privaceye: privacy-preserving head-mounted eye tracking ... · etra ’19, june 25–28, 2019,...

PrivacEye Privacy-Preserving Head-Mounted Eye TrackingUsing Egocentric Scene Image and Eye Movement Features

Julian SteilMax Planck Institute for Informatics

Saarland Informatics Campusjsteilmpi-infmpgde

Marion KoelleUniversity of Oldenburgmarionkoelleuolde

Wilko HeutenOFFIS - Institute for ITwilkoheutenoffisde

Susanne BollUniversity of Oldenburgsusannebolluolde

Andreas BullingUniversity of Stuttgart

andreasbullingvisuni-stuttgartde

ABSTRACTEyewear devices such as augmented reality displays increasinglyintegrate eye tracking but the first-person camera required to mapa userrsquos gaze to the visual scene can pose a significant threat to userand bystander privacy We present PrivacEye a method to detectprivacy-sensitive everyday situations and automatically enable anddisable the eye trackerrsquos first-person camera using a mechanicalshutter To close the shutter in privacy-sensitive situations themethod uses a deep representation of the first-person video com-bined with rich features that encode usersrsquo eye movements Toopen the shutter without visual input PrivacEye detects changes inusersrsquo eye movements alone to gauge changes in the ldquoprivacy levelrdquoof the current situation We evaluate our method on a first-personvideo dataset recorded in daily life situations of 17 participantsannotated by themselves for privacy sensitivity and show that ourmethod is effective in preserving privacy in this challenging setting

CCS CONCEPTSbull Human-centered computing rarr Interactive systems andtools Ubiquitous and mobile computing Ubiquitous andmobile devices Human computer interaction (HCI)

KEYWORDSPrivacy Protection Egocentric Vision Gaze BehaviourACM Reference FormatJulian Steil Marion KoelleWilkoHeuten Susanne Boll andAndreas Bulling2019 PrivacEye Privacy-Preserving Head-Mounted Eye Tracking UsingEgocentric Scene Image and Eye Movement Features In 2019 Symposiumon Eye Tracking Research and Applications (ETRA rsquo19) June 25ndash28 2019Denver CO USA ACM New York NY USA 16 pages httpsdoiorg10114533141113319913

1 INTRODUCTIONEyewear devices such as head-mounted displays or augmentedreality glasses have recently emerged as a new research platformPermission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal orclassroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributedfor profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citationon the first page Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than theauthor(s) must be honored Abstracting with credit is permitted To copy otherwise orrepublish to post on servers or to redistribute to lists requires prior specific permissionandor a fee Request permissions from permissionsacmorgETRA rsquo19 June 25ndash28 2019 Denver CO USAcopy 2019 Copyright held by the ownerauthor(s) Publication rights licensed to ACMACM ISBN 978-1-4503-6709-71906 $1500httpsdoiorg10114533141113319913

PrivacySensitivity

High

Low

LOGIN

favoritecoffee shop

Threshold

Eye movementbehaviour

SceneCamera

Figure 1 Our method uses a mechanical camera shutter(top) to preserve usersrsquo and bystandersrsquo privacy with head-mounted eye trackers Privacy-sensitive situations are de-tected by combining deep scene image and eye movementfeatures (middle) while changes in eyemovement behaviouralone trigger the reopening of the camera shutter (bottom)

in fields such as human-computer interaction computer vision orthe behavioural and social sciences [Bulling and Kunze 2016] Anever-increasing number of these devices integrate eye tracking toanalyse attention allocation [Eriksen and Yeh 1985 Sugano et al2016] for computational user modelling [Fischer 2001 Itti and Koch2001] or hands-free interaction [Hansen et al 2003 Vertegaal et al2003] Head-mounted eye tracking typically requires two camerasAn eye camera that records a close-up video of the eye and a high-resolution first-person (scene) camera to map gaze estimates to thereal-world scene [Kassner et al 2014] The scene camera poses aserious privacy risk as it may record sensitive personal informationsuch as login credentials banking information or text messagesas well as infringe on the privacy of bystanders [Perez et al 2017]Privacy risks intensify with the unobtrusive integration of eyetracking in ordinary glasses frames [Tonsen et al 2017]

In the area of first-person vision prior work identified strategiesof self-censorship [Koelle et al 2017] that however are prone to(human) misinterpretations and forgetfulness or the accidentalneglect of social norms and legal regulations In consequence userexperience and comfort are decreased and the userrsquos mental andemotional load increases while sensitive personal information canstill be accidentally disclosed Other works therefore investigatedalternative solutions such as communicating a bystanderrsquos privacypreferences using short-range wireless radio [Aditya et al 2016]

arX

iv1

801

0445

7v4

[cs

HC

] 2

4 M

ay 2

019

ETRA rsquo19 June 25ndash28 2019 Denver CO USA Julian Steil Marion Koelle Wilko Heuten Susanne Boll and Andreas Bulling

visual markers [Schiff et al 2007] or techniques to compromiserecordings [Harvey 2012 Truong et al 2005] However all of thesemethods require bystanders to take action themselves to protecttheir privacy None of these works addressed the problem at itssource ie the scene camera nor did they offer a means to protectthe privacy of both the wearer and potential bystanders

To address this limitation we propose PrivacEye the first methodfor privacy-preserving head-mounted eye tracking (see Figure 1)The key idea and core novelty of our method is to detect usersrsquotransitions into and out of privacy-sensitive everyday situations byleveraging both cameras available on these trackers If a privacy-sensitive situation is detected the scene camera is occluded by aphysical shutter Our design choice to use a non-spoofable physicalshutter which closes for some time and therefore provides feedbackto bystanders is substantiated by Koelle et al who highlight anincreased trustworthiness over LED lights on the camera or puresoftware solutions [Koelle et al 2018] While this approach is secureand visible to bystanders it prohibits visual input from the sceneThus our method analyses changes in the usersrsquo eye movement be-haviour alone to detect if they exit a privacy-sensitive situation andthen reopens the camera shutter A naive vision-only system couldreopen the shutter at regular intervals eg every 30 seconds todetect whether the current situation is still privacy-sensitive How-ever this approach may negatively affect perceived reliability andincrease mistrust in the system Thus our eye-tracking approachpromises significant advantages over a purely interval-based ap-proach in terms of user experience and perceived trustworthiness

Our approach is motivated by prior work that demonstratesthat eye movements are a rich source of information on a userrsquoseveryday activities [Bulling et al 2011 Steil and Bulling 2015]social interactions and current environment [Bulling et al 2013]or even a userrsquos personality traits [Hoppe et al 2018] In additionprior work showed that perceived privacy sensitivity is relatedto a userrsquos location and activity [Hoyle et al 2015] We thereforehypothesize that privacy sensitivity transitively informs a userrsquoseye movements We are the first to confirm this transitivity whichresults as a reasoned deduction from prior work

The specific contributions of this work are three-fold First wepresent PrivacEye the first method that combines the analysis ofegocentric scene image features with eye movement analysis toenable context-specific privacy-preserving de-activation and re-activation of a head-mounted eye trackerrsquos scene camera As suchwe show a previously unconfirmed transitive relationship over theusersrsquo eye movements their current activity and environment aswell as the perceived privacy sensitivity of the situation they are inSecond we evaluate our method on a dataset of real-world mobileinteractions and eye movement data fully annotated with loca-tions activities and privacy sensitivity levels of 17 participantsThird we provide qualitative insights on the perceived social ac-ceptability trustworthiness and desirability of PrivacEye based onsemi-structured interviews using a fully functional prototype

2 RELATEDWORKResearch on eye tracking privacy is sparse Thus our work mostlyrelates to previous works on (1) privacy concerns with first-personcameras and (2) privacy enhancing methods for (wearable) cameras

21 Privacy Concerns - First-Person CamerasFirst-person cameras are well-suited for continuous and unobtru-sive recordings which causes them to be perceived as unsettlingby bystanders [Denning et al 2014] Both usersrsquo and bystandersrsquoprivacy concerns and attitudes towards head-mounted devices withintegrated cameras were found to be affected by context situationusage intentions [Koelle et al 2015] and user group [Profita et al2016] Hoyle et al showed that the presence and the number ofpeople in a picture specific objects (eg computer displays ATMcards physical documents) location and activity affected whetherlifeloggers deemed an image ldquoshareablerdquo [Hoyle et al 2014] Theyalso highlighted the need for automatic privacy-preserving mecha-nisms to detect those elements as individual sharing decisions arelikely to be context-dependent and subjective Their results werepartly confirmed by Price et al who however found no significantdifferences in sharing when a screen was present [Price et al 2017]Chowdhury et al found that whether lifelogging imagery is suit-able for sharing is (in addition to content scenario and location)mainly determined by its sensitivity [Chowdhury et al 2016] Fer-dous et al proposed a set of guidelines that among others includesemi-automatic procedures to determine the sensitivity of capturedimages according to user-provided preferences [Ferdous et al 2017]All highlight the privacy sensitivity of first-person recordings andthe importance of protecting user and bystander privacy

22 Enhancing Privacy of First-Person CamerasTo increase the privacy of first-person cameras for bystanders re-searchers have suggested communicating their privacy preferencesto nearby capture devices using wireless connections as well asmobile or wearable interfaces [Krombholz et al 2015] Others havesuggested preventing unauthorised recordings by compromisingthe recorded imagery eg using infra-red light signals [Harvey2010 Yamada et al 2013] or disturbing face recognition [Harvey2012] In contrast to our approach these techniques all require thebystander to take action which might be impractical due to costsand efforts [Denning et al 2014]

A potential remedy are automatic or semi-automatic approachessuch as PlaceAvoider a technique that allows users to ldquoblacklistrdquo sen-sitive spaces eg bedroom or bathroom [Templeman et al 2014]Similarly ScreenAvoider allowed users to control the disclosureof images of computer screens showing potentially private con-tent [Korayem et al 2016] Erickson et al proposed a method toidentify security risks such as ATMs keyboards and credit cardsin images captured by first-person wearable devices [Erickson et al2014] However instead of assessing the whole scene in terms ofprivacy sensitivity their systems only detected individual sensi-tive objects Raval et al presented MarkIt a computer vision-basedprivacy marker framework that allowed users to use self-definedbounding boxes and hand-gestures to restrict visibility of contenton two dimensional surfaces (eg white boards) or sensitive real-world objects [Raval et al 2014] iPrivacy automatically detectsprivacy-sensitive objects from social images users are willing toshare using deep multi-task learning [Yu et al 2017] It warns theimage owners what objects in the images need to be protectedbefore sharing and recommends privacy settings

