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Bonazountas M., REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR Vasilopoulos V., Leivadarou J. THE INTEGRAL MANAGEMENT OF THE AXIOS-VARDAR RIVER BASIN

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS 13/11/2006 DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES & ENVIRONMENT

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DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES, HYDRAULICS AND MARITIME ENGINEERING

Iroon Politecniou 5 15780 Zografou Campus

el. 210-772.2828, Fax: 210-772.2827 [email protected]

ATHENS 13 NOVEMBER,2006



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111... IIINNNTTTRRROOODDDUUUCCCTTTIII ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 777

1.1. General Conditions ................................................................................. 7 1.2. Projects Aim ........................................................................................... 8

222... EEEUUURRROOORRREEEGGGIIIOOONNN BBBEEELLLAAASSSIIICCCAAA ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 999

2.1. General ................................................................................................... 9 2.2. Recent and ongoing / planned activities ............................................... 10 2.3. Activities of the Euroregion Belasica during 2005 ................................. 12

333... WWWAAATTTEEERRR FFFRRRAAAMMMEEEWWWOOORRRKKK DDDIIIRRREEECCCTTTIIIVVVEEE 222000000000///666000 ......................................................................................................... 111444

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 14 3.2. Necessity of the Directive ..................................................................... 14 3.3. Preparation of the Directive .................................................................. 15 3.4. Meaning of the Directive ....................................................................... 15 3.5. Key features of the Directive ................................................................. 15 3.6. River Basin Management Planning ....................................................... 16 3.7. Public Information and Consultation ..................................................... 17 3.8. Definitions of Surface Water and Groundwater Status ......................... 17 3.9. Water Framework Directive 2000/60 Axios-Vardar river basin

implementation ..................................................................................... 18

444... AAAXXXIIIOOOSSS---VVVAAARRRDDDAAARRR WWWAAATTTEEERRR DDDIIISSSCCCHHHAAARRRGGGEEE AAANNNDDD UUUSSSEEE .............................................................................. 222000

4.1. Water discharge .................................................................................... 20 4.1.1. Greece .......................................................................................... 20 4.1.2. FYROM ......................................................................................... 21

4.2. Water use ............................................................................................. 21 4.2.1. Greece .......................................................................................... 21 4.2.2. FYROM ......................................................................................... 22

AAbbssttrraacctt The Axios-Vardar River constitutes the most significant source of water for the greater region of Central Macedonia (Greece) and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM). Greece and FYROM share this transboundary river, however, a common river basins action plan has not yet been inducted by the two neighbouring countries.This project was submitted by the non-profit organization "Aristotelis", the Greece founding organisation of the Euroregion Belasica, and is realised by the National Technical University of Athens under the supervision of professor Bonazountas. The project provides information and standards for the formation of a mutual Axios-Vardar river basins action plan under the Water Framework Directive 2000/60. It focalizes in the collection, assessment and presentation of the information relevant to the economy, environment, social infrastractures and administration of the selected catchment. Suggestions are going to be provided, in the subsequent parts of this project, for sustainable and environmentally-friendly measures to policy makers.



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5.1. Greece .................................................................................................. 24 5.1.1. Agriculture..................................................................................... 24 5.1.2. Urban ............................................................................................ 25 5.1.3. Mussel farming ............................................................................. 25 5.1.4. Industry ......................................................................................... 26 5.1.5. Impacts on functions of the ecosystem ecological approach ...... 26

5.2. FYROM ................................................................................................. 29 5.2.1. Industry ......................................................................................... 29 5.2.2. Agriculture..................................................................................... 29 5.2.3. Livestock ....................................................................................... 29 5.2.4. Urban ............................................................................................ 30

5.3. Nutrients ............................................................................................... 30 5.3.1. Nutrients in the Axios River catchment ......................................... 30 5.3.2. Nutrient inputs from rivers and point sources to the Thermaikos

Gulf ............................................................................................... 37

666... AAADDDMMMIIINNNIIISSSTTTRRRAAATTTIIIOOONNN---PPPOOOLLLIIICCCIIIEEESSS ................................................................................................................................................................................. 333999

6.1. Administration ....................................................................................... 39 6.1.1. Greece .......................................................................................... 39 6.1.2. FYROM ......................................................................................... 40

6.2. Policies ................................................................................................. 40 6.2.1. European Union Policies .............................................................. 40 6.2.2. Greek policy .................................................................................. 40 6.2.3. FYROM policy ............................................................................... 42

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7.1. Greece .................................................................................................. 44 7.1.1. Geographical Position ................................................................... 44 7.1.2. Morphology ................................................................................... 44 7.1.3. Climate ......................................................................................... 46 7.1.4. Geology-Hydrogeology ................................................................. 49

7.2. FYROM ................................................................................................. 53 7.2.1. Geographical position ................................................................... 53 7.2.2. Morphology ................................................................................... 53 7.2.3. Climate ......................................................................................... 53 7.2.4. Geology ........................................................................................ 54

888... EEECCCOOONNNOOOMMMYYY --- PPPRRROOODDDUUUCCCTTTIIIOOONNN .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 555555

8.1. Greece .................................................................................................. 55 8.1.1. Agricultural production .................................................................. 55 8.1.2. Industrial sector ............................................................................ 56 8.1.3. Shellfish farmers ........................................................................... 57

8.2. FYROM ................................................................................................. 58 8.2.1. Industry ......................................................................................... 58 8.2.2. Agriculture..................................................................................... 58 8.2.3. Livestock ....................................................................................... 58



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8.3. Bilateral Trade ...................................................................................... 59 8.3.1. Greek investment in FYROM ........................................................ 59

8.4. Axios-Vardars pollution: Impacts on economy ................................... 59 8.4.1. Greece .......................................................................................... 59 8.4.2. FYROM ......................................................................................... 60

999... SSSOOOCCCIIIEEETTTYYY .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 666111

9.1. Population-Demographics..................................................................... 61 9.1.1. Greece .......................................................................................... 61 9.1.2. FYROM ......................................................................................... 61

9.2. Transportation infrastracture ................................................................. 62 9.2.1. Greece .......................................................................................... 62 9.2.2. FYROM ......................................................................................... 62

9.3. Health Infrastracture ............................................................................. 62 9.3.1. Greece .......................................................................................... 62 9.3.2. FYROM ......................................................................................... 63

9.4. Education Infrastracture ........................................................................ 63 9.4.1. Greece .......................................................................................... 63 9.4.2. FYROM ......................................................................................... 63

