BACKGROUND GUIDE

CAHSMUN HORIZONS 2020

SENATE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

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During the consulship of Sextus Julius Caesar and Lucius Marcius Phillipus,

Senators, this emergency session of the Senate has been called to address a pressing crisis in the

heart of Rome’s empire. Since the assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus, the seditious tribune

of the plebs, discontent is everywhere. Italic peoples entertain the foolish conception that they

can have equal status with us Romans. Nonetheless, this betrayal by some of our most important

subjects cripples us severely, not only by depriving our armies but also by bearing arms against

Rome.

This comes at a most inopportune time for Rome. For the first time in our glorious history, we

have the chance to become the greatest power in the known world. The barbarians of the North

were repelled more than a decade ago and Rome has either annexed or pushed out the Greek

successor states of Alexander the Great. Moreover, Rome razed Carthage to the ground half a

century ago. It seems that our destiny is to become the hegemon of the Mediterranean, to make it

truly mare nostrum.

Now, the disturbance in Italy threatens to undo all of our great accomplishments and destroy our

empire. Thus, your task, senators, is to use all the means at your disposal to save Rome from

peril, whether it be a success on the fields of battle, at the table of negotiations, or in intrigue and

plots. Some of you among us may attempt to use this opportunity to gain power and undermine

the Roman Republic, but I implore all of you to abide by Roman values and law.

While Rome is threatened by the Italic armies on our doorsteps, one thing is certain: Rome will

never give in. We did not surrender when Hannibal ravaged our country sides and slaughtered a

generation of our best men, and we will not falter now. For the Senate and the People of Rome!

Your faithful consul,

Lucius Marcius Philippus

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The Senate is the executive body of the Roman Republic. The members of the Senate were once

composed solely of the aristocratic Patrician Class, but it gradually opened up to the wealthy.

Today, the wealth threshold to be a senator is 1,000,000 sesterces and a lack of moral depravity,

determined by the subjective whims of the censors. The Senate’s true mandate is to act as an

advisory council to the elected consuls, the leaders of the republic. However, the consuls rarely

defy the will of the Senate and the Senate holds de facto control over the foreign and internal

policies of the Republic. The senatorial decrees have no power on their own and only serves an

advisory purpose, but officials rarely disobey a senatus consultum. The Senate appoints the

governors of provinces across the Empire, so the Senate has influence over the entirety of

Rome’s possessions and every aspect of Roman life.1

Official laws must be passed by a people’s assembly and have precedence over senatorial

decrees. These assemblies include all those who could vote in Rome. Those who comprise the

assemblies are organized into voting blocs that ensure the wealthiest held an advantage. This

voting process is also presided over by a magistrate who could freely influence the procedures of

the vote. Furthermore, the Senate could create laws and have the assemblies vote on them.2

To prevent magistrates, the Senate, and the patricians from wielding too much power, veto

power is given to tribunes and the consuls. The tribunes, representing the interests of the

Plebeians, could prevent the Senate’s bill from being proposed to the Roman assemblies and veto

the actions of other magistrates. The two consuls likewise could put a stop to senatorial proposals

that they oppose, but the other consul could at the same time veto the first consul’s objection;

vetoes could be applied on vetoes.3

During an emergency, the Senate may pass the senatus consultum ultimum, or the last decree of

the Senate, and appoint a sole dictator to take charge of Roman affairs. The dictator gains

immense power but only towards solving the crisis at hand or until after six months have passed.

Then, the dictator is required to step down unless the Senate prolongs his appointment should the

crisis still exist.4

The Consuls are usually given command of the Roman armies on campaign. The current consuls

are Publius Rutilius Lupus and Sextus Julius Caesar (represented by the Dais for the time being).

1 Byrd, 21, 23. 2 Lintott, 40-64. 3 Watson, 401-2. 4 Lintott, 89-93.

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Although Rome had once been a tiny city in the middle of the Italian Peninsula, it now controls

the entirety of Italy and Sicily as well as parts of Iberia, Greece, and Africa. Having triumphed

over the Carthaginians and the Greek Diadochi states that carved up Alexander the Great’s

mighty empire, there is truly no other state in the known world that can rival Rome.