PrivacEye Privacy-Preserving Head-Mounted Eye Tracking ETRA rsquo19 June 25ndash28 2019 Denver CO USA

While all of these methods improved privacy they either onlydid so post-hoc ie after images had already been captured orthey required active user input In contrast our approach aims toprevent potentially sensitive imagery from being recorded at allautomatically in the background ie without engaging the userUnlike current computer vision based approaches that work inimage space eg by masking objects or faces [Raval et al 2014Shu et al 2016 Yamada et al 2013] restricting access [Korayemet al 2016] or deleting recorded images post-hoc [Templeman et al2014] we de-activate the camera completely using a mechanicalshutter and also signal this to bystanders Our approach is thefirst to employ eye movement analysis for camera re-activationthat unlike other sensing techniques (eg microphones infra-redcameras) does not compromise the privacy of potential bystanders

3 DESIGN RATIONALEPrivacEyersquos design rationale is based on user and bystander goalsand expectations In this section we outline how PrivacEyersquos designcontributes to avoiding erroneous disclosure of sensitive informa-tion so-called misclosures (User Goal 1) and social friction (UserGoal 2) and detail on three resultant design requirements

31 Goals and ExpectationsAvoid Misclosure of Sensitive Data A user wearing smartglasses with an integrated camera would typically do so to makeuse of a particular functionality eg visual navigation Howeverthe devicersquos ldquoalways-onrdquo characteristic causes it to capture morethan originally intended A navigation aid would require capturingcertain landmarks for tracking and localisation In addition unin-tended imagery and potentially sensitive data is captured Ideallyto prevent misclosures [Caine 2009] sensitive data should not becaptured However requiring the user to constantly monitor heractions and environment for potential sensitive information (andthen de-activate the camera manually) might increase the workloadand cause stress As users might be forgetful misinterpret situa-tions or overlook privacy-sensitive items automatic support fromthe system would be desirable from a userrsquos perspectiveAvoid Social Friction The smart glasses recording capabilitiesmay cause social friction if they do not provide a clear indicationwhether the camera is on or off Bystanders might even perceive de-vice usage as a privacy threat when the camera is turned off [Koelleet al 2015 2018] In consequence they feel uncomfortable aroundsuch devices [Bohn et al 2005 Denning et al 2014 Ens et al 2015Koelle et al 2015] Similarly user experience is impaired whendevice users feel a need for justification as they could be accused oftaking surreptitious pictures [Haumlkkilauml et al 2015 Koelle et al 2018]

32 Design RequirementsAs a consequence of these user goals there are three essential designrequirements that PrivacEye addresses (1) The user can make useof the camera-based functionality without the risk of misclosuresor leakage of sensitive information (2) The system pro-activelyreacts to the presence or absence of potentially privacy-sensitivesituations and objects (3) The camera device communicates therecording status clearly to both user and bystander

Scene Camera

with Fish Eye Lens

and Shutter

Eye CameraFeather M0 Proto

to control the Shutter

BAA

C D

Figure 2 PrivacEye prototype with labelled components(B) and worn by a user with a USB-connected laptop in abackpack (A) Detection of privacy-sensitive situations us-ing computer vision closes the camera shutter (C) which isreopened based on a change in the privacy detected level ina userrsquos eye movements (D)

4 PRIVACEYE PROTOTYPEOur fully functional PrivacEye prototype shown in Figure 2 isbased on the PUPIL head-mounted eye tracker [Kassner et al 2014]and features one 640times480 pixel camera (the so-called ldquoeye camerardquo)that records the right eye from close proximity (30 fps) and a secondcamera (1280times720 pixels 24 fps) to record a userrsquos environment(the so-called ldquoscene camerardquo) The first-person camera is equippedwith a fish eye lens with a 175 field of view and can be closedwith a mechanical shutter The shutter comprises a servo motorand a custom-made 3D-printed casing including a mechanical lidto occlude the camerarsquos lens The motor and the lid are operated viaa micro controller namely a Feather M0 Proto Both cameras andthe micro controller were connected to a laptop via USB PrivacEyefurther consists of two main software components (1) detection ofprivacy-sensitive situations to close the mechanical camera shutterand (2) detection of changes in userrsquos eye movements that are likelyto indicate suitable points in time for reopening the camera shutter

41 Detection of Privacy-Sensitive SituationsThe approaches for detecting privacy-sensitive situations we evalu-ated are (1) CNN-Direct (2) SVM-Eye and (3) SVM-Combined

411 CNN-Direct Inspired by prior work on predicting privacy-sensitive pictures posted in social networks [Orekondy et al 2017]we used a pre-trained GoogleNet a 22-layer deep convolutionalneural network [Szegedy et al 2015] We adapted the originalGoogleNet model for our specific prediction task by adding twoadditional fully connected (FC) layers The first layer was used toreduce the feature dimensionality from 1024 to 68 and the secondone a Softmax layer to calculate the prediction scores Outputof our model was a score for each first-person image indicatingwhether the situation visible in that image was privacy-sensitiveor not The cross-entropy loss was used to train the model The fullnetwork architecture is included in the supplementary material

412 SVM-Eye Given that eye movements are independent fromthe scene camerarsquos shutter status they can be used to (1) detectprivacy-sensitive situations while the camera shutter is open and(2) detect changes in the subjective privacy level while the camerashutter is closed The goal of this second component is to instead


detect changes in a userrsquos eye movements that are likely linkedto changes in the privacy sensitivity of the current situation andthereby to keep the number of times the shutter is reopened as lowas possible To detect privacy-sensitive situations and changes wetrained SVM classifiers (kernel=rbf C=1) with characteristic eyemovement features which we extracted using only the eye cameravideo data We extracted a total of 52 eye movement features cover-ing fixations saccades blinks and pupil diameter (see Table 2 in thesupplementary material for a list and description of the features)Similar to [Bulling et al 2011] each saccade is encoded as a char-acter forming words of length n (wordbook) We extracted thesefeatures using a sliding window of 30 seconds (step size of 1 sec)

413 SVM-Combined A third approach for the detection ofprivacy-sensitive situations is a hybrid method We trained SVMclassifiers using the extracted eye movement features (52) and com-bined them with CNN features (68) from the scene image which weextracted from the first fully connected layer of our trained CNNmodel creating 120 feature large samples With the concatenationof eye movement and scene features we are able to extend theinformation from the two previous approaches during recordingphases where the camera shutter is open

5 EXPERIMENTSWe evaluated the different approaches on their own and in com-bination in a realistic temporal sequential analysis trained in aperson-specific (leave-one-recording-out) and person-independent(leave-one-person-out) manner We assume that the camera shutteris open at start up If no privacy-sensitive situation is detected thecamera shutter remains open and the current situation is ratedldquonon-sensitiverdquo otherwise the camera shutter is closed and the cur-rent situation is rated ldquoprivacy-sensitiverdquo Finally we analysed errorcases and investigated the performance of PrivacEye in differentenvironments and activities

51 DatasetWhile an ever-increasing number of eye movement datasets havebeen published in recent years (see [Bulling et al 2012 2011 Hoppeet al 2018 Steil and Bulling 2015 Sugano and Bulling 2015] forexamples) none of them focused on privacy-related attributes Wetherefore make resource to a previously recorded dataset [Steil et al2018] The dataset of Steil et al contains more than 90 hours ofdata recorded continuously from 20 participants (six females aged22-31) over more than four hours each Participants were studentswith different backgrounds and subjects with normal or corrected-to-normal vision During the recordings participants roamed auniversity campus and performed their everyday activities suchas meeting people eating or working as they normally wouldon any day at the university To obtain some data from multipleand thus also ldquoprivacy-sensitiverdquo places on the university campusparticipants were asked to not stay in one place for more than 30minutes Participants were further asked to stop the recording afterabout one and a half hours so that the laptoprsquos battery packs couldbe changed and the eye tracker re-calibrated This yielded threerecordings of about 15 hours per participant Participants regularlyinteracted with a mobile phone provided to them and were alsoencouraged to use their own laptop desktop computer or music

P19 3 23 66 9114

P01 66 65 180 38 23 662

P02 3 150 4765

P03 24 56 2 86 18 889

P05 9 105 12 14 8733 2

P07 5 13 60 46 1562

P08 1 61 60 50 7514

P09 35 61 8 3388

P10 5 84 32 8 11 485

P11 82 45 25 5 20 1138

P12 31 80 31 9 368

P13 5 181 21 239

P14 7 111 6 7 75 2216

P16 164 27 1456

P17 79 41 12 23 41 1016

P18 3 5 6 32 17 1232

3fully inappropriate(privacy-sensitive) Neutral

fully appropriate(non-sensitive)

41 2 6 75

P20 3 145 22 1 57

0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 3 Privacy sensitivity levels rated on a 7-pt Likertscale from 1 fully inappropriate (ie privacy-sensitive) to7 fully appropriate (ie non-sensitive) Distribution in la-belled minuteslevel per participant sorted according to aldquocut-offrdquo between closed shutter (level 1-2) and open shutter(level 3-7) In practice the ldquocut-offrdquo level could be chosen ac-cording to individual ratings as measured by PAQ

player if desired The dataset thus covers a rich set of representativereal-world situations including sensitive environments and tasksThe data collection was performed with the same equipment asshown in Figure 2 excluding the camera shutter

52 Data AnnotationThe dataset was fully annotated by the participants themselveswith continuous annotations of location activity scene contentand subjective privacy sensitivity level 17 out of the 20 participantsfinished the annotation of their own recording resulting in about70 hours of annotated video data They again gave informed con-sent and completed a questionnaire on demographics social mediaexperience and sharing behaviour (based on Hoyle et al [Hoyleet al 2014]) general privacy attitudes as well as other-contingentprivacy [Baruh and Cemalcılar 2014] and respect for bystanderprivacy [Price et al 2017] General privacy attitudes were assessedusing the Privacy Attitudes Questionnaire (PAQ) a modified WestinScale [Westin 2003] as used by [Caine 2009 Price et al 2017]