9.5. Ecological Movement ............................................................................ 64

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FIGURES Figure 1:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) inter-annual variations ............... 20 Figure 2:Shellfish production in the Thermaikos Gulf ......................................... 26 Figure 3:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) intra-annual variations of water

discharge (a), ........................................................................................ 31 Figure 4:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) inter-annual variations ............... 32 Figure 5:Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP) variations .................. 34 Figure 6: Axios river basin altitude curve ........................................................... 45 Figure 7: Annual precipitation level variation (mm) in Polikastro station ............ 47 Figure 8: Annual precipitation level variation (mm) in Chalastra station ............. 47 Figure 9: Istogram of mean monthly precipitation level in the Polikastro station

for the period 1972/73-2000/01 .......................................................... 48 Figure 10: Istogram of mean monthly precipitation level in the Chalastra station

for the period 1972/73-2000/01 .......................................................... 48 Figure 11: Mean annual flow istograms of the Axios river (m3/s), ...................... 49 Figure 12: Elevation fluctuation of drill of the Eleousa region in the Axios river

basin.(data EYATH). .......................................................................... 52 Figure 13: Primary animal breeding in the Greek part of the Axios .................... 55 Figure 14: Primary crops in the Greek part of the Axios RIVER ......................... 56 Figure 15: Shellfish production in the Thermaikos Gulf ...................................... 57

TABLES

Table 1:Hydrographic characteristics of Vardar river basin with major tributaries (2002) ................................................................................................................. 21 Table 2: Annual average input of nutrients in the Greek part of the Axios-Vardar River from point sources .................................................................................... 26 Table 3: Nutrients input into the inner Thermaikos Gulf in 5-year time intervals 37 Table 4: Mean annual flow of Axios river (m3/s). Periods 1926-31, 1937-40, 1955-62, 1964-65. .............................................................................................. 49

MAPS

Map 1: The Axios-Vardar river basin .................................................................... 8 Map 2: Axios-Vardar River Basin ....................................................................... 33 Map 3: Source apportionement of nitrogen load in selected regions and catchments ......................................................................................................... 35 Map 4: Source apportionement of nitrogen load in selected regions and catchments ......................................................................................................... 36 Map 5: Location of Waste Water Treatment Plants. .......................................... 38 Map 6: Location of the Axios (greek part) river basin ... 44 Map 7: Greaters area geomorphological evolution (Meladiotis, 1984) .............. 46 Map 8:Divide of the Paionia, Paiko and Alompia zone (Mercier & Sauvage, 1968) ........................................................................................................................... 51



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ACRONYMS

ASP: Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning AUTH: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki DSP: Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning EEA: European Environment Agency EYATH: Thessaloniki Water-Sewerage Company FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization FYROM: Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia GDP: Gross Domestic Product GNP: Gross National Product HAB: Harmful Algal Bloom IMF: Internationally Monetary Fund NRC: National Research Council NSP: Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning NTUA: National Technical University of Athens PATHE: Motorway connecting Patra-Athens-Thessaloniki-Evzoni PSP: Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning NEAP: National Environmental Action Plan NSSG: National Statistical Service of Greece NTUA: National Technical University of Greece TEE: Technical Chamber of Greece UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme WFD: Water Framework Directive WWTP: Waste Water Treatment Plant



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1. INTRODUCTI

1.1. General Conditions

Axios is one of the most important transboundary rivers in Greece, mainly because of the use of waters for irrigation in the fertile plain of Thessaloniki. The river forms a very rich ecological delta (protected RAMSAR site) before discharging into the Gulf of Thermaikos.

The population activities on Greek side are mainly agricultural, heavily depending on the river flow (varying from 10 m3/s to 1,425 m3/s). The maximum flow rate was greatly reduced during recent years, mainly due to the construction of retention reservoirs and irrigation works upstream in FYROM. There is yet no bilateral cooperation agreement for sharing the international waters of Axios River.

The city of Thessaloniki is located east of the lower river. For this second-largest city of Greece (population over 1 million) an initial plan for sewage disposal in the lower Axios was completely modified in order to protect the water quality and ecosystems. Thessalonikis sewage, after secondary treatment, is discharged into the sea through a submarine short outfall.

Vardar river flows into the North Aegean Sea as Axios river in Greece (87 km long, extending over 3,212 km2) and covers 20,535 km2 (86.9%) of FYROM; small catchment parts are further in Serbia. Vardar is the longest and largest river of FYROM (302.6 km), with an average elevation of the basin at 793 m (the Vardar spring in the Shara massif near Vrutok/Gostivar is at only at 683 m), at average rainfalls of 660 mm and a total annual discharge of 4.56million m3. Its floodplain is mainly used by agricultural use (including cattle-breeding). The capital of FYROM and several big industrial cities with a total population of over 1 million are located in this area: Gostivar (100,000 inhabitants), Tetovo (180,000) Skopje (570,000), Veles (70,000) and Gevgelija (40,000 inhabitants; at the Greek border), including several large units of chemical industry. Treska, Pchinja, Bregalnica, Crna, Lepenec and Babuna rivers form sub-basins of the Vardar. 19 large and over 100 small dams and reservoirs have been constructed in this region.



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Map 1: The Axios-Vardar river basin

1.2. Projects Aim

The project provides information and standards for the planning of an Axios-Vardar river basins action plan, primarily in Greece and secondarily in FYROM. It focalizes in the collection, assessment and presentation of the information relevant to the economy and environment of the involved countries. The action plan will be in accordance with the Europeans Commitee Water Framework Directive 2000/60. Euroregions are often called laboratories of the future European construction,as they are supposed to verify and strengthen the legitimacy of the great moral, political, economic, and cultural projects of a United Europe.



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2. EUROREGION BELASICA

2.1. General

Members: Greece (municipality of Kilkis, members from Thessalonica; municipalities of Axios, Chalastra, Kallithea, Neapolis, Michonia; Gallikos; Herso; Mouries; Chamber of Small and Medium Industries of Thessalonica; Nonprofit Corporation for regional and International cooperation and development Poseidon; chambers of Kilkis; Federation of Industries of Kilkis; Federation of Industries of Thessalonica; Municipal Company for Watering & Drainage of Kilkis; Municipal Company for Tourist and Cultural Development of Kilkis; Action & Partners Development Consultants; the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (municipalities of Strumica; Gevgelija; Novo Selo; Bosilovo; Murtino; Vasilevo; Radovis; Valandovo; Kuklis; Delcevo; Regional Chamber of Commerce Strumica; Foundation of Small and Medium Enterprises Development Regional center, NGO DENICA; Bulgaria (municipalities of Petric; Sandanski; Blagoevgrad; Strumjani; Kresna). Euroregion Belasica, established 24th February 2003 in Kilkis, is a unity of three non-profit cross-border organisations which are in fact networks of Local Authorities, Entrepreneurial and Social Partners of the common border between the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Greece and Bulgaria. One of the very few euroregions in the Balkan area and one of the very few euroregions, the membership of which consists of three founding partners: one from EU member state, one from EU candidate member and one from non-member country. The Euroregion Belasica is a trilateral region between Bulgaria, Greece and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Considering the importance of crossborder co-operation at all levels, the aims of Euroregion Belasica refer to the establishment of peace and stability at a regional and European level, to the free movement of goods, investments, technologies and people, to the achievement of sustainable development and social cohesion in the region while maintaining the historical, cultural and ethnical characteristics of each country. Acknowledging the potential of the co-operation between the three organisations for overcoming legislative differences, for the alleviation of administrative and organisational obstacles to true activities and overcoming of historical and ethnic biases, contaminated in previous periods, Euroregion Belasica is aimed developing partnership and joint projects for promoting regional infrastructure, development of rural border areas, industrial development, cultural exchange, protection of the environment, competencies at European, national and local level, better coordination of EU policies, creation of equivalent living conditions as well as coordination between EU aid programmes.