The recent trends towards reform have inspired a desire amongst the conquered Italic peoples for

Roman citizenship, and Italy itself is divided. The Italic people have long held the status as

second-class citizens even though they fully participate in Rome’s wars. Furthermore, the

accumulation of land by the Roman elite has driven many Italics to lose their livelihoods. The

Senate has taken on a harsh stance on the Italic peoples, having tried to suppress their appeals for

more rights and turned a blind eye when their representatives are killed, the Italics no longer

have the patience for reform and have determined to seize their freedom by force. Should Rome

lose control of Italy, its largest base of power, its hold over the rest of its newly-acquired empire

will be tenuous at best.

In the west, the tribes of Iberia resist Roman dominance. Neighbouring tribes to the west of

Roman territory may raid and even capture the settlements that Rome once won from Carthage.

In the east, a new power rises in the form of the Kingdom of Pontus from the Black Sea. The

new king has territorial ambitions in Asia and may challenge Roman hegemony during its time

of weakness.

The Senate must address the current Italic uprising and preserve Roman interests overseas, all

the while resisting the rising discontent of the plebeians that may end the Aristocratic power of

the Senate. The Senators and their actions will decide whether Rome can continue to build its

empire or fall into obscurity like the many empires before it.

To preface this timeline, it is important to note that these dates below shift due to calendar

changes. However, the years listed below are the most recent understanding of Roman history,

according to historical scholars. However, come Horizons 2020, these years may shift slightly.

April 21st, 753 BC - It is claimed that Romulus found Rome on this date.5

5 https://www.ancient.eu/Romulus_and_Remus/.

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509 BC - The last Roman King, Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown and the Roman Republic

is declared.6

498-493 BC - Rome subjugated the other Latin tribes and created a defensive alliance with them.

390 BC - The Gauls, led by Brennus, swept into Rome and sacked the city.7

343-341 BC - A dispute over Capua broke the longstanding alliance between Rome and the

Samnites, leading to the 1st Samnite War.

340-338 BC - The Latin League revolted against Rome and lost. The League was dissolved and

Latin territories were incorporated into Rome.8

298-290 BC - The Romans fought against a coalition of the Etruscan tribes and the Samnites in

the 3rd Samnite War. By the end of the war, the Samnites were at Rome’s mercy and the

Etruscan tribes were subjugated. At this point, the Romans controlled the vast majority of

Central Italy.9

290 BC - Rome annexes the Sabines, a neighbouring power.

287 BC - Lex Hortensia, also known as Hortensian Law, is passed and takes away the last

mechanisms the Senate could use to control the Plebeian assembly.10

285-282 BC - The Gallic settlements in central Italy, the ager Gallicus, and Etruscan tribes are

pacified.

280-272 BC - The King of Epirus, Pyrrhus, defends the Southern Italian state of Tarentum

against Rome in the Pyrrhic War. Despite initial Roman losses against Hellenic soldiers, the

heavy cost of Pyrrhus’ victories erodes his strength. He abandons his campaigns in Italy,

allowing for Roman hegemony over all of Southern Italy excluding Sicily. Soon after, the

Northern Italian tribes of the Piceni and the Umbrians are subjugated by Rome.11

264-241 BC - Through a conflict between a Roman and Carthaginian ally, Rome fights Carthage

in the 1st Punic War. Rome acquires Sicily from the peace treaty and seizes the islands of

Sardinia and Corsica while Carthage is distracted by a revolt.

6 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tarquin-king-of-Rome-534-509-BC. 7 https://www.ancient.eu/article/910/the-sack-of-rome-by-the-gauls-390-bce/. 8 https://www.unrv.com/empire/latin-revolt.php. 9 http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/samnitewars.html. 10 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_Hortensia. 11 https://www.thoughtco.com/tarentum-and-the-pyrrhic-war-120572.

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229-168 BC - Rome expands its influence into Illyria. After defeating the Illyrian Kingdom of

Ardiaei, Rome gains holdings on the Adriatic Coast in 228 BC. Rome fights subsequent wars

against Illyrian tribes to curb other expansionary powers and to retain Roman dominance in the

region.

218-201 BC - Once again, conflicts in Hispania drag Rome into war with Carthage. During the

Second Punic War, Carthaginian general Hannibal marches into the Italian heartlands and

rendered Rome to its knees. Hannibal additionally manages to turn many Italic states against

Rome. Rome eventually recovers and defeats Carthage, with the acquisition of all of

Carthaginian Iberia as a reward.

