CHAPTER I11

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

o Studies on Personal Factors Leading to

Nonutilisation of Teacher Competency

o Studies on Institutional Factors Leading to

Nonutilisation of Teacher Competency

Q Studies on Psychological Factors Leading to

Nonutilisation of Teacher Competency

o Studies on Sociological Factors Leading to

Nonutilisation of Teacher Competency

Q References

CHAPTER 111

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Review of related literature is essential and it plays a significant role in

any type of research work. It is an important step, not only in identifying a problem

but also in the formulation of hypc~theses, in the selection of methods and tools to be

employed. Explaining the importance of related literature, Best (1983) says,

"practically all human knowledge can be found in books and libraries. Unlike other

animals that must start anew with each generation, man built upon the accumulated

and recorded knowledge of the past". The review of related literature allows the

researcher to acquaint himself with current knowledge in the field in which he is

going to do his research. It is needed to demonstrate the relationship between the

completed research and the topic under investigation. It promotes greater

understanding of the problem and its crucial aspects and ensures avoidance of

unnecessary duplication.

Therefore for any worthwhile research in any field, the research

worker needs an adequate famili,lrity with the literature available in that field of

study. The success of a research worker's effort will depend on a large measure on

the extent to which helshe capitali:jes on the advances, both empirical and theoretical,

made by previous researchers. In the field of education too, the research worker

needs to enquire up-to-date information about what has been taught and done in a

particular area from which he ~ntends to take up a problem of research. The

availability and utilisation of adequate sources of related information enables the

60 Review of Literature

investigator to put into practice his work successfully. Thus the review of related

literature is an essential aspect of any research report. Therefore, an attempt has been

made here to review the literature and studies which are related to the topic under

study.

l'he studies reviewed were classified into the following subheadings:

3.1 Studies on personal factors leading to nonutilisation of teacher competency.

3.2 Studies on institutional factors leading to nonutilisation of teacher

competency

3.3 Studies on psychological factors leading to nonutilisation of teacher

competency and

3.4 Studies on sociological factors leading to nonutilisation of teacher

competency

3.1 Studies on Personal Factors Leading. to Nonutilisation of Teacher

Competencv

For many years, educators and researchers have debated which school

variables influenced student achievement. Despite conventional wisdom that school

input makes little difference in student learning, a growing body of research suggests

that schools can make a difference, and a substantial portion of that difference is

attributable to teacher competency

Some evidence suggests that the efficiency of teachers largely depends

upon the amount and type of training they have received. Students achieve at higher

levels when they are taught by be~.ter qualified teachers and those with certification in

their tcach~ng.

6 1 . -- -- --

Revrew of Literature

Shim (1965) found that regularly certified teachers rank higher in

effectiveness than teachers with less formal training. Moreover, the students taught

by the certified teachers scored higher on tests of academic achievement.

Perkes (1968) fourid that teachers with greater training in science

teaching were more likely to use laboratory techniques and discussions and to

emphasise conceptual application!; of ideas, while those with less education training

placed more emphasis on memoris,ation.

Flanders (1970) indicated that teacher education is a discipline as well

as an area of study involved in the training of qualitative teachers who are efficient,

effective, professionally and academically qualified to promote learning. Continuity

of teachers' learning may also be a matter of efficacy. In his work, Hanushek (1971)

demonstrated that the recency of' voluntary educational experience was related to

teacher performance.

Chandra (1976) made a comparison of effective and ineffective

teachers on some emotive aspects of work and found that the effective teachers were

motivated by increased opportunities for more social work, more of intellectual

challenges and more of independence. Balanchandran (1981) suggests that the

evaluative feedback based on students' rating helped teachers significantly improve

their teaching effectiveness irrespective of sex or subject of teachers.

In a review of 65 studies of science teachers' characteristics and

behaviours. Druva and Andersor~ (1983) found students' science achievement was

positively related to the teachers' course taking background in both education and in

science. I'his result is similar to that found by Hawk, Coble, and Swanson (1985).

Subject matter knowledge is another variable that one might think could be related to

teacher effectiveness. Byme (1983:1 summarised the result of thirty studies relating to

teachers' subject matter knowledge to student achievement. The results show that out

of these only 17 studies show positive relationship.

The kind and quality of in-service professional development as well as

pre-service education helps in the development of teacher efficacy. If prior

professional development has been a dissatisfying experience, teachers may have little

confidence in its impact and on its relevance to their classroom practice.

