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To compare methods and approaches in language teachingRichards model Richards modelTheory of language

Theory of language learningapproachThere are at least 3 different theoretical views of language and the nature of language proficiency that influence current methods in language teaching:

Structural viewFunctional viewInteractional viewTheory of languageKrashens Monitor Model theoryCharles Currans Counseling Learning work.Theory of language learningObjectives

Syllabus (content and organization)

Learning and teaching activities

Learner roles

Teacher roles

The roles of instructional materialsDesignIn order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a design for an instructional system.DesignDifferent theories of language and language learning influence the focus of a method, that is, they determine what a method sets out to achieve.

However, the specification of particular learning objectives, is a product of design, not of approach.objectivesProduct-oriented objectives: state what learners are expected to do as a result of instructionLinguistically-oriented objectives: state what learners are supposed to know about the languageProcess-oriented objectives: describe the learners experiences in the language classroom to carry-out the product-oriented objectives.objectivesThe degree to which a method has process-oriented or product-oriented objectives may be revealed in how much emphasis is placed on vocabulary acquisition and grammatical proficiency and in how grammatical or pronunciation errors are treated in methods.objectivesAll methods involve decisions concerning the selection of language items (words, sentence patterns, tenses, constructions, functions, topics, etc.) that are going to be covered during a course.Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject matter (what to talk about) and linguistic matter (how to talk about it).

The syllabus: content choice and organizationMethods typically differ in what they see as the relevant language and subject matter around which language teaching should be organized and the principles used in sequencing content within a course.

Grammar-based coursesFunctionally-oriented coursesCommunicative-oriented courses

The syllabus: content choice and organizationIn Grammar-based courses matters of sequence and gradation are generally determined according to the difficulty of items or their frequency.In Communicative or Functionally oriented courses (ESP programs) sequencing may be according to the learners communicative needs.

The syllabus: content choice and organizationBrown lists 7 basic syllabus types:StructuralSituationalTopical FunctionalNotionalSkills-basedTask-based

The syllabus: content choice and organization Structural syllabus: Grammatical and phonological structures are the organizing principles sequenced from easy to difficult or frequent to less frequent

Situational syllabus: Situations (such as at the school, at a restaurant, at the supermarket etc.) are the organizing principle sequenced by how likely students will encounter them.

The syllabus: content choice and organization Topical syllabus: Topics or themes (such as our body, our house, our family, etc.) form the organizing principle- sequenced by the likelihood that the students will encounter them Functional syllabus: Functions (such as introduction, ask and give information, etc.) are the organizing principle sequenced by some sense of chronology or usefulness of each function The syllabus: content choice and organization Notional syllabus: Conceptual categories called notions (such as quantity, duration, location, etc.) are the basis of organization sequenced by some sense of chronology or usefulness of each notion

Skills syllabus: Skills (such as listening for main ideas, scanning a reading passage for specific information, etc.) serve as the basis for organization sequenced by some sense of chronology or usefulness for each skill. The syllabus: content choice and organizationTask or activity based syllabus: Task or activity-based categories (such as drawing maps, following directions or instructions, etc.) serve as the basis for organization sequenced by some sense of chronology or usefulness of notions The syllabus: content choice and organizationThe syllabus underlying the Situational and Audiolingual methods consists of a list of grammatical items and constructions, often together with an associated list of vocabulary items Notional-functional syllabuses specify the communicative content of a course in terms of functions, notions, topics, grammar, and vocabulary. Such syllabuses are usually determined in advance of teaching and for this reason have been referred to as "a priori syllabuses.

The syllabus: content choice and organizationThe objectives of a method, are attained through the instructional process, through the organized and directed interaction of teachers, learners, and materials in the classroom.

Differences among methods manifest themselves in the choice of different kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom.Types of learning and teaching activitiesThus, Teaching activities that focus on grammatical accuracy may be quite different from those that focus on communicative skills.