214-148 BC - Rome is involved in conflicts with the Hellenistic successor states, especially

Macedonia. After several wars, Rome dissolves Macedonia to create the Roman provinces of

Epirus and Achaea. The Seleucid Kingdom also relinquishes its territories west of the Tarsus

mountains, starting its decline.12

149-146 BC - Carthage is destroyed by the Romans and Punic North Africa is incorporated into

Rome.13

133 BC - Tiberius Gracchus becomes a Tribune and attempts to force a land reform bill. An

armed mob kills him and his supporters within city limits.14

123-121 BC - Gaius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius, is also elected tribune and attempts to limit

the powers of the Senate in favour of the people. Like his brother, he was killed by an angry

mob.

121 BC - Rome secures the Southern part of Gaul that constitutes the Provincia, and the city of

Narbo was founded.

112-106 BC - Jugurtha attempts to seize the throne of Numidia, a long-time Roman ally. Despite

repelling Roman forces through bribing Roman generals, a general with an obscure background

named Marius rises to prominence and captures Jugurtha, ending the Jugurthine War.15

113-101 BC - Marius repels Germanic nomads, the Cimbrians and the Teutons, in Northern Italy

with devastating losses to both sides. Marius’s decision to grant Roman citizenship to the

auxiliary Italian troops without the Senate’s approval leads to increased agitation for equal rights

in the Italic client states.

12 Ancient History Encyclopedia. Accessed 31 December 2018, These dates are estimates done by modern scholars

based on ancient evidence, and there is a chance that a good many of them are legendary. 13 https://www.ancient.eu/carthage/. 14 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius-Sempronius-Gracchus. 15 https://www.ancient.eu/Jugurtha/.

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91 BC - Marcus Livius Drusus attempts to push through legislation granting Roman citizenship

to all Italic allies. He is assassinated. Enraged by Rome’s reluctance to grant them rights, the

Italic states band together into two leagues, the Marsic and Samnite Leagues, and declare

independence from Rome.16

Rome began as a small town on the banks of the Tiber River. While evidence suggests that Rome

was created by the gradual merging of several tribes living in the hills of Rome, the Romans

themselves remain steadfast to their state myth that the first Roman king, Romulus, founded the

city. The founding date of Rome is widely disputed, but the one most commonly acknowledged

is April 21st, 753.17

The Senate was founded in the times of the Roman Kingdom, acting as a body of lawmakers and

advisors to the king, who was elected by the Senate. Livy reports that Servius Tullius was chosen

to be king at the sole discretion of the Senate.18 The king still had ultimate power as they waged

war against Rome’s neighbours and expanded the state. There were second ven kings in Rome’s

history, and each king had a unique deed ascribed to them. However, the seventh king,

Tarquinius Superbus, would be the last. Senators loathed him for his murder of crucial senators

and his dismissal of the Senate as a whole while the peasants were tired of his constant wars and

strenuous building projects. The final straw was when Superbus’s son violated a prominent

Roman noblewoman named Lucretia. Her subsequent suicide incited the Romans, under the

leadership of Collatinus and Brutus, to overthrow the Tarquins and the monarchy. They

established the Roman Republic in 509 BC, ruled by two elected consuls with term limits of one

year.19

Roman expansion in Italy continued under the Republic. Rome relied on mutual alliances and

treaties of friendship with other states to protect itself from aggressors. The Latin League was an

alliance of states in the region around Rome called Latium. Rome and these tribes belong in the

common category as Latins. In 493 BC, the Latins were defeated by Rome and agreed to a

mutual defence treaty with Rome, ensuring that the spoils of war would be shared in future

conquests and that the defence force would call on Latin and Roman soldiers led by Roman

16 Jim Jones, West Chester University of Pennsylvania, 2013. 17 Forsythe, 74-77, 82-92. 18 Abbott, 14. 19 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, IV, 64-84.

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commanders. As expansion continued, the majority of these cities were independent and offered

tribute and soldiers to Rome when asked. The League would cooperate in defending against the

Volsci and Aedui incursions into Latium.20 This relationship set a precedent for the current

system of alliances between Rome’s Italian allies. Throughout the course of history, Rome rarely

directly took over enemy cities, preferring instead to restore the status quo (with Rome in

charge).21 Roman expansion involved sending colonists to create a foothold of Roman

settlements in the region. These settlements not only created loyal states but secured strategic

trade routes and borders.22

As Rome’s power grew, the surrounding Latin states feared to lose their independence. They

demanded to receive equal rights as part of Rome, but their demands were rejected by the Roman