Comett (1984) reported that the teachers who participated in pre-

service teacher preparation prograrnme were more likely to be more effective than

teachers who had little or no formal training. Murname (1985) suggests, it is not only

the knowledge acquired with ongoing professional development but also the teachers'

enthusiasm for learning that relates to increased student achievement.

Other studies have hund that students achieve at higher level and are

less Likely to dropout when they are taught by teachers with certification in their

teaching field, by those with masters' degrees, and by those enrolled in graduate

studies. (Knoblock. 1986; Sanders, Hardin, and Phelps, 1994; Council for School

Performance, 1997).

The professional development of teachers is crucial to effecting

improvements in schools. Since public education today is influx, expectations placed

on teachers have begun to change as "old" teaching strategies fail to produce

improved student learning. So search for futuristic curriculum framework in teacher

education has been stressed by several researchers like Ransom, Taylor, and

Brighthouse ( 1986). Iiajput (1996). Nair (1998) and Pal and Sharma (2000).

Studies of the effects of teacher experience on student leaming have

found a relationship between teachr:rs' effectiveness and their years of experience.

The benefits of experience level off after about five years.

Many studies have established that inexperienced teachers (those with

less than three years of experience) are typically less effective than more senior

teachers and continual learning and collaboration continue to improve the

performance (Rosenholtz, 1986). Some studies also show that very well prepared

beginning teachers can be highly effective (Denton and Peters, 1988).

Research findings would provide knowledge about learners and

learning to be applied to the careful design of learning by the teacher. The challenge,

as Schulman (1987) suggests, is that effective teaching requires our subject

knowledge to be translated into teaching programmes that meet the learning needs of

our pupils. We know from our knowledge about learning that subject-expertise is not

enough in itself. 'Teachers also have to be skilled in designing learning experiences,

activities and opportunities for the pupils.

Ashton and Croker (1987) found significant positive relationship

between education course work and teacher performance.

Teachers may feel torn between their classroom responsibilities and

their desire for professional development. They need to realise that professional

development and classroom teaching are equally vital responsibilities in education.

Some studies point out that the perceptions and practices of teachers with differing

64 -- - . Review of L~terature

amounts and kinds of preparation show differences. Studies of teachers admitted with

less than full preparation or with no preparation have found that they tend to have

greater difficulties in planning curr~culum, teaching, managing the classroom and

diagnosing students' learning needs (Grossman, 1989; Lenk, 1989; Bents and Bents,

1990; Gomez and Grobe, 1990; Feinian and Parker, 1990; Rotternberg and Berliner,

1990; M.1'. Grady, Collins, and E?.I,.Grady, 1991; Texas Education Agency, 1993).

Ferguson (1991) also fbund that of the teacher qualifications variables,

the strongest relationship was found for scores on the state licensing examination, a

test that measures both basic skills and teaching knowledge.

In the existing system of education, supervisory staff are not in a

position to check schools, because they do not have powers to take any action against

defaulters. So P.C. Sharma (1992) has rightly mentioned that supervision is the most

suitable measure for critical and creative evaluation and is most appropriate technique

of improving the performance of teachers. He reported that without strict supervision

along the well-defined measures, teachers' performance couldn't be improved.

Asayesh (1993) made a study on staff development for improving

student outcomes. His study reveale:d that effective st& development programmes

that have resulted in improved student outcomes, agreeing that staff development is

an important ingredient in the elusive formula of success.

Raudenbush (1993) cmonducted a research on the improvements in

teacher competence. He recomn~ended two options for improving teacher

competence, in-service training and regular classroom supervision. Results show that

improvement resulting fiom intensity of supervision.

65 Review of Literature

Studies in different subject matter fields that compare teachers with

and without preparation have typically found higher ratings and greater student

learning gains for teachers who have more formal preparation for teaching. Monk

(1994) agrees that teacher education course work had a positive effect on student

learning.

Ogden (1994) conducted a survey on pre-service and in-service

teachers about their views on the characteristics of an effective teacher. The results

suggested that teachers' personality characteristics were related to their effectiveness.

Teachers can utilise techniques that foster and benefit the motivational

orientations of self-efficacy and task ,value which were proven to correlate positively

with teacher competency.

Several recent studies have found that higher levels of student

achievement are associated with teac:hers' opportunities to participate in sustained

professional development (Wiley and Yoon, 1995; Brown, Smith, and Stein, 1995;

Cohen and Hill, 1997).

(;orden and Partington (1996) regard staff development as an essential

rather than a desirable objective, an obligation rather than an option - both a

professional expectation and duty and responsibility that institutions have for their

staff.

