Perceiving PersonsPerceiving Persons

Social PsychologySocial PsychologyChapter 4Chapter 4

September 10, 2004September 10, 2004Class #3Class #3

Perceiving PersonsPerceiving Persons

Tom Farsides:

08/10/03

Tom Farsides:

08/10/03

Social PerceptionSocial Perception

The process by which people come to The process by which people come to understand one another…understand one another…

We’ll look at:We’ll look at: The “raw data” of social perceptionThe “raw data” of social perception How we explain and analyze behaviorHow we explain and analyze behavior How we integrate our observations into How we integrate our observations into

coherent impressions of other personscoherent impressions of other persons How our impressions can subtly create a How our impressions can subtly create a

distorted picture of realitydistorted picture of reality

Observation:Observation:The Elements of Social The Elements of Social

PerceptionPerception

The impressions we form of others are influenced by

superficial aspects of their appearance

The Elements of Social The Elements of Social Perception: The PersonPerception: The Person

First impressions are often subtly First impressions are often subtly influenced by different aspects of a influenced by different aspects of a person’s appearanceperson’s appearance

We prejudge people based on facial We prejudge people based on facial featuresfeatures We read traits from faces, as well as read We read traits from faces, as well as read

traits into faces, based on prior traits into faces, based on prior information.information.

We judge “baby-faced” adults differently We judge “baby-faced” adults differently than “mature-faced” adultsthan “mature-faced” adults

Why Do We Judge “Baby-Why Do We Judge “Baby-Faced” Adults Differently?Faced” Adults Differently?

Three possible explanations:Three possible explanations: Humans are genetically programmed to Humans are genetically programmed to

respond gently to infantile featuresrespond gently to infantile features We learn to associate infantile features We learn to associate infantile features

with helplessness and then generalize with helplessness and then generalize this expectation to baby-faced adultsthis expectation to baby-faced adults

There is an actual link between physical There is an actual link between physical appearance and behaviorappearance and behavior

The Elements of Social The Elements of Social Perception: Perception:

The SituationThe Situation We often have “scripts” or preset We often have “scripts” or preset

notions about certain types of situationsnotions about certain types of situations Enables us to anticipate the goals, Enables us to anticipate the goals,

behaviors, and outcomes likely to occur in a behaviors, and outcomes likely to occur in a particular settingparticular setting

These scripts help us understand other These scripts help us understand other people’s verbal and nonverbal behaviorpeople’s verbal and nonverbal behavior

How Do Scripts Influence How Do Scripts Influence Social Perception?Social Perception?

We sometimes see what we expect We sometimes see what we expect to see in a particular situationto see in a particular situation

People use what they know about People use what they know about social situations to explain the social situations to explain the causes of human behaviorcauses of human behavior

Attribution TheoriesAttribution Theories

Attribution theory describes the Attribution theory describes the process by which we make process by which we make attributionsattributions

Heider: Explanations can be grouped Heider: Explanations can be grouped into two categories:into two categories: Personal AttributionsPersonal Attributions Situational AttributionsSituational Attributions

Jones’s Correspondent Jones’s Correspondent Inference TheoryInference Theory

People try to infer from an action whether People try to infer from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic of the actorpersonal characteristic of the actor

People make inferences on the basis of People make inferences on the basis of three factors:three factors: Person’s degree of choicePerson’s degree of choice Expectedness of the behaviorExpectedness of the behavior Intended effects or consequences of someone’s Intended effects or consequences of someone’s

behaviorbehavior

What Does the Speechwriter Really What Does the Speechwriter Really Believe?Believe?

Kelley’s Covariation Kelley’s Covariation TheoryTheory

Covariation principle: for something to be Covariation principle: for something to be considered the cause of a behavior, it must be considered the cause of a behavior, it must be present when the behavior is present and absent present when the behavior is present and absent when the behavior is absentwhen the behavior is absent

People make attributions using the covariation People make attributions using the covariation principle.principle.

Three kinds of covariation are useful:Three kinds of covariation are useful: ConsensusConsensus: How are other people reacting to : How are other people reacting to

the same stimulus?the same stimulus? DistinctivenessDistinctiveness: Is the person’s behavior : Is the person’s behavior

consistent over time?consistent over time? ConsistencyConsistency: Does the person react the same : Does the person react the same

or differently to different stimuli?or differently to different stimuli?

Conserving Mental EffortConserving Mental Effort

The social world is fast-paced…we are forced to make The social world is fast-paced…we are forced to make quick effective decisions even when we don’t have quick effective decisions even when we don’t have the time to use effortful conscious thinking processesthe time to use effortful conscious thinking processes

Do we really analyze behavior in a rational, logical Do we really analyze behavior in a rational, logical manner?manner?

