POPULAR IDEAS ABOUTLAI{GUAGE LEARb{ING:FACTS AND OPII{IONS

Ill thc I¡rtroduction, rvc presented a number ofcornmonly expressed r:pini*rs.rs

rtbout lr<¡w hnguages arc lca¡'ncd. \\'e asked ¡'ou ro indicarc l'rorv strongly yuu.r

agrcccl wirh these o¡rinions. Now that you have read abou¡ sorne of thr rheqn*1"

l¡¡rcl rese¡trch in sccontl litrreuagc acr¡r.ri.sirion, takc:rnt¡tlrcr look at rhoseidr¿s.l{itve you chtrr¡¡ed yorrr nrin<{ ¡lrotrt thc imporrancr of inrita¡ion órsrorx$:r-rvork, or whcther strrrting second lrngtrage insrrucrion earlv is really rhe trrsrapproach? Or do you Fccl thut your viervs abour sr-¡ havc only been confirrn¿x,!by thc discussion in thc prcceding chapters?

'lt¡ conclude this introductiot-l to sur rescarch, here ¿rc our o\.\'n responscs {üthcse popular ideas about langr.rage learning.

1 Languages are learned mainly through imitationIr is difficult to find support for rhe argument that languages are lerrnndrrainly through imiration. For one thing, learners produce many nrweilscrrte nces that they cor,r[d not lrave heard before. Thcse $e n te nce s are bascd sus':

the le,rrners'developing undcrstanding of how the language systcm works--I'his

is particularly evidcrrt rvith childrcn *'ho sa1'things like: 'l'm hiecingugrand I can't stop' and 'lt rvas upside down but I turned it upsitlc right' or wirfusecond language learners who say 'The cou'boy rided int<l town' or 'T'he r¡ra¡rthat I spoke to him is angry.'These cxamples and many othcrs provir,bevide¡rce rhat language learners do not simply intcrnaliz.e a grc:it lisr *¡f,imitated and memorized sentences.

This does nor mean, however, that imitation has no role ro play in langrragnlearning. Some childrcn imitntc a greor deal as they acquire their firsr languagr-Yet their language does not develop f¡ts¡cr or better tha¡¡ that ofchildren whwrarely imitate. Furthermote, chilclren do rrot imitate everything they hear, btwofren sclcctivcly imitatc ccrtain words or strucrures which they are in theproccss oflcrrning.

l\t¡ttlnr ide,u ttbout bngtage lettrning facts and opinions

Sccond language learncrs also produce man)'sentences rhat thev corrld norhavc lieard. In this u'a¡ thei'are like children learnins rheir first language.Sorne second languaee learners may find that rhey benefir from opportunitiesto inritate samples of the nerv language, and irnitation is clearly im¡:rortanr inclcveloping pro6ciency in pronunciatir:n and intonacion. For sorne advancedle irLncrs who are de termined to irnprove their pronr:nciarion, carefirl listeningrnd irnitarion irr a languaqe laborrrory can be very valuablc. Brrr for beginning

, ¿.,ú v\.v :le,rrnels, the s]¡yisl-r" iñlita¡ion and rote memorization ¡hat characte¡izedaudiolingu:rl lar.rguage approaches to language reaching led nrany learne rs toa dead end. They could recire bits oIperfectll. accurate languaqe, but the lackof practice in strLrggling ro unders¡and and mrrke themselves r-u-rdcrstood ingcnr-rinelv meaningful intc¡¿ction left nr:rn1'le,¡rncrs rvirh littlc nrLlre th¿ln rt--ollcction of sentence s, rvaiting For the monenr rvhen those se ntences rvouldbc trscf:ull

2 Parents x$ualb co?'t'ect young children uben tlteyma he gt"amntatical errors

'l"hcrc¡ is considerable variarion in the exrenr ro which parcnts correct rheirchildrcn'.s speech.

-fhe varia¡ion is besed parrh'on the children! age. \When

clrilclle n are very young pre-schoolers, parenrs rarely comment on granrrnatica.lcrrc,rs although thcy mavcorrect lepses in politeness or the choice ofa rvord rhatdocsn't make sense. As children reach school age, parents oftcn correct thekincls of non-star.rclard speech that they hope the ir children rvill or-rtgrou', forcxrtn-rple, 'lr{e and Frecl are going outsidc now.' The parcnts' ou'nsociolinguistic background is also a source of'r'ariation in thc amount andkilld of correcrion thev engaee in. Sonre ¡urenrs hear norlring rvrong in theqrilnlrrtr of '-I'[rai'.s tl'rc bov s'lio I gave nrv books to' rvhile other.s rvill insist<ln 'to rvhont .

