of the Italian Senate. It is worth noting that idealistic me-

dieval and subsequent artistic depictions of the forum in session

are almost uniformly inaccurate. Illustrations commonly show

thesenators arranged in a semicircle aroundan open space where

orators were deemed to stand; in reality the structure of the exist-

ing Curia Julia building, which dates in its current form from the

Emperor Diocletian , shows that the senators sat in straight and parallel lines on either side of the interior of the building. In cur-

rent media depictions in film this is shown correctly in The Fall ofthe Roman Empire , and incorrectly in, for example, Spartacus.

advisory council. It consisted of 300 Senators, who wereinitially patrician and served for life. Before long, ple-beians were also admitted, although they were denied thesenior magistracies for a longer period.[15]

Senators were entitled to wear a tunic with a broad purplestripe, maroon shoes, and an iron (later gold) ring.[15]

The Senate of the Roman Republic passed decrees called

senatus consulta, which in form constituted “advice” fromthe senate to a magistrate. While these decrees did nothold legal force, they usually were obeyed in practice.[16]

If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law (lex ) that waspassed by an assembly, the law overrode the senatus con-sultum because the senatus consultum had its authoritybased in precedent and not in law. A senatus consultum,however, could serve to interpret a law.[17]

Through these decrees, the senate directed the magis-trates, especially the Roman consuls (the chief magis-trates) in their prosecution of military conflicts. The sen-ate also had an enormous degree of power over the civilgovernment in Rome. This was especially the case withregards to its management of state finances, as only itcould authorize the disbursal of public funds from thetreasury. As the Roman Republic grew, the senate alsosupervised the administration of the provinces, whichwere governed by former consuls and praetors, in that itdecided which magistrate should govern which province.

Since the 3rd century the senate also played a pivotal role

in cases of emergency. It could call for the appointmentof a dictator (a right resting with each consul with or with-out the senate’s involvement). However, after 202, the of-fice of dictator fell out of use (and was revived only twomore times) and was replaced with the senatus consultumultimum (“ultimate decree of the senate”), a senatorial de-cree which authorised the consuls to employ any meansnecessary to solve the crisis.[18]

While senate meetings could take place either insideor outside of the formal boundary of the city (the

pomerium), no meeting could take place more than a mileoutside of it.[19] The senate operated while under various

religious restrictions. For example, before any meetingcould begin, a sacrifice to the gods was made, and a searchfor divine omens (the auspices ) was taken.[20]

Meetings usually began at dawn, and a magistrate whowished to summon the senate had to issue a compulsoryorder.[21] The senate meetings were public,[19] and weredirected by a presiding magistrate, usually a consul.[6]

While in session, the senate had the power to act on itsown, and even against the will of the presiding magistrateif it wished. The presiding magistrate began each meetingwith a speech,[22] and then referred an issue to the sena-tors, who would discuss the issue by order of seniority.[19]

Senators had several other ways in which they could in-fluence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. For exam-ple, all senators had to speak before a vote could beheld, and since all meetings had to end by nightfall,[16]

a senator could talk a proposal to death (a filibuster ordiem consumere) if he could keep the debate going un-til nightfall.[22] When it was time to call a vote, the pre-siding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals hewished, and every vote was between a proposal and itsnegative.[23]

At any point before a motion passed, the proposed motioncould be vetoed, usually bya tribune. If there was no veto,

and the matter was of minor importance, it could be votedon by a voice vote or by a show of hands. If there was noveto, and the matter was of a significant nature, there was

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usually a physical division of the house,[19] with senatorsvoting by taking a place on either side of the chamber.

Senate membership was controlled by the Censors.By the time of Gaius Marius, ownership of prop-erty worth at least one million sesterces was required

for membership.