Annotations were performed using Advene [Aubert et al 2012]Participants were asked to annotate continuous video segmentsshowing the same situation environment or activity They couldalso introduce new segments in case a privacy-relevant featurein the scene changed eg when a participant switched to a sen-sitive app on the mobile phone Participants were asked to anno-tate each of these segments according to the annotation scheme(see supplementary material) Privacy sensitivity was rated on a7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (fully inappropriate) to 7 (fullyappropriate) As we expected our participants to have difficultiesunderstanding the concept of ldquoprivacy sensitivityrdquo we rephrased it


1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60Closed Camera Shutter Interval in sec

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM

SVM-CombinedCNN-Direct

SVM-EyeMajority Classifier

(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)

Figure 4 Person-specific leave-one-recording-out evaluation showing the achieved accuracy (a) and the time between camerashutter closings (b) across different closed camera shutter intervals

for the annotation to ldquoHow appropriate is it that a camera is in thescenerdquo Figure 3 visualises the labelled privacy sensitivity levelsfor each participant Based on the latter distribution we pooledratings of 1 and 2 in the class ldquoprivacy-sensitiverdquo and all others inthe class ldquonon-sensitiverdquo A consumer system would provide theoption to choose this ldquocut-offrdquo We will use these two classes for allevaluations and discussions that follow in order to show the effec-tiveness of our proof-of-concept system The dataset is available athttpswwwmpi-infmpgdeMPIIPrivacEye

53 Sequential AnalysisTo evaluate PrivacEye we applied the three proposed approachesseparately as well as in combination in a realistic temporal se-quential analysis evaluating the system as a whole within person-specific (leave-one-recording-out) and person-independent (leave-one-person-out) cross validation schemes Independent of CNNor SVM approaches we first trained and then tested in a person-specific fashion That is we trained on two of the three recordingsof each participant and tested on the remaining one ndash iterativelyover all combinations and averaging the performance results inthe end For the leave-one-person-out cross validation we trainedon the data of 16 participants and tested on the remaining oneSVM-Eye is the only one of the three proposed approaches thatallows PrivacEye to be functional when no scene imagery is avail-able ie when the shutter is closed Additionally it can be appliedwhen the shutter is open thus serving both software componentsof PrivacEye While the camera shutter is not closed ie sceneimagery is available CNN-Direct or SVM-Combined can be appliedTo provide a comprehensive picture we then analysed the combi-nations CNN-Direct + SVM-Eye (CNNSVM) and SVM-Combined +SVM-Eye (SVMSVM) The first approach is applied when the cam-era shutter is open and SVM-Eye only when the shutter is closedFor the sake of completeness we also evaluated SVM-Combinedand CNN-Direct on the whole dataset However these two methodsrepresent hypothetical best-case scenarios in which eye and scenefeatures are always available As this is in practice not possible theyhave to be viewed as an upper-bound baseline For evaluation pur-poses we apply the proposed approaches within a step size of onesecond in a sequential manner The previously predicted camerashutter position (open or close) decides which approach is appliedfor the prediction of the current state to achieve realistic resultsWe use Accuracy = T P+T N

T P+F P+T N+FN where TP FP TN and FNcount sample-based true positives false positives true negativesand false negatives as performance indicator

531 CNN-Direct For training the CNN which classifies a givenscene image directly as privacy-sensitive or non-sensitive we splitthe data from each participant into segments Each change in envi-ronment activity or the annotated privacy sensitivity level starts anew segment We used one random image per segment for training

532 SVM-Eye and SVM-Combined The SVM classifiers use onlyeye movement features (SVM-Eye) or the combination of eye move-ment and CNN features (SVM-Combined) We standardised thetraining data (zero mean unit variance) for the person-specific andleave-one-person-out cross validation before training the classifiersand used the same parameters for the test data

54 ResultsWith potential usability implications in mind we evaluate per-formance over a range of closed camera shutter intervals If aprivacy-sensitive situation is detected from the CNN-Direct or SVM-Combined approach the camera shutter is kept closed for an intervalbetween 1 and 60 seconds If SVM-Eye is applied and no privacychange is detected the shutter remains closed In a practical ap-plication users build more trust when the camera shutter remainsclosed at least for a sufficient amount of time to guarantee theprotection of privacy-sensitive scene content when such a situa-tion is detected [Koelle et al 2018] We also evaluated CNN-Directand SVM-Combined on the whole recording as hypothetical best-case scenarios However comparing their performance against thecombinations SVMSVM and CNNSVM illustrate the performanceimprovement using SVM-Eye when the camera shutter is closed

541 Person-specific (leave-one-recording-out) evaluation Fig-ure 4a shows the person-specific accuracy performance of Privac-Eye against increasing camera shutter closing time for two combina-tions CNNSVM and SVMSVM and SVM-Eye which can be appliedindependent of the camera shutter status Besides CNN-Direct andSVM-Combined the majority class classifier serves as a baselinepredicting the majority class from the training set The results re-veal that all trained approaches and combinations perform abovethe majority class classifier However we can see that CNN-Directand its combination with SVM-Eye (CNNSVM) perform below theother approaches and below the majority class classifier for longerclosed camera shutter intervals SVM-Eye and SVM-Combined per-form quite robustly around 70 accuracy while SVM-Eye performsbetter for shorter intervals and SVM-Combined for longer intervalsThe interplay approach SVMSVM which we would include in ourprototype exceeds 73 with a closed camera shutter interval of



45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)

Figure 5 Person-independent leave-one-person-out evaluation showing the accuracy results (a) and the time between closingthe camera shutter (b) across different closed camera shutter intervals

one second and outperforms all other combinations in terms ofaccuracy in all other intervals One reason for the performanceimprovement of SVMSVM in comparison to its single componentsis that SVM-Combined performs better for the detection of privacy-sensitive situations when the camera shutter is open while SVM-Eyeperforms better for preserving privacy-sensitive situations so thatthe camera shutter remains closed Another aim of our proposedapproach is the reduction of opening and closing events during arecording to strengthen reliability and trustworthiness A compar-ison of Figure 4a and Figure 4b renders a clear trade-off betweenaccuracy performance and time between camera shutter closinginstances For very short camera shutter closing times the SVM-Eyeapproach which only relies on eye movement features from the eyecamera shows the best performance whereas for longer camerashutter closing times the combination SVMSVM shows better ac-curacy with a comparable amount of time between camera shutterclosing instances However the current approaches are actuallynot able to reach the averaged ground truth of about 82 minutesbetween camera shutter closings

542 Person-independent (leave-one-person-out) evaluation Themore challenging task which assumes that privacy-sensitivitycould generalise over multiple participants is given in the person-independent leave-one-person-out cross validation of Figure 5aSimilar to the person-specific evaluation CNN-Direct and CNNSVMperform worse than the other approaches Here SVM-Eye out-performs SVM-Combined and SVMSVM However none of theapproaches are able to outperform the majority classifier Theseresults show that eye movement features generalise better over mul-tiple participants to detect privacy-sensitive situations than sceneimage information Comparing the number of minutes betweencamera shutter closing events of person-specific and leave-one-person-out in Figure 4b and Figure 5b the person-specific approachoutperforms the person-independent leave-one-person-out evalua-tion scheme for each approach This shows that privacy sensitivitydoes not fully generalise and consumer systems would require aperson-specific calibration and online learning

55 Error Case AnalysisFor PrivacEye it is not only important to detect the privacy-sensitive situations (TP) but equally important to detect non-sensitive situations (TN) which are relevant to grant a good userexperience Our results suggest that the combination SVMSVMperforms best for the person-specific case For this setting we carryout a detailed error case analysis of our system for the participantsrsquo

open shutterclosed shutter



41 2 6 75False Positive (FP)

False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry

GT Social Interaction

Predictions Social Interaction TP FP TN FN

GT Walking

Predictions Walking TP FP TN FN

GT EatingDrinking

Predictions EatingDrinking TP FP TN FN

GT Media Interaction

Predictions Media Interaction TP FP TN FN

GT Others

Predictions Others TP FP TN FN

GT Reading

Predictions Reading TP FP TN FN

52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

Predictions Password Entry TP TN FN

Activities

Figure 6 Error case analysis for different and activitiesshowing the ldquocut-offrdquo between closed shutter (left privacy-sensitive) and open shutter (right non-sensitive) with Pri-vacEye prediction and the corresponding ground truth (GT)False positives (FP) are non-sensitive but protected (closedshutter) false negatives (FN) are privacy-sensitive but unpro-tected (open shutter)

different activities For the activities outlined in Figure 6 PrivacEyeworks best while eatingdrinking and in media interactions Alsothe results are promising for detecting social interactions The per-formance for password entry however is still limited Althoughthe results show that it is possible to detect password entry theamount of true negatives (TN) is high compared to other activitiesThis is likely caused by the datasetrsquos under-representation of thisactivity which characteristically lasts only a few seconds Futurework might be able to eliminate this by specifically training forpassword and PIN entry which will enable the classifier to betterdistinguish between PIN entry and eg reading In the supplemen-tary material we provide an in-depth error case analysis to furtherinvestigate error cases in different environments

6 USER FEEDBACKCollecting initial subjective feedback during early stages of systemdevelopment allows us to put research concepts in a broader context


and helps to shape hypotheses for future quantitative user studiesIn this section we report on a set of semi-structured one-to-oneinterviews on the use of head-worn augmented reality displays ingeneral and our interaction design and prototype in particular Toobtain the user feedback we recruited 12 new and distinct partici-pants (six females) aged 21 to 31 years (M=24 SD=3) from the localstudent population They were enrolled in seven highly diverse ma-jors ranging from computer science and biology to special needseducation We decided to recruit students given that we believethey and their peers are potential users of a future implementationof our prototype We acknowledge that this sample consisting ofrather well educated young adults (with six of them having obtaineda Bachelorrsquos degree) is not representative for the general popula-tion Interviews lasted about half an hour and participants receiveda 5 Euro Amazon voucher We provide a detailed interview pro-tocol as part of the supplementary material The semi-structuredinterviews were audio recorded and transcribed for later analy-sis Subsequently qualitative analysis was performed followinginductive category development [Mayring 2014] Key motives andreoccurring themes were extracted and are presented in this sectionwhere we link back to PrivacEyersquos design and discuss implicationsfor future work

