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RESEARCH METHODSPAD 215

COURSE OUTLINE

1. The Concept of Research (other methods of

acquiring knowledge, various definitions,

scientific research, characteristics,

objectives, motivation, significance).

2. Typologies and the processes of research

(typology based on application, purpose and

mode of inquiry) and a diagrammatical

representation of research process.

Friday, October 26, 2018Research Methods PAD 215 Amobi P. Chiamogu 1

Course Outline Contd Defining the research problem

Review of the literature

Formulation of hypothesis and

generation of research

questions/propositions

Understanding Research Design


Course Outline Contd Sampling and Sampling Techniques

Methods of Data Collection

Measurements, Scaling and Scales

Validity and Reliability of Measuring

Instruments

Data Processing and Analysis

Historical Method of Research


Course Outline Contd Research Report Writing

How to Write A Good Research Proposal

How to Write an Effective Abstract


Recommended BooksChiamogu, P.A. and Onwughalu, V.C.

(2014). Foundations of Research Methodology: Expositions and Applications. Enugu: Academic Publishers

Babbie, E., Halley, F.S., Wagner, W.E. & Zaino, J. (2013). Adventures in Social Research: Data Analysis Using IBM SPSS Statistics. London: Sage.


Recommended Books Contd Kumar, R. (2012). Research Methodology: A Step-by-

Step Guide for Beginners, 3rd Edition. London: Sage.

Kerlinger, F.N. (1964). Foundations of BehaviouralResearch. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

Akuezuilo, E. O. and Agu, N. (2003). Research and statistics in education and social sciences: Methods and applications. Nimo: Rex Charles and Patrick Ltd


Recommended Books Contd Babbie, E. and Mouton, J. (2011). The Practice of

Social Research, South African Edition. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, South Africa.

Obasi, I.N. (1999). Research Methodology in Political Science. Enugu: Academic Publishers.

Osuala, E.C. (1985). Introduction to Research Methodology. Onitsha: Africana-Fep.


Research: A Process of Seeking Knowledge and other methods Intuition: the use of common sense in identifying

the truth

Authority/faith/fideism: accepting something to be true because it is coming from an expert or somebody/source that is accepted to be reliable or based on religious belief

Rationalism: knowledge based on reasoning

Empiricism: based on experience

Science (induction & deduction) then scientific research


The Concept of ResearchResearch has been variously defined. Some Primary

Definitions by scholars include:

1. Burns (2000: 2) defines research as ‘a

systematic investigation to find answers to a

problem’. By this submission, whenever

somebody embarks upon an investigation

following laid down procedures that another

person can replicate, he is involved in

research.


Concept of Research ContdKerlinger (1964: 13) succinctly avers that

‘scientific research is a systematic, controlled

empirical and critical investigation of

propositions about the presumed relationships

about various phenomena’. This definition

presupposes a regulated and process-oriented

inquiry into association or otherwise between

two or more variables or social

situations/problems.


The Concept of Research Contd1. Redman and Mory (1923:10) define research as a

“systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” They point

out an aspect of the importance of research that sometimes

seems to be forgotten. This position is predicated on the

notion that research grants practitioners opportunities of

establishing new approaches and models when they adopt

known procedures in examining existing knowledge and

belief. Yes, environment and other factors including time

might influence the position of some truism, principles and

approaches such that when carefully studied would give rise

to new models and information leading to new belief, etc.


The Concept of Research Contd Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing

stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is thepursuit of truth with the help of study, observation,comparison and experiment. In short, the search forknowledge through objective and systematic method offinding solution to a problem is research. The systematicapproach concerning generalization and the formulation of atheory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers tothe systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data,analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either inthe form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or incertain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.