[15]

The ethical requirements of sena-tors were significant. In contrast to members of theEquestrian order, senators could not engage in bankingor any form of public contract. They could not owna ship that was large enough to participate in foreigncommerce,[19] they could not leave Italy without permis-sion from the senate and they were not paid a salary.Election to magisterial office resulted in automatic sen-ate membership.[24]

3 Senate of the Roman Empire

Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire,Senate of the Roman Empire and Constitution of theLate Roman Empire

After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutionalbalance of power shifted from the Roman senate to theRoman emperor. Though retaining its legal position asunder the republic, in practice, however, the actual au-thority of the imperial senate was negligible, as the em-peror held the true power in the state. As such, mem-bership in the senate became sought after by individuals

seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actualauthority.

During the reigns of the first emperors, legislative, judi-cial, and electoral powers were all transferred from theRoman assemblies to the senate. However, since the em-peror held control over the senate, the senate acted as avehicle through which he exercised his autocratic powers.

The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum , the seat of the imperial

Senate.

The first emperor, Augustus, reduced the size of the sen-ate from 900 members to 600, even though there wereonly about 100 to 200 active senators at one time. Afterthis point, the size of the senate was never again dras-tically altered. Under the empire, as was the case dur-ing the late republic, one could become a senator by be-

ing elected quaestor (a magistrate with financial duties),but only if one was of senatorial rank.[25] In addition toquaestors, elected officials holding a range of senior po-sitions were routinely granted senatorial rank by virtue ofthe offices that they held.[26]

If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there weretwo ways for him to become a senator. Under the firstmethod, the emperor granted that individual the authorityto stand for election to the quaestorship,[25] while underthe second method, the emperor appointed that individ-ual to the senate by issuing a decree.[27] Under the em-pire, the power that the emperor held over the senate was

absolute.[28]

During senate meetings, the emperor sat between thetwo consuls,[29] and usually acted as the presiding officer.Senators of the early empire could ask extraneous ques-tions or request that a certain action be taken by the sen-ate. Higher ranking senators spoke before those of lowerrank, although the emperor could speak at any time.[29]

Besides the emperor, consuls and praetors could also pre-side over the senate. Since no senator could stand forelection to a magisterial office without the emperor’s ap-proval, senators usually did not vote against bills that had

been presented by the emperor. If a senator disapprovedof a bill, he usually showed his disapproval by not attend-ing the senate meeting on the day that the bill was to bevoted on.[30]

While the Roman assemblies continued to meet after thefounding of the empire, their powers were all transferredto the senate, and so senatorial decrees (senatus consulta)acquired the full force of law.[28] The legislative powersof the imperial senate were principally of a financial andan administrative nature, although the senate did retain arange of powers over the provinces.[28]

During the early Roman Empire, all judicial powers that

had been held by the Roman assemblies were also trans-ferred to the senate. For example, the senate now heldjurisdiction over criminal trials. In these cases, a consulpresided, the senators constituted the jury, and the verdictwas handed down in the form of a decree ( senatus con-sultum),[28][31] and, while a verdict could not be appealed,the emperor could pardon a convicted individual througha veto. The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoralpowers from the assemblies to the senate,[31] and, whiletheoretically the senate elected new magistrates, the ap-proval of the emperor was always needed before an elec-tion could be finalized.

Around 300 AD, the emperor Diocletian enacted a seriesof constitutional reforms. In one such reform, he assertedthe right of the emperor to take power without the theo-

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retical consent of the senate, thus depriving the senate ofits status as the ultimate depository of supreme power.Diocletian’s reforms also ended whatever illusion had re-mained that the senate had independent legislative, judi-cial, or electoral powers. The senate did, however, retainits legislative powers over public games in Rome, and over

the senatorial order.

The senate also retained the power to try treason cases,and to elect some magistrates, but only with the permis-sion of the emperor. In the final years of the empire, thesenate would sometimes try to appoint their own emperor,such as inthe case of Eugenius, who was later defeated byforces loyal to Theodosius I. The senate remained the laststronghold of the traditional Roman religion in the face ofthe spreading Christianity, and several times attempted tofacilitate the return of the Altar of Victory (first removedby Constantius II) to the senatorial curia.