61 User Views on TransparencyMaking it transparent (using the 3D-printed shutter) whether thecamera was turned on or off was valued by all participants Sevenparticipants found the integrated shutter increased perceived safetyin contrast to current smart glasses only few participants statedthat they made no difference between the shutter and other visualfeedback mechanisms eg LEDs (n=2) Several participants notedthat the physical coverage increased trustworthiness because itmade the system more robust against hackers (concernshackingn=3) than LEDs Concluding the usage of physical occlusion couldincrease perceived safety and thus could be considered an op-tion for future designs Participants even noted that the usage ofthe shutter as reassuring as pasting up a laptop camera (laptopcomparison n=4) which is common practice

62 User Views on TrustworthinessIn contrast participants also expressed technology scepticism par-ticularly that the systemmight secretly record audio (concernsaudion=5) or malfunction (concernsmalfunction n=4) With the increas-ing power of deep neural networks malfunctions system failures orinaccuracies will be addressable in the future interaction designerswill have to address this fear of ldquobeing invisibly audio-recordedrdquo Alack of knowledge about eye tracking on both the userrsquos and thebystanderrsquos side might even back this misconception Thereforefuture systems using eye tracking for context recognition will haveto clearly communicate their modus operandi

63 Perceived Privacy of Eye TrackingThe majority of participants claimed to have no privacy concernsabout smart glasses with integrated eye tracking functionality ldquoIdo see no threat to my privacy or the like from tracking my eyemovements this [the eye tracking] would rather be something whichcould offer a certain comfortrdquo (P11) Only two participants expressedconcerns about their privacy eg due to fearing eye-based emotion

recognition (P3) One was uncodeable This underlines our assump-tion that eye tracking promises privacy-preserving and sociallyacceptable sensing in head-mounted augmented reality devices andthus should be further explored

64 Desired Level of ControlParticipants were encouraged to elaborate onwhether the recordingstatus should be user-controlled or system-controlled P10 notesldquoIrsquod prefer if it was automatic because if it is not automatic then thewearer can forget to do that [de-activating the camera] Or maybehe will say lsquoOh I do not want to do thatrsquo and then [] that leadsto a conflict So better is automatic to avoid questionsrdquo Four otherparticipants also preferred the camera to be solely controlled bythe system (controlautomatic n=4) Their preference is motivatedby user forgetfulness (n=5) and potential non-compliance of users(in the bystander use case n=1) Only two participants expressed apreference for sole (controlmanual) control due to an expected lackof system reliability and technical feasibility Two responses wereuncodable All other participants requested to implement manualconfirmation of camera de-activationre-activation or manual op-eration as alternative modes (controlmixed n=4) ie they like tofeel in control To meet these user expectations future interactiondesigns would have to find an adequate mix of user control and auto-matic support through the system for example by enabling users toexplicitly record sensitive information (eg in cases of emergency)or label seemingly non-sensitive situations ldquoconfidentialrdquo

7 DISCUSSIONWe discuss PrivacEye in light of the aforementioned design anduser requirements and results of the technical evaluation

71 Privacy Preserving Device BehaviourDesign Requirements 1 and 2 demand privacy-preserving devicebehaviour With PrivacEye we have presented a computer visionroutine that analyses all imagery obtained from the scene cameracombined with eye movement features with regard to privacy sen-sitivity and in case a situation requires protection the ability tode-activate the scene camera and close the systemrsquos camera shutterThis approach prevents both accidental misclosure and maliciousprocurance (eg hacking) of sensitive data as has been positivelyhighlighted by our interview participants However closing theshutter comes at the cost of having the scene camera unavailable forsensing after it has been de-activated PrivacEye solves this problemby using a second eye camera that allows us in contrast to priorwork to locate all required sensing hardware on the userrsquos sideWith PrivacEye we have provided proof-of-concept that context-dependent re-activation of a first-person scene camera is feasibleusing only eye movement data Future work will be able to buildupon these findings and further explore eye tracking as a sensor forprivacy-enhancing technologies Furthermore our results providefirst prove that there is indeed a transitive relationship over privacysensitivity and a userrsquos eye movements

72 Defining Privacy SensitivityPrior work indicates that the presence of a camera may be per-ceived appropriate or inappropriate depending on social context


location or activity [Hoyle et al 2015 2014 Price et al 2017] How-ever related work does to the best of our knowledge not provideany insights on eye tracking data in this context For this reasonwe run a dedicated data collection and ground truth annotationDesigning a practicable data collection experiment requires theoverall time spent by a participant for data recording and annota-tion to be reduced to a reasonable amount Hence we made use ofan already collected data set and re-invited the participants onlyfor the annotation task While the pre-existing data set provided arich diversity of privacy-sensitive locations and objects includingsmart phone interaction and realistically depicts everyday studentlife it is most likely not applicable to other contexts eg industrialwork or medical scenarios

For PrivacEye we rely on a 17-participant-large ground truthannotated dataset with highly realistic training data Thus thecollected training data cannot be fully generalised eg to otherregions or age groups On the plus side however this data alreadydemonstrates that in a future real-world application sensitivityratings may vary largely between otherwise similar participantsThis might also be affected by their (supposedly) highly individualdefinition of ldquoprivacyrdquo Consequently a future consumer systemshould be pre-trained and then adapted online based on person-alised retraining after user feedback In addition users should beenabled to select their individual ldquocut-offrdquo ie the level from whicha recording is blocked which was set to ldquo2rdquo for PrivacEye Futureusers of consumer devices might choose more rigorous or relaxedldquocut-offrdquo levels depending on their personal preference Initial userfeedback also indicated that an interaction design that combines au-tomatic software-controlled de- and re-activation with consciouscontrol of the camera by the user could be beneficial

73 Eye Tracking for Privacy-EnhancementEye tracking is advantageous for bystander privacy given that itonly senses users and their eye movements In contrast to egmicrophones or infra-red sensing it senses a bystander andor anenvironment only indirectly via the userrsquos eye motion or reflec-tions Furthermore eye tracking allows for implicit interaction andis non-invasive and we expect it to become integrated into com-mercially available smart glasses in the near future On the otherhand as noted by Liebling and Preibusch [Liebling and Preibusch2014 Preibusch 2014] eye tracking data is a scare resource whichcan be used to identify user attributes like age gender health oruserrsquos current task For this reason the collection and use of eyetracking data could be perceived as a potential threat to user pri-vacy However our interviews showed that eye tracking was notperceived as problematic by a large majority of our participantsNevertheless eye tracking data must be protected by appropriateprivacy policies and data hygiene

To use our proposed hardware prototype in a real-world sce-nario data sampling and analysis need to run on a mobile phoneThe CNN feature extraction is currently the biggest computationalbottleneck but could be implemented in hardware to allow for real-time operation (cf Qualcomrsquos Snapdragon 845) Further we believethat a consumer system should provide an accuracy gt90 whichcould be achieved using additional sensors such as GPS or inertialtracking However presenting the first approach for automatic de-

and re-activation of a first-person camera that achieves sim73 withcompetitive performance to ScreenAvoider (542 - 777) [Korayemet al 2014] and iPrivacy (sim75) [Yu et al 2017] which are restrictedto scene content protection and post-hoc privacy protection weprovide a solid basis for follow up work We note that a general-ized person-independent model for privacy sensitivity protectionis desirable For this work only the participants themselves labelledtheir own data Aggregated labels of multiple annotators wouldresult in a more consistent and generalizable ldquoconsensusrdquo modeland improve test accuracy but would dilute the measure of per-ceived privacy sensitivity which is highly subjective [Price et al2017] Specifically similar activities and environments were judgeddifferently by the individual participants as seen in Figure 3 Theavailability of this information is a core contribution of our dataset

74 Communicating Privacy ProtectionThe interaction design of PrivacEye tackles Design Requirement3 using a non-transparent shutter Ens et al [Ens et al 2015] re-ported that the majority of their participants expected to feel morecomfortable around a wearable camera device if it clearly indicatedto be turned on or off Hence our proposed interaction designaims to improve a bystanderrsquos awareness of the recording statusby employing an eye metaphor Our prototype implements the ldquoeyelidrdquo as a retractable shutter made from non-transparent materialopen when the camera is active closed when the camera is inac-tive Thus the metaphor mimics ldquobeing watchedrdquo by the cameraThe ldquoeye lidrdquo shutter ensures that bystanders can comprehend therecording status without prior knowledge as eye metaphors havebeen widely employed for interaction design eg to distinguishvisibility or information disclosure [Motti and Caine 2016 Pousmanet al 2004 Schlegel et al 2011] or to signal user attention [Chan andMinamizawa 2017] Furthermore in contrast to visual status indica-tors such as point lights (LEDs) physical occlusion is non-spoofable(cf [Denning et al 2014 Portnoff et al 2015]) This concept hasbeen highly appreciated during our interviews which is why wewould recommend adopting it for future hardware designs

8 CONCLUSIONIn this work we have proposed PrivacEye a method that combinesfirst-person computer vision with eye movement analysis to enablecontext-specific privacy-preserving de-activation and re-activationof a head-mounted eye trackerrsquos scene camera We have evaluatedour method quantitatively on a 17-participant dataset of fully an-notated everyday behaviour as well as qualitatively by collectingsubjective user feedback from 12 potential future users To the bestof our knowledge our method is the first of its kind and preventspotentially sensitive imagery from being recorded at all withoutthe need for active user input As such we believe the method opensup a new and promising direction for future work in head-mountedeye tracking the importance of which will only increase with fur-ther miniaturisation and integration of eye tracking in head-worndevices or even in normal glasses frames

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis work was funded in part by a JST CREST research grant underGrant No JPMJCR14E1 Japan


REFERENCESPaarijaat Aditya Rijurekha Sen Peter Druschel Seong Joon Oh Rodrigo Benenson

Mario Fritz Bernt Schiele Bobby Bhattacharjee and Tong Tong Wu 2016 I-pic A platform for Privacy-compliant Image Capture In Annual InternationalConference on Mobile Systems Applications and Services (MobiSys) ACM 235ndash248httpsdoiorg10114529063882906412

