regional planning class slides 10 to 11-revised

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Lecturer: earl bailey M.Sc. Etc….

Faculty of the Built Environment

School of Building and Land Management

Urban and Regional Planning Department

Development Planning Methods:

Regional Development Planning

(URP3003 ) - URP III - Semester I

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“If everything happened at the same time

there would be no development. If

everything existed in the same place there

could be no particularity. Only space makes

possible the particular, which then unfolds

in time……….to let this space-condition

particularity grow without letting the whole

run wild :– that is political art” (AUGUST LOSCH, The economics of location, 1939, p 508)

Planning

Planning is the application of scientific

methodologies to policy making.

Conscious and deliberate efforts are made

to increase the validity of policies in the

context of their present and anticipated

future of the environment in which planning

takes place (Faludi, 1994)

Validity, accuracy, consistency and reliability

4

What is Regional Planning?

Regional planning is the process of formulating and clarifying social objectives in the ordering of activities in supra-urban space.

For some, this arbitrary division into level would seem to contradict the essentially comprehensive and theoretically indivisible nature of planning, while others would argue that there is no natural continuum and merely disparate existence.

However, from a practical viewpoint, some sub-division is necessary to allow an understanding of such a comprehensive subject and as a basis for administration (LA, KSAC, PMC, NAA etc).

Regional Development Planning

Undertaken by governments with the aim of improving the

well-being of people in areas where there is concern about

present and future living conditions.

Economic conditions receive the greatest attention

Economic issues; high rates of unemployment, low income

levels or lack of investment opportunities) are closely

associated with a broad range of physical and social issues;

substandard health and housing conditions, inadequacies in

physical infrastructure (e.g., water supplies, waste disposal,

and transport facilities), environmental pollution, and

deficiencies in educational, recreational and social services.

Planned program of regional development normally attempts

to address these issues comprehensively. 5

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Origin of regional planning

The practice of regional planning usually involves an

initiative on the part of state. Why?

Always underlined with a specific method or procedure

and a definite concept of development (e.g. Procedural

Planning Theory combined with Regional Planning Doctrine)

Doctrine feeds on a number of theories in the social

and environmental sciences which are designated as

substantive theories in regional planning

Both doctrine and theory are informed by certain

ideological assumptions that change the content of

regional planning and determines its outcome (figure 1.1)

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Origin of regional planning

History helps us to gain a better understanding of the

variations in the actual practice of planning.

Without practice doctrine would remain barren

Britain – doctrine arouse largely as a pragmatic

response to realistic problems (improper waste disposal and

general unhealthy living conditions)

United States – Doctrine came first and continued to

evolve independently of practice. (doctrine was essentially

academic while practice was bureaucratic)

Doctrine combines = normative + substantive +

procedural (practical dimensions of regional planning)

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Principal dimensions of regional

planning and their interrelations Ideology

Procedural

planning

theory

Regional

planning

doctrine

Substantive

theory in

regional

planning

Regional

planning

practice

Existing socio-economic

political and spatial

organizations etc of society

The internal

relationships among

the five major

dimensions of

regional planning

and the underlying

reality of socio-

economic, political

and spatial

organization.

Figure 1.1

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Planning – ideological historical development

A historical perspective contains at least five

(sometimes overlapping) strands of planning in the

modern world.

1. The liberal-humanist tradition.

2. Utopian-revolutionary planning.

3. Policy analysis planning.

4. Socio-cultural diversity sensitivity planning.

5. Consultative and participatory planning.

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Planning – The liberal-humanist

tradition.

The earliest liberal-humanist tradition arose in part as a response to the terrible living conditions of early industrial cities.

Involved contribution from associated fields/disciplines such as;

– public health,

– civil engineering,

– architecture and

– urban design.

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Planning - Utopian-revolutionary

utopian-revolutionary planning evolved in tandem with the

liberal-humanist tradition. This was intent on not simply

ameliorating the socio-spatial conditions of capitalist

urbanism, but on transforming them radically.

Tradition of planning understood as social change,

exemplified in the early moments of modernism and still

active today, for instance, in the worldwide anti-neoliberal

movement.

The learning-by-doing (or the ‘science of muddling

through’) approach to planning also boasts of a long

lineage of its own, often leaning for theoretical support on

the American philosophy of pragmatism.

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Planning - Policy analysis

Of more recent vintage is the now more mainstream tradition of planning focused on policy analysis and rooted mostly in the discipline of neoclassical economics and proximate social sciences - which sometimes defines planning as the rectification of market failure.

However this can be broadened to include the rectification of economic, social, cultural and ecological failures!

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Planning - Socio-cultural diversity

sensitivity

Over the last two decades, yet another

tradition of planning has emerged out of a

special concern with social and cultural

diversity, speaking to the situation of

various culturally or economically

marginalized groups (including women,

people of colour, gays and lesbians).

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Planning - Consultative and

participatory

At the same time planning has transformed

from an approach rooted in top-down

social engineering to an approach that is

increasingly consultative and participatory

in its nature.

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In reality, of course, the operative definition of planning is keenly

contested by a variety of traditions and their political values.

The practice of planning, likewise, is the negotiated - or compromised -

outcome of a struggle between divergent perspectives held by different

social groups on how the world works and what to do about it.

Even a cursory perusal of the last century tells us that different

conceptions of planning have been dominant at different times.

From the Second World War until about the mid-seventies, for

example, the most influential theories and practices of planning owed

much to the values of the welfare state and Keynesian economics.

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The last two decades of the twentieth century, by contrast, witnessed

the ascent of neo-liberal ideology and its stamp on planning practice.

In each case, the kind of planning that proved to be dominant was

neither the ‗true‘ (whatever that means) conception of planning nor the

most ‗advanced‘ one (however that is understood).

Rather, the dominant has been the practice that corresponded to the

given balance of power between different social groups.

The meaning of planning in the twenty first century will depend on

how planners intervene with other political actors and work with

communities in the emerging social and political struggles of our

time.

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What planners do and how they think about the

world are both diverse.

The question from this then is what constitutes the

unity of planning as an art and a science?

From a pedagogical standpoint, it is possible to

identify three questions that concern all planners.

1. How did the world of our city get to be the way it is?

2. What kind of cities - or world - do we want to live in?

3. How do we get from what we have to what we want?

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The horizons of planning are shifting with changes in the ever more

globalize political economy of urban development and the environment.

Consequently, many methods and concepts that were valid ten years ago

may no longer be effective, and therefore much of the content of planning

education, practise and thought should be constantly reviewed.

Nevertheless, successful planning always depends upon certain qualities

that practitioners must carry with them through their careers, irrespective

of substantive orientation and the exigencies of social change;

1. Planners must be literate and numerate,

2. Planners must possess the skills of synthesis, practical reasoning,

critical analysis, discerning judgement and persuasion.

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Contextual questions!

– Why is there a need to plan?

– What is planning?

– How does Regional Planning fit in Planning?

– Why is there a need for Regional Planning?

– What form does Regional Planning take?

These questions are answer both in a specific (subjective)

and general (objective) context

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Why Plan and Planning? Movement from laissez-faire to control conditions (socio-

economic) in society

The interaction of private action and market forces often

results in undesirable national/regional situations...THUS!

Inequalities – ecological and socio-economic (protection

of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups)

Increase in population (rural – urban migration) – need to

manage this effect on urban and manage urbanisation

Mitigate conditions of organic, informal, unregulated and

uncontrolled settlement

Etc..

Need for a overall control/management mechanism..

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Why Regional Planning

The distribution and location of natural resources normally follow a regional spatial patterns

The ―core-periphery‖ relationship

Rural – urban relationship

Location of resource base normally confined to rurality (investment and resourced based development)

Agriculture dominant economic base

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What is Planning?

• Physical (planning for the shaping of an area‘s physical

structure – land use/function, which outstrip the ability of market

mechanism to cope)

• Economic (levels of economic prosperity through the

market mechanism)

• Allocative (coordination, resolution of conflict

ensuring that existing system is efficient in operationing –

more regulatory in nature)

• Innovative (planning for the efficient functioning of

existing systems, improving and developing new aims etc)

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What is Planning?

• Multi objective (the goal is an ideal and

expressed in abstract terms)

• Single objective planning (goal is

attainable and measureable by standards set)

• Indicative (general guidelines

and is advisory in nature)

• Imperative planning (command

planning – specific directives)

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What is Planning?

At the heart of planning lies a commitment to better cities, healthy environments and social and economic well-being for everyone.

Planners pursue their ideals and objectives in the name of the public good as policy makers, public servants, builders, community organizers and political activists, working at all levels of government, with the non-profit sector or in private practice.

Planner‘s specializations include land use, housing, transportation, urban design, social policy, public health, economic development, international development, and the environment-among others.

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What is Planning?

Although the built environment of the city has been their traditional terrain of action, planners also work on social, economic and cultural issues and at various spatial scales.

Planner work, accordingly, ranges in territorial scope from the design of small towns to policy planning at the national level to international development.

The practice of planning today spans the entire local-global spectrum, taking into consideration the challenges and opportunities presented to cities, regions and nations by the forces of globalization.

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What is Planning?

Major features of general planning include a

sequence of actions, which are designed to

address issues and concerns in the future

Development is NOW – Planning is FUTURE

The Planning concern/issue vary but tend to be

primarily economic and social;

The planning period, the time horizon of 'the

future', also varies according to

The type and level of planning;

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What is Planning?

Sequential process which can be conceptualised into a number of

stages……………… but not necessarily stages theory, impact theory,

relational theory or ????,

the identification of the problem or opportunities or betterment;

the formulation of general goals and more specific and

measurable objectives relating to the problem; the identification of

possible constraints;

The projection of the future situation., (continuity – thus sustainability)

The generation and evaluation of alternative courses of action;

The production of a preferred plan, which in its generic form may

include any policy statement or strategy as well as a definitive plan.

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What is Planning?