Ncvcrtlrclr'ss. cxtc¡lsivc o[rrertrrtions.-,f parcntr.rnd chil.ircn slrorv thrrt,:rs,rrrrlc, ¡larcnts ¡cnc{ to fbcus on rleaning rathcr rhan fbrm whe n they corrcctclrildrcris spr'ech. Thus, thei' may correct an incorrect rvord choicc, an

i¡rcorrcct statemc¡rt ol the facts, or a rude remark, but rhey cither do nornoricc or do nor reacr ro errors rvhich. do not interfere rvith successfulcoln¡nunication. \What rhis rells us is thar children clnn()r depend onr'r¡rrsistcnt corrective feedback in order ro learn rhe basic srructure (rhe rvorclortlcr, the grammatical morphemes, the inronation patterns) of theirl,rrrguage. Fortunatel¡', they appear to be able to acquire rhe adulr form of rhelirrr¡iulge with litrle or no explicit feedback.

Popukr ideas nbout language learning: facx rtnd opinions I 63

T'he cese fo¡ second langtrage learners is nrore cornplex. While it is clear thatolder children and acluits can acquire a grear dcal oF langtrage rvithour anyFormal ins¡rr.rction, the evidence su€igests that, rvithout co¡rective feedhscklnd guidance, secont{ llngr-rage le an:ct's nray pe rsist in using ce rtai¡,t

u n grrlnr marical fornrs for' 1's¿¡t.

3 People uith high lqt are good language leat"ners

I'hc kind of intelligencc rl,hich is measuretl try t<¡ tc.sts is a good prcdicror iirrsucccss in classloorls r.vl'ierc rhe cmphasis is o¡r lcarning nbottt thc latrguaflc

(lrol cxar-nplc, grrnllr¿rr ltrlcs and vocal¡trl¿rv iteltis). lrr adc{ition, pcopic lvhcr

rl,.r rvcll ou Ie tcsts nt,ry cto rvcll o¡r othcr liinds crf tcsts irs rvcli. Horvevcn i¡r

nrrturirl langtrage learning settings ar-rc{ in cltrssroorns whct'c langutrr'3

rrcrclLrisitiort rltrough intcractive Ianguatc Lrsc is cmphasiz.ed, rcsc:rrch has

shorvn th¿t learncrs rvith rr rvidc varier¡' of intcllecLual abilitic's c¿tr bc,

succcssful lrrnguagc lcrtrrlcrs. "l'his is cspcciallv tlue if the skills which arc

rsscsscd .r.,,ril .,tlnttn,-rtricati,rn skills r.,,ihcr tl',.,', mctrrlinqtri.ric klrorvlcdqc.

4 The t?xost imPortantfactor in second language

rtcquisition sxtccess is motiua tionEve ryor-re agr€es that lclure rs who want to lc:rrn tcnd to do bctter than rhr¡se

who clon't. But rve tnust guard agairtst too stroltg att intcrprctation of:rhis'

Sonletin"res, evcn hiehly motivated learners encounter great difficulties inimprovine the ir mastcrv oltlic langu,rgc. V'c l<ltow fol cxanrple , that le¿rli*¡s

rvho bcgin lcrrrring:r second larreulge as adults rarcly achicve thc flr'rcucy and

irccurácv tl-¡at childrcn c{o in 6rst larreu:tgc acquisition.'fhis failurc tc¡ achievc

nlrive-likc rrbility cenriot lrc trtkcrl as cvidct"rcc thlt adult sccorld langtlagc

lcarncrs are not rnc¡¡ivltcd tt¡ lertrn thc languirge.'Wc also knorv that in a gror.rp

.rFhighly motivlrtc(l sccorrcl l,rngti,rgc learntrs, tlre rc arc rtlrva¡'s tlrosc wlro arc

morc successfirl than othqrs. -l'his

is sor¡rctirrlcs dttc to clifTcrcllccs in llngu:rge

lelrnir.rg xprirudc and in how tlrc iustntction itrtcract.s rvith "indivitlual

learners' sryles and prcf:crcttce.s for lcarning.

