resumo geography
TRANSCRIPT
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Sphere of Influence is the area surrounding a settlement that is affected by that settlement.
9.4 URBANISATION
Rise in percentage of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas.
In MEDCs as the country industrialized many people from the rural areas went to towns and even cities
to work for the factory owners, the new big thing. More than 90% is living in towns and cities since then.
In LEDCs something else happens between the locals, droughts, civil wars, famine and landlessness. No
chances for education, electricity, piped water etc and instead of becoming better it becomes worst.
While LEDCs continue to grow, MEDCs are losing population.
9.5 Land uses
Central Business District- CBD: Lots of things to see and do (entertainment and shops)
Inner city: Small houses made for factory workers.
Inner suburbs: Houses quite close together but more open space than inner city
Outer suburbs: Houses small in groups, parks, woods and golf course
Rural-urban fringe: Almost the country side.
9.6 Urban Zoning
An Urban Zoning (areas of different land use in different areas) is what we saw on the last pg. the
division into districts. The causes of this are:
Cost of land
Accessibility (the way to get to a place easily)
As far as you get from the CBD, the price of land gets cheaper.
9.7 Urban Problems in MEDCs
The inner city has high levels of deprivation (poorest zone of most MEDC cities)
When the factories developed in the 19th
century, factory owners made some very small houses for their
workers to live and would stuff a lot of them together, after some time, these factories closed because
they ran out of resources and machines were too old, with this unemployment rose, single parents,
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students, low paid and low skilled. Since then they have been trying to improve these things in the inner
city such as cleaning canals, social building housing and stylish bars and restaurants. This provides many
jobs.
9.8 Urban Problems in LEDCs
In LEDCs such as Brazil, there is a something called shanty town (favelas) that is a community that
springs up in an area that used to have no houses. They have no running supply, lack of health care,
crime, drugs and many more problems inside them. There is lots of diseases and poverty. A squatter is
someone who settles the land without legal rights.
9.9 Urban models of LEDCs
9.11 Urban Sprawl
Growth in the towns are resulting in rural-urban fridge (where urban reaches rural), this is growing to a
bad way. Many MEDCs cities are losing population, who are going to smaller towns and villages nearby,
this is called counter- urbanization.
They are moving to villages because of the crime, the pollution, traffic, and others. They want better
transport and peace and no noise, where they can have in the countryside. But, this amount of people
going to the countryside can damage the wildlife; give off more air and noise pollution and other
naturalists damages
Tourism
Main causes of Tourism
Technology has grown a lot in the past few years which brought benefits to transportation methods,
which made people more accessible to places in a much easier and faster way. It has intimidated more
people to want to discover more cultures.
Main advantages
Brings more money to the country
Souvenirs are sold giving more money for the locals to by more food, and attend more
entertaining acts.
Main disadvantages
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Pollution
Increase in land cost (depending on if it is a beach)
Locals are disturbed (maybe because of the loud music)
Lack of water
Less culture as people disappear
Coastal processes, Landforms and Management
Waves are caused by the friction of the wind on the surface of the water. The wind tugs cause the
water to move, and each water particle moves in a circular motion and it returns to its starting point. It
moves into the shallow water, until it breaks. Waves rushing up the beach are called the swash, waves
draining back down the beach are called the backwash.
Factors that make the wave bigger and stronger:
Speed of the Wind (most important)
The time the wind blows The fetch (length of water the wind blows over)
The larger the fetch, the more powerful the wave.
Constructive waves- smaller waves which deposit material in the beach because the swash is stronger
than the backwash. (Spilling waves)
Destructive waves- stronger waves which erode the beach because the backwash is stronger than the
swash. (Plugging waves)
Coastal Erosion
Waves crash against the rock non- stop, with lots of these happenings, the rock ends up broken.
Attrition- when pebbles dash themselves against the shore and brake into smaller particles and
later form sand
Hydraulic Action- when the waves hit very strongly into the cracks of the cliff, air is pressured
into the cracks. When the wave sinks back again the air is pressured out and the cliff hole
expands and becomes bigger and deeper
Corrosion: When seawater reacts chemically with the minerals in the rock. By doing that it
wears away the rock.
Abrasion- When pebbles and boulders hit the base of the cliff and together with the waves, it
destroys the base of the cliff, undercutting the base.
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Spits are long and narrow ridges of sand running away from the cost which one end is attached
to the land. Long shirt drift, relative shallow sea, good supply of sand and a firmly calm sea with
constructive waves, all of this things help to form a spit.