Planning is primarily a way of thinking about social

and economic problems, planning is oriented

predominantly toward the future, is deeply

concerned with the relation of goals to collective

decisions and strives for comprehensiveness in

policy and programme.

Wherever these modes of thought are applied,

there is a presumption that planning is being

done."

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Planning theory

Procedural planning theory

Preoccupied with process and procedure but not necessarily substance (e.g. Stages Theory).

Accuracy and content are left to the epistemological sources feeding the theory and not so much the theory itself.

Substantive planning theory

Preoccupied with substance, content, validity and accuracy of theory.

Places heavy importance on epistemological source/s

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Strategic Planning

―Strategic planning is about preparing for change.

It involves people viewing their community as group of stakeholders who are trying to build a consensus on common vision or mission for the town.

Strategic planning often fits well with the local decision making process where important decisions tend to be made by a few movers and shakers‖

Strategic planning for a small town begins with a town‘s people forming a vision of the type of community they want, given the ecological/physical, economic and social realities that are likely to exist in the next 10 – 20 years.

Large corporations often use strategic planning to look five to ten years into the future and plan for how the company must adopt now in order to compete and grow.

A company that fails to anticipate changing needs markets and opportunities may not grow or even survive.

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Strategic Planning

The important difference with strategic planning from others is that

strategic planning in addition to anticipating changes also anticipates

the particular position that will be a reality in a specific number of years.

A community is sustainable if it has the correct mix of economic assets

leadership and luck!. A sustainable community not only survives but

also provide its citizens with a good place to live and work.

Strategic community planning focus firstly on identifying overall

community strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT).

In short planning for;

Population change

Land use (zoning)

Economic development

Sustainable community

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Planning practise

Path-dependent and path-shaping

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Regional – Region The Region: Fact or Fallacy?

A first step in an outline of the concept of the region is to examine whether regions are natural phenomena or merely mental constructions.

The Subjective View

Perform a particularly useful function,

The Objective View

Linked with the search for the elusive 'natural' region. The famous Oxford geographer, A. J. Herbertson, adopting an analytical approach, divided the world into 'natural regions' on the basis of four criteria;

Land configuration,

Climate

Vegetation and

Population density,

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Categories of region Regional

Units

Homogeneous

region Nodal regions

Planning or

programming

regions

Single feature

regions

Multiple feature

regions total region

hierarchy

(village-district-town-centre-etc)

Figure 1.2

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Regional – Region The Region: Formal or Functional

The concept of the region as a method of classification has evolved through two distinct phases reflecting the economic advantage from a simple agrarian economy to a complex industrial system.

Phase I – Formal Region

The first phase saw the 'formal region‘ concerned with uniformity, and defined according to homogeneity. A formal region is a geographical area, which is uniform or homogenous in terms of selected criteria.

Economic formal regions are generally based off types of industry or agriculture. Although there are obvious physical undertones.

Phase II – Functional Region

The second phase saw the development of the 'functional region'-concerned with interdependence, the interrelationship of the parts, and define on the basis of functional coherence.

A brief analysis of the concept of the region suggests that regions are a means to an end, rather than ends in themselves. They may be formal or functional based off a single or multi-criteria.

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Uniform region

Homogeneous or formal region, non overlapping and

completely exhaust the space available.

Nodal region

Contiguous or non-contiguous bonds or links between pairs

of places. Maybe overlapping and interpenetrating.

Functional regions

Planning region

Contiguous or non-contiguous delimited on a ad hoc basis

for administrative or organisational purposes. They may

exhaust the study area or be confined to a part of it

Types of regions

imumndsExternalbo

ndsInternalbomax

imumiationInternal

iationExternalmax

var

var

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Types of regions/”regionness”

The evolutionary logics (not a stage theory) – a framework for comparative analysis;

Region as a geographical unit

Region as a social system

Region as a recognised corporation between any cultural, economic, political or military fields

Region as civil society

Region as state

Changes in regionness is essential for the core-periphery order

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Region as a Geographical unit

Delineated by more or less physical boundaries

and ecological characteristics

Referred to as the Proto-region

No organised human society

Needs human habitation maintaining some sort of

relationship for further regionalisation

Leading to the social dimension of regionalisation (next level of regionness – Region as a Social System)

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Region as a social system

Implies trans-local relationship among human groups.

Relations constitute security complex – constituent‘s

security is dependent on each other and the stability of the

regional system.

Social relations may leave room for hostility

May be described as anarchic based off security

arrangements

Low level of organisation – balance of power is essential

for security guarantee

Called a ―primitive‖ region

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Region as a recognised coorporation

Recognised and agreed coorporation in cultural,

economic, political or military fields

List of areas (countries) which are members of this

organised corporation

Formal region – defined by organisational

membership differentiated from real region –

defined in terms of potentialities and less precise

criteria to asses the relevance and future potential

of a particular regional organisation

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Region as civil society

Organisational framework facilitates and promotes social communication and convergence of values throughout the region

Pre-existence of shared cultural traditions

Culture is continuously created and recreated

Multidimensional and voluntary quality of regional cooperation

Social characteristics indicating an emerging ―Regional anarchic society‖ (more than anarchy but less than society

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Region as state

State with distinct identity, actor capability, legitimacy and

structure of decision making.

Crucial for regional intervention into conflict resolution

(between and within former states)

Creation of welfare for regional security and balance

State formation & nation building = region state

Political order = voluntary evolution of groups of national &

political units into supranational security community where

sovereignty is pooled for the benefit of all

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The Core - Periphery

Core-Periphery Theory is based on the notion

that as one region or state expands in economic

prosperity; it must engulf regions nearby to ensure

ongoing economic and political success.

The area of high growth becomes known as the

core, and the neighboring area is the periphery.

Cores and peripheries can be towns, cities, states,

or nations.

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The world can be perceived as a core / periphery dichotomy where core countries are characterized by high levels of development, a capacity at innovation and a convergence of trade flows.

The core has a level of dominance over the periphery which is reflected in trade and transportation.

Accessibility is higher within the elements of the core than within the periphery.

Most of high level economic activities and innovations are located at the core, with the periphery subjugated to those processes at various levels.

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This pattern was particularly prevalent during the colonial era where the

development of transport systems in the developing world mainly

favoured the accessibility of core countries to the resources and

markets of the periphery, a situation that endured until the 1960s and

1970s.

The semi-periphery has a higher level of autonomy and has been the

object of significant processes of economic development (China, Brazil,

Malaysia, etc.).

Concomitantly, the accessibility of the semi-periphery improved,

permitting the exploitation of its comparative advantages in labour and

resources.

Recent changes in globalization, particularly industrial growth in

developing countries, is challenging this representation.

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Answers to the disparity between cores and peripheries are

most complex on the international level where these

problems are the most difficult to deal with.

Free trade is the answer - it could allow for periphery

countries to concentrate on producing goods for which they

have an aptitude.

Critics of this claim still maintain that it would make little

difference because the established core countries would

still dominate.

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Bring back to life the vitality of struggling neighborhoods

and reestablish them as compliments to the city. It takes

knowledgeable foresight by city officials as well as action

through the entire community to accomplish this.

Unmitigated growth and development in one area is going

to have a counter effect in an adjacent area to some

degree.

Backlash affect causes inequality between different areas

and amongst the people who live in each area.

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Core Expansion Trends & Methods

When a city grows, it must expand its borders to continue

to supply the population with the standard of living they are

used to (e.g. variety of products, standardd of living, etc).

The core will first expand to areas of geographic similarity,

for instance a neighbouring town may find itself becoming a

suburb of the city

When geographic peripheries become exhausted (either

because of resources depletion or the balanced

Economies of Scale), the core then seeks out peripheries

that are culturally similar and share the same language as

the core.

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Core Expansion Trends & Methods

Only when the core has exhausted all advantageous options of

geographic and cultural similarity will it seek to expand to a periphery

that is truly foreign. (e.g. Developed countries – foreign policy)

A foreign periphery carries a high risk of not complying with requests

from the core.

Peripheries bearing geographic or cultural similarity to the core can

often benefit in the long run, through what is known as Trickle-down

economics, peripheries that have vast cultural differences often lack

any negotiation rights in their colonization. When this happens Trickle-

up economics apply, and peripheries watch as their resources drain

away towards the core.

The more a periphery becomes colonized, the harder it becomes for it

to resist the core. The probability of civil or trans-national war then

starts to slowly approach

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Semi-periphery

Semi-periphery - an important middle ground between the core and the periphery.

An area that is more self sufficient and developed than the periphery but not to the extent of the core.

The semi-periphery is important because it bridges the gap between the rich core countries and the poor periphery countries.

Provides balance and order keeping the world from political and economic crisis in same way that the middle class does on the national level in stable core countries.

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Regionalism Regionalism may refer to the distinctive local character of different parts of the world or to a people's perception of and identification with such places.

A term in international relations that refers to the expression of a common sense of identity and purpose combined with the creation and implementation of institutions that express a particular identity and shape collective action within a geographical region.

The European Union can be classified as a result of regionalism.

The idea that lies behind this increased regional identity is that as a region becomes more economically integrated, it will necessarily become politically integrated as well.

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Regionalism

The European example is especially valid in this light, as the EU

as a political body grew out of more than 40 years of economic

integration within Europe. The precursor to the EU, the

European Economic Community (EEC) was entirely an

economic entity.

This is in contrast with regionalization, which is the expression of

increased commercial and human transactions in a defined

geographical region.

In national politics (or low politics), regionalism is a political

notion which favours regionalization—a process of dividing a

political entity (typically a country) into smaller regions, and

transferring power from the central government to the regions.

Opposite process is called unitarisation.

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Regionalism and Globalisation

Market driven economics.

Information technology

Internationalisation vs. Globalisation

Internationalization in itself is not globalization, though the latter

implies the former.

Anti-globalisation demonstrators usually make that point. They are

not against international connections and the meeting of peoples.

They are just against the marketisation of the world, so people

become seen as market segments rather than communities with

histories and cultures to be cherished.