Clearly, teachers have no iuflue¡ce over a lear¡rcr'.s intrillsic motivat;or¡ forlearning a se-ond langulgc. Learners cotnc i¡rt<¡ otrr clrtssroonrs ft'our dilFerent

backgrounds and life experiences, all of which havc contributed to tFrcir

artiti¡dcs torvard and mo¡ivation to learll the tlrgct language. The principalway rhat teachers can lnfluence le¿rtrcrs' rnotivatiolt i.s by making rhe

classroom a supportive enviro¡rment in which students are stimulated,engaged in activities which arc appropriate to their age, interests and culrural

backgrounds, and, mosr importantl¡ whcrc students can experienc€ stlc€GSS;

This in turn cen contributc tp posirive motivation, leading to still greafrrsuccess.

1t::

l,rñ;

üffi

#

fit,

l6¿ ltopular ideas about knguage learning facx and opiníons

5 The ea.rlier a second language is irttroducedin schoolprogramt the greater tbe lihelihood ofsuccess in learning

"l-lrc tlccisiolt ebout when to introduce secor-rd or foreign language irrstruction

rnusr depend on the obiectives of the language program in the palticrrlar'

st'rci¡l conrext of the school.'$lhen the objective is native-like pe rfbrmance irr

the second language, then it n.ray be desirable to begin exposure to the

l,rnguage as early as possible. The research evidence is fairly strong that onlyrhosc rvho beqin second lenguege learning at an early age will evcntuirlly be

i ncl isri nguishable fi'orn irrtive speakcrs.

l'lorvcver, evcn in cascs whcrc such high levcls o[ skill are rargctcd, it is

inrportunt to recognize certain disadvantages ofan early start, especi'.rlly whcrr

rrrr early start in second language means ¡hat children have little opporttrnityto conrinuc to develop their knowledge of their first lar.rguage. Strbtrrrctivc

[rilingualism rnay ha'r,e lastine negative consequences. For childrc:n From

nr intirity-l,rnguage backgrounds, plograms promoting the developrnent ofrhc first llnguage irt home and at school may be more irnportant for lollg-te rlllsuccess in the second language rhan an early start in the second langtragc itself.

l{cscrrch shorvs that a good fbunclation in the child's 6rst language, includingrhc dcvclopment oFlite rac¡ is ir sottnd base to brrild on. Childrerl who cen

llcgin their schooling in a langr.rage they already know will have more self-

<',unfi.l.'"t.., rvill be ablc to lear¡r nore effectively in the early school years, and

rvill not losc valuable time in a pe riod oflirnbo duringwhich they struggle iustto urrclersr,rrrcl whrrr is happcning itr the classroonr.

(llcurlv, [or ttrarry childrcn, rhcrc is no op¡rorrtrnity to havc tlrcil early

scltooling in thcir fi rsr language . They are menrbe rs of a snrrlll n.r inority grou¡.>

rvhcrc it is Itot pr:ictical krr schools to offer them an educational prograrn in

tlrcir liLst langLngc, or thcy livc in iurisdictions whcre legislation h¡s

tn¡r¡rdltcd I singlc languagc of cilucation for all children, regardless of:theirlr,rck¡¡rourrrl, I:or these childrcn, it is crucial to havc sensitive educators who

r*ipcct tlrc clrildrc¡r's difficulry, who eucourage patents to maintain the Ironre

lrrr¡Etrrrg,c, ilrlcl who unde rstand that seconcl language learning takes time and

cflirrt,

liot lirrcigrt larrguage i¡rstruction or for second language instruction where the

level of proficicncy rvhich is targeted is not native-like performance by all

¡tttrlcttts' tl¡c si¡uati.lr is qrrite different' tvhen the Eoll of the educarional

llro¡¡rntn is b¡rsic co¡nmunicative skill for all students, and where there is a

ittottgconrmitmcnt to mnintaining and developing the childt first language,

it r¡ri he nrorc clficicnt tn begin second languagc teaching later. Older

shlltlren (for cxemple, l0-yearoltls) arc eble to catch up veryquickly on those

Popular ideas about knguage learning facts and opinions 165

rvho began earlier (for example, ¡r 6 or 7 years old) in programs offe ring onl¡

a ferv hJurs "r"eekof

insrruciion. This is cspecially true if the foreign language

course includes a period of rnore intensivc cxposrlre to the lrew langrrage- All

scl.rool programs shoutd be based o¡'r rc:rlisric csrimates oFl.rorv long ir takes to

l.nr,', . ,..Jnd language. O.e or nvo hours a wcek - cverl for seve n or e ig¡t

years - rvill ,.,o, prJ,l,-,I. ve ry aciva'ced second language speakers. This 'drip-

i".d' ,ppro..h Lft.n leac{s io Frusrrarion as learncrs fecl that rhcy have ireen

,r'.rdying'fo, yeirrs' rvithout making much Progress' Sadl¡ thci'are somctirnes

right abotrt this.