Do we really have the time, motivation, or cognitive Do we really have the time, motivation, or cognitive capacity for such elaborate and mindful processes?capacity for such elaborate and mindful processes?

The answer?The answer? Sometimes yes…Sometimes no.Sometimes yes…Sometimes no.

Often, what we do instead is develop cognitive Often, what we do instead is develop cognitive strategies which give “good enough” judgments with strategies which give “good enough” judgments with little mental effortlittle mental effort

Cognitive HeuristicsCognitive Heuristics

Cognitive heuristics are information-Cognitive heuristics are information-processing rules of thumbprocessing rules of thumb Enable us to think in ways that are quick Enable us to think in ways that are quick

and easyand easy Problem is that using cognitive Problem is that using cognitive

heuristics can frequently lead to heuristics can frequently lead to errorerror

Expectation Confirmation Expectation Confirmation StrategiesStrategies

We pay attention to behaviors relevant to We pay attention to behaviors relevant to our expectationsour expectations

We interpret ambiguous events/behaviors We interpret ambiguous events/behaviors in ways that support our expectationsin ways that support our expectations

We remember people and events We remember people and events consistent with our expectationsconsistent with our expectations

Kelley (1950)Kelley (1950)

Harold Kelley, a psychology professor once Harold Kelley, a psychology professor once arranged for a guest lecturer to teach his arranged for a guest lecturer to teach his class…class… Half the students in the class were given Half the students in the class were given

a page of notes that described the a page of notes that described the lecturer as a "rather cold person, lecturer as a "rather cold person, industrious, critical, practical, and industrious, critical, practical, and determined" determined"

The other students got notes describing The other students got notes describing him as a "rather warm person, him as a "rather warm person, industrious, critical, practical, and industrious, critical, practical, and determined" determined"

Kelley (1950)Kelley (1950)

Students who received the "cold" description Students who received the "cold" description perceived the lecturer as unhappy and perceived the lecturer as unhappy and irritable and didn’t volunteer in class irritable and didn’t volunteer in class discussiondiscussion

Those who got the "warm" description saw the Those who got the "warm" description saw the lecturer as happy and good-natured, and they lecturer as happy and good-natured, and they actively took part in discussion with him actively took part in discussion with him

Why didn’t they wait to form there own Why didn’t they wait to form there own opinion…our expectations often lead us to opinion…our expectations often lead us to errors in judgment errors in judgment

Dispositional InferencesDispositional Inferences

This is the belief that a person’s behavior This is the belief that a person’s behavior was caused by his or her personality was caused by his or her personality because it is natural for people to try to because it is natural for people to try to simplify things (conserve mental effort)simplify things (conserve mental effort) So when we see someone do So when we see someone do

something… we initially blame it on something… we initially blame it on their personalitytheir personality Is this true???Is this true???

Fundamental Attribution Fundamental Attribution ErrorError

I mentioned this first class with my I mentioned this first class with my “subway conductor” example when “subway conductor” example when we “over-estimate someone’s we “over-estimate someone’s personality…personality…

Studies have shown that even when Studies have shown that even when people know the person is acting (for people know the person is acting (for example: playing the part of a example: playing the part of a “arrogant jerk” they still hold “arrogant jerk” they still hold negative views about this personnegative views about this person

Sometimes even when we know Sometimes even when we know its not…we still think it is…its not…we still think it is…

Napolitan and Goethals (1979)Napolitan and Goethals (1979) College studentsCollege students

Group 1Group 1 Told that woman’s behavior would be Told that woman’s behavior would be

spontaneousspontaneous Group 2Group 2

Told that woman would pretend to be Told that woman would pretend to be friendly or unfriendly so don’t take it friendly or unfriendly so don’t take it personallypersonally

When asked later…When asked later…

Okay, you would think that the Okay, you would think that the people who were told that she was people who were told that she was acting would not consider her to acting would not consider her to be warm or mean…be warm or mean…

I am not Spock…I am not Spock…

Leonard Nimoy had Leonard Nimoy had to write a book…to write a book… Probably didn’t help Probably didn’t help

him muchhim much Its like when I met Its like when I met

“Adam Chandler” “Adam Chandler” Even when told that Even when told that

behavior is due to behavior is due to situation, people situation, people still attribute it to still attribute it to disposition…disposition… Why???Why???