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Global movement of;

Trade and trade block (trade imbalance) non-human life

Economic education (Intel and intellectual property)

Social laws and legislations

Cultural food supply

Product and production waste (nuclear and other contaminants)

Market entertainment

Competition and competitiveness education and educating

Communication language

Technology living standards

Rules and regulations

Employment and labour

Criminal

Disasters and hazards (causes and consequences)

Diseases (pandemic and epidemic)

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Regionalism and Globalisation Consequences of Globalisation

Questionable terms of trade

Unimproved production of goods and loss of jobs

Increase in criminality

Opportunity for product diversity – going into new markets and new markets coming to us

Retooling of work place

Wholesome communication between managers and workers

Development of competitive advantage

Cultural erosion

Improvement of investment climate (price, labour costs, etc)

Foreign investment – question as to do or not to do?

Ignore certain production patterns and products

Reinvestment in labour, machinery and all production tools

Redefinition of employer and employee relationship

Redefinition of role of government

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Strategies to tackle globalisation

Work place reorganisation

Sharing of information and team building and communication

International competitiveness of productive levels

Mechanisms for modernisations

Attack the global market as a country and not as individual company

International competition displacing local (internal competition)

Identification of competitive products so we focus on these as global

products thus there is a national effort to market these globally

Training and retraining of employees (managers, administrators,

workers, labourers etc) – role of the trade union in this

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Strategies to tackle globalisation

Development of specialist products based off our climate (e.g. Tropical fruits

– ackee, guava, avocado, thyme plus the value added)

Packaging, labelling and branding of product

Process reengineering – a redefinition of the production process for banana,

sugar cane, coffee, bauxite etc)

Each stakeholder must feel apart of the whole structure

Creation of new investments through thorough knowledge of the market

place

“Sophistication” of the tourism product, informatics and other tropical

business ventures

Role of Government and other partners –

Responsibility of worker etc to respond to their instinctive will to survive

globally

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National vision for Globalisation

Alert government who understands what‘s happening in the

global market place

Productive sectors at the cutting edge of technology in their

specialists area

Workforce – flexible, trainable, intelligent and multi-skilled

Management and worker having more synergy

Aware, informed, flexible and efficient business leaders in

production at a fair price within a consistent environment

Change is inevitable

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Accountability of government and all stake holders

Continuing education at the mastery level

New ways of bridging gaps within society and between Jamaicans

locally and internationally

Change in implementation – needs to more regulated as against free

for all piece meal pattern

Personal and sectoral respect – retraining of managers and workers

everyone at all levels

Continuing awareness of environment by all persons and sectors

World class company in the world class country (not world class

company in a third rate country)

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Development

A multidimensional process, including in addition to the economic development process, social development processes concerned with the distributional aspects of development

Development as such involves implicit and explicit value judgements about the direction and speed of change.

Development is not the same as societal change

(Distribution – Redistribution – Change – (Empowerment – Awareness – etc)

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Definition of development

Advancement, progress — gradual improvement

or growth or development

Broadening — the action of making broader

Elaboration, working out — developing in

intricate and painstaking detail

product development — improving an existing

product or developing new kinds of products

The act of developing.

The state of being developed.

A significant event, occurrence, or change.

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Definition of development The result or product of building up: accretion, buildup, enlargement,

multiplication, proliferation. See increase/decrease.

Steady improvement, as of an individual or a society: amelioration, betterment,

improvement, melioration, progress. See better/worse.

Something significant that happens: circumstance, episode, event, happening,

incident, news, occasion, occurrence, thing.

The act of developing or disclosing that which is unknown; a gradual unfolding

process by which anything is developed, as a plan or method, gradual

advancement or growth through a series of progressive changes; also, the

result of developing, or a developed state.

The series of changes which animal and vegetable organisms undergo in their

passage from the embryonic state to maturity, from a lower to a higher state of

organization – relate this definition to human society

The act or process of changing or expanding an expression into another of

equivalent value or meaning.

The equivalent expression into which another has been developed.

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What Is Human Development?

"The basic purpose of development is to enlarge people's

choices. In principle, these choices can be infinite and can

change over time. People often value achievements that do not

show up at all, or not immediately, in income or growth figures:

greater access to knowledge, better nutrition and health

services, more secure livelihoods, security against crime and

physical violence, satisfying leisure hours, political and cultural

freedoms and sense of participation in community activities. The

objective of development is to create an enabling environment

for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives."

Mahbub ul Haq

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Development Theories Economic (growth) model

Social (distribution and redistribution) model

Ecological (human and nature) model

Development Impact Assessment (DIA): Instruments to describe the

consequences of proposed measures or policies in a systematic way,

facilitating a meaningful decision making process (Carry out a)

Descriptive instruments or ways of putting into words opinions on the

way in which people can or should play their part in society

Recognition of the Spatial consequences and implications of the

development process (economic growth, wages – market prices – price

policy – capital flow

Regional Development provides a good combination of all three

preoccupations of development

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Three definitions of development

1. ECONOMIC - Maximum economic growth

2. SOCIO-CULTURAL - Fair distribution of

existing and potential prosperity

3. ENVIRONMENTAL- Minimalisation of the

damaging effects on nature

SPATIAL AND ASPATIAL

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Why development? • Economic growth

• Underdevelopment

• Agrarian to industrial transformation

• Migration from rural to urban

• Slum creation and stagnation

• Decline in food production

• Absence of redistribution

• Growing inequality

• Need for socio-cultural (redistribution models)

and ecological criteria

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General theories of Development

and Underdevelopment

• Economic Growth

• Modernisation

• Dependency

• Redistribution

• Basic needs

• Ecological

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Planning and Development

Planning (Responsiveness to change) is concerned

about the management (response and reaction, path

defining, path sustaining and path dependent) of the

multidimensional changes that define society (settlement

and people - a set of people in a place at a particular time,

held together by common behaviours and values)

Development (Resource transformation) is concerned

with identifying and sourcing resources and energies to

sustain the multidimensional changes and simultaneously

satisfy the demands that are displayed and expressed in the

change system.

Management (mode of response and interpretation) -

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Regional planning – push factors!

Regional planning was to create conditions which would establish a harmonious relationship human beings and nature, grounded in a bio-ethics that would show a deep respect for the limits of human intervention in natural processes and limit the cancerous growth of cities

Lewis Mumford, Howard Odum could not prevent the metropolitanisation of America

To reduce and in the long run eliminate the, major inequalities in income among regions

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Regional planning – push factors!

Need for self sustaining growth (in the USA after the 2nd WW)

Need to understand the underlying social relations in production as a

means to legitimate the existing distribution of power in society

Paradigm shift in planning ideology;

– economic growth was regarded as the only measure of development and

growth

– growing awareness of the decisive role of natural resources in sustaining

civilized life;

– new ecological ethics;

– greater concerns with questions of equity;

– deeper understanding of the contradiction between the international

division of labour and the territorial aspiration of new nation states;

– reassertion of the principles of self reliance at all levels of territorial order.

72

The role of the Planner

design vs. social science: (i.e., should the

planner be trained as an architect

or economist?)

city vs. planning: Should city planning

focus on the "city" (a substantive place) or

on the "planning" (a procedural/behavioural

process of decision making)? (e.g., ends vs.

means)

73

The role of the Planner

utopian (planning for how things could/should be)

vs. pragmatic (how things are)

consensus vs. adversarial (Can and should

planners strive to achieve a common set of goals

and objectives amongst all the social groups in a

city? Or should planners accept the inevitability of

social conflict and disagreement in any plan?)

engaged advocate vs. objective technician (How

far should planners get involved in politics and

take sides?)

74

Organisational and spatial scale of

Planning

comprehensive (large scale designs) vs.

incremental (i.e., "muddling through")

bottom up (grass roots) vs. top-down

planning (centralized planning)

neighbourhood vs. city vs. metropolis vs.

region vs. nation vs. world

(at what level should planning happen?)

75

Priorities and conflicting interests in

Planning

Which goal should planners pursue?

economic development vs. environmentalism

Should Planners plan for an efficient allocation of

resources, or a more socially fair distribution of resources?

equity vs. efficiency

physical vs. social planning, or

planning for people vs. planning for place

territory vs. function (i.e., planning for places vs.

planning for economic sectors)

76

The Planner’s relationship to the

market and government What is the relationship between Planning vs. the Market:

(1) market failures and non-market failures (neoclassical view);

(2) the market as inherently a failure (Marxist view);

(3) planning as serving the market (a Marxist view, or a cynical view)

(4) a blurred boundary between planning and the market (institutional

view)

Public vs. Private

(Should planning be done in the public and/or private sector?)

Capitalism vs. Socialism: "the logic of the plan to replace the chaos of

the market"

The old justification of socialism vs. ―The logic of the market to replace

the chaos of the plan"

Is this the new critique of Eastern European socialism?

77

Styles of Planning

Comprehensive planning

―Rational model" of planning

Incremental planning

Advocacy planning

Strategic planning

Equity planning

78

Planning terminology

zoning urban partnerships linkages and inclusionary zoning Tennessee Valley Authority Appalachian Regional Commission general plan (master plan, comprehensive plan) greenbelt community development economic development

79

The Central Propositions of

Dependency Theory - 1

Underdeveloped and undeveloped

Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different from undevelopment.

The latter term simply refers to a condition in which resources are not being used. For example, the European colonists viewed the North American continent as an undeveloped area: the land was not actively cultivated on a scale consistent with its potential.

Underdevelopment refers to a situation in which resources are being actively used, but used in a way which benefits dominant states and not the poorer states in which the resources are found.

80



Historical context of Underdeveloped and undeveloped

The distinction between underdevelopment and undevelopment places the poorer countries of the world in a profoundly different historical context.

These countries are not "behind" or "catching up" to the richer countries of the world.

They are not poor because they lagged behind the scientific transformations or the Enlightenment values of the European states.

81


Dependency Theory

They are poor because they were coercively

integrated into the European economic

system only as producers of raw materials

or to serve as repositories of cheap labor.