6 Most of the mistahes uhich second lñngulge .

learrirc malee are due to interferencefrorn their

frst language

The transte r of parterns from the narivc language is undoubtedly one of thc

'rajor sources oi"..o* ir lerrner lrnguagc. Flowcvcr, there are other cau.ses

ftrr arror. r,¡o, one of rvhich is ovrrgencraliz¡tion of t:rrgr:t-lar-rguagc mles. [;or

."^,r.,p¡., research has shown th"i s.cond languaee learners frorn tliFférent

first-l'",.,guag" backgrour.rds .fren rnakc tlii samt kinds ol errors rvhc'

learr', i nia p-^rri..,l"i r".or.rd la. guaee. I n srrch cases' seco nd-lan gurge cr rors

"r. .,rij"nt. of rhe learnerr'.f'fbrrt ro discover tlrc structttre of the target

i"ng,.r"g. itsclf rarhcr than atiempiS to tra'sfcr p:rttc.ts fro'r their ñr'st

l;.;"d.. Inte rqstingl¡ some of ,Ét'" t"o" are remarkably similar to the

kinds of errors made by first language learners'

Thcsc observ:rrions arc a srrong indicarion th¡t sccand languagc learnirlg is

nor sir'ply :r proccss of ¡rr-rtrirI scco'd-larrgu,tqc w.rds into firsr-l:rrr¡iuage

,.,r r.,.,.... R"icarclr has "ir.,

,hoi*.r', rher aspccts of thc scco¡rd languagc which

are diffc,rcnt lrom rhe first hnguagc will not nccessarily be acquircd latcr or

rvith rnorc clifñcirlry tlr:¡n rlrosc asPccts rvhich are sinril:rr'

c)n thc othcr hand, when crrors arc causcd by thc ovcrcxrcnsic¡n of somc

oarrial sirnilariry be nvcen the ñrst ar.rd second languages, thesc crrors nrly bc

liffi.ul, ,u ou"í..on.,.. This ma.v be particularly problematic if learncrs are

frequently in contact with other learners who mal<e the sarnc crrors'

7 Teachers shouldpresent gramrnatical rules one at

a time, and leafners shoulá'Practise ex¡lmples ofeaih one before going on to another

Languagé learning is not simply linear in im development' Learners may use

" p"li.íl*. fo.r' Iccurately.i i,"g. * (suggesting that rhey have learned¡l¡at

il'r-j, i"if to produce that form ai stage v-,ind prodtrce it accurately again at

i.II

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S,tr

t,

I

hptlar ilets about language learníng: facts and opinions

sr¡tf,c /..'l'he clecline in accuracy may show rhat learners are incorporating nerv

infi,lnlrrtion about tl'rc lariguage into their orvn interual systcrn of ruleS' An

cxunr¡rle of this rvou[d be when learners who have learned the past te nse form,rvt,nr'

¿.r.s a rrrernorized 'chunk' learn to trse rhe regulerr ,ed inflecúon for past

tcnsc nrarking. At this point, rhey stoP ttsirlg'\\'ent'an<i produce 'goed'' Once

l,,ru'¡lcrs become all,are of the exceptions to the -rl past rense rule, they beqin

ro rrsc 'we nr'correcrlv again. This provides evidence thar language development

is rror jtrst adding ¡ule after rule, brrt integratine new ¡ules into an existing

svstcnr of mles, readjustiltgand restrr:cturing until all the pieces 6t.

So¡lc strLtcture,basecl approeches to reaching :rre b¿sed on the false assllmPtioll

tllrrr scconcl language clevelopment is Iineer. This c,rn bc see n in the orgtnizatiorr

of'rcxtbocrks ruhich i.tttuduce a p¿trticular laneuage fiatule irl the 6rst ui-lit

Iultl lcirrfbrce it in severirl subsequent units before rltoving onto the ne-xt

li'irtr I rc. 'l'his isolated ¡rtesen tation and practice ofone stl'uctllre at a ti nre clctes

nor l)rovidc learners rvith an opportuniry to discover horv diFferent langr.rage

li'irtLrrcs cotnPare and contrast in nornral langr'rage use.