4 Post-Imperial Senate in Rome

After the fall of the western Roman Empire, the sen-ate continued to function under the barbarian chieftainOdoacer, and then under Ostrogothic rule. The authorityof the senate rose considerably under barbarian leaders,who sought to protect the institution. This period wascharacterized by the rise of prominent Roman senatorialfamilies, such as the Anicii, while the senate’s leader, theprinceps senatus, often served as the right hand of thebarbarian leader. It is known that the senate successfullyinstalled Laurentius as pope in 498, despite the fact thatboth King Theodoric and Emperor Anastasius supportedthe other candidate, Symmachus.

The peaceful coexistence of senatorial and barbarian rulecontinued until the Ostrogothic leader Theodahad foundhimself at war with Emperor Justinian I and took the sen-ators as hostages. Several senators were executed in 552as revenge for the death of the Ostrogothic king, Totila.After Rome was recaptured by the imperial (Byzantine)army, the senate was restored, but the institution (likeclassical Rome itself) had been mortally weakened bythe long war. Many senators had been killed and manyof those who had fled to the east chose to remain there,thanks to favorable legislation passed by Emperor Jus-tinian, who, however, abolished virtually all senatorial of-fices in Italy. The importance of the Roman senate thusdeclined rapidly.[32]

4.1 Relationships with Constantinople

In 578 and again in 580, the senate sent envoys to Con-stantinople. They delivered 3000 pounds (believed tobe around 960 kg) of gold as a gift to the new em-

peror, Tiberius II Constantinus, along with a plea for helpagainst the Lombards, who had invaded Italy ten yearsearlier. Pope Gregory I, in a sermon from 593, lamented

the almost complete disappearance of the senatorial orderand the decline of the prestigious institution.[33][34]

It is not clearly known when the Roman senate disap-peared in the West, but it is known from the Gregorianregister that the senate acclaimed new statues of Emperor

Phocas and Empress Leontia in 603.

[35]

The institution isassumed to have vanished by 630 when the Curia Juliawas transformed into a church by Pope Honorius I.

4.2 Medieval era

In later medieval times, the title “senator” was still in oc-casional use, but it had become a meaningless adjunct ti-tle of nobility and no longer implied membership in anorganized governing body.

In 1144, the Commune of Rome attempted to establish agovernment modeled on the old Roman republic in oppo-sition to the temporal power of the higher nobles and thepope. This included setting up a senate along the lines ofthe ancient one. The revolutionaries divided Rome intofourteen regions , each electing four senators for a total of56 (though one source, often repeated, gives a total of50). These senators, the first real senators since the 7thcentury, elected as their leader, Giordano Pierleoni, sonof the Roman consul Pier Leoni, with the title patrician,because consul was also a deprecated noble styling.

This renovated form of government was constantly em-battled. By the end of the 12th century, it had undergonea radical transformation, with the reduction of the num-ber of senators to a single one - Summus Senator - beingthereafter the title of the head of the civil government ofRome. (For example, in modern terms, this is compa-rable to the reduction of a board of commissioners to asingle commissioner, such as the political head of the po-lice department of New York City.) Between 1191 and1193, this was a certain Benedetto called Carus homo orcarissimo.

