PSYCHOLOGY

Read Orange Book Chapter

9MEMORY

Memory

Peg-word system this mnemonic system requires the memorization of a list of peg-wordsOne is a bun…Two is a shoe…Three is tree…

Memory

Visual imageryvisually seeing an association between words using vivid imagery, interaction with the images, and bizarreness

Memory

Method of loci mentally placing items to be

remembered around a familiar location, usually our own home or room, and then calling forth the image of the room when you need to remember information associated with the house or its rooms

Memory

TH- EDO- GSA- WTH- ECA- T

Memory

TH- EDO- GSA- WTH- ECA- T

THE DOG SAW THE CAT

Memory

IAMNOWHERE

Memory

I AM NOW HERE

I AM NO WHERE

IAMNOWHERE

Memory

1492177617891812191419181939

194119451963196519752001

Memory

1492 19651776 1975 1789 20011812191419181939194119451963

Memory

Chunking Pi

3.1415926535897932384

Memory

1.) Memory persistence of learning over

time via the storage and retrieval of information

2.) Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an

emotionally significant moment or event- September 11th, 2001

Memory Memory as Information Processing

similar to a computer

write to file save to disk read from disk

3.) Encoding the processing of information into the

memory system i.e., extracting meaning

Memory

4.) Storage the retention of encoded

information over time 5.) Retrieval

process of getting information out of memory

Memory

6.) Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording

of sensory information in the memory system

7.) Working Memory focuses more on the processing

of briefly stored information

Memory 8.) Short-Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten

9.) Long-Term Memory the relatively permanent and limitless

storehouse of the memory system

Encoding: Getting Information In

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

Encoding 10.) Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information space time frequency

well-learned information word meanings

we can learn automatic processing reading backwards

Encoding

11.) Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious

effort 12.) Rehearsal

conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage

Encoding

“The amount remembered depends on the amount of time that I spend learning”- Ebbinghaus

Encoding

Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1,

the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2

13.) Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better

long- term retention than massed practice

Encoding: Serial Position Effect

14.) Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list

20 minute study sessions

What Do We Encode?

15.) Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words

16.) Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words

17.) Visual Encoding encoding of picture images

What Do We Encode? Is the word in capital letters?

chair Does the word rhyme with train?

brain Would the word fit in this sentence?

elephant The girl put the ________ on the table.

Encoding

Encoding

18.) Imagery mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing,

especially when combined with semantic encoding

19.) Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use

vivid imagery and organizational devices

Encoding

20.) Chunking organizing items into familiar,

manageable units like horizontal organization--

1776149218121941

often occurs automatically use of acronyms

HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding Hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding

(automatic or effortful)

Imagery(visualEncoding)

Meaning(semanticEncoding)

Organization

Chunks Hierarchies

Storage:Retaining Information

21.) Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of

visual stimuli a photographic or picture image

memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second

22.) Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of

auditory stimuli

Storage:Short-Term Memory

23.) Short-Term Memory

limited in duration and capacity

18 to 30 seconds “magical” number 7+/-2

Storage:Long-Term Memory

Synaptic changes when learning occurs more of the

neurotransmitter serotonin is released at the synapses where learning is going on

these synapses then become more efficient at transmitting signals

Storage:Long-Term Memory

this increased synaptic efficiency makes for more neural circuits

By rapidly stimulating these memory-circuit connections, they become sensitive for hours or even weeks to come

This prolonged strengthening of potential neural firing is called long-term potentiation

24.) Long-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid

stimulation

Storage:Long-Term Memory

Long-term Potentiation provides the neural basis for learning and remembering associations

This increased sensitivity at neural level when people are engaged in effortful processing of information leads to learning

Strong emotions and intentional effortful processing make for stronger memories

The implications of this knowledge may lead to memory boosting drugs, or “cognitive enhancers”

These drugs might be helpful for the millions of people with Alzheimer’s disease (AD)

Storage:Long-Term Memory

25.) Amnesia--the loss of memory Retrograde amnesia- old memories Anterograde amnesia- new memories

26.) Explicit Memory memory of facts and experiences that one

can consciously know and declare also called declarative memory 27.) hippocampus--neural center in limbic

system that helps process explicit memories for storage

28.) Implicit Memory retention independent of conscious

recollection also called procedural memory

Storage:Long-Term Memory MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Hippocampus

left hippocampus- verbal informationright hippocampus- visual designs

Retrieval: Getting Information Out

29.) Recall measure of memory in which the

person must retrieve information learned earlier

as on a fill-in-the blank test 30.) Recognition

Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned

as on a multiple-choice test

Retrieval

31.) Relearning memory measure that

assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time

32.) Priming activation, often

unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Retrieval Cues

33.) Deja Vu (French)--already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously

trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before."

34.) Mood-congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent

with one’s current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues 35.) State-dependent Memory

what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

Retrieval Cues

After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).

Forgetting

Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the long-

term memory

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-term

memory

Long-term

memory

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting

Forgetting

Forgetting as encoding failure

Which penny is the real thing?

Forgetting

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

12345 10 15 20 25 30

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Time in days since learning list

Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning

Forgetting

The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

Retentiondrops,

then levels off

1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½Time in years after completion of Spanish course

100%

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentage oforiginal

vocabularyretained

Retrieval Forgetting can result from failure to

retrieve information from long-term memory

Externalevents

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

Retrieval

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Forgetting as Interference AP p.379, Reg p. 362

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information 36.) Proactive Interference (forward acting)

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

37.) Retroactive Interference

(backwards acting) disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old

information

Forgetting as Interference

Forgetting

Retroactive Interference

Without interferingevents, recall isbetter

After sleep

After remaining awake

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables

90%

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentageof syllables

recalled

Forgetting

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage

As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Forgetting- Interference

38.) Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise

memories 39.) Repression

defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Memory Construction

We filter information and fill in missing pieces

40.) Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information

into one's memory of an event 41.) Source Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

Memory Construction

Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

Depiction of actual accident

Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”

Memoryconstruction

Memory Construction

Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?

Child sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodes

False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and

relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience

sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Memory Construction

Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or

drugs are especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3

are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are

upsetting

Improve Your Memory

Study repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or

actively thinking about the material Make material personally

meaningful Use mnemonic devices

associate with peg words--something already stored

make up story chunk--acronyms

Improve Your Memory

Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood

Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation

Minimize interference Test your own knowledge

rehearse determine what you do not yet

know