B 'leachers should teach simple language structares

before comPlex ones

Itcsc¡rch hirs shorvn that no matter horv language is ¡rresented to iearners,

crltrrin structures are acquired before others. This suggests that it is neither

n(:ccssilry nor desirable to restrict learners' exposure to cettain linguisric

suuc(rtrcs which are ¡re rce ived in linguistic terms to be'sirnple'- particularly

rvlrcrr rhis involves thc isolated presenrarión, ordering, ar.rd practice oF

'ri rrr ¡ tlc' to'conr¡rlcx' featLtrcs.

At tll,'s¡ttlctitlte,tltercisnodoubtthatsecnndlaneuagelcarncrsbcrrcfitfiorlr lrc t,liirrrs of nirtivc s¡.rcrtkcrs and Huent bilinguals to mocli[' their speech to

Ircl¡r sccorrcl llrrgulue learners undersrllrd. This modified spccch conrain.s Ivrtr.icr¡,of linguisric strucrurcs, bur or¡rits complex fbnns. It also irrcludes a

r,r t r¡p, .,f' c.,lr uclsationril adj ustmcnts which enable seconcl Iangulgc learners

,,, ",t11ag,.

itr intcrrtcrio¡rs rvith nrtive ,rnd more advanced speakers of the

,r..,,,,1 I*,,g,,,rge rnorc easil¡'. Teaclrers, like Parents, appear to be able to

ilrr,l,crrsc rlrc corirplcxin, of the ir language intuitively as rhe learner's proficie nry

irlt tc'tscs.

'lt¡cltcrs t¡lust illso lrc tware, |owever, that some linguistic-forrns are so lare

in t lrcir g,crytln¡, specch that leart:ers have very little opportuniry to hear,.use ,

,urtl lcirrn tlrcnr if rhc reacher does not make a.point of providing them. fhese

ilrc t¡()r ncr;elisírrily difficult or iomplex fbrms, howeúer. As rve sarv in Chapter

fr (pn¡¡cs l3l-2), in srrrdy 13 carried out in intensive communicative ESL

clnr¡scs in ()ucbcc, tcrtchers almc¡st never used adverbs!

Populttr ideas about language barnittg: facts a#spinians 167

9 Learners' errors sbould be corrected as soon a8

they are made in order to Preaent theformati*n afbad habits

Errors arc a natural part c,f lengr-rage lcarning.'l his is true oFthc clc*cloprnent

of a child's first language as w.li", áf "to'.'tl

ia''tgt'age learning by cldgrere an'i

a,lults. '11.,. .rror.'r.ü"1 the patterns of le¿rr.rers' developing ir.rterlan*uage

.1*.,-,t, - s6ou'i'g rvh"r. tlteyinue ove I gcu.eralizecl a seconcl l:rnguagc rsrle or

,í¡.,rc tl,,ey l.,rve irlappropriai.ly tra,rsf.i,'.-tl a first l:rngr.rrgc rtrle to t[,c ser''dl,rrrgtutge.

whcn crrors arr: pcrsistent, espcciellv $,iren,they arc sh,rrcd bt'rtln¡cmt :lil

srucle uts in,r class, ir is r¡scful t,, l-r.i,,g the prohlcrr"r to the leamers'áEre${i()n'

'l'his cloes not nrean leante rs should bc ."¡r".tcd to adoirt the correr$ fi¡rrrl qrr

,rr'.,.tur. i,-,rn-,ediately or consiste ntly' lf rllc crror is lrased on a devel*prx*urtal

patrL,rrl, thc correcrion nray ouly be-,¡sclul rvhr:lr the learner is reaórf{}r,it' It

nrly thtrs rcc¡ttire nrrny rspgÚioJ]s L) i'l'circhershrtvcarcspon-sibilirl rohel¡'lc,.rrnclstlorhcirL',cst,ancl rhissu:merimcs

rrrcrr¡rs clrarvi'g ,l-r,:i. ,,,.,-, tiá' ro pcrsistcrit e rrcrs. [xccssivc fe cdb¿& on '-¡r*r;;;r'h;;. . ,.,Jg"tiu. effect o' motivation, .f coursc, arcl te,rchcr¡i nrt¡:r i¡e

,.nri,iu. to the way the ir stuclents re:lct to corrc'ction.'f hc kind of**rrrctinn

which is oflcrcd *ill nlro v:rry accordir.rg to tlrc specific characterisics t}f thc

,,u.Lnrr. Chilclre n and ,rdulrs'.'r,ith littlJ.,ducrtion i' the ir fir¡t langng* rvill

,,o, lr.".n, grcrrtly fronr s0¡rhisricetccl n'rcr¡lirrguistic cxplen:rtilmso- lrut