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Membership: At its 2004 annual assembly, its membership was increased by new members from the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (municipalities of Gevgelija, Konopiste and Delcevo). Organisation: The Cross-border Euroregion BELASICA has management and operating bodies of its own. The basic organisation chart of Belasica is presented below:

Fields of joint activities: the sixteen fields of activities that are being developed in the euroregion are: Regional Development; Economic Development; Tourism Entertainment; Culture and Society; Transfer of Technology and Innovation; Energy; Transport and Infrastructure; Ecology and Environment; Management of Waste Products; Agriculture; Social Cooperation; Health Services; Communication; Protection against Disasters and Damages; Education; Social Security.

2.2. Recent and ongoing / planned activities

During the last few years, the euroregion has been intensively working on reinforcing the co-operation in all of the priority fields. 40 applications have been submitted so far in relation to totally 40 projects, several of which have been accepted and are presently being implemented. The most important of the later includes the following: GMF-German Marshal Plan- Drafting Regional Master Plan for the Region

Development Plan. The Project is an analysis of the regions economic potential, presenting 100 priority projects and 10 Detailed Plans (projects), which were submitted for the purposes of funding; * GR-Plan for the Balkans Reconstruction- Project for Decentralisation of the municipalities; the Project is both a study and a fund for the reconstruction of the municipalities within the region (stage I) and the

Reconstruction of all of the municipalities concerned in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The project was aimed at ensuring an easier acceptance of decentralisation financing of all soft activities within the framework of each municipality and providing for equipment for the new offices for the municipalities future new competences.

Accademia Italiana University for Modern Design from Firenze; The University is the response to the problem which presently exists in the region;



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an appropriate building for this project has been provided by the Ministry of Defence, and its reconstruction will start shortly.

Project for the Regions Cultural Development: organising cultural events in the three countries concerned; the first meeting took place in Kukus (August 2004) and the meeting and competition of the dancing associations from the region;

Project for Developing the Carnival in the municipality of Strumica and region; Project for Protection against Floods along the river Strumica and Depos

Overhaul; Project for Constructing Mudular Cleaning Stations for Waste Waters; Interreg 3A for several projects for soft activities. The most successful event in the above regard was the very recent Regional

Investment Fair (B2B meeting) in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, during which 15 direct investments were agreed.

As concerns the new action plans, there are a lot of project proposals, as were presented by the municipalities during last year Annual General Assembly of the Common Organising Committee, Higher Administrative Committee of the Euroregion Belasica (Kilkis, April 24th, 2004). In addition to the above, (and as was agreed at the aforesaid Assembly) the Euroregion Belasica today: is presented in the official website of the Council of Europe, having an

analytical link; is presented by the Special Negotiator of the Stability Pact in SE Europe as

an example of cross-border co-operation; has direct access and support from the national authorities of all three

countries for the promotion of its aims; is in direct communication with representatives of Eastern Europe services,

such as the Europaid Co-operation Office, and is informed about programmes that concern it;

has been presented in more than 15 international congresses on crossborder and inter-country collaboration promoting its members and future collaborations with corresponding institutions of Central Europe;

has established strategic collaborations with big networks of Central Europe; is in list of priority of financing by institutions as the GTZ; is in the beginning of implementing the first basic work that is the

development of the Master Plan of the Euroregion under the financing of the Balkan Trust for Democracy of German Marshall Plan;

is broadened with the attendance of Municipalities and Enterprising Institutions from Thessaloniki.

A great number of the proposals for the year 2004 were concentrated in the calls for proposals of Interreg IIIA. The basic criteria for success constitute the readiness of institutions from the Greek side for the implementation of projects, its documentation of return (which in the case of the euroregion is self-evident) and the high quality of the proposals. In the case of collaboration with Bulgaria,



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the euroregion contributed in the submission of proposals in the PHARE for the co-financing of Interreg programmes from the Bulgarian side".

2.3. Activities of the Euroregion Belasica during 2005

During 2005 the euroregion made several significant changes in the regions structure and in the field of regional co-operation. It drafted several projects during the year and participated actively in building up the regional strategy for border co-operation. A short desription of the activities includes the following: The euroregion has been significantly broadened by the accession of both the

Regional Organisation for Border Co-operation Poseidon (Salonika, Greece) and the municipalities from the area of Salonika, as well as of several NGOs and regional chambers of commerce. In Bulgaria, the municipality of Blagoevgrad has been accepted as a new member of the euroregion;

The euroregion participated at the annual Assembly of AEBR (in Greece) during which it actively participated in drafting the development strategies for the region at European level;

In terms of the Project Akademija Italjana, the project has remained the top priority project of the euroregion. During 2005, a memorandum on

cooperation was signed with the Academia Italiana (from Firenze, Italy) with a view to opening the University, while a location for the University has been provided for by the Defence Ministry. This Project aims at opening the University on the 1st September 2006. To this end, an agreement has also been concluded with a consulting house from Skopje, while the project is supported by the USAID, GTZ, the FYR Macedonian Governmental Secretariat for European Integration, and the municipalities of Strumica, Salonika, Blagoevgrad and Kukus;

Akrila Project for producing construction materials from industrial and agricultural waste materials;

Within Interreg 3 A, the euroregion has submitted 14 projetcs during 2005, out of which 4 have been accepted, concerning cultural co-operation, ecology, infrastructure and connection. The implementation of these projects will start in January 2006;

Project Wine Road which is supported by the FYROM Ministry for Economy and is aimed at promoting wine tourism in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia;

A fair in the municipality of Gevgerlija (Gevgelija Ekspo): the euroregion Belasica has concluded an agreement with the Skopje Fair on organising regional fairs. The first fair of this type was organised in Gevgelija and was aimed at promoting border co-operation and connecting of the business actors from the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria and Greece. On this occasion, several protocols for co-operation were signed between the chambers of commerce of the municipalities Kukus, Strumica



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and Blagoevgrad, all of which are aimed at connecting and joint activity at third markets;

The euroregions interregional co-operation includes the signing of the Protocol on Co-operation with two regions in Italy (regions Marche and Calabria) for joint activity on interregional projects for economic development, infrastructure, social assistance and education;

GMF- German Marshal Fund: Project for drafting Regional Strategy for Economic Development. The Regional Strategy has been drafted and it will be promoted at the euroregions annual assembly to be held on the 10th December 2005 (Greece).

Relations with other Euroregions: In this regard, one should particularly stress this Euroregions ongoing very good co-operation with the Euroregion Nis-Skopje-Sofia, both of which have already submitted joint applications for specific projects. The headquarters of "Aristotelis" (the Greece founding organisation) is acting as a representative office of the euroregion concerning communications with third parties outside the respective countries.