Sharma and Sharma (1096) reported that the supervision arrangement

of the secondary school is not adequate. The inspectors get little time for supervision.

They should try to solve the difficulties of the teachers in classroom situation and

elsewhere.

66 - .- - - Review of L~terature

Sudha and Shivakumaraswamy (1996) indicated that the teachers

working in open climate were found to be more competent. The analysis has also

revealed that the female teachers were found to be better than the male teachers in

certain dimensions of competency, namely in communicative and interactive. Open

climate appears to be most congenial for development of competency in all its

dimensions than the other climates.

Rabu and Shelvaraj (1 997) conducted a study on teacher effectiveness

and involvement in teaching of commerce at higher secondary level. The study

revealed that sex and locality of the commerce teachers have no effect upon the

teacher effectiveness and the commerce teachers with research degree have been

found with greater effectiveness.

As the 21'' century becomes a reality, the challenge for new

approaches for revitalising curriculum and instructional delivery becomes more vital.

Darling (1 997) found that professional development plays an important

role in student achievement. A number of studies suggest that the typical problems of

beginning teachers are lessened for those who have had adequate preparation prior to

entry (Adams, Ilutchinson, and Manray, 1980; Glassberg, 1980; Taylor and Dale,

1971).

MacGilchrist, Myers, and Reed (1997) are of the opinion that an

intelligent school is able to effect the needed changes in the educational system. They

have identified three essenlial core characteristics of an effective school. They are:

(i) Professional high quality leadership and management

(ii) A concentration on teaching and (pupil) learning

67 - - - . - Review of Literature

(iii) A learning organisation, le., a school with staff who are willing to be

learners and to participate in a staff development programme.

A more recent study by Fuller (1999) found students in districts with

greater proportions of licensed teachers were significantly more likely to pass the

Texas state achievement tests.

Panda, and Yadav (1997) studied the effect of mental health, age, sex

and management of school on job satisfaction. The study revealed that mentally

healthy secondary school teachers are significantly more satisfied and the variables

like age, management of the school etc. have no effect on job satisfaction.

In order to improve the performance and competence in functions of

teaching effectively, every teacher has to either develop innovative practices himself

or utilise those developed by others (Panda and Yadav, 1997). But most of the

teachers may not be interested in systematic change. The teachers preferred to make

changes that did not require consensus and that did not interfere with the school

routine.

Cook ( I 998) assessed the interdependence of the teaching self-efficacy

of university faculty members and the characteristics and operations of the institution

they serve. The study revealed that (a) an inverse relationship is demonstrated

between faculty rank and teaching ?,elf-efficacy; as faculty rank went up, teaching

self-efficacy went down (b) if faculty perception of institutional structures that

promote efficacious teaching include setting high academic standards and the

endorsement and support of high teaching standards by the university.

~ -- Review of Literature

Doherty (1998) analysed the perceptions of teachers regarding the

effectiveness of the professional devmclopment opportunities which are currently being

provided to teachers in the school-to-career programmes in Boston. He found that

although teachers offer a generally positive assessment of their professional

development opportunities, they also raise several concerns, express a variety of

needs and identify a number of obstacles regarding school to career and professional

development.

According to Edwards and Kelly (1998), the training of teachers (both

initial and in-service) must again b~ecome the education of teachers, and must regain

its former focus on the development of an understanding of young people; a

recognition of the importance of carrying them and the recognition of appropriate

powers of professional judgement.

A comparison of two groups of first year teachers working in an urban

school was made by Groves (1998). One group, certified teachers and the other with

degrees unrelated to teaching and were undergoing an alternative certification

process. At the beginning, there were no significant differences between the two

groups of teachers and their sense of efficacy did not significantly change. The

results suggested that the sense of efficacy was consistent throughout the school year

for the certified teachers, but the sense of efficacy for the alternative certification

group varied, which was attribu~ed to the groups' inexperience and limited exposure

to thc classroom environment prior to their teaching assignment.

O'Connor (1998) investigated whether teachers' experience, control

ideology and sense of efficacy are related to the cohesion, communication and

69 -- ---- Revfew of Lfterature

flexibility dimensions. Results showed that experienced teachers' classrooms were

significantly more flexible than novice teachers' classrooms.

1'. Singh (1998) fa'und that quite a few teachers are passionately

committed to teaching. while majority of them are merely technicians who view

teaching as an easy way to make living by influencing lectures on a captive audience.

She offers a few signposts which can be useful for most of the teachers to become

passionately committed. They are:

1 . Developing self-esteem - The teachers with higher self esteem are more

flexible in their thinking, more willing to learn and more effective.