They were denied the opportunity to market

their resources in any way that competed

with dominant states.

82



Resources use

Dependency theory suggests that alternative uses

of resources are preferable to the resource usage

patterns imposed by dominant states.

There is no clear definition of what these preferred

patterns might be, but some criteria are invoked.

For example, one of the dominant state practices

most often criticized by dependency theorists is

export agriculture.

83


Dependency Theory

The criticism is that many poor economies

experience rather high rates of malnutrition

even though they produce great amounts of

food for export.

Many dependency theorists would argue

that those agricultural lands should be used

for domestic food production in order to

reduce the rates of malnutrition.

84



Nationalism, regionalism and globalism

The preceding proposition can be amplified: dependency theorists rely upon a belief that there exists a clear "national" economic interest which can and should be articulated for each country.

In this respect, dependency theory actually shares a similar theoretical concern with realism.

85


Dependency Theory

What distinguishes the dependency perspective is that its proponents believe that this national interest can only be satisfied by addressing the needs of the poor within a society, rather than through the satisfaction of corporate or governmental needs.

Trying to determine what is "best" for the poor is a difficult analytical problem over the long run.

Dependency theorists have not yet articulated an operational definition of the national economic interest.

86



The residence of power for development

The diversion of resources over time (and one must remember that dependent relationships have persisted since the European expansion beginning in the fifteenth century) is maintained not only by the power of dominant states, but also through the power of elites in the dependent states.

Dependency theorists argue that these elites maintain a dependent relationship because their own private interests coincide with the interests of the dominant states.

87



These elites are typically trained in the dominant states and share similar values and culture with the elites in dominant states.

Thus, in a very real sense, a dependency relationship is a "voluntary" relationship. One need not argue that the elites in a dependent state are consciously betraying the interests of their poor; the elites sincerely believe that the key to economic development lies in following the prescriptions of liberal economic doctrine.

88

The Policy Implications of

Dependency Analysis If one accepts the analysis of dependency theory, then the questions of how

poor economies develop become quite different from the traditional questions

concerning comparative advantage, capital accumulation, and import/export

strategies.

Some of the most important new issues include:

1. The success of the advanced industrial economies does not serve as a

model for the currently developing economies.

2. Dependency theory repudiates the central distributive mechanism of the

neoclassical model, what is usually called "trickle-down" economics.

3. Since the market only rewards productivity, dependency theorists discount

aggregate measures of economic growth such as the GDP or trade

indices.

4. Dependent states, therefore, should attempt to pursue policies of self-

reliance.

89


Dependency Analysis

When economic development became a focused area of study, the

analytical strategy (and ideological preference) was quite clear: all

nations need to emulate the patterns used by the rich countries.

Indeed, in the 1950s and 1960s there was a paradigmatic consensus

that growth strategies were universally applicable, a consensus best

articulated by Walt Rostow in his book, The Stages of Economic

Growth.

Dependency theory suggests that the success of the richer countries

was a highly contingent and specific episode in global economic

history, one dominated by the highly exploitative colonial relationships

of the European powers.

A repeat of those relationships is not now highly likely for the poor

countries of the world.

90


Dependency Analysis

Dependency theory repudiates the central

distributive mechanism of the neoclassical model,

what is usually called "trickle-down" economics.

The neoclassical model of economic growth pays

relatively little attention to the question of

distribution of wealth. Its primary concern is on

efficient production and assumes that the market

will allocate the rewards of efficient production in a

rational and unbiased manner.

91


Dependency Analysis

This assumption may be valid for a well-integrated,

economically fluid economy where people can quickly

adjust to economic changes and where consumption

patterns are not distorted by non-economic forces such as

racial, ethnic, or gender bias.

These conditions are not pervasive in the developing

economies, and dependency theorists argue that economic

activity is not easily disseminated in poor economies.

For these structural reasons, dependency theorists argue

that the market alone is not a sufficient distributive

mechanism.

92


Dependency Analysis Since the market only rewards productivity, dependency

theorists discount aggregate measures of economic growth

such as the GDP or trade indices.

Dependency theorists do not deny that economic activity

occurs within a dependent state. They do make a very

important distinction, however, between economic growth

and economic development.

93


Dependency Analysis

For example, there is a greater concern within the

dependency framework for whether the economic activity is

actually benefiting the nation as a whole.

Therefore, far greater attention is paid to indices such as

life expectancy, literacy, infant mortality, education, and the

like.

Dependency theorists clearly emphasize social indicators

far more than economic indicators.

94


Dependency Analysis

Dependent states, therefore, should attempt to pursue

policies of self-reliance.

Contrary to the neo-classical models endorsed by the IMF

and the WB, greater integration into the global economy is

not necessarily a good choice for poor countries.

Often this policy perspective is viewed as an endorsement

of a policy of autarky, and there have been some

experiments with such a policy such as China's Great Leap

Forward or Tanzania's policy of Ujamaa.

95


Dependency Analysis The failures of these policies are clear, and the failures

suggest that autarky is not a good choice.

Rather a policy of self-reliance should be interpreted as

endorsing a policy of controlled interactions with the world

economy: poor countries should only endorse interactions

on terms that promise to improve the social and economic

welfare of the larger citizenry.

96

Underdevelopment

Underdevelopment is obviously extensive. Depending on where the

line is drawn between developed and underdeveloped societies.

The underdeveloped world makes up between 75 and 85 percent of

the world's population.

The World Bank [1999 figures] classifies countries encompassing

40% of the world's population as low-income (average GNP per

capita of $410 per year);

countries with 35% of world population as lower-middle-income

(average per capita GNP of $1,200 per year);

countries with 10% of world population as upper-middle-income

(average per capita GNP of $4,900 per year); and

countries with just 15% of world population as high-income (average

per capita GNP of $25,730 per year).

97

Underdevelopment

We should also take note of the persistence of

underdevelopment.

The membership list of the exclusive club of rich countries

has not changed much between 1900 and the present.

In 1900 the club consisted of Western Europe, and North

America [minus Mexico] with Japan applying for

membership.

Now it consists of Western Europe, North America [still

minus Mexico] and Japan with Eastern Europe, South

Korea and Taiwan knocking at the door.

98

Theories of Underdevelopment

Development economics is one of the most

unsettled fields of economics.

It is awash with a profusion of competing theories

of the causes of underdevelopment and swarming

with even more approaches to development policy.

Nonetheless, the major theories of

underdevelopment fall into two broad categories:

1. stage (or linear) theories and

2. non-linear theories.

99


Stage theories stress the similarities between the

underdeveloped economies today and the now-developed

economies during earlier phases of their industrial

revolutions.

Non-linear theories stress the differences between the

conditions faced by underdeveloped countries today and

the conditions under which the now-developed countries

began their industrial revolutions.

Conservative and radical development economists do not

automatically fall into any particular camp.

There are conservative and radical versions of stage

theories and there are conservative and radical versions of

non-linear theories.

100


Stage Theories

The best-known stage theory of economic development

was developed WW Rostow.

Rostow described five stages of growth which he used to

explain the major discontinuities of economic development

as they affected the now-industrialized nations.

1. Pre-industrial/Traditional stage

2. Preconditions for take off

3. Take off

4. Drive to Maturity

5. Mass Consumption

101


1. Pre-Industrial/Traditional Stage

The strength of Rostow's theory is how deeply rooted it is in

the economic history of the rich countries.

The major weakness is the assumption that the poor

countries are poor simply because they "took off" later than

the rich countries (or because they have yet to take off).

Rostow identifies a pre-industrial stage which he labels

traditional society. The first step on the road to

development is to meet the preconditions for take-off

102


2. Preconditions for Take Off

This involves enough modernization of agriculture

to feed a growing population of non-farmers;

Development and modernization of some

infrastructure in the form of roads, canals or

railroads; and the growing influence and power of

a group willing and able to lead the country into

industrialization.

103


3. Take Off

Once the preconditions are met, the country is ready for take-off. Savings

of 10 to 15% of GDP will be regularly invested in one or more

manufacturing industries.

This is the point at which self-sustaining growth begins.

The leading industry brings other industries along through both forward

and backward linkages. For example, Swedish timber exports grew rapidly

in the 1860s. This provided investment opportunities in the logging and

sawmilling industries. Growth then occurred in the saw blade industry [a

backward linkage] and the wood-products industries such as door-jambs

and furniture [forward linkages].

Note that some industries might not have sufficient linkages to propel an

economy into take-off. Jamaica's bauxite exports go from the mines to the

harbor without any linkages to the local economy other than the mining jobs.

104


4. Drive to Maturity

The next stage broadens the economic base of the growing

economy.

Rostow switches his metaphor at this stage and calls it the

drive to maturity.

More forward and backward linkages are exploited. A

cacao exporter starts to export chocolate bars and to

manufacture the agricultural machinery used on the cacao

plantations. Sweden's wood-product exports broaden to

include matches while the use of hydroelectric power for

remote sawmills is the first step in the development of an

electrical industry

105


5. Mass Consumption

The final stage, the age of high mass

consumption, starts when rising wages lead

to the increased consumption of new

consumer goods. Most times these are

ostentatious goods leading to an increase in

ostentations demand

Note that this stage is similar to the process

of ripening.

106


Marxist Stage Theory

Marx also had a stage theory of economic development. Capitalism is, by its very nature, a global system.

Capitalists will seek out new markets, cheaper sources of raw material and cheaper labor wherever they can be found.

The effect will be to spread the capitalist mode of production throughout the globe:

107


“The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement

of all instruments of production, by the

immensely facilitated means of

communication, draws all, even the most

barbarian, nations into civilization. The

cheap prices of its commodities are the

heavy artillery with which it batters down all

Chinese walls, ..”

[The Communist Manifesto, 1848].

108

Regional resource

Natural

Technological

Human

Windfall

Imported

109

Regional Development

Regional development concerns the incidence of economic growth.

It is ultimately the result of the location of economic activities in response to differential regional attractions.