,,niu.rri,t r,,,il",',,, tuh,, ,,r..jt''"ttt1 lc'trtict's t'f tl'c lrnetri'qc nrlr-fin<-$ suclr

.l*tri"r,,rrín,.r,.,f grc:rt vrrlue . lmmcc{iatc rcaction to crrors itt atr or¿tcor¡-¡*-¡un-

i.,iri.," .*,,iug ,.,.'Ly ",.r.rl"r"rr"r,

so¡te sttrclc't"^.tlcl cliscotlrlgc the nl fi'orra*r.*kil'r5'

rvhilc firr,,tll.lr., i,,.l.r corrccrion is cxactly rv'h:rt is ncedccl to lrcl¡r tlm-rn mfiticc

a ocrsistcnt crror:rt iust rhc rro|ltcllt rvllcrl it occurs.'l'hc re¡anrci¡ an

."[J;i;;i¡Jtrr.k .1,,.. sh.rv rhrr, i^ cl:tssr.r,r's rvhiclr rrrc co't*rt h¿itd

1n,r-.*.-pt", inrrncr.siorr cl:rsscs). lccilblcli rvhich is givcn excla*ir-dy or

f rin.ip"tty i' the lorm of convcrsarionll 't'cc,rsts' prtsscs trtr,n,rticc& I-t'an;cr;-

i;ry ,lo, recognize ir as correctior.r r¡nlcss thc ¡cachcr has rr nmrh*d of

rifítiritg,. rh? strtdent - through tone ofvoice' a gesrure' or ihcirl cuprt*sinn

-ivhich áy, ro th. studentr'I thir.rk I uncle rstancl what you lrc srtyingand I n.r

telling you how you can sav it berter''

li$[

lñitl l'opuhr irluu dhout ltn¡¡utgc le,trnin,q:Jhct rttttl opirtious

l0 'fcachers sl¡ottld use rnaterilzk that expose studenbo:b *.\ngurtge snuctures ubich thiy hauealrendy been taught

srr.lr rr ¡r'.ccd.r'c crlr ¡rror.iclc conrprehensible i'put uf Loursc, bur-gi\,,cr.l Jrr rt'ir rr irrgf:rrl c.'tex r-le arn.., .",-, .o,'prehend th. g.'"."r ,rr."r.rirrg oi-",rylir¡'r¡rs wlrich rhcy cerrai.ly have nor'n,nrt.r.d'^ndlind..d, ,rr"rl ,,?r- n..' .p',clucccl 'l'htrs, rcstricri'g classroon-r second language materials to thoservlrich c:orrrri'lirrlc or.r'toihi,.rg which is,-,..,,',.,Iy ñ"u" r.u.r"l ,.,.g",ir,.( o's('([rcrccs. 'l-hcre rvill uncloubredly be a loss of nioriva,ion if ,r.,d.,r-r, n,.rr. t srrJlic'ic. tly challe ngcd. St,r.l.,r rs aiso ne e d ro dcal wirh .re

al, or ,aurhe

'ric,rliltr'i.l if'rhcy l.e cvenrLrrllv goirg to bc prcparccl fbr language ,;;;,,;;i;"tlr. elrrss.rorlr. Thcy do ¡his firsr'*'irh ihe'reach..t g,,ía",I.. ;;á:;;;,irtlc¡rc.clc'rly. Resrrictinq sc.dcrts ro srep-by-srep

"*pnr'ur. ro rrre ranguagc

cr t t'ncls their dcper.rdengr

wllc' ir pir'ricr"rlar fornl is i'troducccl for ¡he firsr time, or when rhe reacherli'cls rhcrc is a need for correcrionof a persisre'r proble nr, i, ir.pf;;;;;;';rrsc nrrn'orv-focus m¿rtcrials rvhich isolatc or-r.

"lan-,"n, in a conrext rvhere

'tlrcr thirgs s.cern easy. Bur ir would bc a rlisservice ro srudellts ro use suclrrru(cli:rls cxclusi'ely-o_r eve' predonrinanrry. we should ..*",r",b.. Á!,r('rUncrs rvrro successfrrlly accltrire E.nglish outside classroo¡r-ls cerrainly arecx¡ruscci ro :r varier¡, of for'ls rnd ,r.u.iur., which thcy ha'e nor maste red.