1. Longshore driftmoves material along the coastline.
2. A spit forms when the material is deposited.3. Over time, the spit grows and develops a hook if wind direction changes
further out.
4. Waves cannot get past a spit, which creates a sheltered area where silt is
deposited and mud flats or salt marshes form.
Bars are a line of sand and other
materials that run parallel to the coastline. They block rivers mouths and
bays. The water behind is called
LAGOON. The lagoos dont last forever
because the waves erode the bars and
the lagoon and sea get together.
Tombolos are ridges of sand and other
materials that link the main land to anisland
Headland - geographical feature which borders the ocean; its formation is done by erosion of
the coast. Cave- underground space
Arch- structure that spans when supporting weight
Stack- pile of something
Sandy beaches sandy beaches
Lagoon a body of shallow sea water or brackish water separated from the sea by some form
of barrier.
Salt marshes an environment in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and salty or
brackish water
Sand dunes- hill of sand
Wave cut platform - narrow flat area often found at the base of a sea cliff or along the shorelineof a lake, bay, or sea that was eroded by the waves
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LONGSHORE DRIFT
Is the process by which material is moved along a stretch of coastline
The wind causes the waves
direction to move therefore the
material is carried to the opposite
way. It is the link between
erosion and deposition, along the
coast, as the eroded material is
deposited further along the
coastline.
To stop long shore drift, the government on risk areas have adapted
Groynes They interrupt the process of long shore drift as they are wooden and strong! This prevents
the material from the beaches from being transported. One problem with this is that is causes less
material to be transported along the coast line- so this means that other places (along the coast) can
suffer increased erosion
Changes in sea level
Raised beaches- old beaches which are left high above the new sea level
Rias- seaward end of a river valley that has been drowned by a rise in sea level
Fjords- long, narrow bay caused by the drowning of a glaciated valley
Global warming increases sea level as more ice will melt and water expands in volume when it is
warmed. This will cause more erosion of coastlines as there will be more water, and our defenses wont
be enough.
Management of coastlines
How can we stop coastal erosion? Using hard engineering!
Sea walls- can stop waves reaching valuable land
Rock armour- large barrier of rocks which reduce the impact of waves
Beach replenishment- add more sand and shingle.
Sustainable strategy:
If land and houses are worth less than the defenses will cost, do not defend them
Think about the effect of defense on other places
When planning land use along the coast in the future, always keep erosion on your mind.
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Tectonic Activity and Land-based hazards
As you move towards the core, it becomes denser!
There are 2 types of crust:
Oceanic crust (made of basalt) , so dense that it sinks into the mantle where oceanic and continental
crust meet
Continental crust is the crust that makes the continents.
The map shows wherethe plates which make
up the outer crust of
the earth are located
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The mantle below the earth is liquid (very liquid) but it still moves. It is heated from the core which
makes the convection currents and the broken pieces of the crust get moved around on convection
currents.
PLATE MARGINS
Conservative -> (moving against each other ) when there is friction
between the plates, one plate moves faster than the other one, causes
pressure and lead to earthquakes.
Constructive -> (moving apart) the magma cools down several
times so it starts to form mountains and islands in the middle of
the sea. You often find eruptions at these margins.
Collision - > (two continental plates pushing into each other) Neither of them can sink as they have the
same density so they squeeze upwards, forming mountains.
Destructive - > The oceanic crust is denser than the continental
one, so the oceanic sinks. The friction between these two plates
causes friction. The edge of the continental crust gets squashed up
to make fold mountains. The oceanic rust melts and goes into the
mantle, but it takes some sea water (less dense) so it the magma
rises and it explodes at the surface as a volcano. They form fold
mountains
Just to remember:
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Advantageof living next to volcanoes
Volcanic rock weathers to produce soil ideal for farming
Disadvantages of living next to a volcano.
You live under a certain pressure
The volcano produces ash clouds which can cause deaths by asphyxiation
A mudflow mixed with volcanic ash follows river valleys at very high speed.
Intrusive and Extrusive features of a volcano
Volcanic Hazards
Causes: Volcanoes are formed when magma is forced through the crust. It happens on destructive
margins because the melted crust is less dense than the rest of the mantle. If there are gases involved,
they can escape as the magma gets higher, they cause an explosion. If there is old solidified lava (called
plug) blocking the way, the gases and the magma break out in the side of the volcano.
Effects: Ash cloud comes out and can cause deaths by asphyxiation, a mud flow made of water mixed
with volcanic ash, slides down at high speeds and follows the rivers paths.