2. Being interesting and intermested.

3. Most of the teachers who inspire their students have the knack of making

education entertaining and entertainment education.

V. Nair's (1998) study on the components of success in teaching

profession and the relative importance given there to by college teachers reflected that

most of the classroom problems can be solved if the teacher is a scholar. The loyalty

of the teacher to their institutions and participation in trade union activities are least

important components. The study shows the need for advising new strategies in

providing orientation and refresher. courses to teachers.

Armstrong (1999) analysed the teachers' perceptions of the

Professional Education Personality Evaluation Programme of Alabama and found that

teachers want to be evaluated, b~lt in a non-threatening manner. Furthermore, the

assigning of scores causes stress.

70 -. -- .- - - Review of L~terature

The purpose of Rower's (1999) study was to determine if the peer

observation and feedback by teachers is a viable means of promoting professional

development. The results indicated that the participants perceive the observation and

feedback process as a meaningful professional development activity. The benefits

include useful feedback, insight into teaching practices, decreased isolation, increased

discussions and reflections about teaching and collegial relationship.

Flecknoe and Saeideh (1999) argued in their report that most effective

way to raise academic achievement is for teachers to become inquiring professionals

with action research and reflective thinking skills. They found that teacher

effectiveness must be improved in order to help children achieve more. Teachers are

distracted by pressures put on them by other stakeholders with different priorities.

They also found that individual initiatives to raise student's achievement tend to

restore or maintain effectiveness.

Goldhaber and Brewer (1999) found that in states with licensing

examinations, newly trained teachers have a strong positive influence on student

achievement.

Quilter (1999) made a study focussing the relationship between

teacher's knowledge about educational assessment and their attitudes towards various

forms of assessment. The results frorn the study indicate that teachers who have had

negative experiences with assessment in their personal pasts tend to be negative about

the uses of assessment information in their own classroom practice. Additionally,

secondary teachers tend to know more about educational assessment than their

elementary counterparts.

71 --- - - - - Revrew of Literature

Kilcy (1999) reported some important aspects of the quality of teacher

in every classroom. In one of his speeches, he highlighted the new ways to improve

teacher quality. He explained that an outdated teacher training and support system

cannot be allowed to frustrate the hopes and dreams of too many teachers. He

discusses the ways to recruit teachers that will interest the next generation of teachers.

He also emphasises the importance of incentives to keep the good teachers already in

the system and offer them the opportunity to keep on learning. Rodgers (1999) from

his study reported that collaborative professional development is a powerful way of

accomplishing education reform.

Witcher and Onwuegbuzie (2000) determined the pre-service teachers'

perceptions about the characterjstics of effective teachers. They found several

characteristics that many of the pre-service teachers considered to reflect effective

teaching. The major themes emerged from these characteristics: student-centerdness,

enthusiasm for teaching, ethicalness, classroom and behaviour management, teaching

methodology, and knowledge of subject.

A recent study in Kerala context by Bindu (2000) emphasised the need

for revising the existing B.Ed. curriculum for updating it by including new and

relevant areas to specialisation like environment education and information

technology. l'he study found that majority (70.67%) of the teacher educators under

study consider the B.Ed curriculum of Kerala as 'not adequate for training teachers

for higher secondary schools'. This study highlighted the need for introducing a state

level entrance test for determining the eligibility of the candidate for the B.Ed course.

The necessity of including items that test the Aptitude, Intelligence and Moral Fibre

72 - - - - - - - Review of Literature

(inner qualities like love and affection, sincerity and dedication to the profession) is

also emphaslsed in this study. It i:; envisaged that this step of using the eligibility

tests for selecting B.Ed candidates would produce positive results by reflecting a

higher 'quality' in school education.

3.2 Studies on Institutional Factors Leadine to Nonutilisation of Teacher

Competency

All the factors under various dimensions are undoubtedly important

but the factors of institutional dimension are the most important ones attributed to the

quality of secondary education. Unsatisfactory conditions of building, unattractive

school environment, insufficiency of instructional materials, teachers' workload, etc.,

are major factors responsible for nonutilisation of teacher competency.

We are focussed to re,slise the impact that the current negative climate

coupled with tight and dwindling funding, have had on our public educational system.

Due to the resource crunch, school authorities are not in a position to maintain good

buildings with adequate number of classrooms and laboratory equipments.