Olivier Aubert Yannick Prieacute and Daniel Schmitt 2012 Advene As a TailorableHypervideo Authoring Tool A Case Study In Proceedings of the 2012 ACM Sym-posium on Document Engineering (DocEng rsquo12) ACM New York NY USA 79ndash82httpsdoiorg10114523613542361370

Lemi Baruh and Zeynep Cemalcılar 2014 It is more than personal Developmentand validation of a multidimensional privacy orientation scale Personality andIndividual Differences 70 (2014) 165ndash170 httpsdoiorgDOI101016jpaid201406042

Juumlrgen Bohn Vlad Coroamă Marc Langheinrich Friedemann Mattern and MichaelRohs 2005 Social economic and ethical implications of ambient intelligence andubiquitous computing In Ambient Intelligence Springer 5ndash29 httpsdoiorg1010073-540-27139-2_2

Andreas Bulling and Kai Kunze 2016 Eyewear Computers for Human-ComputerInteraction ACM Interactions 23 3 (2016) 70ndash73 httpsdoiorg1011452912886

Andreas Bulling Jamie A Ward and Hans Gellersen 2012 Multimodal Recognitionof Reading Activity in Transit Using Body-Worn Sensors ACM Transactions onApplied Perception 9 1 (2012) 21ndash221 httpsdoiorg10114521342032134205

Andreas Bulling Jamie A Ward Hans Gellersen and Gerhard Troumlster 2011 EyeMovement Analysis for Activity Recognition Using Electrooculography IEEETransactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 33 4 (April 2011) 741ndash753httpsdoiorg101109TPAMI201086

Andreas Bulling ChristianWeichel andHansGellersen 2013 EyeContext Recognitionof High-level Contextual Cues from Human Visual Behaviour In Proc ACM SIGCHIConference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) 305ndash308 httpsdoiorg10114524706542470697

Kelly Caine 2009 Exploring everyday privacy behaviors and misclosures GeorgiaInstitute of Technology

Liwei Chan and Kouta Minamizawa 2017 FrontFace Facilitating CommunicationBetweenHMDUsers andOutsiders Using Front-facing-screenHMDs In Proceedingsof the 19th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with MobileDevices and Services (MobileHCI rsquo17) ACM New York NY USA Article 22 5 pageshttpsdoiorg10114530982793098548

Soumyadeb Chowdhury Md Sadek Ferdous and Joemon M Jose 2016 ExploringLifelog Sharing and Privacy In Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International JointConference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing Adjunct (UbiComp rsquo16) ACMNew York NY USA 553ndash558 httpsdoiorg10114529682192968320

Tamara Denning Zakariya Dehlawi and Tadayoshi Kohno 2014 In situ with By-standers of Augmented Reality Glasses Perspectives on Recording and Privacy-mediating Technologies In Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Com-puting Systems (CHI) ACM 2377ndash2386 httpsdoiorg10114525562882557352

Barrett Ens Tovi Grossman Fraser Anderson Justin Matejka and George Fitzmaurice2015 Candid interaction Revealing hidden mobile and wearable computing activi-ties In Proceedings of the 28th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Softwareamp Technology ACM 467ndash476 httpsdoiorg10114528074422807449

Zackory Erickson Jared Compiano and Richard Shin 2014 Neural Networks forImproving Wearable Device Security (2014)

Charles W Eriksen and Yei-yu Yeh 1985 Allocation of attention in the visual fieldJournal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception and Performance 11 5 (1985)583 httpsdoiorg1010370096-1523115583

Md Sadek Ferdous Soumyadeb Chowdhury and Joemon M Jose 2017 Analysingprivacy in visual lifelogging Pervasive and Mobile Computing (2017) httpsdoiorg101016jpmcj201703003

Gerhard Fischer 2001 User modeling in humanndashcomputer interaction User model-ing and user-adapted interaction 11 1-2 (2001) 65ndash86 httpsdoiorg101023A1011145532042

Jonna Haumlkkilauml Farnaz Vahabpour Ashley Colley Jani Vaumlyrynen and Timo Koskela2015 Design Probes Study on User Perceptions of a Smart Glasses Concept InProceedings of the 14th International Conference onMobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia(MUM rsquo15) ACM New York NY USA 223ndash233 httpsdoiorg10114528360412836064

John Paulin Hansen Anders Sewerin Johansen Dan Witzner Hansen Kenji Itoh andSatoru Mashino 2003 Command without a click Dwell time typing by mouseand gaze selections In Proceedings of Human-Computer InteractionndashINTERACT121ndash128

Adam Harvey 2010 Camoflash-anti-paparazzi clutch (2010) httpahprojectscomprojectscamoflash accessed 13092017

Adam Harvey 2012 CVDazzle Camouflage from Computer Vision Technical report(2012)

Sabrina Hoppe Tobias Loetscher Stephanie Morey and Andreas Bulling 2018 EyeMovements During Everyday Behavior Predict Personality Traits Frontiers inHuman Neuroscience 12 (2018) httpsdoiorg103389fnhum201800105

Roberto Hoyle Robert Templeman Denise Anthony David Crandall and Apu Kapadia2015 Sensitive lifelogs A privacy analysis of photos from wearable cameras InProceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM conference on human factors in computingsystems ACM 1645ndash1648 httpsdoiorg10114527021232702183

Roberto Hoyle Robert Templeman Steven Armes Denise Anthony David Crandalland Apu Kapadia 2014 Privacy Behaviors of Lifeloggers using Wearable CamerasIn International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (Ubicomp)ACM 571ndash582 httpsdoiorg10114526320482632079

Laurent Itti and Christof Koch 2001 Computational modelling of visual attentionNature reviews neuroscience 2 3 (2001) 194 httpsdoiorg10103835058500

Moritz Kassner William Patera and Andreas Bulling 2014 Pupil an open sourceplatform for pervasive eye tracking and mobile gaze-based interaction In Adj ProcUbiComp 1151ndash1160 httpdxdoiorg10114526387282641695

Marion Koelle Wilko Heuten and Susanne Boll 2017 Are You Hiding It Usage Habitsof Lifelogging CameraWearers In Proceedings of the 19th International Conference onHuman-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services (MobileHCI rsquo17) ACMNew York NY USA Article 80 8 pages httpsdoiorg10114530982793122123

Marion Koelle Matthias Kranz and Andreas Moumlller 2015 Donrsquot look at me that wayUnderstanding User Attitudes Towards Data Glasses Usage In Proceedings of the17th international conference on human-computer interaction with mobile devicesand services ACM 362ndash372 httpsdoiorg10114527858302785842

Marion Koelle Katrin Wolf and Susanne Boll 2018 Beyond LED Status Lights-DesignRequirements of Privacy Notices for Body-worn Cameras In Proceedings of theTwelfth International Conference on Tangible Embedded and Embodied InteractionACM 177ndash187 httpsdoiorg10114531732253173234

Mohammed Korayem Robert Templeman Dennis Chen David Crandall and Apu Ka-padia 2014 Screenavoider Protecting computer screens from ubiquitous camerasarXiv preprint arXiv14120008 (2014)

Mohammed Korayem Robert Templeman Dennis Chen David Crandall and ApuKapadia 2016 Enhancing lifelogging privacy by detecting screens In Proceedings ofthe 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems ACM 4309ndash4314httpsdoiorg10114527021232702183

Katharina Krombholz Adrian Dabrowski Matthew Smith and Edgar Weippl 2015 Okglass leave me alone towards a systematization of privacy enhancing technologiesfor wearable computing In International Conference on Financial Cryptography andData Security Springer 274ndash280 httpsdoiorg101007978-3-662-48051-9_20

Daniel J Liebling and Soumlren Preibusch 2014 Privacy considerations for a pervasiveeye tracking world In Proceedings of the 2014 ACM International Joint Conferenceon Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing Adjunct Publication ACM 1169ndash1177httpsdoiorg10114526387282641688

Philipp Mayring 2014 Qualitative content analysis theoretical foundation basic proce-dures and software solution 143 pages

Vivian Genaro Motti and Kelly Caine 2016 Towards a Visual Vocabulary for PrivacyConcepts In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society AnnualMeeting Vol 60 SAGE Publications Sage CA Los Angeles CA 1078ndash1082 httpsdoiorg1011771541931213601249

Tribhuvanesh Orekondy Bernt Schiele andMario Fritz 2017 Towards a Visual PrivacyAdvisor Understanding and Predicting Privacy Risks in Images In InternationalConference on Computer Vision (ICCV 2017) Venice Italy httpsdoiorg101109ICCV2017398

Alfredo J Perez Sherali Zeadally and Scott Griffith 2017 Bystandersrsquo Privacy ITProfessional 19 3 (2017) 61ndash65 httpsdoiorg101109MITP201742

Rebecca S Portnoff Linda N Lee Serge Egelman Pratyush Mishra Derek Leung andDavid Wagner 2015 Somebodyrsquos watching me Assessing the effectiveness ofWebcam indicator lights In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference onHuman Factors in Computing Systems ACM 1649ndash1658 httpsdoiorg10114527021232702611

Zachary Pousman Giovanni Iachello Rachel Fithian Jehan Moghazy and John Stasko2004 Design iterations for a location-aware event planner Personal and UbiquitousComputing 8 2 (2004) 117ndash125 httpsdoiorg101007s00779-004-0266-y

Soumlren Preibusch 2014 Eye-tracking Privacy interfaces for the next ubiquitousmodality In 2014 W3C Workshop on Privacy and User-Centric Controls httpswwww3org2014privacywsppPreibuschpdf

Blaine A Price Avelie Stuart Gul Calikli Ciaran Mccormick Vikram Mehta LukeHutton Arosha K Bandara Mark Levine and Bashar Nuseibeh 2017 LoggingYou Logging Me A Replicable Study of Privacy and Sharing Behaviour in Groupsof Visual Lifeloggers Proc ACM Interact Mob Wearable Ubiquitous Technol 1 2Article 22 (June 2017) 18 pages httpsdoiorg1011453090087

Halley Profita Reem Albaghli Leah Findlater Paul Jaeger and Shaun K Kane 2016The AT Effect How Disability Affects the Perceived Social Acceptability of Head-Mounted Display Use In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factorsin Computing Systems ACM 4884ndash4895 httpsdoiorg10114528580362858130