5 Senate of the Eastern Roman

Empire

Main article: Byzantine Senate

The senate continued to exist in Constantinople, how-ever. In the second half of the 10th century a new of-fice, proëdrus (Greek: πρόεδρος), was created as headof the senate by Emperor Nicephorus Phocas. Up to themid-11th century, only eunuchs could become proëdrus,but later this restriction was lifted and several proëdricould be appointed, of which the senior proëdrus, or pro-toproëdrus (Greek: πρωτοπρόεδρος), served as the head

of the senate. There were two types of meetings prac-tised: silentium, in which only magistrates currently inoffice participated and conventus , in which all syncletics

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(Greek: συγκλητικοί, senators) could participate. Thesenate in Constantinople existed at least until the begin-ning of the 13th century, its last known act being the elec-tion of Nicolas Canabus as emperor in 1204 during theFourth Crusade.[36]

6 See also

• Acta Senatus

• Aedile

• Byzantine Senate

• Centuria

• Curia

• comitia curiata

• Gerousia

• SPQR

• Cursus honorum

• Interrex

• Master of the Horse

• Pontifex Maximus

• Princeps senatus

• Promagistrate

• Roman consul

• Roman Dictator

• Roman Empire

• Roman Kingdom

• Roman Law

• Roman Republic

• Roman censor

• Plebeian Council

• Praetor

• Quaestor

7 Further reading

• Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of theRoman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853.

• Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters

of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outlineof the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and

Index . Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.

• Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law.1871-1888

• Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the RomanConstitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886.

• Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitu-tion in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, NewYork. 1975.

• The Histories by Polybius

• Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13.

• Richard A. Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome(Princeton, Princeton Univerversity Press, 1984).

• A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (FontanaPress, 1993).

• M. Crawford, The Roman Republic , (Fontana Press,1978).

•

Erich S. Gruen, “The Last Generation of the RomanRepublic” (U California Press, 1974).

• Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World ,(London, Duckworth, 1977, 1992).

• Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Re- public (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999).

• Hoеlkeskamp, Karl-Joachim, Senatus populusqueRomanus. Die politische Kultur der Republik - Di-

mensionen und Deutungen (Stuttgart: Franz SteinerVerlag, 2004).

• Krieckhaus, Andreas, Senatorische Familien und ihre patriae (1./2. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) (Hamburg:Verlag Dr. Kovac, 2006) (Studien zur Geschichtes-forschung des Altertums, 14).

• Werner Eck, Monument und Inschrift. GesammelteAufsätze zur senatorischen Repräsentation in der

Kaiserzeit (Berlin/New York: W. de Gruyter, 2010).

7.1 Primary sources

• Cicero’s De Re Publica, Book Two

• Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis ofthe Roman Government; by Polybius

http://www.fordham.edu/HALSALL/ANCIENT/polybius6.htmlhttp://www.fordham.edu/HALSALL/ANCIENT/polybius6.htmlhttp://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%253Ftitle=546&chapter=83299&layout=html&Itemid=27https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lintotthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergus_Millarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_S._Gruenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Mommsenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Ihnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaestorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plebeian_Councilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_censorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Dictatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_consulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promagistratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps_senatushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_the_Horsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursus_honorumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPQRhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerousiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiate_Assemblyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centuriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Senatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedilehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acta_Senatushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusadehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Canabushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language


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6 8 NOTES

• Livy, Ab urbe condita

• Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Ro-man Republic . Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-926108-3).

• Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on

the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws.

Translated from the original, with Dissertations and

Notes in Two Volumes . By Francis Barham, Esq.London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1.

• Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek . By James Hampton.Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol2.

• Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assem-

blies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorshipof Caesar . The University of Michigan Press (ISBN0-472-08125-X).

• Schnurer, Gustov (1956). Church And Culture InThe Middle Ages 350-814. Kessinger Publishing(ISBN 9-781425-423223).

7.2 Secondary source material

• Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of theRomans and their Decline, by Montesquieu

• The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero

• What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome CanTeach Us

• Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913)

• Brewer, E. Cobham; Dictionary of Phrase and Fable(1898).

• McCullough, Colleen; The Grass Crown Harper-Collins (1992), ISBN 0-380-71082-X

• Wood, Reverend James, The Nuttall Encyclopædia(1907) - a work now in public domain.

• Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Re- public . U.S. Government Printing Office, SenateDocument 103-23.

• Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Descrip-tion of Roman Political Institutions . Elibron Classics,ISBN 0-543-92749-0.