Muddu (1978) reported that most of the biology teachers were

teaching other subjects besides biolof:ical sciences. A majority of the teachers state

that they did not have adequate classroom facilities. They did not have separate

periods for practical in biology. Most of the teachers were overburdened with

workload. In most of the schools. teachers were experiencing inadequate laboratory

facilities. Several teachers were of the opinion that the present textbooks were not

effective for transmining scientific knowledge. Shah (1 981) found that school climate

is related to teacher performance.

Jayasree (1986) reported that lack of adequate facilities, unsuitability

of syllabus, lack of reference books. heavy workload and lack of parental co-operation

are the main reasons for the difficulties encountered by teachers. Marykutty (1987)

observed that heavy syllabus, low standard of pupil, inadequate facilities and

inadequacy of teaching aids were the major hindrances of teacher competency.

National Education Association's Study (1988) found that the main

hindrances of teacher effectiveness are they do not feel that they have the resources

they need to cany out their jobs, cornmunication between them and their principals is

less frequent than desired and the belief that administrators do not provide enough

support.

It is generally observed that an overburdened and dejected teacher

finds it difficult to give his best to the profession which is likely to affect adversely

the pupil's learning achievements. Atreya (1989) concluded that teaching

effectiveness is significantly corre1att:d with values and job satisfaction.

Conley, Bacharach, and Bauer (1989) indicate that the major

dissatisfiers for elementary teachers were role ambiguity, student behaviour problems,

routinisation of work and large classes. For secondary teachers, role ambiguity and

negative supervisory behaviour al:e problems. Bureaucratisation of teaching

encourages routinisation of work-a dissatisfier of teaching.

Popkewitz and Lind (1989) reported that teachers are facing

increasingly crowded classrooms where they confront multiple levels of achievement,

limitations of available materials, pressures of maintenance and control. This implies

74 -- -- - Review of Literature

the erosion of workcr autonomy. the breakdown of the relationship between employer

and ernployec ctc.

Ozaga and Lawn (1988) observed that the intensification of the

workload has been associated with an increasing proletarianisation of the teaching

profession. Wirth (1989) states that the sense of eficacy is rooted in working

relations and institutional structures.

Several educational experts and researchers have stressed the need for

innovations in education (Ruhela, 1990; Ryon, 1995; Resmi, 1998; Rajput, 1994;

1999). The innovation process is vital to the upgradation of educational standards and

complete utilisation of the facilities available and competencies of teachers.

According to Fullan (1991), "Educational change depends upon what

teachers do and think. It is as simple and as complex as that." He describes the

change process as consisting of four levels of individual acceptance: active initiation

and participation. pressure and support, changes in behaviour and beliefs and

ownership. Reform efforts that do not focus on teacher acceptance may fail.

. ~ I he success of ir~troducing innovations in curriculum depends upon

the realisation of the dream that "the community has made available for all its

children that which is the best so that the children in turn, will make their community

still better after getting the best from it." (Pmshothaman, 1992).

Lavely (1992) coinducted a survey on actual incidence of incompetent

teachers. I'he survey revealed th.at approximately 10% of public school teachers are

incompctent.

Hoy and Woolfolk (1993) made a survey on teachers' sense of

efficacy and the organisational health of schools. The survey revealed that a healthy

school climate was conducive to tile development of teachers' beliefs that they could

influence student leaning.

Chaube and Chaube (1993) reported that the number of students in a

class is so high that the students artd teachers are unable to establish contact with each

other. The teachers cannot understand the difficulties of individual students and leads

to ineffective classroon~s.

Monsteller's (1995) research evidences suggest that factors like class

size, teacher qualifications, school size and other school variables may play an

important role in what students learn. A growing body of research suggests that

school inputs make a little difference in student learning, and substantial portion of

that difference is attributable to i.eachei-s (Sanders and Rivers, 1996). The school,

according to Gordon (1998), is a learning community and an integrated organisational

strategy can have the desired effects.

Hetzel (1998) attempted to identify the influential factors that drive

parents out of the traditional school setting and attractive features that pull parents

into the home school setting. He found that the strongest factors that pushed parents

out of thc traditional school setting were "negative peer influence, large class size,

poor moral climate and children a]-e not learning enough."

Stowers (1998) ccsmpared the student achievement at a high school on

an altematc day block schedule with student achievement at a high school on a

traditional schedule. The study showed that there were statistically significant

differences in student achievement among students at alternate day block schedule

and students at a school on a traditional schedule. A descriptive ex post facto study

was conducted by Sugiyama (1998) and found that some school-based decisions have

greatest impact on student achievement. Shared decision making was the process

most frequently used to make decisions. The congruence of teachers and principal

roles about decisions perceived to lead to higher levels of student achievement.