Senate. Thus, the majority of the Latin cities revolted against Rome in 340 BC and were

subsequently defeated two years later. Rome awarded more loyal cities with Roman citizenship

after the war while the more antagonistic cities were destroyed, with several populations

relocated to nearby locations. This meant an influx of Roman settlers into the regions, sparking

the Romanisation of Latium.23

Over the next two centuries, Rome would fight a series of conflicts and subjugate the Samnites

and Etruscans, the two other most powerful alliances in the region, and cement itself as the pre-

eminent power in Italy.2425 All the Italian city-states became clients of Rome and would form the

backbone of the Roman legions. Rome truly secured southern Italy when it fought against

Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, for the state of Tarentum. After numerous losses, the sheer willingness

of Rome to see the war to the end succeeded in eroding this King’s willpower. Pyrrhus

abandoned the war to pursue his interests elsewhere.26

20 Livy, From the Founding of the City, I, 50-52. 21 Rich, 44-55. 22 Salmon, 11-43. 23 Livy, VIII, 11-14, 19. 24 Livy, VIII, 3-40. 25 Livy, X, 11-46. 26 Plutarch. Pyrrhus, 13-22.

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Key settlements and regions in Italy.27

Rome came into conflict with Carthage, a rival power in North Africa, in 264 BC through the

aggression of their client states. Initially, Rome’s inexperience at sea meant that Carthage ruled

the waves. Yet, Roman innovation in naval technology using captured Carthaginian ships and

Roman military prowess enabled Rome to inflict enough damage to Carthage. The Punics sued

for peace and ceded away Sicily in 241 BC. Rome chose not to respect the treaty, taking

advantage of the turmoil in Carthage to steal away Sardinia and Corsica.28

The Second Punic War between 218 BC and 201 BC would go down as the most memorable

conflict in Roman history. The Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca surprised the Senate when

he, despite all odds, crossed the Alps with his mighty elephants in the midst of winter. After

destroying Roman legions in several battles—most notably the Battle of Cannae of 216 BC—

Hannibal had free reign terrorizing the Italian heartland. Fortunately for Rome, Hannibal never

dared to assault Rome directly, so Rome was able to bide its strength. Hannibal lacked supplies,

and his army was surviving off the land, so it was a war of attrition. Back then, the Carthaginian

attempted to turn Rome’s Italian client states against their master, but few states listened to his

27 https://www.ancient.eu/image/2470/map-of-the-roman-conquest-of-italy/. 28 Polybius, The Histories, I, 62-63, 88.

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proposition. They were content in the status quo and would not abandon Rome even at its

greatest moment of vulnerability. In contrast, the Italic states rise now even with Rome at the

height of her power; such is their discontent at the dismissal of their rights. As for Hannibal, he

was recalled to Carthage as Scipio Aemilius Africanus, a gifted tactician and general, captured

Hispania, also known as Iberia and threatened Carthage’s walls. The Battle of Zama cemented

Rome’s triumph over Carthage as the sole master of the western Mediterranean. All Carthaginian

territories in Hispania were ceded to Rome, who took a much more direct approach in

administering the new territories.29 Carthage was eventually annexed in 146 BC.30

The Republic also acquired territories in Greece and Illyria. Rome intervened to protect an ally

against the Kingdom of Ardiaei and gained cities on the Dalmatian coast. Over the next 60 years,

Rome would suppress any power that could threaten its influence in Illyria and protect its

newfound territories while the Ardiaei, weakened by Rome, was absorbed by Macedonia.31

Macedonia was a constant thorn in Rome’s side. While it was the hegemon of Greece, its desire

to restore its former glory led it to engage in continuous conflicts against the other successor

states of Alexander the Great (mainly the Seleucids in Persia and the Ptolemies in Egypt). Rome

fought several wars to bring peace to the region. After the first few wars, the Macedonian empire

was dismantled. This caused a power vacuum in Greece, and Rome decided to create two Roman

provinces out of Epirus and Achaea to ensure peace. The Romans pushed the Seleucids of

Mesopotamia to the east of the Tarsus Mountains while establishing friendly relations to

Ptolemaic Egypt in the south.32

A tribune named Tiberius Gracchus rises to prominence in 133 BC with promises of land

reforms (Lex Sempronia Agraria) that will take land away from the elite who populate it with

slaves and distribute them among those who lack a profession. These reforms serve as a way to

create more soldiers and sources of revenue as well as alleviate the poverty situation in urban

centers. This tactic was very popular with the Italian states as they had been deprived of

opportunities to be awarded new land due to their lack of Roman citizenship and consequently

lived in poverty as Roman landowners found slaves to be far more profitable. The elites, fearing

Tiberius’s reform as a wealth redistribution scheme and his potential for more drastic steps

against the Senate in the future, had a mob beat Tiberius to death with makeshift clubs. This was

one of the first incidents of political violence in Rome and an omen for the radicalized factions

of the Senate.33

29 Polybius, The Histories, I, 62-63, 88. 30 Zimmerman, 285. 31 Appian, Illyrian Wars, 2. 32 Waterfield, 41-197. 33 Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, 7-19.