Key Characteristics of Research Systematic

Replicable/Verifiable

Control

Rigorous/Critical

Recording

Objective/Lack of bias

Operationalization


Objectives of Research To discover new facts To find answers to questions or solutions to problems To verify and test important facts To analyze an event or process or phenomenon To identify the cause and effect relationship between

variables To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories

to solve and understand scientific and non scientific problems

To find solutions to scientific, non scientific and social problems and

To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.


Research Motivations Desire to get a research degree along with its

consequential benefits;

Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;

Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

Desire to be of service to society;

Desire to earn promotion amongst lecturers;

Desire to get respectability.


Typologies of ResearchWe shall categorize all forms of research in three, viz:

1. Application (pure/basic and Applied Research

2. Purpose and Objective (descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, correlational, etc)

3. Mode/method of Inquiry (structured and unstructured or quantitative and qualitative researches)


Diagrammatical Representation of the Typologies of Research

From the viewpoint

Application Objectives Enquiry Mode

Pure Research Descriptive

Research

Correlational

Research

Applied

Research

Qualitative

Research

Quantitative

Research

Exploratory

Research

Explanatory

Research


Diagrammatical Representation of the Research Process

The research process considerations

and steps in

formulating a

research problem

reseresearch

problem

Research design

function

Method and tools

of data collection

Sampling theory

and designs

Methods of data

processing use of

computers and

statistics

Principles of

scientific writing

Literature

review

Formulating

a research

problem

Conceptualising

a research

design

Constructing an

instrument for

data collection

Selecting a

sample

Writing a

research

proposal

Collecting

data

Study designs

Field test of

the research

tool

Editing

of the

data

Developing

a code book

Coding

Operational

steps

a

Required

theoretical knowledge

Required

intermediary knowledge

Variables and

hypotheses: definition

and typology

Validity and

reliability of the

research tool

Contents of the

research proposal

Processing

data

Writing a

research

report


Defining the Research ProblemA research problem, in general, refers to some

difficulty or challenge which the researcher experiences. It may be existing in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and s/he wants to find an appropriate solution to it.


Guides to Selecting a Research Problem students are advised to avoid working on over

stretched areas: areas that have become over flogged

Avoid controversial topics/areas

Avoid too narrow and ambiguous areas/topics

Selected subjects should be familiar, feasible and plausible

Select subjects that are relevant and related to your discipline

Consider cost and timing factors in selecting your area of interest


Techniques involved in defining a research problem The techniques for this purpose involve taking the

following steps generally one after the other:

statement of the problem in a general way;

understanding the nature of the problem;

surveying the available literature

developing the ideas through discussions; and

rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition


Sources of Research Problems One’s or personal interest

Personal experiences or observations

Course of study or area of study

Lecturer(s)/Supervisor(s)

Literature survey: Textbooks, Journals, Encyclopedia, Reference Books, Newspaper and Magazines, Periodicals,

Internet browsing

Media reports

Contemporary issues

Membership of particular group


The Review of LiteratureA literature review is a survey of everything that has

been written about a particular topic, theory, or research question. It may provide the background for larger work, or it may stand on its own. Much more than a simple list of sources, an effective literature review analyzes and synthesizes information about key themes or issues.


Importance of Review of the Literature One of the early steps in planning a research work is

to review research done previously in the particular area of interest and relevant area, quantitative and qualitative analysis of this research usually gives the researcher, inquirer or student an indication of the direction.

It is very essential for every investigator to be up-to-date in his information about the literature, related to his own problem already done by others. It is considered the most important prerequisite to actual planning and conducting the study.


Importance of Review of Literature Contd It avoids the replication of the study of findings to take

an advantage from similar or related literature as regards, to methodology, techniques of data collection, procedure adopted and conclusions drawn. S/he can justify his own endeavour in the field.

It provides as source of problem of study, an analogy may be drawn for identifying and selecting one's own problem of research. The researcher formulates his hypothesis on the basis of review of literature. It also provides the rationale for the study. The results and findings of the study can also be discussed at length.