Actor-Observer DifferenceActor-Observer Difference

The tendency for individuals to judge The tendency for individuals to judge their own behaviors as caused by their own behaviors as caused by situational forces but the behavior of situational forces but the behavior of another as caused by his or her another as caused by his or her personalitypersonality

Self-Serving BiasSelf-Serving Bias

The tendency to take credit for our The tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame external successes and to blame external factors for our failures…factors for our failures… If you get a great grade on your first exam If you get a great grade on your first exam

in this class, why will that be? in this class, why will that be? Because you’re smart? Because you’re smart? Because you studied hard?Because you studied hard?

What if you get a lousy grade? What if you get a lousy grade? Will that be because the exam was too hard? Will that be because the exam was too hard? Because I’m a lousy teacher?Because I’m a lousy teacher?

Dunning (2001)Dunning (2001)

The need for self-esteem biases The need for self-esteem biases social perceptions in subtle wayssocial perceptions in subtle ways

Belief in a Just World: The belief that Belief in a Just World: The belief that individuals get what they deserve in individuals get what they deserve in lifelife Can lead to a tendency to disparage Can lead to a tendency to disparage

victimsvictims

Integration: Integration: From Dispositions to From Dispositions to

ImpressionsImpressions Information Integration: The ArithmeticInformation Integration: The Arithmetic

How do we combine personal attributions into How do we combine personal attributions into a single coherent picture of the person?a single coherent picture of the person?

Summation model or averaging model?Summation model or averaging model? Information Integration Theory: Impressions Information Integration Theory: Impressions

formed of others are based on:formed of others are based on: Personal dispositions of the perceiver; andPersonal dispositions of the perceiver; and A weighted average of a target person’s traitsA weighted average of a target person’s traits

Perceiver CharacteristicsPerceiver Characteristics

We differ in the kinds of impressions We differ in the kinds of impressions we form of otherswe form of others

Our current, temporary mood can Our current, temporary mood can influence the impressions we form of influence the impressions we form of othersothers

To some extent, impression To some extent, impression formation is in the eye of the formation is in the eye of the beholderbeholder

Priming EffectsPriming Effects

The tendency for recently used words The tendency for recently used words to come to mind easily and influence to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new informationthe interpretation of new information Priming can influence person impressionsPriming can influence person impressions

Motivations, as well as social behaviors, Motivations, as well as social behaviors, can be influenced by primingcan be influenced by priming

Bargh & Chartrand Bargh & Chartrand (1999)(1999)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Percent that

Continued

After Stop

Signal

Primed with Achievement-

related Words

Control Group

Bargh et al. (1996)Bargh et al. (1996)

Target CharacteristicsTarget Characteristics

All traits are not created equalAll traits are not created equal The valence of a trait affects its The valence of a trait affects its

impact on our impressionsimpact on our impressions Trait Negativity BiasTrait Negativity Bias

Implicit Personality Implicit Personality TheoriesTheories

Implicit Personality TheoryImplicit Personality Theory: A : A network of assumptions that we network of assumptions that we make about the relationships among make about the relationships among traits and behaviorstraits and behaviors

Central TraitsCentral Traits: Traits that exert a : Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall powerful influence on overall impressionsimpressions e.g., Warm and cold vs. polite and blunte.g., Warm and cold vs. polite and blunt

Asch (1946)Asch (1946)

One group read this description… IntelligentIntelligent IndustriousIndustrious ImpulsiveImpulsive CriticalCritical StubbornStubborn EnviousEnvious

Other group read this description: EnviousEnvious StubbornStubborn CriticalCritical ImpulsiveImpulsive IndustriousIndustrious IntelligentIntelligent

Rated This Person More Positively

The Primacy EffectThe Primacy Effect

The tendency for information The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions have more impact on impressions than information presented laterthan information presented later

What accounts for this primacy What accounts for this primacy effect?effect? There are two basic explanationsThere are two basic explanations

Primacy Effect: Primacy Effect: Explanation #1Explanation #1

Once we think we have formed an Once we think we have formed an accurate impression of someone, we accurate impression of someone, we pay less attention to subsequent pay less attention to subsequent informationinformation

People differ in their People differ in their need for closureneed for closure Desire to reduce ambiguityDesire to reduce ambiguity Primacy effect less likely to occur for those Primacy effect less likely to occur for those

who are lower in their need for closurewho are lower in their need for closure

Primacy Effect: Primacy Effect: Explanation #2Explanation #2

Change of Meaning HypothesisChange of Meaning Hypothesis Once we have formed an impression, we Once we have formed an impression, we

start to interpret inconsistent start to interpret inconsistent information in light of that impressioninformation in light of that impression

The meaning of a trait can be malleableThe meaning of a trait can be malleable

Confirmation BiasesConfirmation Biases

People are slow to change their first impressions on the basis of

new information.

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias

Once we make up our mind about Once we make up our mind about something, how likely are we to something, how likely are we to change it, even when confronted change it, even when confronted with new evidence?with new evidence?