• Hooke, Nathaniel; The Roman History, from the

Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth,F. Rivington (Rome). Original in New York PublicLibrary

8 Notes

[1] Abbott, 3

[2] Abbott, 1

[3] Abbott, 12

[4] Abbott, 6

[5] Abbott, 16

[6] Byrd, 42

[7] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8

[8] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:35

[9] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.1

[10] Abbott, 10

[11] Abbott, 17

[12] Abbott, 14

[13] Byrd, 20

[14] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.41

[15] McCullough, 1026

[16] Byrd, 44

[17] Abbott, 233

[18] Abbott, 240

[19] Byrd, 34

[20] Lintott, 72

[21] Lintott, 75

[22] Lintott, 78

[23] Lintott, 83

[24] Byrd, 36

[25] Abbott, 381

[26] Metz, David. Daily Life of the Ancient Romans . pp. 59 &60. ISBN 978-0-87220-957-2.

[27] Abbott, 382

[28] Abbott, 385

[29] Abbott, 383

[30] Abbott, 384

[31] Abbott, 386

[32] Schnurer, 339

[33] Bronwen Neil; Matthew J. Dal Santo (9 September 2013).A Companion to Gregory the Great . BRILL. p. 3. ISBN978-90-04-25776-4. (translated from the original Latin)

For since the Senate has failed, the people have perished,and the sufferings and groans of the few who remain are

multiplied each day. Rome, now empty, is burning!

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25776-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=vQFBAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-957-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/From%2520the%2520Founding%2520of%2520the%2520City/Book%25201#41https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri_(Livy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livyhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/From%2520the%2520Founding%2520of%2520the%2520City/Book%25202#1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita_libri_(Livy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livyhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/From%2520the%2520Founding%2520of%2520the%2520City/Book%25201#35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita_libri_(Livy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livyhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/From%2520the%2520Founding%2520of%2520the%2520City/Book%25201#8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita_libri_(Livy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Hookehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0543927490https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/038071082Xhttp://www.bartleby.com/81/4009.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/30/opinion/30harris.html?_r=1&oref=sloginhttp://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/30/opinion/30harris.html?_r=1&oref=sloginhttp://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/texts/misc/romancon.htmlhttp://mailer.fsu.edu/~njumonvi/montesquieu_romans.htmhttp://mailer.fsu.edu/~njumonvi/montesquieu_romans.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781425423223https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/047208125Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/047208125Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hampton_(priest)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199261083https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199261083https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lintotthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri_(Livy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy


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7

[34] Kate Cooper; Julia Hillner (13 September 2007).Religion, Dynasty, and Patronage in Early Christian Rome,

300–900. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-139-46838-1.

[35] Jeffrey Richards. The Popes and the Papacy in the EarlyMiddle Ages, 476-752, p. 246

[36] Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the Siege of Constantinople. 2004. pp. 222-226.

http://books.google.com/books?id=tsE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246&lpg=PA246&source=web&ots=M8dNV2lx_z&sig=P3PwGDB5ELF_rvkl28CBB5aiTQg&hl=ruhttp://books.google.com/books?id=tsE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246&lpg=PA246&source=web&ots=M8dNV2lx_z&sig=P3PwGDB5ELF_rvkl28CBB5aiTQg&hl=ruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46838-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46838-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=TRPkuJSPb10C&pg=PA23http://books.google.com/books?id=TRPkuJSPb10C&pg=PA23


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8 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text