Nisarg Raval Animesh Srivastava Kiron Lebeck Landon Cox and Ashwin Machanava-jjhala 2014 Markit Privacy markers for protecting visual secrets In Proceedings ofthe 2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous ComputingAdjunct Publication ACM 1289ndash1295 httpsdoiorg10114526387282641707

Jeremy Schiff Marci Meingast Deirdre K Mulligan Shankar Sastry and Ken Goldberg2007 Respectful cameras Detecting visual markers in real-time to address privacy


concerns In Intelligent Robots and Systems 2007 IROS 2007 IEEERSJ InternationalConference on IEEE 971ndash978 httpsdoiorg101007978-1-84882-301-3_5

Roman Schlegel Apu Kapadia and Adam J Lee 2011 Eyeing your exposure quan-tifying and controlling information sharing for improved privacy In Proceed-ings of the Seventh Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security ACM 14 httpsdoiorg10114520788272078846

Jiayu Shu Rui Zheng and Pan Hui 2016 Cardea Context-aware visual privacyprotection from pervasive cameras arXiv preprint arXiv161000889 (2016)

Julian Steil and Andreas Bulling 2015 Discovery of Everyday Human ActivitiesFrom Long-term Visual Behaviour Using Topic Models In Proc ACM InternationalJoint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp) 75ndash85 httpsdoiorg10114527508582807520

Julian Steil Philipp Muumlller Yusuke Sugano and Andreas Bulling 2018 Forecastinguser attention during everyday mobile interactions using device-integrated andwearable sensors In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services ACM 1 httpsdoiorg10114532294343229439

Yusuke Sugano and Andreas Bulling 2015 Self-Calibrating Head-Mounted EyeTrackers Using Egocentric Visual Saliency In Proc of the 28th ACM Sympo-sium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST 2015) 363ndash372 httpsdoiorg10114528074422807445

Yusuke Sugano Xucong Zhang and Andreas Bulling 2016 Aggregaze Collectiveestimation of audience attention on public displays In Proceedings of the 29thAnnual Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology ACM 821ndash831 httpsdoiorg10114529845112984536

Christian Szegedy Wei Liu Yangqing Jia Pierre Sermanet Scott Reed DragomirAnguelov Dumitru Erhan Vincent Vanhoucke and Andrew Rabinovich 2015Going Deeper with Convolutions In Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition(CVPR) httparxivorgabs14094842

Robert Templeman Mohammed Korayem David J Crandall and Apu Kapadia 2014PlaceAvoider Steering First-Person Cameras away from Sensitive Spaces In NDSShttpsdoiorg1014722ndss201423014

Marc Tonsen Julian Steil Yusuke Sugano and Andreas Bulling 2017 InvisibleEyeMobile Eye Tracking Using Multiple Low-Resolution Cameras and Learning-BasedGaze Estimation Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable andUbiquitous Technologies (IMWUT) 1 3 (2017) 1061ndash10621 httpsdoiorg1011453130971

Khai Truong Shwetak Patel Jay Summet and Gregory Abowd 2005 Preventingcamera recording by designing a capture-resistant environment UbiComp 2005Ubiquitous Computing (2005) 903ndash903 httpsdoiorg10100711551201_5

Roel Vertegaal et al 2003 Attentive user interfaces Commun ACM 46 3 (2003) 30ndash33httpsdoiorg101145636772636794

Alan F Westin 2003 Social and political dimensions of privacy Journal of social issues59 2 (2003) 431ndash453 httpsdoiorg1011111540-456000072

Takayuki Yamada Seiichi Gohshi and Isao Echizen 2013 Privacy visor Method basedon light absorbing and reflecting properties for preventing face image detection InSystems Man and Cybernetics (SMC) 2013 IEEE International Conference on IEEE1572ndash1577 httpsdoiorg101109SMC2013271

Jun Yu Baopeng Zhang Zhengzhong Kuang Dan Lin and Jianping Fan 2017 iPrivacyimage privacy protection by identifying sensitive objects via deep multi-task learn-ing IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 12 5 (2017) 1005ndash1016httpsdoiorg101109TIFS20162636090

PrivacEye Privacy-Preserving Head-Mounted Eye Tracking Using EgocentricScene Image and Eye Movement Features [Supplementary Material]

JULIAN STEILMax Planck Institute for Informatics Saarland Informatics Campus

MARION KOELLE University of Oldenburg

WILKO HEUTEN OFFIS - Institute for IT

SUSANNE BOLL University of Oldenburg

ANDREAS BULLING University of Stuttgart

Eyewear devices such as augmented reality displays increasingly integrate eye tracking but the first-person camera required to mapa userrsquos gaze to the visual scene can pose a significant threat to user and bystander privacy We present PrivacEye a method to detectprivacy-sensitive everyday situations and automatically enable and disable the eye trackerrsquos first-person camera using a mechanicalshutter To close the shutter in privacy-sensitive situations the method uses a deep representation of the first-person video combinedwith rich features that encode usersrsquo eye movements To open the shutter without visual input PrivacEye detects changes in usersrsquoeye movements alone to gauge changes in the ldquoprivacy levelrdquo of the current situation We evaluate our method on a first-person videodataset recorded in daily life situations of 17 participants annotated by themselves for privacy sensitivity and show that our methodis effective in preserving privacy in this challenging setting

This supplementary document contains a detailed data annotation scheme description a list of all extracted eye movement fea-tures and the full network architecture of our CNN model Further we provide a full error case analysis investigating the performanceof PrivacEye in different environments and activities as well as the interview protocol analysing usersrsquo feedback towards PrivacEye

CCS Concepts bullHuman-centered computingrarr Interactive systems and tools Ubiquitous and mobile computing Ubiqui-tous and mobile devices Human computer interaction (HCI)

Authorsrsquo addresses Julian Steil Max Planck Institute for Informatics Saarland Informatics Campus jsteilmpi-infmpgde Marion Koelle University ofOldenburg marionkoelleuolde Wilko Heuten OFFIS - Institute for IT wilkoheutenoffisde Susanne Boll University of Oldenburg susannebolluolde Andreas Bulling University of Stuttgart andreasbullingvisuni-stuttgartde

2019 Manuscript submitted to ACM

Manuscript submitted to ACM


1 DATA ANNOTATION SCHEME

Annotations were performed using Advene [Aubert et al 2012] Participants were asked to annotate continuous videosegments showing the same situation environment or activity They could also introduce new segments in case aprivacy-relevant feature in the scene changed eg when a participant switched to a sensitive app on the mobile phoneParticipants were asked to annotate each of these segments according to the annotation scheme shown in Table 1specifically scene content (Q1-7) and privacy sensitivity ratings (Q8-11) Privacy sensitivity was rated on a 7-pointLikert scale (see Figure 1) ranging from 1 (fully inappropriate) to 7 (fully appropriate) As we expected our participantsto have difficulties understanding the concept of ldquoprivacy sensitivityrdquo we rephrased it for the annotation to ldquoHowappropriate is it that a camera is in the scenerdquo (Q8)

privacy-

sensitive

non-

sensitive1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fig 1 Sample images showing daily situations ranging from ldquoprivacy-sensitiverdquo such as password entry or social interactions toldquonon-sensitiverdquo such as walking down a road or sitting in a cafeacute

Question Example Annotation

1What is the current environment you are in office library street canteen2 Is this an indoor or outdoor environment indoor outdoor3What is your current activity in the video segment talking texting walking4 Are private objects present in the scene schedule notes wallet5 Are devices with potentially sensitive content present in the scene laptop mobile phone6 Is a person present that you personally know yes no7 Is the scene a public or a private place private public mixed

8 How appropriate is it that a camera is in the scene9 How appropriate is it that a camera is continuously recording the scene Likert scale (1 fully inappropriate ndash10 How confident are you in a confined sharing (eg with friends and relatives) of the

recorded imagery7 fully appropriate)

11 How confident are you in a public sharing of the recorded imagery

Table 1 Annotation scheme used by the participants to annotate their recordings

2 EYE MOVEMENT FEATURES

Table 2 summarises the features that we extracted from fixations saccades blinks pupil diameter and a userrsquos scanpaths Similar to [Bulling et al 2011] each saccade is encoded as a character forming words of length n (wordbook) Weextracted these features on a sliding window of 30 seconds (step size of 1 second)


Fixation (8) rate mean max var of durations meanvar of var pupil position within one fixation

Saccades (12) rateratio of (smalllargerightleft) saccades mean max variance of amplitudes

Combined (1) ratio saccades to fixations

Wordbooks (24) number of non-zero entries max and min entries and their difference for n-grams with n lt= 4

Blinks (3) rate meanvar blink duration

Pupil Diameter (4) meanvar of meanvar during fixations

Table 2 We extracted 52 eye movement features to describe a userrsquos eye movement behaviour The number of features per categoryis given in parentheses

3 CNN NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Inspired by prior work on predicting privacy-sensitive pictures posted in social networks [Orekondy et al 2017] weused a pre-trained GoogleNet a 22-layer deep convolutional neural network [Szegedy et al 2015] We adapted theoriginal GoogleNet model for our specific prediction task by adding two additional fully connected (FC) layers (seeFigure 2) The first layer was used to reduce the feature dimensionality from 1024 to 68 and the second one a Softmaxlayer to calculate the prediction scores Output of our model was a score for each first-person image indicating whetherthe situation visible in that image was privacy-sensitive or not The cross-entropy loss was used to train the model

Ground TruthScores

ImagesI

GoogleNet

Features 1024

Feature Extraction

Features 68

Fully ConnectedLayer (FC)

Cross-Entropy Loss

SoftmaxPredictions

Features 2

Fig 2 Our method for detecting privacy-sensitive situations is based on a pre-trained GoogleNet model that we adapted with a fullyconnected (FC) and a Softmax layer Cross-entropy loss is used for training the model

4 ERROR CASE ANALYSIS

For PrivacEye it is not only important to detect the privacy-sensitive situations (TP) but equally important to detectnon-sensitive situations (TN) which are relevant to grant a good user experience

Our results suggest that the combination SVMSVM performs best for the person-specific case In the followingwe detail its performance on data recorded in different environments and during different activities We detail on theoccurrence of false positives ie cases where the camera is de-activated in a non-sensitive situation as well as falsenegatives ie cases where the camera remains active although the scene is privacy-sensitive Examples such as inFigure 3 show that while false positives would be rather unproblematic in a realistic usage scenario false negatives arecritical and might lead to misclosures Thus our argumentation focuses on eliminating false negatives While PrivacEye