From the study of Bedell (1999), it is found that the class size

reduction improves student learning and teacher morale from the teacher'

perspectives.

Bhuwanee (1999) from his study on some state secondary schools in

Mauritius found that the educatiorial processes in individual schools contribute

significantly to student achievement and the school level factors come together within

the school to form a social system that conditions learning that taking place there.

Holloman (1 999) examined the personal and school related variables

associated with first year teacher burnout. He found that school type, class size, lack

of mentor relationship, instructional responsibilities etc. leads to burnout.

Hall (1999) analysed the impact of teacher absenteeism on students,

as measured by daily school data, survey results, and interview information. Data

were collected on several measures of student attendance, student discipline, and

student productivity. The result showed that teacher absenteeism, increased discipline

problem and reduced student productivity.

The project of improving the teaching-learning environment of

schools, undertaken by Rarnakrishnan (1999) has confirmed the findings of the other

studies that local level intervention adapted to the requirements of the situation at

hand are capable of bl-inging about substantial improvements in due performance of

schools. The study has also drawn attention to the increasing rates of dropouts at the

secondary stage of school education, more among boys than among girls.

SooryamurtIiy (1999) made an empirical study of 23 schools in a

selected region of Kerala and offered some insights into the linkage between

infrastructure and performance. His findings were:

(1) The availability of adequate basic facilities serves as a facilitating condition

for the performance and academic standards of schools.

(2) l'he poor economic and educational backgrounds of the students influence the

school system.

(3) 'l'he steady decline of the schools in the chosen area, without any segregation

of government and private run schools, too explain the integration of

infrastructure and perfomlance.

3.3 Studies on Psvchological Factors Leading to Nonutilisation of Teacher

Com~etency

Research on teachers' personality traits and behaviour has produced a

few consistent findings showing recurring positive relationship between student

learning and teachers' flexibility, creativity, clarity, enthusiasm, task-oriented

behaviour. variability of lesson approach and so on.

Realising the trem~cndous responsibility of the teacher to the students,

Ginnot (1 972) has rightly remarkcd as follows:

.'I have come to a frightening conclusion. I am the decisive element in

the classroom. It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my daily

mood that makes the weather. As a teacher, I possess tremendous power to make a

child's life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of

inspiration. I can humiliateor hu~nan, hurt or heal."

Research on teache:r competency has established the fact that teachers'

attitude and their performance are positively related. Positive attitude towards

teaching has been recognised as an important characteristic of a competent teacher.

The attitude of teachers is related to certain variables such as training, interest and

level of education. (Mishra, 19'77; Nayar, 1977; Dun, 1979; and Sarangi, 1990).

Other personality characteristics like intelligence, attitude towards teaching and

education. aptitude for teaching, previous academic record and creativity are also

related to teacher competency. (Chayya, 1974; Vyas, 1982; Mahapatra, 1983; and

Jackson, 1993). Other studies related to this area are given below.

Gupta (1978) found that in the opinion of majority of teachers and

guardians the professional status; of the secondary school teaching profession was

very low and they did not want to make their wards secondary school teachers. More

than sixty percent of the teachers were not satisfied with their present salary and

income from other sources.

It is believed that there is relationship between school organisational

health, teacher commitment and student achievement. Patel (1979) reported that the

components of innovative-proneness among the secondary school teachers were

individualisation, curriculum organisation, teaching resources, staff development,

79 - - - - - - - - Review of L~terature

school-comn~unity relationship, administrative support, staff norms, attitude to

innovations etc. Fineley (1980) found that teaching styles and pupil's performance

are closely related.

Mann (1980) conducted a study on some correlates of success in

teaching and found that the competent successful teachers were significantly more

expressive, ready to cooperate, attentive to people, generous in personal relations,

bright and alert, fast in learning, efficient in abstract thinking, emotionally mature,

realistic about life, practically independent, polished, experienced and analytical. The

relationship between attitude of teachers towards the teaching profession, classroom

teaching, child centred practices, educational process and success in teaching was

significant. The successful teachers had healthier attitude towards the teaching

profession.

Mutha (1980) attempted to identify the factors - attitudinal,

motivational and personality which differentiated the effective teachers. He found

that sex, professional training, nature of schooling and income level were significantly

associated with the teacher's effscf veness. The effective teachers had significantly

higher scores on teaching aptitude, intelligence, anxiety and job satisfaction. Such

teachers adjust their teaching to fit the needs of different students and the demands of

different instructional goals, topics and methods.