• Roman Senate Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate?oldid=676321362 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop,Furrykef, Topbanana, Wetman, Dimadick, Jason Potter, Wereon, Everyking, Ezod, Geni, Kuralyov, M.e, Pmanderson, Lacrimosus, Dis-cospinster, El C, Alansohn, Jordan117, Wikidea, Nicknack009, Woohookitty, WadeSimMiser, Kmg90, Rjwilmsi, Hiberniantears,The wub,Str1977, Metropolitan90, Jared Preston, DVdm, Peter G Werner, Madsmh, RussBot, Kurt Leyman, NawlinWiki, Wknight94, Nikkimaria,OtherDave, The Bearded One, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Rrius, Flamarande, Hmains, Chris the speller, RayAYang, Alphathon, Rrburke,JesseRafe, Chrylis, DavidMann, Salamurai, Will Beback, Esrever, Nishkid64, JohnI, RandomCritic, Ian Dalziel, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, Gr-blomerth, Revcasy, Anthony Bradbury, Hemlock Martinis, MC10, Buistr, Epbr123, ChargersFan, Cteckerman, North Shoreman, JAnD-bot, Cynwolfe, Doug Coldwell, Animum, Anaxial, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Nev1, Trusilver, Pajfarmor, NewEnglandYankee, Nikthestunned,VolkovBot, Zidonuke, Dojarca, Mark Miller, LeaveSleaves, Jalo, Simmaren, Billinghurst, Hmwith, SieBot, SheepNotGoats, Happysailor,Flyer22, Avnjay, Tombomp, Wickedjacob, RomanHistorian, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Icarusgeek, Kafka Liz, Jan1nad, Der Golem, Excirial,Jusdafax, Ykhwong, Douglas Coldwell, ChrisHodgesUK, Thingg, BarretB, Koumz, RyanCross, Addbot, Proofreader77, Blanche of King’sLynn, InvictusCaesar100, Fluffernutter, Download, SomeUsr, LinkFA-Bot, Lightbot, Teles, LuK3, Nacor, Boris19870728, Luckas-bot,Yobot, Fraggle81, Legobot II, Julia W, Harneses, AnomieBOT, Orange Knight of Passion, Galoubet, ArthurBot, Brane.Blokar, Xqbot,Rdyornot, DSisyphBot, RibotBOT, Kyng, Amaury, Mattis, Bbq896, Julius4U, Daerlun, Parker1979, Ryan5522, Grandiose, Finn Froding,I dream of horses, RedBot, Ongar the World-Weary, Meaghan, Urg writer, Tim1357, Abc518, Lightlowemon, Diannaa, Pepperpaws, Side-ways713, 13sullj, Desertrac, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Laurel Lodged, Fæ, Josve05a, Tolly4bolly, Andy milanacus, Alfayomega, Senjuto,Donner60, ClueBot NG, Vacation9, Frietjes, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner, Helpful Pixie Bot, Atongmy, Roberticus, Blitzface, AvocatoBot,Davidiad, Tutelary, Haymouse, Khazar2, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Lugia2453, Malikconn, AureaMediocritasMedenAgan, Nexvex,

Ginsuloft, TJxSJ, Eldhrímnir, Monster882, Gurnosdoom1, Whistlemethis, Eeyoresdream, Mediavalia, Aperiarcam and Anonymous: 222

9.2 Images

• File:Curia_Iulia.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Curia_Iulia.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Maccari-Cicero.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Maccari-Cicero.jpg License: Public domainContributors: [1] Original artist: Cesare Maccari

• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ssolbergj

• File:SPQRomani.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg License: Public domain Con-

tributors: Own work Original artist: Piotr Michał Jaworski (PioM EN DE PL)

9.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_5//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyskusja_Wikipedysty:Piom#POLSKIhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_5//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyskusja_Wikipedysty:Piom#Deutschsprachehttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_5//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyskusja_Wikipedysty:Piom#in_Englishhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/SPQRomani.svghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_5//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Ssolbergjhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Maccari.pdfhttp://2.bp.blogspot.com/-39WCDNAWtnc/T4hR_ImzxCI/AAAAAAAAApk/jE_igBjcjaY/s1600/811203MaccariCicero.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Maccari-Cicero.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Curia_Iulia.JPGhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate?oldid=676321362

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