Importance of Review of Literature Contd The review of literature indicates the clear picture

of the problem to be solved. The scholarship in the field can be developed by reviewing the literature in the field.


Objectives of Review of Literature To find out what is already known, what others have attempted to

find out, what methods of attack have been promising or disappointing and what problems remain to be solved, passing through the previous studies, literature, discussion and experience related to a problems under investigation must precede any well planned research study;

To enable the researcher to define the limits of his field: Review helps the researcher to delimit and define his problem. The knowledge of related literature makes the researcher up-to-date on the work which others have done. It enables him to state the objectives clearly and concisely;

It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis which may prove useful in the formulation of a new problem.

It indicates whether the evidence already available solves the problem adequately without requiring further investigation. It facilitates the avoidance of replication.


Objectives of Review of Literature Contd It provides the sources for hypothesis. The researcher

can formulate research hypothesis on the basis of available studies.

It suggests method, procedure, sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to the solution of the problem.

It locates comparative data and findings useful in the interpretation and discussion of results. The conclusions drawn in the related studies may be significantly compared and may be used as the subject for the findings of the study.

It helps in developing experts and general scholarship of the investigator in the area of study.


Principles and Procedures for Review of Literature It is generally advisable to get first and overall view by consulting a

general source, such as a textbook which is more likely to provide the meaning and nature of the concepts and variables or theoretical framework of the field. The logical starting point is to get a clear picture of the problem to be solved. A text-book usually provides the theoretical aspects of the problem. It is very essential to develop deep understanding about the variables and the field.

After developing the insight about the general nature of his problem, the investigator should review the empirical researches of the area. The best reference for this phase reference books like the handbook of research. Encyclopedia of Educational Research, the Review of Educational Research and International Abstracts for more up-to-date findings depending on the level of the investigator’s operation and education. The researcher’s major concern at this point should be to get a clear picture of the field as a whole; specific details are important at this stage. He should start from a topical outline and a temperature set of classifications, so that whatever he reads can be made meaningful.


Principles and Procedures Contd The research for library material must be systematic and

thorough. The investigator generally should start by collecting his references from the educational index. When a large number of references are to be copied, they should be typed because precision is required here.

The researcher should take note systematically in the light of such criteria as uniformity, accuracy and ease of assembly. The notes should be taken on the card. Each entry should be made separately; references should be recorded with complete bibliographic data. It should be recorded on front side of the card and content should be taken below and reverse side of it. Each note should be recorded carefully and accurately.


Principles and Procedures Contd The investigator should take as complete notes as he

might need. On the other hand, taking unnecessary notes is wasteful. The useful and necessary material should be recorded precisely. It would be better that similar sources are gathered.

It is necessary that a general education of each source, rather than simply a summary of its content be made. Such evaluation is necessary both in presenting the study in the review of literature, and in using the study as background for the interpretation of the findings of the study.


Principles and Procedures Contd A major pre-requisite for effective library work is the ability

to read at high speed. This can only be developed through practice. He must learn to skim material to see what it has to contribute to the study, only after its reference has been established, it should be read in detail. Surveying the literature for the purpose of conducting research is not just ‘a pleasant excursion in the wonderful world of books’, it is a precise and exacting task of locating specific information for the specific purpose.

The actual note-taking process is always a difficult task for the researcher. He has to spend long hours in the library taking notes by hand. It is a very tedious job and leads to importance to carelessness and illegibility. He should make use of the facilities available in the library for this purpose.


Sources for Review of Literature books

Government publications

Periodicals/Journals

Annual reports

The internet

Theses/desertations

Abstracts

Reference Materials


Types of Review of Literature Argumentative review

Integrative review

Historical review

Methodological review

Systematic review

Theoretical review


Common mistakes in review of literature Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research

problem; You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant

sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem; Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including

relevant primary research studies or data; Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as

valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;

Does not describe the search procedures that were used in the literature review;

Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and,

Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.