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Smaller farm owners went off to war to fulfill their military duties and were unable to sustain

their property. The family would be forced to sell their properties to the wealthy who would

accumulate holdings. After serving Rome bravely, the soldier would return home to find that he

has nothing left and would join the impoverished. The Italian lands would also be bought up by

merchants in the aftermath of a war, leaving many Italians without land. If the wealthy

landowners had recruited the dispossessed to work on their farms, there would not be a problem.

Yet, the landowners find that having slaves work the fields yields much more profit than granting

wages to labourers. Thus, many are jobless and homeless, exacerbating the poverty crisis of

urban centers, Rome especially. This caused mass unrest, and people easily flocked to Tiberius’s

promises. The Senate passed his reforms due to the apparent and vocal displeasure of the

common folk over Tiberius’s death, but the Senate was unwilling to aid the committee in charge

of enforcing the reforms. The reforms did have a somewhat noticeable effect as the population of

Roman citizens increased, but the Senate did not invest in the reforms either.34

Roman citizenship had many benefits that the Italians craved. It guaranteed marriage and

property rights. These rights were also enjoyed by the Latins who had their own status. This was

granted after the defeat of the Latin League in the earlier days of the Republic. The Latins also

had the freedom to retain their rights even if they were to move to other parts of Italy. What set

Roman citizenship apart was its privilege of voting and running for political office (provided a

certain wealth requirement was met). On top of the political edge, the Romans additionally

enjoyed significant legal privileges, some which would be considered the bare minimum in

today’s societies. These include “lus commercii”, which was the right to make legal

contracts.35Furthermore, the right to a legal trial, which meant appearing before the court and

defending oneself, and the right to sue an individual were reserved to Roman citizens.36 The

Socii (Italians) lacked all of these rights, thus magnifying the issue. While their states had

autonomy and control of their own internal policy, the necessity for Roman protection had

disappeared since the Second Punic War.37

Tiberius’s brother, Gaius Gracchus, was elected in 123 BC as tribune and learned from his

brother’s fate: he proposed even more drastic reforms that attacked the power of the Senate. He

also attempted to upgrade the citizenship rights of Italians and Latins, but his proposal was

rejected. The Senate did not want to share their political power while the poor did not want to

share their grain. The Senate’s decision to expel all those who were not born Roman citizens

from the city alienated the Italian states even more. In the end, Gaius was beheaded, and his

reforms failed. This time, weapons were brought into the city, and there was much bloodshed.38

34 Scullard. 12-21. 35 https://global.oup.com/uk/orc/law/roman/borkowski5e/resources/glossary/. 36 Ibid. 37 Smith, 291-293. 38 Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus, 5-17.

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Gone were the days when political opponents debated their differences, and now, it became

easier to use a blade to silence.

Rome would secure Provincia in Southern Gaul in 121 BC.39 Rome’s long-standing ally since

the Punic Wars, Numidia, faced a succession crisis and Rome was called in to stabilize the

situation. The pretender Jugurtha neutralized the Roman legions by bribing their commanders.40

A Novus Homo named Gaius Marius rose to prominence fighting this war.41 He also defended

Rome’s Northern Italian holdings, defeating the Cimbrians and the Teutons invaders.42 The

reforms he made to the military significantly strengthened its martial prowess, yet they also

realigned the loyalties of the legions to their generals.43

Mithridates VI ascended the throne of Pontus in 120 BC. He has pursued rapid territorial

expansion, and Rome very recently intervened to prevent the Pontic King from making territorial

gains at the expense of Roman ally Bithynia.44

The consuls of 95 BC implemented the Lex Licinia Mucia, designed to persecute those with

falsified Roman citizenship. The Italians undoubtedly made their resolve at this time that Rome

was unsympathetic to their needs.45

In 91 BC, Marcus Livius Drusus, a tribune, promised to grant all Italian Socii Roman citizenship.