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3. WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE 2000/60

3.1. Introduction

The Water Framework Directive is the most substantial piece of water legislation ever produced by the European Commission, and will provide the major driver for achieving sustainable management of water in the UK and other Member States for many years to come. It requires that all inland and coastal waters within defined river basin districts must reach at least good status by 2015 and defines how this should be achieved through the establishment of environmental objectives and ecological targets for surface waters. The result will be a healthy water environment achieved by taking due account of environmental, economic and social considerations. The Article 14 of the Directive requires Member States to encourage the active involvement of all interested parties in its implementation. In particular, public consultation is essential during the production, review and updating of river basin management plans which form the central theme of the Directive. For public consultation to be meaningful people will need a basic understanding of the principal features of the Directive and how these relate to the situation in their own local river basin. This Information Note provides an understanding of the principal features of the Directive. Further information on what is required by the Directive, based on an introductory guide published by the Foundation for Water Research, is provided in the accompanying Information Notes.

3.2. Necessity of the Directive

Over the past 30 years, a series of EC Directives have had a major influence on UK water law and regulation. They addressed priority issues such as water quality objectives for waters used for specific purposes, the control of dangerous substances, the protection of the sea against pollution, the preservation of the fundamental biological and ecological balances of the planet and the adoption of industry specific measures to reduce pollution. In the 1990s there was concern at the fragmented nature of existing Directives and the lack of progress with their implementation. Inadequate measures for the protection of groundwater were also of concern. In addition there was pressure for a Directive to protect aquatic ecosystems. This culminated in the development, by the European Commission, of a proposal for a more comprehensive approach to water policy that took account of the need for the following:



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A high level of environmental protection

The precautionary principle

Preventive action

The elimination of pollution at source

The polluter pays principle

Costs and benefits

Further considerations were the need for international collaboration for certain river basins which cross Member States boundaries and the variability of environmental conditions in the different regions of the Community. Also considered was the principle of subsidiarity, which allows for decisions to be made at individual Member State level where these can be demonstrated to be environmentally acceptable, cost effective and to fall within the overall requirements of the Directive.

3.3. Preparation of the Directive

The Directive was the result of a co-decision process by which the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament have joint responsibility for the final text. A conciliation process was needed to resolve the differences between these two bodies. Many organisations, including national and local governments, water service providers, agriculture, industry, consumer associations and environmental non-governmental organisations, were involved in the consultation process leading to the final draft.

3.4. Meaning of the Directive

The Directive will impact on every aspect of water use: domestic, industrial, agricultural, leisure and environmental conservation. Besides restrictions on point source discharges (e.g. sewage discharge), the achievement of good status will mean tackling the problem of diffuse pollution from agriculture and contaminated land. In some instances, it may require river re-grading work or the reversal of land drainage schemes to restore lost habitats. Environmental organisations hope that implementation of the Directive will result in major improvements to the biodiversity of water habitats.

3.5. Key features of the Directive

The key features of the Directive are:

The concept of river basin management is introduced to all Member States through the establishment of river basin districts as the basic management



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units. For international rivers these river basin districts (RBDs) will transcend national boundaries (Article 3).

For each river basin district a river basin management plan must be developed, including a programme of measures, and these will form the basis for the achievement of water quality protection and improvement (Articles 11 and 13).

Although its prime aims are environmental, the Directive embraces, all three principles of sustainable development. Environmental, economic and social needs must all be taken into account when river basin management plans are being developed (Article 9).

The river basin management plans will not allow further deterioration to existing water quality. With certain defined exceptions, the aim is to achieve at least good status for all water bodies in each river basin district. Definitions of good status for surface and groundwater are given below. Geographical factors are allowed for when good status is defined and the principle of subsidiarity allows Member States some freedom within the overall requirements of the Directive (Article 4).

The two previously competing concepts of water quality management, the use of environmental quality standards and the use of emission limit values are brought together by the Directive in a new dual approach (Article 10).

To overcome the previously piecemeal nature of water environment regulation, a number of existing directives will be replaced when new local standards are developed to meet the Directive requirements. These local standards must be at least as stringent as those being replaced. Daughter directives will be introduced to deal with groundwater quality and for priority substances (formerly known as dangerous substances) (Article 16).

Measures to conserve water quantity are introduced as an essential component of environmental protection. Unless minimal, all abstractions must be authorised and, for groundwater, a balance struck between abstraction and the recharge of aquifers (Article 11).

The polluter pays principle is incorporated through a review of measures for charging for water use, including full environmental cost recovery (Article 9).

Public participation and the involvement of stakeholders is a key requirement of the river basin management planning process, thus satisfying this aspect of Agenda 21 (Article 14).

3.6. River Basin Management Planning

River basin management is not new to the United Kingdom. It has been practised in England and Wales since the formation of the former Water Authorities in 1974. The role was later inherited and enhanced by the formation of the National



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Rivers Authority and more recently the Environment Agency (EA). In Scotland the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) and in Northern Ireland the Environment and Heritage Service (EHS) have, to varying degrees, had this duty. Under these arrangements, there has been significant improvement to river water quality in the UK, particularly over the last decade. However, water quality objectives set throughout this period tended to be user-based and were not statutory. Furthermore, economic and social aspects were not formerly a part of the river basin management process. The Directive imposes new disciplines and approaches that will impact significantly on the environmental regulators. The river basin planning process is cyclical and the Directive requires periodic updates to the river basin management plans and associated programmes of measures on a six-yearly basis.

3.7. Public Information and Consultation

The active involvement of interested parties is a core principle of the river basin planning process as defined in Article 14 of the Directive, in particular during the production, review and updating of the river basin management plans. The involvement of interested parties in the UK began with the public consultation process that preceded the incorporation of the Directive into law. In England and Wales, respondents to this process and other notable stakeholders were invited to join a national stakeholder group to act as a sounding board on implementation issues. Similar arrangements are in place in Scotland and Northern Ireland. The Directive requires that Member States shall ensure that, for each river basin district, they publish and make available for comments to the public (including users) the following: A timetable and work programme for the production of the plan and the consultation measures to be taken, at least three years before the beginning of the plan period. An overview of the significant water management issues identified in the river basin, at least two years before the beginning of the plan period. Draft copies of the river basin management plan, at least one year before the beginning of the plan period. On request, access to background documents and information used for the development of the draft plan. To allow active involvement and consultation with interested parties, including stakeholders and the public, Member States must allow six months for written comments on these documents.

3.8. Definitions of Surface Water and Groundwater Status

Good surface water status is that achieved by a surface water body when both its ecological status and its chemical status are at least good.



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Ecological status is an expression of the structure and functioning of aquatic ecosystems associated with surface waters. Such waters are classified as of good ecological status when they meet Directive requirements. Good surface water chemical status means that concentrations of pollutants in the water body do not exceed the environmental limit values specified in the Directive. Good groundwater status is that achieved by a groundwater body when both its quantitative status and chemical status are good. Quantitative status is an expression of the degree to which a body of groundwater is affected by direct and indirect abstractions. If this complies with Directive requirements the status is good. Good chemical status is ascribed to a groundwater when it meets Directive requirements for the maximum levels of defined pollutants.