Research Design Research design deals with decisions regarding

what, where, when, how much, by what meansconcerning an inquiry or a research study constitutea research design. Thus, a research design is theplan for research. It provides guidelines whichdirect the researcher towards solving the researchproblem and it may vary depending on the nature ofthe problem being studied (Akuezuilo and Agu,2002:50).


Meaning of Research Design Contd Cooper and Schindler (2001) define research design

as the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It aids the inquirer in the allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices. In other words, a research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.


Characteristics of Research Design It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of

information relevant to the research problem.

It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data.

It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints.


Functions of Research Design It provides a researcher with a blue print for studying

research problems. It specifies the methods and procedures for the collection,

measurement and analysis of data. It provides the boundaries of research activity and enables

the investigator to channel his energies in specific direction. It enables the investigator to anticipate potential problems

in the implementation of the study. It helps to provide some estimate of the cost of the research,

possible measurement problems and the optimal allocation of resources.

It helps in research proposals to demonstrate diagrammatically, how the variable of the proposed research will be observed, controlled, or manipulated to generate necessary primary data for a study.


Types of Research Design Historical

Descriptive (survey, correlational, case studies, expo facto and development studies)

Experimental (True and Quasi-experimental)


Sample and Sampling TechniquesSampling may be defined as the selection of some

part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it.


Definition of SamplingThis is the process of selecting a unit of a whole to

form the basis for a study. It can assume varied forms and dimensions


Need for Sampling Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less

expensive than a census study and produces results at a relatively faster speed.

Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is generally conducted by trained and experienced investigators.

Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members.

Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item under study.

Sampling usually enables researchers to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in obtaining information concerning some characteristic of the population.


Steps in sample design Type of universe: The first step in developing any

sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied.

Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting a sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one like a local government area, community, etc., or a social unit such as family, association, church, etc., or even an individual.


Steps in sample design contd Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from

which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the population as possible.

Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This is a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small.


Steps to sample design contd Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from

practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.


Characteristics of a good Sample Design Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.

Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.

Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.

Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.


Types of Sample Design Probability (based on random selection of units of a

universe or population. It grants all units equal opportunities of being selected to be studied)

Non-Probability is based on the choice and judgment of the researcher. It thus does not allow all units/items of the population equal chances of being selected for the study


Non-probability Sampling techniques Quota

Convenience

Expert

Snowball


Probability Sampling Techniques Random

Systematic

Stratified

Cluster

Multi-stage

Proportional

Sequential


Methods of Data Collection Data could be described as facts, ideas, views,

interests, values, opinions, etc obtained in the course of investigation or accumulated in the process research activities; or information given from which other facts may be worked out. It could also be explained as facts, observations or information in isolation and relating to the subjects of the study.


Types of DataWe have 2 main types/sources of data; viz:

Primary data: These are data that are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus, happen to be original in character. In other words, all data collected for a specific purpose by the researcher from the field are known as primary data.

Secondary data: These are data that have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. There are data collected for some other purposes and possibly analyzed by someone else, therefore, secondary data is an existing data set


Features of Data Data may be primary or ‘original’ in the sense that,

information that has never been collected before is collected.

Data could be secondary, in the sense that, information already put together by someone else is reused, perhaps in a different way by another person.

Data may be numerical. Data may consist of words. Data may be a combination of figures and words. Data may consist of responses to a questionnaire or

interview transcriptions, notes or other records of observations or experiments, documents and materials, or all.


Selection of appropriate method for data collection

There are various methods of data collection; as a result, the researcher must judiciously select the method/methods appropriate for his own study, keeping in view with the following factors:

Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.

Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this limitation.


Selection of appropriate method for data collection Contd Time factor: Availability of time has also to be

taken into account in deciding a particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.

Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data.