His subsequent assassination was the last spark the Italian states needed as they declared their

independence from Rome.46 It is 91 BC, the consulship of Publius Rutilius Lupus and Sextus

Julius Caesar, and the heartland of the Roman Republic has split. Should Rome fail to prevent

other Italic states from joining them and allow the situation to spiral out of control, Rome’s

empire is doomed to fail. The Senate must resolve the crisis to preserve Rome’s future.

39 Bastié, 9. 40 Sallust, Jugurthine Wars, 20-35. 41 Sallust. Jugurthine Wars, 46-113. 42 Plutarch, Marius, 11-27. 43 Matthew, 9-92. 44 Simpson, Roger Henry. "Mithradates VI Eupator". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed June 26, 2018. 45 “Legem Liciniam et Muciam...non modo inutilem sed perniciosam rei publicae fuisse...Verum ea lege ita alienati

animi sunt principum Italicorum populorum ut ea vel maxima causa belli Italici quod post triennium exortum est

fuerit” Asconius, 67-8. 46 Appian, Civil Wars, 5.

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As it stands, the Italic States currently dominate the regions east and south of Rome, with notable

rebelling peoples being the Marsi, Samnites, Lucanians, Piceni, Lucanii, Marrucini, Vestini, and

Apulians. These tribes are all located near Rome, so an immediate response is required. The

tribes are divided into a southern group and an eastern group. Because of this, it would be in

Rome’s best interest to prevent the two groups from joining together. Simultaneously, the Senate

must work to gather its own allies and prevent the rebelling peoples, Italia, from gaining more

allies. Further, Rome’s territories in Iberia still face threats from the tribes to the west, and the

rising power of the Pontic Kingdom has grown increasingly belligerent in Asia.

Rome’s legions had more than half of its manpower drafted from their Italian allies.47 Therefore,

a revolt in Rome can only be put down with the troops from Latin settlements and its still-loyal

allies as recalling small garrisons from Roman overseas possessions could cause Rome to lose

control over those regions. Rome has territory in southern and eastern Hispania (Iberia),

Carthage and Africa (Tunisia and Libya), Cyrenaica (Eastern Libya), Southern Gallia (France),

Graecia (Greece), and Western Anatolia (Turkey) as well as clients in Mauritania (Algeria) and

the states between the Province of Asia and the Kingdom of Pontus. Rome has also cultivated an

enduring friendship with Ptolemaic Egypt and may wish to intervene on their behalf against the

rival Diadochi state, the Seleucids.48

Currently led by the Marsi, the Italian revolt has their power base in the eastern part of central

Italy. The Samnite cities to the south appear to favour joining the revolt. Certain rights of the

Roman colonies and Latin cities allow them to fight for Rome; however, the Senate will have to

convince the remaining Italian cities of the benefits of siding with Rome.

All the senators will have the goal of obtaining higher offices for their fame, glory, and wealth.

Governorships are seen among the Roman elite as a way to extort as much wealth as possible

before their terms are up. Consuls are usually given the best governorships. Being credited for

Roman military victories will greatly bolster one’s popularity and influence in Rome. Personal

wealth and glory may be the goal of any senator, but many subscribe to opposing factions. It

must also be noted that the majority of senators are wealthy Patricians with established

backgrounds.

47 https://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Army/. 48 https://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Egypt/.

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It must be stressed that individual actions and accomplishments in earlier committee sessions

may translate into either unforeseen drawbacks or benefits. If they have enough influence,

senators may attempt to leverage it to seize the ultimate power in Rome. Others may fight to

prevent such a scenario from occurring. Although all senators should act in the best interests of

the res publica, personal ambitions play a great role in this committee.

The more conservative branch of the Senate hoping to protect Patrician privileges and Roman

Republicanism. They look down upon newer entries on the Senate and loath populists for fear of

the Senate’s loss of power and too much power accruing on one person.49 The Optimates would

oppose Marius being given too much power in this conflict for these reasons. They would also

obstruct any reforms that might weaken or open up the Senate to more people.

The more reformative branch of the Senate representing the people. Many of them are populists

who dislike the inequalities between the wealthy and the poor and see the Senate’s extensive

powers as detrimental to society. For some, however, this political path is an easy way to gain

support and power in Rome, using the people’s support to counteract the Senate’s hostility. The

Populares would support land reforms and laws that give power to the underrepresented groups

of Rome.50 They would also find an ally in Marius.