3.9. Water Framework Directive 2000/60 Axios-Vardar river basin implementation

The present Hellenic-FYROM research project deals with transboundary cooperation between Greece and FYROM for promoting sustainable water management, by taking particularly into account the relevant provisions of the EC Water Framework Directive 2000/60, one of the most important pieces of legislation that the EU has adopted in recent times. The project has been financed by the Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in the framework of the Hellenic International Development Cooperation (HELLENIC AID). Directive 2000/60 emphasizes that water is not a commercial product but, rather, a heritage, which must be protected, defended and treated as such. Good water quality will contribute to securing the drinking water supply for the population. Common principles are needed in order to coordinate Member States' and Accession Countries' efforts to improve the protection of their waters, aquatic ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems and wetlands directly depending on them, to promote sustainable water use and to contribute to the control of transboundary water problems. Particularly as regards transboundary water cooperation, the Directive 2000/60 emphasizes that within a river basin where use of water may have transboundary effects, the requirements for the achievement of the environmental objectives established under the Directive, and in particular all programmes of measures, should be coordinated for the whole of the river basin district. For river basins extending beyond the boundaries of the Community, Member States should endeavour to ensure the appropriate coordination with the relevant non-member States. In other words, the Directive aims to contribute to the implementation of international conventions on water protection and management, notably the UN/ECE Convention on the protection and use of transboundary watercourses and international lakes. From this point of view, the success of the transboundary component of the Directive relies on close cooperation and coherent action at all levels, as well as on information, consultation and involvement of the public, including users. Within the framework of the present Hellenic-FYROM project, legal,



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administrative, environmental protection and sustainable development issues of contemporary water policy are studied and analyzed, with the aim to contribute to the development of an integrated water policy in a bilateral context. As the two countries have a direct interest to protect and use their water resources in a sustainable way, the project can be proved very useful to them. Indeed, if properly implemented, the Directive 2000/60 can bring substantial gains to both countries, from a development, social and ecological point of view. The two countries have now the opportunity to apply the provisions of the Directive 2000/60 in their transboundary water-related, environmental protection and sustainable development relations. By developing new forms of bilateral institutional, legal, environmental and technical cooperation, in a spirit of inter-european partnership, they could actually break new ground in the field of sustainable development policy in the region of Southeastern Europe. This policy can attract financing institutions, investors and corporations that have an interest in promoting or implementing sustainable development projects. Contributions open a promising field of bilateral cooperation. It is up to the environmental administrations of both countries to take full advantage of it, in order to facilitate and modernize their water-related transboundary cooperation. Thus, the governments of both countries could overcome a tradition of rather ineffective cooperation. The Water Framework Directive and its implementation gives the unique chance and impetus for Greece as an EU Member State and FYROM as a prospective Accession country to develop a new partnership for transboundary water resources management, based on new principles, approaches and objectives to the benefit of both parties and the environment.



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4. AXIOS-VARDAR WATER DISCHARGE AND USE

4.1. Water discharge

4.1.1. Greece

The annual flow regime of the Axios River was characterized by average flows during the 1970s (Karageorgis et al. 2003), a wet period during 19801985, a dry period during 19881994, and then a relatively wetter period during 19952000 (Fig. 1). The constantly decreasing trend inflow between 1980 and 1994 is proportional to respective rainfall variations. Similar to the other major Greek rivers (Skoulikidis, 1999), minimum runoff was observed during the period 19881994, when a dry wave affected Europe (e.g. Shuurmans 1990) and Greece (Lambrakis et al. 1997). The mean annual water discharge estimated from historical data is 5.0109 m3 yr-1; however, recent (19952000) measurements revealed a considerable decrease in the order of 3.4109 m3 yr-1. Similarly, mean annual solid discharges from historical data were estimated at 12X106 t yr-1, whereas recent estimates were 10 to 20-fold lower (0.1X106 t yr-1 , Karageorgis and Anagnostou 2001). This significant reduction is related to the decrease of water discharge, as well as the construction of the Prochoma dam and several other reservoirs in FYROM.

Figure 1:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) inter-annual variations of water discharge measured at the Thessaloniki-Eidomeni Railway Bridge station. A line is drawn between the median of each year. The Bars represent the 2575% quartiles and the upper and lower ticks represent the minimum and maximum values, respectively. source: Karageorgis et Al.,2003



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4.1.2. FYROM

The table 1 shows the hydrographic characteristics of the Vardar river basin and of its main tributaries in FYROM.It is evident that even the Vardar (FYROM part) tributaries are significantly longer than the Axios (greek part) main body (83 km) or its two main tributaries, Gorgopis (70km) and Vardarovasi (103 km). The Vardar run-off is the major part of the total Axios-Vardar run-off. There is great concern about these waters from both neighbouring countries. The maximum flow rate was greatly reduced during recent years, mainly due to the construction of retention reservoirs and irrigation works upstream in FYROM. There is yet no bilateral cooperation agreement for sharing the international waters of the river.

River Hav Lr Q V [km] [m] [km] [m/s] [m]106

Vardar 20,535 793 301.6 44.9 4,564.35 Treska 2,068 1,01 138.3 24.2 762.3 Pcinja 2,840 758 136.4 2.6 396.9

Bregalnica 4,308 722 225 4.1 444.15

Crna 5,890 863 228 7.4 1,178.10 Table 1:Hydrographic characteristics of Vardar river basin with major tributaries (2002)

4.2. Water use

4.2.1. Greece

The rational distribution of water has been achieved by the construction of a dam near Prochoma with a maximum irrigation capacity of about 35,000 ha. The water is abstracted from Axios for agricultural, industrial and urban supply purposes.

Agriculture Water demand for irrigation constitutes the most important pressure factor within the Greek part of the catchment. A key component is the irrigation dam, located in Prochoma and named Elesoussa or Ellis dam (Fig. 1), some 28 km from the river mouth. The dam was constructed in the 1950s and irrigates about 300 km2 through a system of channels, 200 km2 of which are rice and maize fields. The irrigated area expands downstream of the dam up to the river mouth. Upstream of the dam, water is pumped from the river to irrigate other types of crops. Wheat is the most common (1,000 km2), followed by cotton (320 km2),



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barley (120 km2), alfalfa (80 km2), and tobacco (32 km2). The dam is partially open during the winter/spring months and regulates the water flow, to retain water for the dry summer period (Konstantinidis 1989). Throughout the area, water is pumped from several registered and non-registered (illegal) drill holes, which affect the level of the groundwater table considerably. Industry Industrial plants within the Axios River catchment comprise a cheese factory, three dye-houses, a slaughterhouse, a dairy factory and a canning plant. Their relatively limited number and capacity indicate that industrial water use is not an important pressure factor. Likewise, nutrient emissions are low, as the industries effluents are processed (except for the Axioupolis dye-house and slaughter-house). Urban Nowadays, all communities and municipalities in the Axios catchment (population 233,500; census 2001) satisfy their drinking water needs directly from the river or from groundwater. Census data show that the population of the area is growing slightly. During the decade 19811991, population growth was 4%, whereas during 19912001, the population increase was more than 20%. These figures suggest that water demand for urban use will increase in the next years.