Shifts in the location pattern have direct repercussions on income, employment and welfare.

Since spatial organisation is a function of activity and interaction patterns, regional development is simply an expression of these patterns.

Used in a relative context, comparing problem regions with the prosperous regions, or with national context, on the basis of a variety of socio-economic indicators. It can also be used in an absolute context, the development within a particular region.

110

Regional Analysis

Results of spatial and ecological analysis

are combined. Appropriate regional units are

identified through areal differentiation, and

then the flows and links between pairs of

regions are established

Study of spatial organization expressed as

pattern and process – accounting for spatial

variations

111

Levels of Planning

1. The National Level

2. Local Authority Level

3. The Sub-regional Level

112

Types of Planning

1. Physical and Economic Planning

2. Allocative and Innovative Planning

3. Multi and Single Objective Planning

4. Indicative and Imperative Planning

5. Strategic Planning

113

The need for Regional Planning

• Pressure for Government action

• Congested urban regions/areas

• Depressed industrial and rural regions

• Separate regional identities and political cultures

• Regional structure of administration and decision-making

• Supportive device for national and local planning

• Growth and Growth management

• Economic imbalance

• Employment and Unemployment

114

Modes of Planning

What are modes of planning?

The operational state of planning or a planning project or development project (national or local). For example, lais·sez faire mode is a state in which there is opposition to governmental regulation of or interference in commerce beyond the minimum necessary for a free-enterprise system to operate according to its own economic laws.

lais·sez faire - nnon-interference in the affairs of others.

115

Mode

Action

Ameliorative problem

solving

Allocative trend

modifying

Exploitative

opportunity

seeking

Normative goal-oriented

Planning

modes

Planning for the present by

reacting to past problems

Planning towards a

predicted future

Planning with a

predicted future

Planning by creating a

desired future

Planning

operations

Analysing problems, design

interventions, allocate

resource accordingly

Determine and make best

of trends & allocate

resources in accordance

with desires to promote or

alter them

Determine & make

most of trends &

allocate resources to

take advantage of

what to come

Decide on the future desired

& allocate resources so that

trends are changed or

created accordingly.

Desired future may be

based on present, predicted

or new values

Result of

planning

action

Haphazard modification of

future by reducing the future

burden & squeal of present

problems

Gently balance & modify

future by avoiding

predictable problems & by

achieving a balanced

progress to avoid creating

new problems

Unbalanced & modify

future by taking

advantage of

predicable

happenings, avoiding

some problems &

exploiting others

without major

concern for

emergence of new

problems

Extensive modification of

the future by aiming for what

―could be‖. New predictions

by changing values or

goals, matching outcomes

to desires, or avoiding &

changing problems to ones

easier to handle or to

tolerate

Summary of four modes of Planning

116

Regional development theory

• Hirschman, Myrdal and Perroux Spatial implications of the development process bridging the gap

between economic and regional development models

Growth Pole Concept - Growth Points

Spread and Backwash Effect

Multiplier Effect

• John Friedman –Centre Periphery Dominance

The urbany is seen as the centre while the rest of the region is

seen as the periphery

117

Regional Development Theories • Growth Pole concept

• Regionalisation

– Homogeneous region

– Functional region

– Planning region

– Development region

• Core

• Upward transitional

• Resource frontiers

• Downward transitional

• Special problem area

118

The location of industry

Understanding of laws underlying regional internal structure is essential if the planner is to predict the reaction of the region to policies and pressures.

Interference in the existing patterns of activities within a region is important in structuring economic opportunities and regional development strategies have locational relativity

Forms basis for zoning and development planning

Location is concerned with spatial relationships and interrelationships

Aim is to find the optimum location of and for industry

Thus location of industry reflects;

1. Policies, pressures (-ive) and regional structure

2. Economic opportunities and development patterns

119

Industry location – theory and practice

Location of industry is dependent on;

Source of input (land labour capital, entrepreneur)

Market for output

Central and local government policy(ies)

Quality and quantity of labour

Geographical location of site

Availability of necessary infrastructure

Theoretical approach – abstract from reality a general theory of

industrial location explaining the existing structure of industrial location

and changes in that structure (Smith, Ricardo, Thunen, Mills)

Empirical approach – listing of important factors (existing and potential)

that have been influential in industry location

Primary

Determinants

Specific

Determinants

120

Industry location – theory and practice

Type of industry (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary)

Variety of industry (textile, manufacturing and mining)

Approaches to determine optimum location

1. Least cost approach – explain location in terms of the minimization of factor costs

2. Markets area analysis – emphasis on market and demand factors

3. Profit maximization approach – logical outcome of market and least cost approach

121

Least cost approach (Weber and Launhardt)

Industry will choose to locate where costs are least………...

Assumptions

Unit of study isolated country, homogenous in climate, concentration

of consumers,perfect competition

Natural resources are (ubiquitous) widely available

Labour is not ubiquitous (several fixed labour locations and fixed

labour mobility)

Industrial location factors

Transport and labour costs

General physical regional factors

Agglomerative or deglomerative factors

122

Least cost approach (Weber and Launhardt)

Transport cost directly proportional to distance

traveled and weight carried.

Least transport costs is that at which total weight

movement of assembling inputs and distributing

output is at a minimum.

Material index (optimum location is that which is

closer to the source of material or to the market)

)Pr( oductsnalWeightofFi

lInputscalMateriaWeightofLodexMaterialIn

123

Optimum location (re profitability to firm) in different

cost-price situation – assuming constant output

c

a b O B A

AC

AR

loss

Profit

O B A

AC

AR

O B A

AC

AR

AR – Average Cost

AR – Average Revenue

Location Location

Location

Profitability lies between A and B and O is the optimum point

124

Locational Triangle

T

M1 M2

MK

x

z y

a

c b

T = optimum location

M1,M2 = material sources

MK = market

x,y,z = weight of input and output

a,b,c = distances between location, inputs

and market

Used in conjunction

with the material index

When index is greater than one – the firm is material oriented

When index less than one – the firm is market oriented

)Pr( oductsnalWeightofFi

lInputscalMateriaWeightofLodexMaterialIn

125

Impact of labour costs on least cost transport location

Labour cost oriented if savings in labour costs per unit of output are greater

than extra transport costs per unit involved.

Isodapanes show the least transport costs away from T as L is within the critical

$2 isodapane, the firm would, other things being equal, substitute between

transport costs and divert its location to a mew location at this point of reduced

labour costs.

L = cheap labour location

T = least-cost transport location

T

L

$3

$2

$1

Isodapanes

126

Isodapane

Points of equal additional transport costs around the (Weberian)

minimum-total-transport-cost point. (Goodall, p.247)

While the isodapane is a theoretical tool, its theoretical function very

much agrees with real-world decision-making processes as sequential

processes, in that it assists in the iterative sorting of alternative

locations and the move from initial, hypothetical sub optima to eventual,

more general ("global") optima.

Cumulative causation

A self-reinforcing process during which impulses activate positive

feedback leading to further growth, decline or other kinds of change

with the same direction as the original impulse. Thus, agglomeration

effects, for example, may lead to further agglomeration and thereby to a

continuing increase in advantages (to some people or activities) and

disadvantages (to others).

127

Inter-Regional Analysis

The quality of the Regional data base is a major influence on regional planning. Adequate data is essential for initial definition of regions and for subsequent analysis and planning.

The existence of large gaps in regional data base is an obstacle to realistic planning

128

Regional database (Statistics)

Regional planning data Data sources

Population STATIN, PIOJ (www.http.statinja.com )

Housing STATIN, PIOJ. MOH, NHT, Private developers, NHDC

Education STATIN, PIOJ, MOE, PC

Health MOH, STATIN, PIOJ , PC, Clinics, Hospitals

Community support facilities STATIN, PIOJ, SDC, MOSWS, MOCD, MLG, NWA

Economic base STATIN, PIOJ, MFP, JamPro, NDFJ, PC

Environment NEPA, MOLE, ODPEM, JEF

Transportation NTA, JUTC, MOT, STATIN, PIOJ

Utilities OUR, MOPUT, STATIN, PIOJ

Physical resources NEPA, GD, JEF, UWA, FD

Employment and labour STATIN, PIOJ

Land use/function/flow NEPA, PC,

Security and law MONS, STATIN,

http://www.http.statinja.com/

129

Overcoming problems of regional statistics

1. Data collection on a more disaggregated basis:

Relevant data from all agencies are disaggregated to a common

level of small and spatially regular units. Then they can be

further aggregated into whatever geographical units are

necessary

2. Regional accounts:

a comprehensive picture of regional economic

structure (annual etc. picture of monetary flow)

income = expenditure = output

economic interrelationships between the major sectors

of the economy – presented in a matrix format

130

Regional accounting

• Presents the economic interrelationship among the

different sectors in the region

• Valuable basis for regional policy and decision making

(Income, output, productivity)

• Decrease the need for political and sociological based

regional policy analysis and formulation

• Isolation of weaknesses and strengths in regional

economy (estimates of regional productivity by

industry/sector)

• Investment data shows which industry in which region

gives the best return for a given level of investment

131

Regional accounting – problems with it

• Regional accounting have heavy data requirement

(problem – since regions are not micro-nations

• Varying economic structure among regions, but for

efficient analysis standards are applied across the board

masking particular important aspects of a region

• Regions are open economies with numerous cross

boundary transactions but no trade barriers hence little

info on movements

• Place of employment and place of living may not be in

same region thus difficulty in tracking income and

expenditure for region accounting

132

Regional input-output tables

A method of describing the industrial

structure of an economy as well as

predicting changes in structure

A set of tables (matrix) in monetary format

prepared for an economy paying interest to

interrelationships between sectors in an

economy particularly on inter-industrial

linkages

133

Sectoral consideration in regional planning

Regional planning represents in part an attempt to

consider and evaluate in a systematic manner the

relationship and consequences of various possible

programmes or development policies in light of

three models;

1. Economic growth model

2. Re(distribution) model

3. Ecological model

These sectors represents the broad spectrum of

consideration that are correlated and inter(intra)

related to ensure balanced regional growth.