Within the context of the Senate, any individual who openly strives to seize control of Rome and

install himself in a position similar to that of a king will most likely lose all support and be

deemed a public enemy, allowing anyone to murder him with no repercussions.

Each member of the committee will be able to campaign for offices and vote in all Senate affairs.

They will also each have personal wealth that they may use to further political career by buying

votes, hiring spies, and the enlisting private mercenaries. They may also support their family and

expand their influence. In turn, the family’s strength will boost the individual Senator’s

influence. However, a senator who is not in Rome will not be able to vote or speak, though he

may request his allies to represent him. The following offices are generally electable and are

open to most members of the Senate.

The two heads of state will have veto power over any Senate decree. Furthermore, they will be

automatically in charge of all military expeditions unless the Senate decides otherwise. However,

49 https://www.thoughtco.com/ancient-roman-history-optimates-119359. 50 Ibid.

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a consul’s veto can also be vetoed by another consul or a tribune. Historically, those who abused

their vetoes quickly lost the support of the people and the Senate, with occasional fatal

consequences as seen in the example of the Gracchi brothers.51 They also preside over the

election of the next year’s consuls, hence awarding them subsequent long-term influence.

The relevant ones to the committee will be the tribune of the plebs. They represent the interests

of the common people as opposed to the interest of the elites represented by most other Senators.

Thus, they wield incredible influence. They also have veto power. The caveat to being eligible

for this arguably powerful position is that they must hail from a plebeian family. Senators can

choose to renounce their status and find a plebeian family to adopt them in order to stand for

tribune.

This prestigious title given to previous consuls every five years is not a formal office. However,

it holds authority. He who holds this title will be given the option to speak first on any topic

decided by the Senate (Moderated Caucuses). The Princeps Senatus is also responsible for

formal communications and meetings with other states.

Those who are given command of the Roman legions have incredible power. They may decide

the life and death of any Roman citizen, slave, or compatriot outside of the boundaries of Rome.

Their choice of tactics and other decisions will play a major role in determining the outcome of

battles. Should they win, the influence and wealth they gain will be substantial, and enough

military success will make them the most powerful man in Rome. After Marius’s reforms, a

well-paid and loyal army may ensure that the commander will become immune even to the

power of the Senate.

He is the current most powerful Senator in Rome. He has many veterans who are immensely

loyal to him, and the people love him. The Senate will not be able to offend Marius without

incurring much anger from the public. Thus, Marius’s requests would not be easily denied.

Furthermore, his long history of military competence will grant all armies fighting under him an

easier time.

51 https://www.thoughtco.com/ancient-roman-history-optimates-119359.

CAHSMUN Horizons 2020 SRR Backgrounder 15

More research should be conducted on the Roman social classes and their conflicts, with the

Conflict of the Orders as something that will enhance your knowledge of the situation in Rome.

A deeper understanding of different Roman magistrates and their powers will give you more

powers as well as a strategy for climbing the cursus honorum. As there are countless regions in

Italy, associating yourself with the region will generally be helpful in making decisions.

Another useful area of research would be how the Roman army and other ancient militaries

operated, and understanding logistics as well as what to do with the spoils of war may be

beneficial. Below this paragraph are useful websites that delegates can utilize to further their

research. Moreover, some of the literature found in the bibliography and footnotes is also

extremely helpful, and thus delegates can use these sources as well.

1. Historia Civilis is a Youtube channel that has informative videos on Roman government,

society, and military.

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCv_vLHiWVBh_FR9vbeuiY-A

2. Internet Ancient History Sourcebook is a site that provides a link to relevant primary

sources for topics in Roman history.

https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/asbook09.asp#Rome:%20Major%20Historians:

%20Complete%20Texts

3. The Encyclopaedia Britannica: this database gives a nice summary of Roman society and

the hyperlinks make it very accessible to do research. Some hyperlinks can be found

through footnotes throughout the backgrounder, especially in the timeline.

https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome

CAHSMUN Horizons 2020 SRR Backgrounder 16

1. What concessions can the Senate make to its allies? What grievances do the Italic states

have against Rome and what do they wish Rome to change?

2. How can the Senate afford to match an army of professional Italic veterans that

comprised half of Rome’s manpower, especially given the proximity of their forces to the

city?

3. Will there be any states who might take advantage of Rome’s weakness and attack its

territories or allies in other parts of the Mediterranean?