4.2.2. FYROM

Water is abstracted from the Vardar for irrigation (63%), fish ponds (11%), drinking water (12%), municipal and industrial uses (15%), agriculture, and there are hydro-electric power stations at several reservoirs in the river basin. 15 large and over 80 small reservoirs have been constructed in Vardar River basin, with a total volume of over 1 million m3 usable storage.

Irrigation Irrigation in FYROM is based on a system of seventeen dams, with a reservoir capacity of more than 500106 m3, which distributes water through pipes and canals to 800 km2 of land (Fig. 1). Continuously decreasing rainfalls during the 1990s have generated inefficiency in water supply, especially during the summer months. However, FYROM plans to irrigate 4000 km2 by the year 2025, based on the construction of high-capacity dams (Lisiche and Kozjak dams are currently in a final stage of construction). As dams collect water during high flow periods and release it during the dry months, this policy finds the Greek side largely in agreement. However, possible environmental impacts of regulated-low flow during winter months have not been assessed at all. Drinking Water



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Drinking water resources for the urban population are relatively satisfactory, although water shortages appear occasionally and trigger con.icts between the different user groups (NEAP 1996). Nevertheless, water demand for expanding urban centers is expected to grow, posing additional pressures to the availability of freshwater resources.



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5. ENVIRONMENTAL STATE OF AXIOS-VARDAR RIVER

5.1. Greece

Environmental pressures exerted in the catchment from FYROM are: environmentally unacceptable industrial processes and practices, waste (solid or liquid, hazardous or non hazardous, municipal or industrial). These pollutants originated from FYROM are tranfered through the Axios-Vardar river to the downstream greek part of the basin and finally are driven out to the Thermaikos Gulf. They constitute a major pollution factor for the greek part.Apart from these, there are significant downstream environmental pressures. The main environmental pressures, which affected negatively the deltas area ecological character, leading to the destruction of 70% of the original wetlands during the 20th century, are numerous: water discharge decrease, drainage works, urbanization, and pollution. Moreover, the general decrease in rainfall, combined with over-use of water for irrigation, has resulted in severe salinization of the delta area, with a direct impact on the .ora and fauna of the wetlands (Zalidis 1998). Nowadays, some of these activities have been stopped and their impacts have already been mitigated. The main pressures identified in the coastal zone,will be listed hereafter.

5.1.1. Agriculture

Agricultural activity in the Axios delta area is intensive. Rice production in the area amounts to 60% of the total Greek production and takes place mainly in the delta area. The farming community is the largest consumer of Axios River water. Over the last decade, many farmers have switched to rice instead of cotton or vegetables, because rice is very tolerant to weather conditions, rice seeds are relatively cheap, and harvest is much easier. However, it demands vast amounts of freshwater (three to four times the water needed for other irrigated crops), thus, rice farmers have great interests to preserve the Axios River water resources. There is no direct control by any state agency for the maximum allowed quantity of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides used in rice cultivation. Usage of toxic pesticides, like the addition of parathion in water, can have direct impact in the local wild flora and fauna especially in the rice fields, which are a usual habitat for wildfowl. Concerning the cost for irrigation, the pricing strategy of the local irrigation network (TOEV) does not reflect the full cost of the resource, but intends to cover only running expenses. The pricing policy is based on the average estimated price per hectare that each local irrigation network has set for irrigation.



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5.1.2. Urban

The total population for the five municipalities that administratively form the Axios delta area is 48,000 inhabitants (census 2001) within 552 km2. Local population density reaches 87 inh/km2,slightly higher than the average of Greece (83 inh/km2). During the decade 19811991, population increase was 10.5%, whereas during the next decade it was 5% (population density 75 inh/km2 and 84 inh/km2, respectively). The population trend in the delta area is continuously Increasing due to the highly productive land, the multiplication of industrial units and the consequent labor demand. On this basis, urban development constitutes a substantial type of pressure in the Axios delta area. In order to evaluate urban pressures in the coastal zone, the population within the municipalities bordering the coast has been considered. This estimate includes also the Thessaloniki metropolis (89% of the total county population). During 1981, the coastal population was 800,000, which increased to 860,000 in 1991 and to 940,000 in 2001. The overall increase in the period 19812001 was 18%. Some of Thessalonikis municipalities are heavily populated (population density >20,000 inh/km2), underscoring the role of the city as a major pressure area. In addition, recent plans of EYATH include the Axios and Aliakmon Rivers as potential suppliers of drinking water for the city of Thessaloniki.

5.1.3. Mussel farming

During the last 20 years, a considerable growth in shell.sh (mussel) production appeared in the Axios River coastal area. To date, more than 44 pole cultures and 229 long-line cultures occupy the marine area between the Axios River mouth to the NE (Chalastra area), whereas 37 pole and 120 pole cultures are situated to the SW of the Axios River mouth, covering a narrow zone of 6 km (NCMR 2001). Shellfish production in the area reaches 85% of the total Greek production, and increased rapidly since the 1990s to more than 30,000 t per year (Fig. 5), whereas 7080% of the product is exported to other countries. The value of the production amounts to more than 10 million annually (Zanou and Anagnostou 2001), and about 1,000 people are employed in the units. Recently, the production has been considerably affected by the occurrence of harmful algae blooms (HABs), which sometimes result in the accumulation of toxins in shell- .sh, making it dangerous to consumers. It should be noted that toxins, although hazardous to humans, do not a.ect the mussel itself.. Moreover, shellfish farming is accompanied by high amounts of solid waste (mainly shells), illegal construction of auxiliary premises, and occasionally severe hygienic problems.



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Figure 2: Shellfish production in the Thermaikos Gulf source: Ministry of Agriculture

5.1.4. Industry

Industrial plants within the Axios River catchment comprise a cheese factory, three dye-houses, a slaughterhouse, a dairy factory and a canning plant (Table 1). Their relatively limited number and capacity indicate that industrial water use is not an important pressure factor. Likewise, nutrient emissions are low, as the industries e.uents are processed (except for the Axioupolis dye-house and slaughter-house). The total annual input of nitrogen and phosphorus load originating from industrial sources situated within the AXCAT was estimated at 15 t and 12 t, respectively.

Table 2: Annual average input of nutrients in the Greek part of the Axios-Vardar River from point sources Source: Lazaridou-Dimitriadou,1998

5.1.5. Impacts on functions of the ecosystem ecological approach

Groundwater resources contamination from pesticides in the Axios river basin.