134

Sectoral consideration for regional

planning

Population (size, distribution and composition, projections)

Housing (Demand and Supply, type, construction material, cost, location)

Education (cost, curriculum, facility distribution, availability)

Health (facility distribution, availability, type, quality, links to pop.)

135

Sectoral consideration for regional

planning

Other community facilities (recreational, civic and cultural centres, community centres, skills training centres)

Economic base (basic and non-basic: agriculture, industrial, commercial, technology, academic, cultural tourism, mining, fishing)

Environment (physical, social and cultural – quality composition, sensitive areas, stress, impacts, hazard vulnerability)

Transportation (type, availability, cost, supporting infrastructure, quality, distribution/red)

Utilities (waste management – generation, disposal, collection and management, electrification, water, communication)

136

Population

Broad characteristics of the region as compared nationally/regionally: size, distribution, composition (sex, age group)

Characteristics of the town in relation to region, as above with particular attention to changing patterns in pre-school, school age, work force, fertility, natural increase/decline, dependency ratios

Projections – 1995, 2000, 2010, 2020 of above characteristics

Reference:

Censuses, Statistical yearbook of Jamaica, Demographic Statistics; National Physical Development Plan 1978-1998, Jamaica Five Year Development Plan 1990 – 1995

STATIN, PIOJ (collaborate on projections), available computer models

137

Housing Broad characteristics of national and parish situations regarding perceived needs

Analyse census data on housing units and households

Determine extent of overcrowding (density of persons in relation to units); spatial location (use of maps etc.)

Analyse ground occupation (land per unit density): spatial location using maps etc.

Determine need for relocation or increase in density

Analyse growth patterns in household, housing provision

Determine total need for new housing

Review ministry proposals

Draft strategy

Reference:



Ministry of Housing

138

Education Locate all educational facilities and institutions within the parish and region and analyse their service area

Compare planned and actual capacities in relation to policy standards

Asses location suitability, age and condition of buildings, play and recreation facilities and other associated educational support facilities

Assess school population by category (basic, primary, secondary tertiary, vocational training etc.)

Review Ministry proposals

Determine need for school places by category

Draft strategy

Reference:



Ministry of Education, Parish Councils

139

Health Locate all health facilities and institutions within the parish and region (hospitals, health care centres, clinics, nursing homes etc.) analyse their service area and location

Assess location suitability and age and condition of buildings

Review service area in relation to stated policies and acceptable standards

Determine need for upgrading and/or new facilities

Review Ministry proposals

Draft strategy

Reference:



Ministry of Health, Parish Councils

140

Other Community Facilities

Community Centres, Playing fields, parks, churches, cemeteries, police stations, post offices, fire stations, ambulance stations, other emergency facilities

Locate all community facilities within the parish and analyse their service area

Assess location suitability and age and condition of buildings

Review service areas in relation to stated policies and acceptable standards

Determine needs for upgrading and/or new facilities

Review Ministry‘s proposal

Draft strategy

Reference:



Ministry of Social Welfare and Sports, Ministry of Community Development, Parish Councils

141

Economic Base

"Information about an area's future population is incomplete

without a parallel understanding of the local economy that largely

shapes its future." (Klosterman, p. 113)

It is important to couple local population estimates or forecasts to

an in-depth knowledge of the local economy.

Whereas population projections function to estimate the number

of persons in an area, these projections do not provide any

insight into the most important factor in local growth and decline:

the local economy.

If the local economy is strong, population growth is usually brisk.

In times of economic trouble, though, an area often will

experience a loss in population- a direct result of a stagnant

economy.

142

Economic Base

Knowledge of the local economy usually results via analysis using a

variety of economic base analytical techniques.

The economic base technique "is the oldest, simplest and most widely

used technique for regional economic analysis.―

It is an analytical method that illustrates many fundamental techniques

used by local and regional planners, including areal comparisons, local

versus regional/national conditions, and standardizing values.

http://garnet.acns.fsu.edu/~tchapin/urp5261/glossary.htm

143

Economic Base

The Economic Sectors

The economic base technique is grounded in the assumption that the local economy can be divided into two very general sectors:

1) a basic (or non-local) sector or

2) 2) a non-basic (or local) sector.

Basic Sector: This sector is made up of local businesses (firms) that are entirely dependent upon external factors. For example, Boeing builds and sells large airplanes to companies and countries located throughout the world. Their business is dependent almost entirely upon non-local firms. Boeing does not sell planes to families or households locally, so their business is very much dependent upon exporting their goods.

Manufacturing and local resource-oriented firms (like logging or mining) are usually considered to be basic sector firms because their fortunes depend largely upon non-local factors, they usually export their goods.







144

Economic Base

Non-basic Sector: The non-basic sector, in contrast, is composed of those firms that depend largely upon local business conditions. For example, a local grocery store sells its goods to local households, businesses, and individuals. Its clientele is locally based and, therefore, its products are consumed locally.

Almost all local services (like drycleaners, restaurants, and drug stores) are identified as non-basic because they depend almost entirely on local factors.

Economic Base Theory assumes that all local economic activities can be identified as basic or non-basic.

Firms that sell to both local and an export market must, therefore, be assigned to one of these sectors or some means of apportioning their employment to each sector must be employed.

Means of assigning firms to basic and non-basic sectors will be discussed in the various techniques outlined below.

145

Economic Base Identification of all basic and non-basic economic activities in the region

Basic activities – export goods and services outside of the economic confines of the region or which market their services to persons outside the regional boundaries

Non-basic – provide goods and services for the community within the regional economic confines (local production and market)

The economic base theory (cause and effect:

“An increase in the amount of basic activity within a region will increase the flow of income within the region, increasing the demands for goods and services within it and effecting a corresponding increase in volume of non-basic activity. Alternatively an increase in basic activity would lead to a fall in income coming into the region, and a decline in demand for products of the non-basic sector”

Basic activity and multiplier effect:

Total employment in basic and non-basic activities

Total employment in basic activities

146

Interpreting the multiplier

A region of 500 000 persons in employment, 250 000 in basic and 250 000 in non-basic. That is a 1:1 basic:non-basic ratio, will have a multiplier of;

250 000 + 250 000

250 000

= 2

Consider an increase in employment of 20 000 in basic industry. An extra 20 000 non-basic jobs will be created and total employment will increase from 500 000 to 540 000;

T = ()

40 000 = 20 000 (2)

Where T = change in total employment

= change in basic employment

= employment multiplier

147

Economic Base

Priorities activities in terms of employment, contribution to region GDP etc

Overview of brad economic trends and outlook for nation/region/parish

Describe and analyse economic activities of the parish and the urban centres in

the region (manufacturing, tourism, agriculture, etc) size, employment, urban

areas use

Analyse labour force and employment

Assess needs and prospects

Review policies and pipelines projects

Draft strategy

Reference:

Censuses, Statistical yearbook of Jamaica, Demographic Statistics; National Physical

Development Plan 1978-1998, Jamaica Five Year Development Plan 1990 – 1995


Ministry of Finance and Planning, JamPro, Parish Councils and Councillors

148

Environment Socio-cultural (values, mores, perceptions, habits)

Development and planning

Issues of Sustainability

Impact study and analysis

Identify and map;

Land use and land cover (forests, trees and woodlands)

Geology, climate, hydrography, rainfall, soils, topography

Sensitive areas

Areas of special interest

Natural and scientific interest

Sites and buildings of historic and/or architectural interest

Natural hazards and vulnerable areas (landslide, flooding, tidal surges, tropical storms, earthquakes and etc.)

Reference: NEPA, NRCA, ODPEM, JET, National Physical Development Plan

149

Transportation

Rail

Survey existing facilities: capacity, use, needs, traffic patterns etc.

Roads

Assess patterns of vehicle ownership and use, volume counts of traffic, trip origin and destinations, purpose, modal split

Projections over plan period

Waterway – ferry, barge boat etc..

Reference:

Ministry of Transport and works, Parish Council, SATATIN, PIOJ

150

Utilities Water, electricity, sewerage, garbage collection, drainage, telephone

Capacity of present instillations (vs. supply and demand)

Areas served (mapped – relate to population density and distribution)

Policies and standards (supply and demand)

Assess deficiencies (demand and supply)

Needs projections (capacities demands and actual availability)

Current programmes and projects

Draft strategy

Reference:



Ministry of Public Utilities and Transport etc

151

Regional: Resources, Development & Economy

Regional wealth (wealth of its citizens) tied to its natural

resources (inherent and intrinsic capital)

Region cannot alter its physical characteristics tied to its

location

Region cannot alter the value placed on its resources by

the market or fluctuations in value

Variations in regional wealth due in part to uneven

distribution of resources and the cyclical fluctuations of

resource exploitation (give example??)

152


HOWEVER - Region can have a profound influence on the

management of its resources

Regional government and governance institutions can

intervene in resource development process to affect and

improve their use or outcome

This is achieved through a general analytical description of

the resource-based regional economy – use the analysis to

construct a model of specific economy and then apply the

model to the substantive evaluation of alternative resource

development strategies

153


What is the relationship between the regional economy and resource

development projects?

When large scale resource development projects are imposed on a relatively

sparse regional economy, the local impacts, both economic and non-economic

can be severe. The regional economy is characterised by:

Slow and complex responses to adjustment to exogenous shocks,

Imperfect information and poor foresight,

Immobility of economic agents,

A lot of externalities,

These are some regional problems caused from resource development putting

strain on the regional economy

Aim of regional economic expenditure policy is to restrain spending during the

boom periods to reduce the systematic strain on the development cycle

154

The Regional Impact: framework for

Regional Policy Analysis

Three major areas of Regional Impact in

evaluating proposed resource development

projects:

1. Changes in the economic status of firms,

workers and households in the private sector

2. Impacts on the fiscal status of state and local

government; and

3. Impacts on the regional environment (natural

and built)

155



Changes in the economic status of firms, workers and households in the private sector

Substantial increase in aggregate income, employment, sales and profit

Workers in-migration – expanded labour force driving up unemployment

New workers take disproportionate share of additional jobs over residents making

residents not better off that originally

Increase cost of living – residents may be worst off than in the absence of the

development project.