Methods of Collecting Primary DataThere are several methods of collecting primary data, namely:

Questionnaire, Interviews, Observations, and Schedules.1. Questionnaires: A questionnaire could be regarded as a set

of questions relating to the aims and objectives of the study to which respondents (the sample) are required to answer by writing in their responses. Thus, a questionnaire may be defined simply as a data gathering instrument in which respondents are given standardized or uniformed questions. It is used when factual information is desired, and is usually used to obtain facts about the past, present and anticipated events, and also about the prevailing conditions and practices. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.


Guides to Drafting questionnaires The researcher must pay attention to the following points in

constructing an appropriate and effective questionnaire:

On the introductory letter, the researcher should write his address and date on the top right side of the questionnaire.

The questionnaire/introductory letter should not be too lengthy. The researcher should guarantee respondents of security or

anonymity in the introductory letter part or aspect of the questionnaire.

The researcher should list or write down all the information s/he wish to find out from the respondents like: educational qualifications, age, sex, rank, etc

The purpose of the research and research problem should be contained in the questionnaire. S/he must be clear about the various aspects of his/her research problem to be dealt with in the course of his/her research project.


Guides to Drafting a Questionnaires The researcher should ask questions that the responses

or answers will provide the desired information. The language of the questionnaire should be kept at the

level of the respondents. The researcher should avoid the use of embarrassing

questions or questions that may hurt the respondents’ ego.

Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the sampled respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide whether to use closed or open-ended question. Questions should be simple and must be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan.


Guides to Drafting Questionnaires Rough draft of the Questionnaire should be prepared,

giving due thought to the appropriate sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires previously drafted (if available) may as well be looked into at this stage.

Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough draft for a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinized and removed.

Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The questionnaire may be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study.

Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the respondents so that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.


Qualities of a Good Questionnaire A good questionnaire should be tailored along the following

points: Questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple

i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.

Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different

interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire. Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers),

multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended. The latter types of questions are often difficult to analyze and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.


Qualities of a Good Questionnaire There should be some control questions in the

questionnaire which indicate the reliability of the respondent.

The control questions, thus, introduce a cross-check to see whether the information collected is correct or not.

Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided.

Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire to help editing and tabulation.

There should always be provision for indications of uncertainty, e.g., “do not know,” “no preference” and so on.

Brief directions with regard to filling up the questionnaire should invariably be given in the questionnaire itself.


Qualities of a Good Questionnaire Contd The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects

the cooperation the researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting cooperation.

The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it may attract the attention of recipients.


Collection of secondary data

Secondary data constitute data collected from already existing records. Secondary data means data that are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them.

In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in: (a) various publications of the central, state are local governments;

(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organizations;

(c) technical and trade journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry,

banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc in different fields; and (g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published

information. The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished

biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/ private individuals and organizations.


Data Processing and AnalysisThe data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in

accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis. Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis (Kothari, 2004). The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions (Best and Kahn, 1986).


Processing Operations

Editing: this involves a careful scrutiny of thecompleted questionnaires and/or schedules. Editingis done to assure that the data are accurate,consistent with other facts gathered, uniformlyentered, as completed as possible and have beenwell arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.


Processing Operations Contd Coding: refers to the process of assigning numerals or

other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration.

Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes.


Processing Operations Contd Tabulation: When a mass of data has been

assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcherto arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.


Meaning of Data Analysis The analysis and interpretation of data represent the application of

deductive and inductive logic to the research process. The data areoften classified by way of division into, subgroups, and are thenanalyzed and synthesized in such a manner thathypotheses/propositions may be verified or rejected. The finalresult may be a new principle or generalization. Data are examinedin terms of comparison between the more homogeneous segmentswithin the group and by comparison with some outside criteria.

Analysis of data includes comparison of the outcomes of the varioustreatments upon the several groups and the making of a decision asto the achievement of the goals of research. Data relevant to eachhypothesis must be assembled in quantitative form and tested todetermine whether or not there is a significant difference in theresults obtained from the controlled groups. Usually the analysisdevelops as a comparison between groups.