Satpathi (1980) found that the teachers who perceived less

disengagement, less aloofness and less hindrance in organisational climate were found

to be more competent. Selvin ('1980) found negative relationship between controlled

climate and teachers' effectiveness.

80 -- - - .. -- -- -- - Review of Lrterature

Morant (1981) identified four types of teacher personal needs. They

are induction (the needs of the new teacher or the experienced teacher in a new post),

extension (the attainment of further academic qualification or job specific study),

refreshment (avoidance of staleness in the teaching of a subject or when returning to

teaching after a career yap) and conversion (needed when teaching a new subject).

Derber (1982) reported that the devaluation of teachers' work is part of a larger

process in which more and more professional work is incorporated into bureaucratic

organisations.

Studies of changing school environment have indicated that a growing

number of teachers have lost their interests and enthusiasm for the profession.

Cunningham (1983) and Faber (1984) revealed from their studies that burnout

teachers are still able to function as teachers, but they have largely lost their

commitment and enthusiasm for their work and this inevitably shows in aspects of

their job performance.

The maintenance of high staff satisfaction and morale has long been an

important objective for educators. Do school personnel have high morale and are they

satisfied in their work setting? Newspaper headlines that emphasise teacher strikes,

teacher burnout and stress and assaults on school employees suggest that many

teachers are not satisfied and are not utilising their efficiency completely. A number

of studies agree with this. Goodland (1984) found that personal frustration and

dissatisfaction were the major reasons for teachers leaving their job and nonutilisation

of their competency.

8 1 ~

Review of Literature

Armes (1985) found that a prolonged experience of stress could

precipitate both mental and physical i l l health. Teacher stress is also a problem in

schools because of its effect on job performance. This can include teacher absence, a

lowered level of job satisfaction and commitment and even an impaired quality of

classroom teaching.

Raclin ( 1986) observed that routine work and approaches to instruction

would result in dissatisfaction. When routinization does occur, i.e., when there is a

preponderance of rules defining and enforcing what is to be done, professionals tend

to react negatively. Negative reactions may include disappointment with professional

development, the inability to meet professional standards and dissatisfaction with the

colleagues and supervisors.

Venkatiah and Naidu (1986) reported certain related variables of the

success of teaching. They found that a dissatisfied and ineffective teacher definitely

spoils healthy school climate and create problems and he would not be able to render

his service to the pupil. The unhealthy school climate is a sure indication of job

dissatisfaction. absenteeism, no creativity, frustration among staff members and

ineffective learning of students.

Haberman (1987) has reported that there are seven factors which help

to success on a job. They are commitment, persistence, attitude towards authority,

need for approval. temperament and adjustment, motivation to improve skills and

ability to function autonon~ously.

Webb and Ashton (1987) made a survey on teacher efficacy and found

that seven ecological threats influence teacher competency. They are:

82 - - . - -. - - Review of Llterature

( i ) Excessive role demands.

( i i ) Inadequate salaries and low status.

(iii) Lack of recognition arrd professional isolation.

(iv) Uncertainty.

(v) A sense of powerlessr~ess.

(vi) Alienatiorl.

(vii) The decline in teachel: morale.

Aggarwal (1988) reported from the study of a sample of female

teachers of primary schools and concluded that more effective teachers had problems

of adjustment due to social factors while with less effective teachers emotional

problems were dominant.

More (1988) examined the relationship between teaching effectiveness,

teaching aptitude and personality traits. On the basis of research findings it was

revealed that intelligence was the most important aspect of personality which

influences teaching. He also found that teaching effectiveness and teaching ability

have positive correlation and the total personality of the teacher is found to be

influencing effective teaching.

1'. Singh (1988) atte:mpted to establish a relationship between teaching

efficiency and job satisfaction and found a positive relationship.

The problems of students and teachers in vocational higher secondary

schools were studied by a few researchers like George (1989), and Kureerthadom

(1990) found that the problems lead to ineffective teaching.

83 p~ ---. ...... . - Revfew of Literature

It is rightly said that the competency of a teacher depends upon the

type and amount of workload and the conditions under which they perform their

various roles

Gibson (1990) observed that our teachers have shown negative and

permissive feeling about the system of which they are an integral part. They show

lack of interest in their jobs and are not satisfied with the school arrangements. This

leads to nonutilisation of teacher competency. He emphasised that if an employee is

bored, disinterested, fmstrated, or i n other ways unhappy about his or her job, the

supervisor's responsibility is to show positive attitude in daily activities. How can a

teacher teach effectively under these circumstances?