Impacts on the fiscal status of state and local government;

Complex assessment of costs and benefits

Increase in economic activity and population will add to demands for government

services

Expansion in economic activity will add to local government revenue

Will additional revenue be sufficient to finance increased demand for services

156



Impacts on the regional environment (natural and built)

Immediate impact as well as indirect on population and economy will affect

the environment

Reduction in air quality close to productive activities

New housing due to increasing housing demands have implications for land

use and land conversions

Water supply will be affected

Land reclamation – affect future land use and needs

Development may have to slowed down, stopped or reduced or altered

in scale, if these (3) impacts are adverse or sufficiently negative

Alternatively it may be possible to mitigate adverse impacts or

compensate adversely affected groups or individuals

157



Four critical elements in the process by which

development projects affect the regional economy;

1.Determination of direct impacts

• Construction activity – purchase of capital equipment –

expansion of resource industry

2.Regional multiplier effects (direct increase in regional

income fig. 1.5)

3.Population impacts

4.Fiscal responses to resource development

158

Regional impact process Impact on other

regions

Impact on other

regions

Fiscal impact

Public services

State investment

Direct impact on

production

employment and

income in region

Investment in regional

productive resource

development

• Extraction

• Agro-production

• Processing

• Industrial manufacturing

Population

impacts

Total impact on

production

employment and

incomes

Commerce /trade

Financial sector

Transportation

Inner-regional

industrial

linkages

Demand for support

service sector

industries

Multiplier process

Increase of

revenue

Increase of

public services

Migration and natural

population increase

Linkages

Figure 1.3

159

Resource Development and the Regional

Economy An Overview of the Regional Impact Process

Migration

and

Natural

Increase

Fiscal

response

Resource

Development

Project

Direct Impact on

Production,

Employment and

Income

Total Impact on

Production,

Employment and

Income

Multiplier Process (Inter-

regional)

Inter-industry

relations

Fiscal Impacts

Population Impacts

Inter-regional Industrial

Impact Consumer goods and services

Inter-

regional

relations

Inter-regional

relations

Figure 1.4

160

Direct Impact on

Regional Income

Consumption

Expenditures

Consumer

Goods

Consumer

Services External

Suppliers

Demand for Regional

Supply Industries

Regional Inter-

industry Relations

(Input – Output)

Regional

Manufacturing

Output

-Trade

-Finance

-Services

-Transportation

-Communications

-Public Utilities

Induced Impacts on

the Regional

Employment

Induced Impacts on

the Regional Income

The Regional Multiplier Process

Figure 1.5 The Regional

Impact: framework

for Regional Policy

Analysis

161

Population impacts

Figure 1.6 Total impact on

Regional Employment

Total impact on

Regional Income

Demand for Labour

Migration into Region

Population (initial)

. Age

. Race

. Sex

. Participation rates

. Occupation

. Unemployment

Supply of labour

Natural increase

Population (End of Period)

. Age

. Race

. Sex

. Participation Rates

. Occupations

. Unemployment

The Regional

Impact: framework

for Regional Policy

Analysis

162



Fiscal Responses to Resource Development – Fiscal Impact (Fig.

1.7)

The demand fro government services increases sharply in a region

undergoing rapid resource development

Social and socio-physical infrastructure comes under increasing strain

Central and local government increase budget to meet population

increase in changes in demand from the population

Revenue to local government increases from gains in employment,

income, profits and resource investment projects through taxes etc..

Resource ownership and tax structure of local government influence

taxes and gains to local government

163



Fiscal Responses to Resource Development – Fiscal Impact 9Fig. 1.7)

Differences in timing in revenue and expenditures may cause problems

Demands for general government services

Borrowing to close fiscal gaps (returns from investment may take long to be realized)

It takes time to replace and upgrade some socio-physical facilities such as schools, health centres etc..

Benefits may be gained at one level of government while increased demands for government services is experiences throughout the entire government services – needed well designed system of revenue sharing.

Central and local government may respond to forces and changes in different ways also creating gaps

164

Fiscal impacts of resource development Figure 1.7

Resource

Development

Project

Total impact on

Production,

Employment

and Income

Population Impacts

Population growth

School enrollment

Unemployment

Elderly

Revenue available to

Regional Government

Demand for Government

Services and Facilities

Fiscal Impacts

Fiscal Response

Taxes

Operating Expenditures

Capital Investments

Revenue Sharing

Borrowing

Accumulation of Surplus

165

A few names to know:

Patrick Geddes

Daniel Burnham

Rexford Tugwell

Benton MacKaye

Ebenezer Howard

Baron Haussmann

Frank Lloyd Wright

Frederick Law Olmsted

Abraham Levitt (Levittown)

Albert Speer

Jane Jacobs

Le Corbusier

Jane Addams

James Rouse

Robert Moses

Clarence Stein

Lewis Mumford

166

MOVEMENTS AND PROTOTYPES

Exposition in Chicago)

Radiant City (Le Corbusier)

RPA of America Regionalism

Garden City (Ebenezer Howard

Modernism and Postmodernism

Bioregionalism (ecoregionalism)

Broadacres (Frank Lloyd Wright)

Neo-traditional housing communities

City Beautiful Movement (1893 Columbian)

167


The roots of modernism lie much deeper in history

than the middle of the 19th century.

For historians (but not art historians) the modern

period actually begins with the Renaissance. A

discussion of modernism might easily begin in the

Renaissance period when we first encounter

secular humanism, the notion that man (not God)

is the measure of all things, a worldly civic

consciousness, and "utopian" visions of a more

perfect society, beginning with Sir Thomas More's

Utopia in 1516.

A:/The Roots of Modernism.doc

168


As an art historical term, "modern" refers to a

period dating from roughly the 1860s through the

1970s.

The 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment, saw

the intellectual maturation of the humanist belief in

reason as the supreme guiding principle in the

affairs of humankind.

Through reason the mind achieved enlightenment,

and for the enlightened mind, freed from the

restraints of superstition and ignorance, a whole

new exciting world opened up

A:/../The Roots of Modernism.doc

169


Modernism:

The deliberate departure from tradition and the use of

innovative forms of expression that distinguish many

styles in the arts and literature of the 20th century.

Postmodernism:

Of or relating to art, architecture, or literature that reacts

against earlier modernist principles, as by reintroducing

traditional or classical elements of style or by carrying

modernist styles or practices to extremes

For some it means anti-modern; for others it means the

revision of modernist premises.


170


Deconstructive postmodernism:

The seemingly anti-modern stance involves a basic rejection of the

tenets of Modernism; that is to say, a rejection of the doctrine of the

supremacy of reason, the notion of truth, the belief in the perfectibility of

man, and the idea that we could create a better, if not perfect, society.

This view has been termed deconstructive postmodernism.

An alternative understanding, which seeks to revise the premises of

Modernism, has been termed constructive postmodernism.

Deconstructive postmodernism seeks to overcome the modern

worldview, and the assumptions that sustain it, through what appears to

be an anti-worldview. It "deconstructs" the ideas and values of

Modernism to reveal what composes them and shows that such

modernist ideas as "equality" and "liberty" are not "natural" to

humankind or "true" to human nature but are ideals, intellectual

constructions.


171

Spread-Backwash Process

Proximity to a rapidly growing metropolitan area (core) insures prosperity

for nearby rural communities (periphery), or so conventional wisdom

suggests.

Unfortunately for proximate rural areas, the core-periphery relationship is

not always beneficial. Economic development in the core impacts the

surrounding region through complex processes. These processes include

intra-regional flows of: private capital, private and public expenditures for

goods and services, information and technology, residents and commuters,

and political influence and public investments.

Each process both benefits and harms the peripheral region, and the net

effect differs among communities.

If the processes result in an increase in the absolute level of development

in the periphery, the resulting impact is spread effect.

A decline in the absolute level of economic activity in the periphery in

conjunction with core expansion is evidence of a backwash effect.

172


The net effect of the spread-backwash processes varies among economic

regions (and within a specific economic area).

For any particular region, the net spread-backwash effect depends on:

– size and growth rate of the core,

– industrial structure of the core,

– distance of peripheral area from the core,

– existing spatial distribution of development,

– location and economic functions of small urban places in the

periphery,

– location of transportation and communication networks, and

– the distribution of socio-political power.

A consistency across economic areas, however, is that the net impact on the

periphery (spread or backwash) decays with distance from the urban center.

173


Spread effects are the positive benefits in terms of new

ideas and technology which spread from core countries to benefit

periphery countries.

Some would point to the Green Revolution technology (improved

seeds, irrigation, herbicides, pesticides, etc.) as a positive spread effect

since this technology, developed in core countries, has spread to many

periphery countries, allowing them to expand food production to feed

growing populations.

Some LDCs have even become largely self-sufficient in food

production.

Backwash effects are those which tend to drain physical and human

resources from the periphery to benefit the core and to the detriment of

the periphery.

174

Trickle down effect

What is "Tricklenomics"?

Tricklenomics is not a defined word, but from context it is

clearly intended to be an economic system where there is

no significant barrier to the accumulation of wealth by

individuals.

Trickle Down Economics (TDE). From the old story that "if

the horse has better hay to eat, the birds will eat better" (it

being understood that birds eat manure). Reaganomics (to

imply one example). If the rich do well, benefits will "trickle

down" to the rest.

Lower taxes on high income or capital gains will benefit

most of the population, etc

175

Trickle down effect

Trickle down theory

An economic theory stating that investing money in companies and giving them tax breaks is the best way to stimulate the economy.

Proponents of this theory believe that when the government helps companies, they will produce more, thereby hiring more people and giving raises. The people, in turn, will have more money to spend in the economy.