Importance of Data Treatment and AnalysisAfter administering and scoring research tools scripts, data are

collected and organized, the collected data are known as‘raw data.’ The raw data are meaningless unless certainstatistical treatment is given to them. Analysis of datameans to make the raw data meaningful or to draw someresults from the data after the proper treatment. The ‘nullhypotheses’ are tested with the help of analysis of data so asto obtain some significant results. Thus, the analysis of dataserves the following main functions:

To make the raw data meaningful, To test null hypothesis, To obtain the significant results, To draw some inferences or make generalization, and To estimate parameters.


Data PresentationThe presentation of data is an important aspect of

data analysis. The purpose of presentation of data is to highlight the results and to make data or results more illustrative. The visual presentation of data or results is simple and easy to understand. The graphical and pictorial presentations provide the geometrical image of data. It enables us to comprehend the essential features of the frequency distribution. It also helps in observing the assumptions of the statistical analysis applied for the treatment of data.


Functions of Data Presentation Visual or pictorial presentation of data

Makes the data easy to comprehend

Helps in understanding the nature of the distribution

The assumptions of statistical analysis can also be observed.


RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has toaccomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by reportwriting. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleadingconclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing researchmay get vitiated. It is only through interpretation that theresearcher can expose relations and processes that underlie hisfindings. In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses aretested and upheld several times, the researcher may arrive atgeneralizations. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis tostart with, he would try to explain his findings on the basis of sometheory. This may at times result in new questions, leading to furtherresearches. All this analytical information and consequentialinference(s) may well be communicated, preferably throughresearch reporting, to the consumers of research results who may beeither an individual or a group of individuals or some public/privateorganizations.


Steps in Research Report Writing Research reports are the product of slow,

painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps involved in writing report are:

logical analysis of the subject-matter;

preparation of the final outline;

preparation of the rough draft;

re-writing and polishing;

preparation of the final bibliography; and

writing the final draft.


HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE ABSTRACTPreparation, submission, and presentation of an abstract are

important facets of the research process, which benefit the investigator/author in several ways. Writing an abstract consists primarily of answering the questions, “Why did you start the study?” “What did you do it?” “What did you find from the study?” and “What does it mean?” Once an investigator can provide sustainable answers to those key questions, he obviously has carried out a research activity.

Abstract writing is one of the actions in the research process that is not just demanding but intimidating owing to lack of information on the guidelines and reluctance by many to follow the rules. This section of the book deals primarily with the hows and procedure for abstract writing for research projects stating the steps in unambiguous terms.


Meaning of an Abstract

An abstract is a concise statement of the major elements of your research project, and the reader’s first encounter with your research. It is a condensed version of a full scientific/academic paper. An abstract is a kind of summary version of the manuscript, which highlights the major points covered, concisely describes its content and scope, and reveals the methodology adopted in the work. Essentially, it should act as an advertisement for your work. It states the purpose, methods, and findings of your research project. It is a means of conveying to one’s peers what was done and why, what was found, and what the implications are. Because it is strictly limited, either in the number of words it can contain or in the space it can occupy on a page, an abstract can be only a “bare bones” version of all the information pertaining to the study. It is usually the first section read and sets the tone of the paper for the reviewer. It must be concise and easy to read and must cover the important points of the paper. An abstract can be a stand-alone document that briefly states the essential information of a paper, article, document, or book or adjoining section of the entire document.


Functions of an Abstract The abstract allows readers to make decisions about your project; It points out with ease the problem situation that gave rise to your

study; It goes further to tell how you tackled the observed problems; Submits what you found out in doing the study; Describes its implications Your supervisor can use the abstract to decide if your research is

proceeding smoothly. The conference organizer uses it to decide if your project fits the

conference criteria. The conference audience (faculty, administrators, peers, and

presenters' families) uses your abstract to decide whether or not to attend your panel.


How do you write an abstract?