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The profile of the pesticides detected in the south and the north parts of Axios river basin showed high similarity.Rice cultivation in the south part of the basin resulted in an almost uniform contamination of the soil water and the phreatic horizon of the surrounding studied fields. Irrigation of the studied fields in the southern part of the basin using riverine water might have caused the deposition of pesticides, contained in the riverine water, to surface soil layers and their subsequent leaching to deeper soil layers.The existence of an operative system of drainage canals in the southern part of the basin reduced the rapid transport of pesticides with low leaching potential, although it could not prevent the vertical movement of mobile pesticides to shallow groundwater. Occurrence of pesticides in the rain of Axios River Basin A variety of pesticides, including parent compounds and major conversion products, are present in rainwater of both agricultural and residential areas of the Axios River Basin. Presently, the environmental impact of pesticides found in rainwater is difficult to assess. According to previous findings pesticide residues are present in most aquatic systems of the basin, even in remote areas of the highlands (unpublished data); in fact, the latter aquatic systems are used as drinking water sources. Therefore, what is most certain at the present is that rainwater of this area, due to the presence of pesticides at concentrations higher than 0.1g/L in most rain events of the year, does not comply with the drinking water quality standards of the European Union (EU) Directive WFD 2000/60 which is of great concern. Eutrophication-chlorophylla and dissolved oxygen in the coastal zone Eutrophication, the manifestation of nutrient-enhanced primary productivity, often indicated by the presence, not only of high chlorophyll concentrations, but also by the presence of noxious phytoplankton blooms and bottom water hypoxia/anoxia, has been reported from a variety of marine environments (Rosenberg 1985; Anderson and Rydberg 1988; Justic et al. 1995). The frequency of eutrophic events has increased in many coastal areas, especially those affected by riverine inflows. The fresh water entering the Inner Thermaikos Gulf at the surface layer is characterized by high values of dissolved oxygen, whereas the seawater influenced by sewage is characterized by low values. However, during summer, the most critical period for the occurrence of hypoxia in the Thermaikos Gulf, the measurements showed that dissolved oxygen varies from 2.6 mL/L to 7.6 mL/L. Lower values were recorded near the bottom of the northern part of Thessaloniki Bay, which is most strongly influenced by sewage outflows. The seasonal horizontal distribution of chlorophyll shows the significant contribution of sewage discharged at the northern Thessaloniki Bay to the eutrophication of the environment during the warmer period, whereas during winter the influence of the rivers can be equally important.



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Harmful algal blooms (HABs) Changes in plankton community structure caused by nutrient over-enrichment often result in phenomena called red tides. They are characterized by the proliferation and occasional dominance of particular species of toxic or harmful algae (NRC 2000). For this reason, they are more correctly called Harmful Algal Blooms or simply HABs. One major category of HAB impact occurs when toxic phytoplankton is filtered from the water as food by shellfish, which then accumulate the algal toxins. Humans may suffer poisoning syndromes, which have been named paralytic, diarrheic, neurotoxic, and amnesic shellfish poisoning (PSP, DSP, NSP, and ASP) (NRC 2000). Other HAB impacts occur: (a) when marine fauna are killed by algal species that release toxins into the water; and (b) when blooms have sufficient density to cause anoxia, as large quantities of algal biomass sink to the bottom and decay, consuming oxygen. In the case of the Thermaikos Gulf, data on phytoplankton responses to eutrophication from the 1980s to 1995 (Moncheva et al. 2001) demonstrated that frequent diatom blooms occurred during summer. The dominance of diatoms in the Thermaikos Gulf was attributed to their higher e.ciency in utilizing high nutrient levels (especially Si), mainly supplied by river run-off. However, after 1995, dramatic changes occurred. The diatom blooms changed to toxic dino.agellate blooms that can be related to the low N/P ratios. Occurrence of HABs was related to the toxic dinofiagellate species Dinophysis acuminata, a DSP causative. The first confirmed bloom of Dinophysis acuminata was recorded from January to May 2000, with cell abundances >5.0104 cells/L and okadaic acid concentrations up to 1,600 ng/g of mussel tissue (8 times higher than permitted limits). The Dinophysis acuminata bloom was repeated in the two following years (January-April 2001, February-May 2002), with cell abundances not exceeding 1.5 104 cells/L. Physicochemical characteristics, biotic indices and statistical analyses indicated poor water quality in spring and moderate to good quality in summer. In the high flow season, lower quality was due to diffuse pollution in the form of suspended solids along the main river course.The same kind of pollution was detected along the main course of the Axios-Vardar in April and May 1997 during a study of monthly water quality assessment of four stations (LANGRICK et al., 1998). Heavy rainfall and the lack of aquatic and bankside vegetation led to excessive flooding of the river and to the transport of suspended solids into the Axios-Vardar, which were consequently deposited as silt. The main sources of suspended solids were nearby fields that were recently ploughed in preparation for the spring sowing. Organic pollution load was significant in the tributaries Vardarovasi and Anthofito, because of better self-purification capacity of the river during the high flow season (Lazaridou et Al, 1998). The high BOD5 values were most probably related to the diffuse organic matter accompanying the suspended solids and not to point source organic pollution.



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5.2. FYROM

5.2.1. Industry

Industry is the dominant economic sector in FYROM, accounting for 35% of the gross national product (GNP) and 39.9% of employment in 1994 (NEAP 1996). UNEP (2000) identified environmental hot spot conditions in five of the sites visited during its field mission in FYROM: the ferro-alloy plant in Jegunovce, the OHIS A.D. organic chemicals plant in Skopje, the lead smelter MHK Zletovo in Veles, the lead and zinc Rudnici Zletovo mine in Probistip, and the electrical power plant in Bitola. The overall risk assessment suggests that these sites require urgent attention in order to halt serious hazards to public health and the natural environment. Treatment of the industrial sewage takes place only in a few factories. For example, in 1993, a wide range of industries discharged 420 million m3 of wastewater, of which only 6% was treated (NEAP 1996). However, these sites are more important as heavymetal sources. For nutrients emissions, the most important point source is the fertilizer plant in the industrial zone of Veles. The plant produces yearly 60,000 t of fertilizers, using sulfuric acid from the neighboring smelter and imported phosphorites from Morocco. The plants wastewater loadings of phosphorus and nitrogen are equivalent to those that would be generated by population centers of 4.6 million and 0.4 million people, respectively (UNEP 2000), which corresponds to 4,600 t for phosphorus and 1,600 t for nitrogen, annually.

5.2.2. Agriculture

Agriculture is the second important economical sector in FYROM, accounting for 22% of the GNP. Nearly half of the total area of the country is used by agriculture, split equally between cultivated areas and pastures. Concerning intensive agriculture in FYROM, although the trends are decreasing, pollution is present. Fertilizer use has been declining over the last 10 years; there was a rapid decline in the 19901993 period because of the phasing out of input subsidies, import constraints and the financial difficulties faced by farmers. Over the period 19942000, the consumption of total (nitrogen and phosphate) fertilizers decreased from 47,000 t to 39,000 t (FAO 2002). Nevertheless, fertilizer use remains quite high. Pesticide consumption has declined dramatically over the past 10 years, i.e. from 2,706 t in 1983 to 659 t in 1993. Herbicide consumption has declined similarly. Analysis suggests that there are few problems in FYROM regarding retention of pesticide chemical residuals in vegetable products, partly because pesticide use is much lower than in Western Europe, and partly because standards are respected. Wheat, maize, rice, tobacco, and barley are the primary crops in FYROM. Their production during the last decade shows relatively small variations, and clear increasing or decreasing trends could not be identified.