An economic theory which advocates letting businesses flourish, since their profits will ultimately trickle down to lower-income individuals and the rest of the economy.

A theory of economic development that claims higher standards of living for the poor will develop gradually and not at the overt expense of the more affluent.

http://www.investorwords.com/3880/profits.html

176

Trickle down effect

Trickle-down theory, also known as trickle down economics, was a term

used by detractors and advocates alike for some of the policies of Ronald

Reagan.

See Reaganomics . It is the view that to benefit the wealthy, is to benefit the

middle classes and even the poor. The benefit trickles down.

It is central to Supply Side Economics and it was a highly politically charged

issue during the Reagan Administration. Supply Side Economics was

implemented, and the economy did improve. However, there is debate over

what caused these improvements.

Paul Volcker , the then Fed Chief, had already begun implementing far less

controversial monetary policies to solve the problem of stagflation and many

have said it was his monetary policies which caused the economic turn around.

David Stockman , Reagan's Economic Advisor later characterized supply side

economics and trickle down economics as rhetoric

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Reaganomics

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Supply side economics

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Paul Volcker

http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/David Stockman

177

Multiplier effect

The Multiplier effect is a basic economic concept,

which refers to changes in the level of activity that

brings further changes in the level of other

activities throughout the economy.

When an injection of expenditure into an economy

leads to an increase in national income more than

the original injection, this is the multiplier effect.

In other words, the multiplier effect is the effect

from continuous respending of incomes.

178

Multiplier effect

There are different types of multipliers, such as the sales or

transaction multiplier, the output multiplier the employment

multiplier, government revenue multiplier and the import

multiplier.

The multiplier indicates how many times that the injection

of original spending circulates through a local economy. As

a result of respending, it benefits the local people. Accordin

to "Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts",

"tourists expenditures in a destination creates new incomes

and outputs in the region which, in turn, produce further

expenditures and incomes

179

Multiplier effect The income multiplier considers three levels of impact created by the change in

tourist expenditure, which includes direct spending, indirect spending and induces

spending. Let us look at the illustration in the following Example . Impacts of

Tourism (Tourism multiplier for Jamaica = 1.27)

Direct impact:

A tourist stays in a hotel and eats at the food establishment there. The tourist

pays for the hotel accommodation, food and beverages. (This is the tourist‘s

initial spending in a hotel, which creates direct revenue to the hotel).

Indirect impact:

Upon receipt of the tourist dollars, the process of respending begins. The hotel

makes pay-ments to its employees, suppliers, and so on. (This is the indirect

effect of the tourist‘s initial expenditure, which creates additional income and

employment for the local economy).

Induced impact:

The employees receive incomes and consume on goods and services. The

supplier replenishes its stock makes payments of wages to their employees etc.

(This is induced effect of the tourist‘s initial expenditure, which creates further

economic activities.

180

Objections of a Development Project (Sunday Gleaner, July 10, 20005. Pg. G6)

• Granting planning and development permission prior to;

– Granting of an environmental permit

– Public hearing for the review of the EIA

– Expiration of the 30 days period allowed for public comments to be entertained on the proposed development after the public hearing

– Finalization of the recommendations of the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Branch of NEPA and the Technical Review Committee of the NRCA

– Prior to the development application submitted to the relevant Local Authority or KSAC

– Prior to approval by the Local Authority or KSAC

• Where it can be substantially proven and shown that there is (was) a

general failure of NEPA to ;

– Monitor results (as above)

– Ensure protection of environment and compliance with the environmental and

planning laws of Jamaica (TCP), Existing Development Orders, Zoning

Regulations and Laws

181

Central Questions: What is a region? How do regional communities differ from either local or national communities?

What are the arguments for and against greater planning and coordination at the regional scale?

How does the regional approach differ for land use planning, transportation planning, resource management, and economic development?

Which is more effective: single-use regional plans or integrated approaches?

How does the rise of semi-autonomous public authorities, such as port authorities, act as a model of regional planning?

How do regional authorities relate to local and state agencies?

Who are the largest boosters and opponents of regional management?

Are some planning issues (e.g., transportation, water resources) better suited for regional-level coordination than others (e.g., welfare policy, housing)?

How well can regional planning integrate economic and environmental concerns?

182

• The History and Politics of Regional Planning (MODULE 1)

• Jan 31 - Feb 9: Case Study: Chicago -- Regional Network Formation and the City as Catalyst for Regional Development (MODULE 2)

• Case study: New York -- Regionalism as the Complex Overlapping of Jurisdictions and Institutions (MODULE 3)

• Case study: Los Angeles -- the Suburban Metropolis (MODULE 4)

• Ecoregions: regional planning as a tool of environmental planning, habitat preservation and sustainability (MODULE 5)

• Global-regions; International Cases of Regional Planning (MODULE 6)

•

183

Millennium Development Goals

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Target: Halve the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day and those

who suffer from hunger.

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

Target: Ensure that all boys and girls complete primary school.

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Target: Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education preferably by

2005, and at all levels by 2015.

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

Target: Reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five

Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health

Target: Reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio.

184

Millennium Development Goals

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

Target: Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS.

Target: Halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major

diseases.

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

Target: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country

policies and programmes; reverse loss of environmental resources

Target: Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access

to safe drinking water

Target: Achieve significant improvement in lives of at least 100 million slum

dwellers, by 2020

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

185

Energy for Planning

Increase in severity and frequency of disasters and

natural hazards

The shift in focus on investment in infrastructure

and support systems as the engines of growth and

development over other traditional systems such

as education and socio-cultural components

Increasing encroachment of human settlement on

natural lands and systems and the need to

manage this movement.

186

Planners have traditionally been able to define themselves professionally and politically based on where they draw the line between proper government activities and private interests. However, this may be increasingly complicated in an era of blurred public-private boundaries , of public-private partnerships, of quasi-private public authorities (such as port authorities), and of non-profits (the "third sector").

In addition, planning graduates increasing work in all three sectors, rather than just for local government.

Central questions of Planning

187

Explain how the relationship of planners to

the public-private boundaries has changed

in recent years.

What political, economic and/or cultural

factors have shaped this changing

relationship? Finally, how does this change

the planning profession's view of the "public

interest?"

Central questions of Planning

188

Scholars have used the term "modernism"

as a unifying concept to describe what has

happened to U.S. cities in the past 100

years.

Is modernism a useful category to

understand 20th Century American

urbanization? Explain why or why not, and

what alternative explanations offer, such as

"capitalism" or "industrialization." Be sure to

precisely define and distinguish terms.

189

Examine how the concept of "nature" has been used in the

20th Century intellectual history of planning theory.

How has the concept of nature been defined and used in

various approaches to planning theory (e.g., city beautiful,

Geddes, Howard, Mumford, comprehensive planning,

postmodernist planning, etc.)?

If necessary, distinguish between the terms "nature,"

"environment," "wilderness," "open space," etc. Imagine

that you are teaching a doctoral planning seminar on

"Planning Theory and the Idea of Nature," and this essay is

the introductory lecture that demonstrates to what extent

nature has been either an implicit leitmotif -- or unknown

concept -- in 20th Century planning theory.

190

Sustainable development has emerged as a popular concept in recent years, yet it arguably remains under-theorized, especially in the context of urban and regional planning.

In this essay you are to situate sustainable development within the larger context of theories and strategies in planning and urban theory.

Can you identify strains of sustainable development thinking throughout the intellectual history of planning (e.g., city beautiful, Geddes, Howard, Mumford, RPAA, TVA, Pinchot and conservationism, bioregionalism, comprehensive planning)?

Imagine that you are teaching a doctoral planning seminar on "Planning Theory and the Idea of Sustainability," and this essay is the introductory lecture that demonstrates to what extent sustainable development has been either an implicit leitmotif -- or unknown concept -- in 20th Century planning theory.

According to Saskia Sassen, "economic globalization, accompanied by the emergence of a global culture, had profoundly altered the social, economic, and political reality of ... regions and ... cities."

Discuss the relationship between global forces and local factors in shaping the contemporary city. You may focus on cities in either the developed or less developed world.

191

Can planning theory, now or in the past, be said to

have a dominant paradigm?

a) Trace the history of planning theory from the

beginning of the century in terms of what paradigms

were widely adopted.

b) Relate these paradigms to the socio-political context

in which planning was operating.

c) During the time when comprehensive rationality (or

the rational model) was particularly influential, is it

accurate to say that it constituted a dominant

paradigm?

d) What is the current situation?

192

A number of theorists describe a break in the development of cities, regions, and culture during the 1970s.

– What are the different ways in which they have

characterized this change?

– Do you agree that such a break has taken place?

– If so, what do you see as the underlying dynamic

leading to this transformation and what are the

qualities that differentiate the present period from the

one preceding it?

– If you disagree with the argument that there has been

a sharp change, what are the reasons for your

disagreement?

193

The economic man

According to Njoh (1999), the notion of space manipulation intimates deliberate action or choice, which in turn invokes the nation of rationalistic behaviour.

The concept of rationalistic behaviour and the economic man is embedded in economic theory, where the economic man possesses three distinct characteristics namely,

1. Perfect knowledge,

2. Optimizing behaviour and

3. Profit maximization

The concept of the economic man possessing perfect knowledge is embedded in his ability to make ―good‖ decisions by his possession of a perfect and accurate mental picture of his environment.

In this picture he has the ability to assign economic value to his environment and has a perfect mental image of his reality and costs associated with that reality.

194

Rural Development

Rural development has become one of the major outcomes

identified among various assistance/interventon programmes of

either the individual developing countries, or of multilateral

institutions and donors.

A clear understanding of rural development dynamics is

necessary for it to prosper.

In addition, the inadequate indicators of rural development

became a constraint in development planning, for an information

gap in one of its facets will cripple a program that should rather

be integrated.

Thus, any contribution towards the understanding of rural

development is valuable

Asian Development Bank Institute, 1998-2007

regional planning class slides 10 to 11-revised

Documents