(a) True positives (b) False positives

(c) False negatives (d) True negatives

Fig 3 Examples for (a) correct detection of ldquoprivacy-sensitiverdquo situations (b) incorrect detection of ldquonon-sensitiverdquo situations (c)incorrect detection of ldquoprivacy-sensitiverdquo situations and (d) correct detection of ldquonon-sensitiverdquo situations

correctly identifies signing a document social interactions and screen interactions as privacy-sensitive false positivescontain reading a book or standing in front of a public display In these cases PrivacEye would act too restrictively incases where de-activating the camera would lead to a loss of functionality (eg tracking) False negative cases includeeg reflections (when standing in front of a window) self-luminous screens or cases that are under-represented in ourdata set (eg entering a pin at the ATM)

Figure 4 provides a detailed overview of true positives and false negatives with respect to the labelled environments(Figure 4 left) and activities (Figure 4 right) For each label two stacked bars are shown PrivacEyersquos prediction (toprow) and the ground truth annotation (GT bottom row) The predictionrsquos result defines the ldquocut-offrdquo between closedshutter (left privacy-sensitive) and open shutter (right non-sensitive) which is displayed as vertical bar Segments thatwere predicted to be privacy-sensitive include both true positives (TP red) and false positives (FP yellow-green) areshown left of the ldquocut-offrdquo Similarly those segments that were predicted to be non-sensitive including true negatives(TN yellow-green) and false negatives (FN red) are displayed right of the ldquocut-offrdquo While false positives (FP) (ienon-sensitive situations classified as sensitive) are not problematic as they to not create the risk of misclosures falsenegatives (FN) are critical Thus we focus our discussion on the false negatives (red top right) A comparison of truepositives (TP) and false negatives (FN) shows that PrivacEye performs well within most environments eg offices orcorridors In these environments true positives outweigh false negatives However in the computer room environmentwhere a lot of screens with potentially problematic content (which the wearer might not even be aware of at recordingtime) are present performance drops Misclassifications between personal displays eg laptops and public displays


0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office

Predictions Office TP FP TN FN

GT Library

Predictions Library TP FP TN FN

GT Corridor

Predictions Corridor TP FP TN FN

GT Cafeteria

Predictions Cafeteria TP FP TN FN

GT Computer Room

Predictions Computer Room TP FP TN FN

GT Elevator

Predictions Elevator TP FP TN FN

GT Street

Predictions Street TP FP TN FN

open shutterclosed shutteropen shutterclosed shutter




False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)


ActivitiesEnvironments

Fig 4 Error case analysis for different environments (left) and activities (right) showing the ldquocut-offrdquo between closed shutter (leftprivacy-sensitive) and open shutter (right non-sensitive) with PrivacEye prediction and the corresponding ground truth (GT) Falsepositives (FP) are non-sensitive but protected (closed shutter) false negatives (FN) are privacy-sensitive but unprotected (open shutter)

(eg room occupancy plans) are a likely reason for the larger amount of false negatives (FN) Future work mightaim to combine PrivacEye with an image-based classifier trained for screen contents (cf [Korayem et al 2016])which however would come at the cost of excluding also non-sensitive screens from the footage Future work mightspecifically target these situations to increase accuracy For the activities outlined in Figure 4 (right) PrivacEye worksbest while eatingdrinking and in media interactions Also the results are promising for detecting social interactions Theperformance for password entry however is still limited Although the results show that it is possible to detect passwordentry the amount of true negatives (TN) is comparatively high This is likely caused by the under-representation ofthis activity which typically lasts only a few seconds in our data set Future work might be able to eliminate this byspecifically training for password and PIN entry possibly enabling the classifier to better distinguish between PIN entryand eg reading

5 INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

During the interviews participants were encouraged to interact with state-of-the-art head-mounted displays (VuzixM300 and Sony SmartEyeglass) and our prototype Participants were presented with the fully functional PrivacEyeprototype which was used to illustrate three scenarios 1) interpersonal conversations 2) sensitive objects (a creditcard and a passport) and 3) sensitive contents on a device screen Due to the time required to gather person-specifictraining data for each interviewee as well as runtime restrictions the scenarios were presented using the Wizard-of-Ozmethod This is also advantageous as the laboratory-style study environment ndash with white walls an interviewer and nodistractors present ndash might have induced different eye movement patterns than a natural environment Also potentialerrors of the system caused by its prototypical implementation might have caused participant bias toward the conceptTo prevent these issues the shutter was controlled remotely by an experimental assistant This way the interviewees


commented on the concept and vision of PrivacEye and not on the actual proof-of-concept implementation which ndashcomplementing the afore-described evaluation ndash provides a more comprehensive and universal set of results altogetherThe semi-structured interview was based on the following questions

Q1 Would you be willing to wear something that would block someone from being able to record you

Q2 If technically feasible would you expect the devices themselves instead of their user to protect your privacy automatically

Q3 Would you feel different about being around someone who is wearing those kinds of intelligent glasses than about those commercially

available today Why

Q4 If you were using AR glasses would you be concerned about accidentally recording any sensitive information belonging to you

Q5 How would you feel about (such) a system automatically taking care that you do not capture any sensitive information

Q6 How do you think the eye tracking works What can the system infer from your eye data

Q7 How would you feel about having your eye movements tracked by augmented reality glasses

The questions were designed following a ldquofunnel principlerdquo with increasing specificity towards the end of theinterview We started with four more general questions (not listed above) such as ldquoDo you think recording with thoseglasses is similar or different to recording with a cell phone Whyrdquo based on [Denning et al 2014] This providedthe participant with some time to familiarize herself with the topic before being presented with the proof-of-conceptprototype (use case ldquobystander privacyrdquo) after Q1 and the use cases ldquosensitive objectsrdquo (eg credit card passport) andldquosensitive datardquo (eg login data) after Q4 Eye tracking functionality was demonstrated after Q5 While acquiescenceand other forms of interviewer effects cannot be ruled out completely this step-by-step presentation of the prototypeand its scenarios ensured that the participants voiced their own ideas first before being directed towards discussingthe actual concept of the PrivacEye prototype Each participant was asked for hisher perspectives on the PrivacEyersquosconcept (Q2-Q5) and eye tracking (Q6 and Q7) The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed for later analysisSubsequently qualitative analysis was performed following inductive category development [Mayring 2014]

REFERENCESOlivier Aubert Yannick Prieacute and Daniel Schmitt 2012 Advene As a Tailorable Hypervideo Authoring Tool A Case Study In Proceedings of the 2012 ACM

Symposium on Document Engineering (DocEng rsquo12) ACM New York NY USA 79ndash82 httpsdoiorg10114523613542361370Andreas Bulling Jamie A Ward Hans Gellersen and Gerhard Troumlster 2011 Eye Movement Analysis for Activity Recognition Using Electrooculography

IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 33 4 (April 2011) 741ndash753 httpsdoiorg101109TPAMI201086Tamara Denning Zakariya Dehlawi and Tadayoshi Kohno 2014 In situ with Bystanders of Augmented Reality Glasses Perspectives on Recording

and Privacy-mediating Technologies In Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) ACM 2377ndash2386 httpsdoiorg10114525562882557352

Mohammed Korayem Robert Templeman Dennis Chen David Crandall and Apu Kapadia 2016 Enhancing lifelogging privacy by detecting screens InProceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems ACM 4309ndash4314 httpsdoiorg10114527021232702183

Philipp Mayring 2014 Qualitative content analysis theoretical foundation basic procedures and software solution 143 pages httpsdoiorg101007978-94-017-9181-6_13

Tribhuvanesh Orekondy Bernt Schiele and Mario Fritz 2017 Towards a Visual Privacy Advisor Understanding and Predicting Privacy Risks in ImagesIn International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV 2017) Venice Italy httpsdoiorg101109ICCV2017398

Christian Szegedy Wei Liu Yangqing Jia Pierre Sermanet Scott Reed Dragomir Anguelov Dumitru Erhan Vincent Vanhoucke and Andrew Rabinovich2015 Going Deeper with Convolutions In Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) httparxivorgabs14094842


Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work

21 Privacy Concerns - First-Person Cameras

22 Enhancing Privacy of First-Person Cameras

3 Design Rationale

31 Goals and Expectations

32 Design Requirements

4 PrivacEye Prototype

41 Detection of Privacy-Sensitive Situations

5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation

53 Sequential Analysis

54 Results

55 Error Case Analysis

6 User Feedback

61 User Views on Transparency

62 User Views on Trustworthiness

63 Perceived Privacy of Eye Tracking

64 Desired Level of Control

7 Discussion

71 Privacy Preserving Device Behaviour

72 Defining Privacy Sensitivity

73 Eye Tracking for Privacy-Enhancement

74 Communicating Privacy Protection

8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References


visual markers [Schiff et al 2007] or techniques to compromiserecordings [Harvey 2012 Truong et al 2005] However all of thesemethods require bystanders to take action themselves to protecttheir privacy None of these works addressed the problem at itssource ie the scene camera nor did they offer a means to protectthe privacy of both the wearer and potential bystanders

To address this limitation we propose PrivacEye the first methodfor privacy-preserving head-mounted eye tracking (see Figure 1)The key idea and core novelty of our method is to detect usersrsquotransitions into and out of privacy-sensitive everyday situations byleveraging both cameras available on these trackers If a privacy-sensitive situation is detected the scene camera is occluded by aphysical shutter Our design choice to use a non-spoofable physicalshutter which closes for some time and therefore provides feedbackto bystanders is substantiated by Koelle et al who highlight anincreased trustworthiness over LED lights on the camera or puresoftware solutions [Koelle et al 2018] While this approach is secureand visible to bystanders it prohibits visual input from the sceneThus our method analyses changes in the usersrsquo eye movement be-haviour alone to detect if they exit a privacy-sensitive situation andthen reopens the camera shutter A naive vision-only system couldreopen the shutter at regular intervals eg every 30 seconds todetect whether the current situation is still privacy-sensitive How-ever this approach may negatively affect perceived reliability andincrease mistrust in the system Thus our eye-tracking approachpromises significant advantages over a purely interval-based ap-proach in terms of user experience and perceived trustworthiness