4. Which side does your position align with?

5. What is the best way you can individually gain wealth, power, and glory and maintain

them?

CAHSMUN Horizons 2020 SRR Backgrounder 17

Abbott, Frank F. A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Boston, Ginn and

Company, 1901.

Appian, The Foreign Wars. Translated by Horace White, The Macmillan Company, 1899

Bastié, Aldo. Histoire de la Provence. Editions Ouest-France, 2001.

Beard, Mary. SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome. New York, Liveright Publishing Corporation,

2016.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus." Encyclopedia

Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 28 May 2018. Web. 09 Jan. 2019.

Byrd, Robert. The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office,

1995.

Cary, Earnest, trans. 1939. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities. Harvard

University Press.

Dyck, Ludwig Heinrich. "The Sack of Rome by the Gauls, 390 BCE." Ancient History

Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 08 Jan. 2019. Web. 09 Jan. 2019.

Forsythe, Gary. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War.

University of California Press, 2006.

Garcia, Brittany. "Romulus and Remus." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History

Encyclopedia, 06 Jan. 2019. Web. 09 Jan. 2019.

Gill, N.S. "Ancient Roman History: Optimates." Thoughtco. Thoughtco, 8 Mar. 2017. Web. 09

Jan. 2019.

Gill, N.S. "Learn About Pyrrhus, the Pyrrhic War, and the Defense of Tarentum." Thoughtco.

Thoughtco, 8 Mar. 2017. Web. 09 Jan. 2019.

Jones, Jim. “Roman History Timeline”. West Chester University of Pennsylvania,

http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his101/web/t-roman.htm. Accessed 31 December 2018.

CAHSMUN Horizons 2020 SRR Backgrounder 18

Latin Library. "The Samnite Wars." Augustus: The Expansion of the Roman Empire (A.D. 14).

The Latin Library, n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2019.

Lintott, Andrew. The Constitution of the Roman Republic, Oxford University Press, 1999.

Livy. History of Rome. Translated by Rev. Canon Roberts, New York. E. P. Dutton and Co.,

1912. Matthew, Christopher A. On the Wings of Eagles: The Reforms of Gaius Marius

and the Creation of Rome's First Professional Soldiers. Newcastle upon Tyne,

Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010.

Mark, Joshua J. "Carthage." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 12

Jan. 2019. Web. 12 Jan. 2019.

Plutarch. The Parallel Lives

Polybius. The Histories. Translated by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh, London, Macmillan and Co.,

1889.

“Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Orationum Ciceronis Quinque Enarratio”. The Latin Library,

http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/asconius.html. Accessed 17 December 2018.

Rich, John. "Fear, Greed, and Glory: The Causes of Roman War-making in the Middle

Republic." War and Society in the Roman World, edited by John Rich and Graham

Shipley, Routledge, pp. 38-68.

Sallust. The Jugurthine War. Translated by Rev. John Selby Watson, New York Harper &

Brothers, 1899.

Salmon, Edward T. Roman Colonization under the Republic. Thames and Hudson, 1969.

Scullard, Howard H. From the Gracchi to Nero. Taylor Francis, 1982.

Simpson, Roger Henry. "Mithradates VI Eupator". Encyclopædia Britannica Online,

www.britannica.com/biography/Mithradates-VI-Eupator. Accessed June 26, 2018.

Smith, William. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Boston, Little, Brown, and

Company, 1859.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Tarquin." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia

Britannica, Inc., 04 Apr. 2018. Web. 09 Jan. 2019.

CAHSMUN Horizons 2020 SRR Backgrounder 19

UNRV Roman History. "Latin Revolt." Ancient Roman History. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2019.

Wasson, Donald L. “Roman Egypt”Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History

Encyclopedia, 12 Jan. 2019. Web. 12 Jan. 2019.

Waterfield, Robin. Taken At the Flood: The Roman Conquest of Greece. Oxford University

Press, 2014.

Watson, Richard A. “Origins and Early Development of the Veto Power”. Presidential Studies

Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 2, Spring 1987, pp. 401-412.

Wikipedia. "Jugurthine War." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Dec. 2018. Web. 09 Jan.

2019.

Wikipedia. "Lex Hortensia." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 02 Aug. 2018. Web. 09 Jan.

2019.

Zimmermann, Klaus. "Roman Strategy and Aims in the Second Punic War", A Companion to the

Punic Wars, edited by Dexter Hoyos, Wiley-Blackwell, 2011, pp. 280-298.