I I Wten learners are alloued to interactfreely(.br example, in {orrp or"prtir actiritiil, íheylearn eac h o tl¡ers' mis ta/zis

'l lrt'r'c is qo<,rl c'idcrce rh:rr, ilrhc tasks are weil dcsiencd, rcarncrs rvorking i'llr()tps gcr fhr r.rorc p*crice in speaki.g and ¡xrtici¡raring i' co'r.ers,rrio,ri in¡1,,r¡r rv.rli rh:rn thcy ci,cr co.ld ir., a rcrcl-,"r-..ntrJd .lrrr. sonrervll:rrsrrrprisirrrily', rhe rese;rrch has arso shorvn th¿rt rearners do not pr;¡;."

";ryrlrrc.crr.rs.irr rheir spcech rvhen tarki'g ro lcarners ar simira,. rerers ofl)rohcre'cy than they do when speaki'g to lea¡ne¡s ar more advanced levels ortr narivc speakers. This research

"rso sño.us, horvever, rhar learners at simirar

lcvcls ca.nnor provide each other wirh informario. which *o,rld t.i; ;corrccr rho.se e¡rors. some orher studies show rhar rasks can be devised i,, iu.il wa1'thar lea*ers rvorkirrg rogethcr can triscover i.formarion ., k";-;i;;;:rbour rhc' sccond languagi rhcy didrii know they h.d- i; ;rd., t;;,;:;happen' the rasks lnusr be carefully plarned and dre learners musr have accessto the correct.language forms rhey ar. trying ro discover.

Popular idens ,tbout hngu.age learning: /icts and apinio*t

(iroup tvclrk is l virltur[tlc lrltlition to rlre virricry of::rcrivirics ivhich cncouragel'tJ promorc second lrrntr,r¡gc tlcvt'1.¡rrrrcrrr. usccl i. conlbinarion wiihinclivicltrrl norli and rr'rrclrcrr.ccrrtrctl rrcrir itics, ir ¡:lrr¡,s rrn iruporrrnt rolc i*communicative langLurge reachi n g.

I2 Students learn tuhat they nre taugbtClearl¡ second l:ir-rgr,ragc learners can onlv lcarn rlic larrgul¡¡c rhcl,rrrc cx¡:ro.sctlto. But it is certainly not rhe c¿ise rhat srudenrs lcarrr cvclyrh irrg rlrcy,rrc r:rrrelrror tha¡.rhev cvenrually knorv onlv whrrr rhcy arc raLrghr. ,S.rrrc rceclrinqnrethods rvpicallv give learner.s the op¡rorruniry ro lcar,., only,r vcry r.csrricrcinumber of w,ords and senrencc ty¡-rcs. Evcn whcn tlrc lrrngrrrrgc tc:rcl.rin¡¡rrerhod provides rnr-rch richer language inpur, the fhcr rlrar s.nrcthi.g istlught ol made avriil:rble in rhe i,-,pi,t J,r.s ,rn, ,.,-.,.",, le¿rrnci-.s,uill *ct¡rri.c irlieht awa¡ For exanrple, somc aspr:crs of: thc second larneulge cir:vcl*pacco¡cling to'n¿rtural'sequences of clcvclo¡rmt-nr lnrl leerncr-u nla1,t-.- rnorolikcly to learn cerrair lar-rguagc fc.rr'rrcs rvhcn rhcy :rre clcvcloPr'cntally'¡eady'. Thus, artenrprs to tcaclr :lspccrs of'langr-ragc which rrre ru, l*.,.,r.,rt,fl',r'r the lcarncr's clrrrcrr stagc of clc'elopme'r lvill u.su¡llv bc frustratilrg.

Other aspccrs ofla'gLra*e, horvc'cr, fbr cr:rnrple , vocabuhrl,, can be raughratany time , as long as rlie learners:rre intcrcsred in thc op¡rolruniry to lcanr andthe reachi'g nrethods are appropri:rrc rc¡ rhe lcrrrrcr'.s agc, i'rcresm. enriIearning srylcs. Fortunarell', resc:rrclr has also shown that lcarncrs crrn lc¡rrn:rgreat dcal rhilr no-one eYer reaches tlrem.'fhcy are able ro use rheir orv¡ri.tcrnal lcar'irrg mech¿rnisnrs ro discor.t'r nra.y of thc cor'plex rr¡lcs ¡¡¡dlclerionships rvhich unclcrlie rhc l:rrrguage thcy wi.sh ro leern. Sruclcnrs, in rtrris

scnsc, nray bc slrid to lcarn rnuch rrrorc thrn rl-rcy arc rlr.rglrr.