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias: Our tendency to : Our tendency to seek, interpret, and create seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing information that verifies existing beliefsbeliefs

Perseverance of BeliefsPerseverance of Beliefs

We interpret ambiguous events in We interpret ambiguous events in ways that confirm our existing beliefsways that confirm our existing beliefs

Belief PerseveranceBelief Perseverance: The tendency to : The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have maintain beliefs even after they have been discreditedbeen discredited Can be reduced or eliminated when we Can be reduced or eliminated when we

are asked to consider why alternative are asked to consider why alternative explanations may be trueexplanations may be true

Confirmatory Hypothesis Confirmatory Hypothesis TestingTesting

Do we seek information objectively Do we seek information objectively or are we inclined to confirm the or are we inclined to confirm the suspicions we already hold?suspicions we already hold?

Situational circumstances can Situational circumstances can influence our tendency to engage in influence our tendency to engage in confirmatory hypothesis testingconfirmatory hypothesis testing

The Self-Fulfilling The Self-Fulfilling ProphecyProphecy

The notion that we can create a “self-fulfilling prophecy” by

getting others to behave in ways we expect is a myth.

The Self-Fulfilling ProphecyThe Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When an initially inaccurate When an initially inaccurate expectation leads to actions that expectation leads to actions that cause the expectation to come truecause the expectation to come true Example: Oh, I hate those company Example: Oh, I hate those company

picnics…no one pays any attention to picnics…no one pays any attention to me…me…

The Self-Fulfilling The Self-Fulfilling ProphecyProphecy

The process by which one’s The process by which one’s expectations about a person expectations about a person eventually lead that person to eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those behave in ways that confirm those expectationsexpectations

Rosenthal & Jacobson’s (1968) Rosenthal & Jacobson’s (1968) “Pygmalion in the Classroom” study“Pygmalion in the Classroom” study

Are teachers and children Are teachers and children susceptible to the self-fulfilling susceptible to the self-fulfilling

prophecy?prophecy?

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) 18 classrooms at the school – three for 18 classrooms at the school – three for

each of six grade levelseach of six grade levels Each grade level was composed of Each grade level was composed of

students with varying abilitiesstudents with varying abilities Approximately 20% of these students Approximately 20% of these students

were chosen at random to form the were chosen at random to form the experimental groupexperimental group

Rosenthal and Jacobson Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)(1968)

The teachers of these students were told that The teachers of these students were told that scores from “The Harvard Test of Inflected scores from “The Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition“ indicated that they were “academic Acquisition“ indicated that they were “academic spurters” and that they would show surprising spurters” and that they would show surprising gains during the next eight months of schoolgains during the next eight months of school

In reality, the only difference between the 20% In reality, the only difference between the 20% selected for the experimental group and the selected for the experimental group and the remaining 80% of the students was in the minds remaining 80% of the students was in the minds of the teachersof the teachers

What do you think happened during the What do you think happened during the next eight months??? next eight months???

The self-fulfilling prophecyThe self-fulfilling prophecy

Sex differenceSex difference Seems that men are likely to create Seems that men are likely to create

thesethese Women are more likely to be the victims Women are more likely to be the victims

of self-fulfilling propheciesof self-fulfilling prophecies

Does this make sense???Does this make sense???

Social Perception: Social Perception: The Bottom LineThe Bottom Line

People are more accurate at judging the personalities of

friends and acquaintances than of strangers.

How Accurate Are People’s How Accurate Are People’s Impressions of Each Other?Impressions of Each Other?

Hard question to answer…Hard question to answer… Problems:Problems:

Often exhibit biases in our social Often exhibit biases in our social perceptions.perceptions.

Often have little awareness of our Often have little awareness of our limitations, leading us to feel overconfident limitations, leading us to feel overconfident in our judgmentsin our judgments

But remember that biases do NOT But remember that biases do NOT necessarily result in error…necessarily result in error…

Reasons Why We Can Be Reasons Why We Can Be Competent Social Competent Social

PerceiversPerceivers The more experience we have with each The more experience we have with each

other, the more accurate we areother, the more accurate we are Although not good at making global Although not good at making global

judgments of others, we are able to make judgments of others, we are able to make more circumscribed predictionsmore circumscribed predictions

Our social perception skills can be Our social perception skills can be enhanced.enhanced.

We can form more accurate impressions of We can form more accurate impressions of others when we are motivatedothers when we are motivated

Note: Slide 2 of this presentation prepared Note: Slide 2 of this presentation prepared byhttp://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/ssfd0/l3.pptbyhttp://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/ssfd0/l3.ppt