So, the activity types that a method advocates - the third component in the level of design in method analysis - often serve to distinguish methods

Types of learning and teaching activitiesAudiolingualism, for example, uses dialogue and pattern practice extensively. The Silent Way employs problem-solving activities that involve the use of special charts and colored rods. Communicative language teaching uses tasks that involve an "information gap" and "information transfer"; that is, learners work on the same task, but each learner has different information needed to complete the task.Types of learning and teaching activities Differences among methods may be reflected both in the use of different kinds of activities and in different uses for particular activity types. For example, interactive games are often used in audiolingual courses for motivation and to provide a change of pace from pattern-practice drills. In communicative language teaching the same games may be used to introduce or provide practice for particular types of interactive exchanges.Types of learning and teaching activities Differences in activity types in methods may also involve different arrangements and groupings of learners. A method that stresses oral chorus drilling will require different groupings of learners in the classroom from a method that uses problem-solving information exchange activities involving pair work.Types of learning and teaching activitiesThe design of an English program/course, will be considerably influenced by how learners are regarded.

A method reflects the perspectives concerning the learners contribution to the learning processLearners rolesThis is seen in:The types of activities learners carry-outThe degree of control learners have over the content of learningThe patterns of learner groupingsThe degree to which learners influence the learning of othersAn the view of the learner as a performer, initiator, problem solver Learners rolesIn the initial stages of learning: The learner is required simply to listen and repeat what the teacher says and to respond to questions and commands. The learner has no control over the content of learning The learner is often regarded as likely to succumb to undesirable behaviors unless skillfully manipulated by the teacher. Learners rolesLater: More active participation is encouraged.

This includes learners initiating responses and asking each other questions, although teacher-controlled introduction and practice of new language is stressed throughout.Learners rolesCurrent view of learners (Johnson and Paulston): Learners plan their own learning program and assume responsibility for what they do in classLearners monitor and evaluate their own progressLearners are members of a group and learn by interacting with othersLearners tutor other learnersLearners learn from the teacher, from other learners, and from other sourcesLearners rolesLearner roles in an instructional system are closely linked to the teachers status and function.Some methods are totally dependent on the teacher as a source of knowledge and directionOthers see the teacher's role as catalyst, consultant, guide, and model for learning Still others try to teacher-proof the instructional system by limiting teacher initiative and by building instructional content and direction into texts or lessons plans.teacher rolesTeacher and learner roles define the type of interaction characteristic of classrooms in which a particular method is being used.Teacher rolesTeacher roles in methods are related to the following Issues: The types of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether that of practice director, counselor, or model. The degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place; The degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what IS taughtThe interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learners.Teacher rolesThe Syllabus defines linguistic content in terms of language elements (structures, topics, functions, etc.) or learning tasks. It also defines the goals for language learning in terms or the 4 skills.The role of instructional materialsThe instructional materials in their turn further specify subject matter content, even where no syllabus exists, and define or suggest the intensity of coverage for syllabus items, allocating the amount of time, attention, and detail particular syllabus items or tasks require.

Instructional materials also define or imply the day-to-day learning objectives that collectively constitute the goals of the syllabus.The role of instructional materialsThe role of instructional materials within a method or instructional will reflect decisions concerning The primary goal of materials (e.g., to present content, to practice content, to facilitate communication between learners, or to enable learners to practice content without the teacher's help), The form of materials (e.g., textbook, audiovisuals, computer software ), The role of instructional materialsThe relation of materials to other sources of input (i.e. whether they serve as the major source of input or only as a minor component of it), The abilities of teachers (e.g., their competence in the language or degree of training and experience.)The role of instructional materialsprocedureThis encompasses the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method.

It is the level at which we describe how a method realizes its approach and design in classroom behavior.procedureAt the level of design we saw that a method will advocate the use of certain types of teaching activities as a consequence of its theoretical assumptions about language and learning.

At the level of procedure we are concerned with how these tasks and activities are integrated into lessons and used as the basis for teaching and learning.procedureThere are three dimensions to a method at the level of procedure: The use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues, information-gap activities, etc.) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of the target language. The ways in which particular teaching activities are used for practicing language The procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the form or content of their utterances or sentences.procedureEssentially, then, procedure focuses on the way a method handles the presentation, practice, and feedback phases of teaching.procedureRichards model