Solutions: When a seismometer detects any rising magma, it should send an alert signal for immediate
evacuation of the area so that no people die and suffer from the ash clouds.
EarthquakeHazards
Causes: The underlying cause of earthquakes is friction. When the plates try to move, they are still held
by friction, this can be with another plate or with the mantle. The force pushing the plate continues
pushing until there so much force that it overcomes friction and the plate jerks forward causing what we
call earthquakes.
Effects: The amount of energy an earthquake gives out is called magnitude, and we measure this energy
on the Richter scale (if you go up 1 point on the scale = 10 x bigger and 30x more energy is given out)
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Solutions: Run away. Keep something like a table where you can go under for protection in case
anything falls from the ceiling. Go somewhere where there isnt anything on top, as it going to fall.
Tsunami
Formation: Tsunamis are formed as a result of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, or landslides that occur under the sea.
When these events occur under the water, huge amounts ofenergy are released as a result of quick upward bottom
movement. For example, if a volcanic eruption occurs, the
ocean floor may very quickly move upward several hundred
feet. When this happens, huge volumes of ocean water are
pushed upward and a wave is formed. A large earthquake can
lift thousands of square kilometers of sea floor which will cause
the formation of huge waves. The Pacific Ocean is especially
prone to tsunamis as a result of the large amount of undersea
geological activity.
Effects: Massive physical damage. It is difficult to predict howbig they are but the safest thing to do is go to a very high place,
so you are not hit.
Ecosystems: Tropical Rainforests & Savannahs Deforestation&
Desertification
An ecosystem is a unit made up of 2 parts: living things (plants animals) and the environment (air,
water, soil and climate). A biome is a large ecosystem (rain forest is one biome).
A biome is mainly determined by climate because it affects the growth conditions of vegetation as:
Temperature varies according to latitude (higher latitudes, more cooler temperatures)
Precipitation- the amount of rain and snow is measured by the atmospheric pressure. High
pressure = dry and settled conditions, low pressure = cloudy and wet conditions) E.g At the
equator sun heats up very strongly causing warm moist air to rise, as it cools a giant
cumulonimbus form by convection to produce heaving rain, as the air is rising, the air pressure
is low. However, the warm air is also rising because of 2 prevailling trade winds colliding at the
equator region which is called Inter- Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
Number of sunshine hours (photosynthesis)
Rates of evaporation, transpiration and humidity
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Characteristics of Rain Forests
Some trees have buttress roots which are the roots which support them in shallow soil.
Lianas woody climbing vines which drape the forest.
Epiphytes- plants that grow in branches of the trees
Soil and nutrient cycle of the forest
Deforestation
Causes:
Logging- wood is highly disputed for consumption to make paper
Mining- causes deforestation as it needs to make clear access to the resources
Cattle Ranching- needs large area for cattle extract
Building roads- you build roads to have the mining area access so trees are brought down to
build roads
Peasant farming- urban centers are full so the government has set settlements to the farmers
live forests were burnt down for the making of these off cities.
The way the Forest is divided into four distinct layers is all due
to the availability of light (plants need for photosynthesis). The
emergent trees and the canopy are the one which receivemost light. The ones in the under canopy have to wait for their
chance to have some availability as they are shorter. The
growth of the shrub layer is more limited, as it is located in the
forests floor.
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Effects:
Floodwater from heavy rain runs across deforested area (nothing to stop it) -> top soil eroded and taken
to river - > Rivers become silted and burst their banks -> crops flood -> famine -> sanitation is ruined ->
more diseases.
Sustainable management strategies:
Afforestation- planting of new trees once mature have been felled, guarantees the canopy.
Selective Logging a tree can only be felled when they have matured. Helps preserve the
canopy
Tree measuring- tree can only be felled once it has reached a certain height, ensuring younger
trees have chance of survival
Forest reserves- areas which cannot be harmed
Agro forestry- combination of growing trees with agricultural crops. Farmers take advantage of
the protective canopy and the supplying material of the decomposing plant matter.
Education- teaching other people how to protect the future!
Savanna Grasslands
It is the climate between tropical rainforests and deserts. It has
Alternative seasons in wet and dry (wet season= lots of rain, 25C/ dry season = little rain,
30C/ wind direction = moderate strong winds blow )
Poor soil conditions
Special plants (xerophytic drought resistant)
Desertificationland degradation
Takes place when human and climatic processes combine to reduce the ability of the land to support
vegetation.