5.2.3. Livestock



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Animal husbandry is intense in FYROM, with sheep, cattle, pigs, and hens (poultry) representing the most important livestock. Throughout the past decade, a slight decrease in livestock occurred, except for pigs, which exhibit a 16% increase (FAO 2002). Pastures cover about 6,340 km2, corresponding to 10% of the land. Animal feeding requires high water availability, posing additional pressure to water resources. Moreover, livestock manure is an important non-point source of nutrients, contributing to the enrichment of topsoils in nitrogen (N-surplus). Organic fertilizer production totals about 3 million tonnes, which satisfy about 30% of the countrys total fertilizer demand (NEAP 1, 1996).

5.2.4. Urban

Urbanization has gradually developed in FYROM, and to date, 60% of the people live in large cities, e.g. Skopje, the countrys capital with some 600,000 inhabitants. Wastewater treatment plants exist only for three cities, Ohrid, Prespa, and Doiran, but their sewage network is still incomplete. Municipal untreated wastewaters that are discharged into the Axios River were estimated at 4,700 t yr-1 for nitrogen, and at 857 t yr-1 for phosphorus (NEAP 1996). The immediate construction of WWTPs, at least for the major cities, is a target of ultimate importance for the quality of the countrys freshwater resources.

5.3. Nutrients

Nutrient contamination is the key pollutant of the Axios-Vardar catchment. Thus, it is examined separately.

5.3.1. Nutrients in the Axios River catchment

The annual freshwater discharge variation of the Axios River is characterized by high values during spring (maximum in April) and a second peak during winter (maximum in February) (Fig. 2a). This pattern classifies the Axios as a snow-rain type-b river (Malikopoulos 1957). When long-term surveys are available a chemical quality regime, may be defined on the basis of long-term monthly average concentrations (Meybeck 1996). Furthermore, the following interpretations rely on the assumption that single monthly measurements are representative for the entire month. The intra-annual variation of nitrates shows minima during the dry period (June to August; Fig. 2b). During the rise of the hydrograph (September to December), nitrate concentrations increase gradually, reaching the annual maximum in December. From January to May, nitrate concentrations decrease gradually. This type of intra-annual variation is attributed to arable land flushing during autumn and early winter and dilution during the springtime (Skoulikidis and Kondylakis 1997). Low concentrations during summer indicate that nitrate point sources are of minor importance. The variation of ammonium and total phosphorous shows maximum



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values during the dry period (July and August; Figs. 2c,d). This pattern, inverse to the variation of nitrates, is attributed to the combination of low flow and the contribution of point pollution sources (domestic wastewaters and seasonally operating industries). During high discharge, relatively low concentrations are observed; as in the case of nitrates, this is due to dilution. Ammonium also exhibits high fluctuations, especially during the dry period, probably due to episodic inputs. However, the long-term variation of the nitrate concentration, in general, reveals a gradual increase throughout the years (Fig. 3). For total phosphorus, the maximum median concentration is observed in October, because of flushing from agricultural land (Fig. 2d). On

Figure 3:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) intra-annual variations of water discharge (a), nitrates (b), ammonium (c), and total phosphorous (d), measured at the Thessaloniki- Eidomeni Railway Bridge station. The bars represent the 2575% quartiles and the upper and lower ticks represent the minimum and maximum values, respectively source: Karageorgis et Al.,2003



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Figure 4:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) inter-annual variations of nitrates, measured at the Thessaloniki-Eidomeni Railway Bridge station. A line is drawn between the median of each year. The bars represent the 2575% quartiles and the upper and lower ticks represent the minimum and maximum values, respectively. source: Karageorgis et Al.,2003



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Map 2: Axios-Vardar River Basin source: Karageorgis et al. 2003



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the other hand, total phosphorus fluctuations are relatively smaller, due to its lower mobilization, since it is readily absorbed on particulate matter (e.g. Lajtha and Schlessinger, 1988). The spatial variation of nutrients is illustrated in a cross-section along the main river course (Fig. 4). The peak concentrations of total nitrogen and total phosphorus at station T8 (downstream of Skopje) and particularly at station T15 (downstream of Veles) indicate significant impact of wastewater discharges from the town of Skopje (waste water from the organic chemical plant and municipal sewage) and from the town and the fertilizer factory at Veles. (Nicolaidis et Al., 2004)

Figure 5:Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP) variations along the Axios River course. Average concentrations of 1997 19981999



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According to a study over the source apportienement of nitrogen and phosphorus inputs into the aquatic environment, conducted by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in 2005, Axios-Vardar river basin is one of the most phosphorus loaded basins in Europe.The load overcomes the 3 kg/Ha and is mainly derived from point sources(map 4).On the other hand the nitrogen load is relatively small in comparison with the most significant European catchments (map 3).

Map 3: Source apportionement of nitrogen load in selected regions and catchments Source: Source apportionment of nitrogen and phosphorus inputs into the aquatic environment ,EEA Report No 7/2005



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Map 4: Source apportionement of nitrogen load in selected regions and catchments Source: Source apportionment of nitrogen and phosphorus inputs into the aquatic environment ,EEA Report No 7/2005



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5.3.2. Nutrient inputs from rivers and point sources to the Thermaikos Gulf

It has been suggested that the four major rivers (Axios, Aliakmon, Loudias, and Gallikos) discharging into the inner Thermaikos Gulf influence significantly the trophic conditions of this coastal region by having a direct effect on primary production and the associated food web structure and functioning. In fact, these four rivers account for almost 40% of the freshwater inflow to the North Aegean Sea according to UNEP/MAP data. The elevated concentrations of nutrients in the river water of the inner Thermaikos Gulf are very likely due to the intensive agricultural, mining and smelting activities that take place in the river basin. The total annual flux of nitrogen and phosphorus was estimated at 9,700 t and 2,100 t, respectively for 1980 1985.Recently (19952000), these loads decreased to 9,200 t for nitrogen and increased to 2,400 t for phosphorus (Table 2). It is worth noting that during the drought period of 19901994, nutrient influxes reached their minimum values.

Table 3: Nutrients input into the inner Thermaikos Gulf in 5-year time intervals source: Karageorgis et Al.,2003

The urban effluents of Thessaloniki city (population 1,200,000) have been released untreated into the sea for several decades, as the sewage network was incomplete and wastewater treatment plants were nonexistent. During this period, more than 100,000 m3 of effluents were discharged daily, resulting in a rapid deterioration of the Thermaikos Gulfs water quality and aesthetic degradation. The WWTP-1 of the city was built in the Sindos area (map. 5). The construction commenced in 1983 and finished in 2002. At this stage, the WWTP-1 operated as a tertiary system (according to EYATH, nitrogen removal is better than 8

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