Our approach is motivated by prior work that demonstratesthat eye movements are a rich source of information on a userrsquoseveryday activities [Bulling et al 2011 Steil and Bulling 2015]social interactions and current environment [Bulling et al 2013]or even a userrsquos personality traits [Hoppe et al 2018] In additionprior work showed that perceived privacy sensitivity is relatedto a userrsquos location and activity [Hoyle et al 2015] We thereforehypothesize that privacy sensitivity transitively informs a userrsquoseye movements We are the first to confirm this transitivity whichresults as a reasoned deduction from prior work

The specific contributions of this work are three-fold First wepresent PrivacEye the first method that combines the analysis ofegocentric scene image features with eye movement analysis toenable context-specific privacy-preserving de-activation and re-activation of a head-mounted eye trackerrsquos scene camera As suchwe show a previously unconfirmed transitive relationship over theusersrsquo eye movements their current activity and environment aswell as the perceived privacy sensitivity of the situation they are inSecond we evaluate our method on a dataset of real-world mobileinteractions and eye movement data fully annotated with loca-tions activities and privacy sensitivity levels of 17 participantsThird we provide qualitative insights on the perceived social ac-ceptability trustworthiness and desirability of PrivacEye based onsemi-structured interviews using a fully functional prototype

2 RELATEDWORKResearch on eye tracking privacy is sparse Thus our work mostlyrelates to previous works on (1) privacy concerns with first-personcameras and (2) privacy enhancing methods for (wearable) cameras

21 Privacy Concerns - First-Person CamerasFirst-person cameras are well-suited for continuous and unobtru-sive recordings which causes them to be perceived as unsettlingby bystanders [Denning et al 2014] Both usersrsquo and bystandersrsquoprivacy concerns and attitudes towards head-mounted devices withintegrated cameras were found to be affected by context situationusage intentions [Koelle et al 2015] and user group [Profita et al2016] Hoyle et al showed that the presence and the number ofpeople in a picture specific objects (eg computer displays ATMcards physical documents) location and activity affected whetherlifeloggers deemed an image ldquoshareablerdquo [Hoyle et al 2014] Theyalso highlighted the need for automatic privacy-preserving mecha-nisms to detect those elements as individual sharing decisions arelikely to be context-dependent and subjective Their results werepartly confirmed by Price et al who however found no significantdifferences in sharing when a screen was present [Price et al 2017]Chowdhury et al found that whether lifelogging imagery is suit-able for sharing is (in addition to content scenario and location)mainly determined by its sensitivity [Chowdhury et al 2016] Fer-dous et al proposed a set of guidelines that among others includesemi-automatic procedures to determine the sensitivity of capturedimages according to user-provided preferences [Ferdous et al 2017]All highlight the privacy sensitivity of first-person recordings andthe importance of protecting user and bystander privacy

22 Enhancing Privacy of First-Person CamerasTo increase the privacy of first-person cameras for bystanders re-searchers have suggested communicating their privacy preferencesto nearby capture devices using wireless connections as well asmobile or wearable interfaces [Krombholz et al 2015] Others havesuggested preventing unauthorised recordings by compromisingthe recorded imagery eg using infra-red light signals [Harvey2010 Yamada et al 2013] or disturbing face recognition [Harvey2012] In contrast to our approach these techniques all require thebystander to take action which might be impractical due to costsand efforts [Denning et al 2014]

A potential remedy are automatic or semi-automatic approachessuch as PlaceAvoider a technique that allows users to ldquoblacklistrdquo sen-sitive spaces eg bedroom or bathroom [Templeman et al 2014]Similarly ScreenAvoider allowed users to control the disclosureof images of computer screens showing potentially private con-tent [Korayem et al 2016] Erickson et al proposed a method toidentify security risks such as ATMs keyboards and credit cardsin images captured by first-person wearable devices [Erickson et al2014] However instead of assessing the whole scene in terms ofprivacy sensitivity their systems only detected individual sensi-tive objects Raval et al presented MarkIt a computer vision-basedprivacy marker framework that allowed users to use self-definedbounding boxes and hand-gestures to restrict visibility of contenton two dimensional surfaces (eg white boards) or sensitive real-world objects [Raval et al 2014] iPrivacy automatically detectsprivacy-sensitive objects from social images users are willing toshare using deep multi-task learning [Yu et al 2017] It warns theimage owners what objects in the images need to be protectedbefore sharing and recommends privacy settings






Scene Camera

with Fish Eye Lens

and Shutter



BAA

C D











P19 3 23 66 9114

P01 66 65 180 38 23 662

P02 3 150 4765

P03 24 56 2 86 18 889

P05 9 105 12 14 8733 2

P07 5 13 60 46 1562

P08 1 61 60 50 7514

P09 35 61 8 3388

P10 5 84 32 8 11 485

P11 82 45 25 5 20 1138

P12 31 80 31 9 368

P13 5 181 21 239

P14 7 111 6 7 75 2216

P16 164 27 1456

P17 79 41 12 23 41 1016

P18 3 5 6 32 17 1232



41 2 6 75

P20 3 145 22 1 57

0 20 40 60 80 100







45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)











45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)









False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)


Activities




































































































privacy-

sensitive

non-





















Ground TruthScores

ImagesI

GoogleNet

Features 1024

Feature Extraction

Features 68


Cross-Entropy Loss

SoftmaxPredictions

Features 2












0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office


GT Library


GT Corridor


GT Cafeteria


GT Computer Room


GT Elevator


GT Street






False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)












available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References






Scene Camera

with Fish Eye Lens

and Shutter



BAA

C D











P19 3 23 66 9114

P01 66 65 180 38 23 662

P02 3 150 4765

P03 24 56 2 86 18 889

P05 9 105 12 14 8733 2

P07 5 13 60 46 1562

P08 1 61 60 50 7514

P09 35 61 8 3388

P10 5 84 32 8 11 485

P11 82 45 25 5 20 1138

P12 31 80 31 9 368

P13 5 181 21 239

P14 7 111 6 7 75 2216

P16 164 27 1456

P17 79 41 12 23 41 1016

P18 3 5 6 32 17 1232



41 2 6 75

P20 3 145 22 1 57

0 20 40 60 80 100







45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)











45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)









False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)


Activities




































































































privacy-

sensitive

non-





















Ground TruthScores

ImagesI

GoogleNet

Features 1024

Feature Extraction

Features 68


Cross-Entropy Loss

SoftmaxPredictions

Features 2












0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office


GT Library


GT Corridor


GT Cafeteria


GT Computer Room


GT Elevator


GT Street






False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)












available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References






P19 3 23 66 9114

P01 66 65 180 38 23 662

P02 3 150 4765

P03 24 56 2 86 18 889

P05 9 105 12 14 8733 2

P07 5 13 60 46 1562

P08 1 61 60 50 7514

P09 35 61 8 3388

P10 5 84 32 8 11 485

P11 82 45 25 5 20 1138

P12 31 80 31 9 368

P13 5 181 21 239

P14 7 111 6 7 75 2216

P16 164 27 1456

P17 79 41 12 23 41 1016

P18 3 5 6 32 17 1232



41 2 6 75

P20 3 145 22 1 57

0 20 40 60 80 100







45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)











45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)









False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)


Activities




































































































privacy-

sensitive

non-





















Ground TruthScores

ImagesI

GoogleNet

Features 1024

Feature Extraction

Features 68


Cross-Entropy Loss

SoftmaxPredictions

Features 2












0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office


GT Library


GT Corridor


GT Cafeteria


GT Computer Room


GT Elevator


GT Street






False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)












available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References



45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)











45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)









False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)


Activities




































































































privacy-

sensitive

non-





















Ground TruthScores

ImagesI

GoogleNet

Features 1024

Feature Extraction

Features 68


Cross-Entropy Loss

SoftmaxPredictions

Features 2












0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office


GT Library


GT Corridor


GT Cafeteria


GT Computer Room


GT Elevator


GT Street






False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)












available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References



45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Accu

racy

in

SVMSVMCNNSVM



(a)


0

05

1

15

2

25

3

Tim

e be

twee

n C

amer

a S

hutte

r Clo

sing

s in

min SVMSVM

SVM-CombinedSVM-Eye

CNNSVMCNN-Direct

(b)









False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)


Activities




































































































privacy-

sensitive

non-





















Ground TruthScores

ImagesI

GoogleNet

Features 1024

Feature Extraction

Features 68


Cross-Entropy Loss

SoftmaxPredictions

Features 2












0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office


GT Library


GT Corridor


GT Cafeteria


GT Computer Room


GT Elevator


GT Street






False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)












available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

































































































privacy-

sensitive

non-





















Ground TruthScores

ImagesI

GoogleNet

Features 1024

Feature Extraction

Features 68


Cross-Entropy Loss

SoftmaxPredictions

Features 2












0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office


GT Library


GT Corridor


GT Cafeteria


GT Computer Room


GT Elevator


GT Street






False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)












available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References










Ground TruthScores

ImagesI

GoogleNet

Features 1024

Feature Extraction

Features 68


Cross-Entropy Loss

SoftmaxPredictions

Features 2












0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office


GT Library


GT Corridor


GT Cafeteria


GT Computer Room


GT Elevator


GT Street






False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)












available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References







0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Office


GT Library


GT Corridor


GT Cafeteria


GT Computer Room


GT Elevator


GT Street






False Negative (FN)

True Positive (TP)

True Negative (TN)

0 20 40 60 8020406080

GT Password Entry



GT Walking


GT EatingDrinking




GT Others


GT Reading


52305h(170 FN)

05h56h(89 FN)

12h45h (266 FN)

12h141h (85 FN)

1046h(217 FN)

13h68h (191 FN)

10717min(63 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

08h55h (217 FN)

25h162h (154 FN)

35h191h (183 FN)

13h44h (295 FN)

23min30min(76 FN)

10h78h (142 FN)












available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References





available today Why















Abstract

1 Introduction

2 Related Work



3 Design Rationale





5 Experiments

51 Dataset

52 Data Annotation


54 Results


6 User Feedback





7 Discussion





8 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

privaceye: privacy-preserving head-mounted eye tracking ... · etra ’19, june 25–28, 2019,...

Documents