Causes:
Over cultivation- as population has increased, there is demand for more food, this will exhaust
the land and its nutrients and this causes soil erosion through water and wind
Deforestation- as population has increased, there is demand for more wood, so this will bring
the cutting down of trees and this will expose the soil to erosion.
Climate Change- the Sahel is becoming dryer, the underground water have been used up.
Consequences:
Millions of hectares being lost
No more crops in the savannas
Starvation and famine
Long droughts
Solution:
Farmers diversifying into a variety of trees and crops as the vegetation will put supply of
nutrients to the soil
Rather than taking a whole tree, take branches, theyll grow back quickly
Control burning of grasses to prevent the spread of devastating wildfires.
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Climate Hazards and Change
Tropical Storms
Causes:
A hurricane can only develop in the conditions of:
The warm water (27C) of the sea to a depth of 60 m, is the source energy of a hurricane. It is
transferred to the storms latent heat through evaporation . When the water vapour condenses
and turns into clouds, the latent heat is released, adding to the storms power. When the
hurricane reaches the land , this source of energy is cut and the storm weakens
Low latitudes meaning that trade winds can form the spiral winds due to the earths rotation ,
this force is known as the Coriolis force
Low atmospheric shear- for storms to maintain intact, they need to be close to ground level and
12 km in height.
Effects:
Destruction of homes
Deaths (drowning )
Tornadoes , widespread flooding , landslides
Solutions:
Warnings can save lives
Advances in tecnology
Police will force people to move to safety
Effects in an MEDC:
80% of the people managed to survive (20% was the poor who had no transport)
1 million people were made homeless
Oil facilities were damaged and fuel reserves were reduced so prices went up.
Responses in MEDCs
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Evacuation was 80% successful
Government released initially 50 million dollars for the rescue programme
UK sent 1 million army ready metals to help
Effects in an LEDC:
Caused less deaths but it was also a weaker hurricane
Damaged many roads
No access to clean water, nor electricity
Responses in LEDCs :
6 million people without electricity
Declared major disaster
US paid lots of money for the reparations
Global Warming
Rise in temperature of the earths atmosphere
The main cause of global warming is the abuse of what we can greenhouse effect. Without the
greenhouse effect the Earth would be too cold for life
The sun heats up the Earths atmosphere and some of this solar energy is reflected back. This is
called the normal CO levels- what we need. But now with this increased layer of CO and
greenhouse gases, the light is getting trapped in the atmosphere and heating up the earth
rapidly.
Human activity is putting more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by:
Burning fossil fuels
Cutting down forests
Farming animals waste produce methane
Effects:
POSITIVE
Better food output as there is more energy
More plants growing
Heating bills are lower
NEGATIVE
More deserts
Too much increase in temperature can cause dehydration
Rise in sea level
Health problems as disease will spread quickly
Lakes and rivers dry up
Plants can become extinct because of the heat
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Solutions:
Kyoto Agreement- protocol signed to control this climate change. Countries agreed to reduce
their emissions of CO, methane and other greenhouse gases
Conserve water and water resources
Save energy Ride a bicycle- cars emit greenhouse gases
Plant trees in your backyard.
Changes in sea level
With global warming, the sea level rises meaning that:
There will be more storms at sea
Erosion on the coast will happen quicker
Homes and lands will be lost without sea defenses
Maybe the sea defenses wont be strong enough to support the flow of the water
Acid Rain
Acid rain is a corrosive rain resulting from air pollution. The main polluters are sulphur dioxide (coming
from thermal power stations and industry) and nitrogen oxygen (coming from thermal power stations
and motor exhaust vehicles.)
The pollutants carry by wind across international boundaries. Some are deposited directly on the earths
surface, the majority is turned into acids and fall on the ground acidifying the soil.
Effects:
Destruction of tree roots (so destroys trees)
Makes freshwater acidic, kills fishes
More acidic soils so less quality of crops
Destruction of statues and building
Other places are also being polluted as acid rain is an international problem as the polluting
winds ignore political boundaries so the place which didnt cause anything is also affected
Solutions:
Burning of natural gas has to be reduced
Burn coal, which contains less sulphur, removing the sulphur form coal before burning it
Use another type of boiler which allows the sulphur dioxide to remain in the ash
Removing sulphur form waste gases after using it
Use latter method (sulphur dioxide +water). Turns the gas into sulphuric acid and adds lime to
neutralize it
Unfortunately, these methods are too expensive and increase the cost of electricity to the user.
Emissions from cars have been reduced by using the unleaded petrol and fuel injection.