Writing an abstract involves boiling down the essence of a whole paper into a single paragraph. One way to write an effective abstract is to start with the complete draft and do the following:

Highlight the objective and the conclusions that are in the paper’s introduction and discussion.

Bracket information in the methods section of the paper that contains keywords. Highlight the results from the discussion or results section of the paper. Compile the above highlighted and bracketed information into a single paragraph. Condense the bracketed information into the key words and phrases that identify

without explaining the methods used. Delete any extra words and phrases. Delete any background information. Rephrase the first sentence so that it starts off with the new information contained

in the paper, rather than the general topic. One way to do this is to begin the first sentence with the phrase “this paper” or “this study.”

Revise the paragraph so that the abstract conveys the essential information.


Components of an Abstract What should the abstract include? Think of your abstract as an

advertisement, or a condensed cum summary of your whole essay. By reading it, the reader should understand the nature of your research question. You should include the following:

A specific and detailed title, indicating the question you investigated, or the method, if that is important—it should be complete enough to stand on its own without the abstract.

A brief introduction to the topic-providing context or background (don’t repeat or rephrase your title or any sentences from your paper, and don’t analyze other papers!). Remember that what might seem obvious to you after working on a longer research project is likely to be new to your audience.

Motivation. Why do we care about the problem and the results? How do you address a “gap” in the field? This section should include the importance of the work, and the impact it might have if successful.


Components of an Abstract Contd A statement of the study's objectives/purpose--what is the research question or the problem you are trying to

solve? What is the scope of your work (a generalized approach? A specific situation?)? What is your hypothesis? What are the specific questions you are addressing with this project? For text based research projects, what argument are you proposing? Do not include a statement like “this paper will look at”—such a statement is too specific when you are discussing the general purpose and approach of your research.

Methodology/Approach (1-2 sentences): How did you go about solving or making progress on the problem? Did you use simulation, analytic models, survey research, or analysis of field data? What kind of research did you do? Is it historical, case study or what? What method did you employ in data collection and analysis? What important variables did you control, ignore, or measure? What was the extent of your work? What theoretical framework did you use to understand the problem?

A summary of results. A statement of conclusions (or hypothesized conclusions). What new knowledge are you bringing to your field?

Are your results general, potentially generalizable, or specific? Possibly some discussion of the relevance of the conclusions. What are the implications of your research? Are they generalizable or specific to a particular case? You might note restrictions or limitations on the results by using words like “might,” “could,” “may,” and “seem.” Be careful to use non-evaluative language; report instead of comment on your findings.

Possibly some call for future research. Whatever kind of research you are doing, your abstract should provide the reader with the answers to the following questions: What are you asking? Why is it important? How will you study it? What will you use to demonstrate your conclusions? What are those conclusions? What do they mean?


Basic Steps to Writing an Abstract

The best way to write an effective abstract is to start with a draft of the complete manuscript and follow these 10 steps:

Identify the major objectives and conclusions. Identify phrases with keywords in the methods section. Identify the major results from the discussion or results section. Assemble the above information into a single paragraph. State your hypothesis or method used in the first sentence. Omit background information, literature review, and detailed description

of methods. Remove extra words and phrases. Revise the paragraph so that the abstract conveys only the essential

information. Check to see if it meets the guidelines of your Department or Institution. Give the abstract to a colleague (preferably one who is not familiar with

your work and finally to your supervisor) and ask him/her whether it makes sense.


Common Mistakes in Abstract Writing Experience has shown that often times, students and

even practitioners commit some avoidable errors in writing academic/scientific abstracts. These errors include some of the following:

Too long, too much detail, or including too much introductory/methodology material;

Using too much jargon. Use plain English and active voice where you can, and simple sentences;

Not using complete sentences;

Too short, or not giving the reader sufficient context and completeness: Shorter is not always better!

Vagueness.


End of the Semester Lectures

Thank you so much


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