ConclusionI(norving ¡'.re abour scco.d la'g.:rt¡c:rcquisiri.rr rcsc;rrch will ¡l.t rc!l youwhat to do in yóur clas.sroom romorr)w

'rorrri'g. \Wc lropc, lr.u,cvcr, rhar rbis

book has provided y<lu *'ith infr¡rnrrtion *'hich crcourages you r. reflccr anyour cxpcrience i. rcaching. Wc h<rpc, in:rddirion, rl.tai rl.,ls rcflccrion rvitlconrribure to a berter undersrandi'g ofyour rcsponsibilities as a teacher a¡rdthose of¡.our studenrs as language lcnr¡rcrs.

As n e havc seen, language learning is aFfl'crcd by rn:rny l-acrors. Among rhescare the personal characteristics ofthc lcarncr, rhc structure ofrhe native andtarget languages, opporruniries for intcr¡crion with speakers of the rargctlanguage, and access ro correcrion and fornr-foct¡sed insrruction. k is clearthat te¿chers do not have conrrol ovcr all these flcrors. However, a bener

169

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I 70 Popular itleas nbout latryuage learning: facts and opinions

undersranding of them will permitrhe rirne rhey spend rogerher in thesecond language.

teachers and learners to make the most oftwin processes of reachir-rg ancl learr-ring a

GLOSSARY

we have included in this gloss:iry o'ly rh.sc irc¡'s rvhiclr llrrvc . spccial ortechnical meaning in seco'd lang.ragc acquisitio' rcscur.ch ,¡ncl seco,rcllanguage teaching. The dcfiniriotrr .r" ir'rr",',d.cr ro r.cflccr (hc rcr¡us tt! ,.v Hrethemin this book. other rvrircrs may give difrerenr i.rcrprcrrrrirrrs ro s'nlc ofthe m. As a rule , we have not inciudcd rvorcls fbl rvlrich cle.flnitiorrs crrrr rcu<lilybe found in a dictionary (for exaniple, inrerlocuror, cnrpir.ic:rl).

acnrracyorder:The rehtive a^ccuracyofgrarrrmatical fbr.rlrs ir lcrrr.¡lcrllnqurrl;c.For example, learners arc ofren mole accurare in usinq plural-.r tlrlrr iritrsi,lgpossessive - i'. Some researche¡s h¡ve inferred rh:¡r ¡n tccLrr-acy orclcr. is cqu ir.alqrrto a seqLlence of acquisition.

A¡nerican sign Language (ASL):l.'he gestr-rral language used lry r.'a'y i\,lorthAmcricans who are de: F,.r rvho i¡rteract with dcaf pcrsons. It is a ,..c llr.Er¡:Ulc,with complex rules of strrrcrure and a rich vocalrul:rrr,, all exprcs.sccl ,n

".,!nrnotions of rhe hands and bodv.

a.udiolingual approac/t; Audiolingrral tcaching is based on rhe beh¿t,isaristtheory of leerning and or., st,,rctural linguistiJs. This i'struction:rl approachemph:rsizes the formatio' of hab¡its th*rirgh thc ¡rractice, n.,cnroriiarior" anclrcpctirion oFgrammarical structures in isolatio¡ frorl each othcr arrd fionrcontcxts of rneaningful use .

behluiourism:A psychological thcory thar all lcarni¡re, ruhcrhcr verb¿l or norr-verbal, takcs place rhrough thc e.srrblishmc¡rr of hrbiis. Accordi'g t' tlris vicw,rvhr' Iclrncrs inritarc encl rcpcrrt rlrcla'guegc thcy hcer i, the iriLrrrourrtli'gcnvironnlenr rnd arc ¡rosirivcll rcinfirrccd for rloing so, h:r[rit for.rn:rrion (orlc,rlrrirr¡i) ocLurs.

c lti k/-d ircrted spccch :'ll-tc lartgu;rrcsome cflses, this language is sinrpleralso may involve slorv'er spcech,qucsrions.

cl¿ssroom abse,uarion scl?e me: A rool (ofte n in the form of a grid) rvhich cor¡$ilil.rofaset ofpredetermined caregories to describe reachingand Éarningbchaviours.

whiclr c¡rrctakcrs addrcss ro chiklrcn. lnthan that which is addrcssccl ro aclrrl¡s rnd

nrore rcpetition, ¿rnd a largc ¡runrhcr ol

tognitiue watu"iry: T-hc abiliry ro engagecomplex memory rasks.

problcnr-solving, dcducrion. lrrd