Kulkreti (1990) found that successful teachers, as compared to

unsuccessful ones, have favourable attitude towards children, interest in teaching

profession, feeling of social service, honesty, morality, punctuality and obedience. He

also reported that urban teachers .were more effective in teaching than the rural

teachers.

Researchers suggest that teachers in India are poorly motivated and

with high absenteeism. Lockheed and Verspoor (1991) reported that poor working

conditions, low perceived status and limited opportunities for career advancement and

promotion lead to low motivation. Improving the incentives for good performance

including regular attendance is an important challenge in India. Even highly skilled

teachers are ineffective if they are not regularly present at school.

R.S. Singh (1991) studied the impact of attitude towards teaching on

teacher effectiveness and found that in the rural set-up only those people join the

teaching profession who have positive attitude towards it.

Generally a competent teacher must be able to present his lessons by

using appropriate instructio'nal conimunication principles and practices, to be honest,

dependable, co-operative and have a good knowledge of his subject matter, good

health, leadership qualities as well as scholarship to inspire his talents to develop the

scientific and technological skills and literacy (Ukeje, 1991).

A document of the Alberta Teachers' Association (1993) points out

that the growing feeling among teachers is that their professionalism and expertise are

being eroded. The teachers also contend that students are becoming less critical and

less interested in the learning process at the same time developing a more

confrontational attitude towards the school system which is expressed in

aggressiveness to teachers and cla:;smates and in self-defeating resistance. All these

hinder teacher competency

Bose (1993) found that the intelligence, teaching aptitude and anxiety

have a positive correlation with teacher effectiveness.

Our educational system works more like a banking system where the

students are the depositories while the teachers are the depositors (Sharma, 1994).

Instead of being a forceful tool for the cultivation of social and moral values,

education is doing very little in value inculcation.

Sheshadri (1994) lound that the common problems in relation to

schools are those pertaining to enrolment, participation and learning achievement of

85 -. - -- -- .-

Review of Literature

children. low status of the school. inadequacy of professional training, etc. He also

reported that teachers need more training and continuing education support to enhance

their quality and competence.

Subhramanyam (1994) reported that the academic standards can be

improved by improving the efficiency of teachers, providing minimum required

infrastructure, insulating the college from politicisation and conducting examinations

without malpractice. A high quality and well-motivated teaching staff and supportive

professional culture are essential in building excellence (World Bank, 1994). Now-a-

days majority of the teachers lack dedication and do not work with missionary seal.

Dubhashi (1995) reviewed the standard of teaching and found that the

general deterioration in the sphere of higher education is so steep that few teachers

today are ~nterested in their subjects or their students.

Jangira, Singh and Yadav. (1995) found that teachers perceive many

problems in their teaching environment. The major problems were multi-grade

teaching, heavy curriculum, high student absenteeism, apathy among parents towards

education. lack of teaching aids, and for female teachers' harassment from male head

teachers.

Lopez (1995) conducted research on the effect of relationship between

classroom student diversity and teacher capacity on student performance. He found

that teacher classroom experience is the most important source of teacher capacity. 6

to 7 years of classroom experience is needed to fully develop the skills and knowledge

of a teacher and teachers peak in their classroom effectiveness after 18-19 years of

teaching

86 Review of Literature

-

Shepro (1995) suggested that teachers should have the authority to

teach as they think best in their own classrooms and be held accountable for academic

results.

Aggarwal ( 1 996) conducted a study on the attitude of Training College

teachers to the immediate problems concerning them in the profession. He found that

the age factor and professional qualification have no effect on their attitude towards

profession.

Persons joining teaching profession after having been rejected from

other professions or jobs of their preference are doing more harm to education than

good. R.P. Singh (1997) found that the willingness to join teaching profession

depends upon a number of factors, which can be grouped in two broad categories.

First, pecuniary factors such as the pay scale, promotional avenues leading to better

pay scale and job opportunity. Second, non-pecuniary factors such as job

requirements, the social status attached to it and the social milieu in which the job is

to be performed. IJnder the existing arrangement, the teacher education institutions of

secondary level do not consider the subject requirement at the entry level. All these

imbalances can be removed by careful manpower planning.

Cimino (1997) identified the perceived pressures and problems

reported by first year intern teachers enrolled in the Intern Teaching Program of

Temple Ilniversity. Interns reported high in frequency the perceived pressure of

planning. time clerical work, finances, marking papers, controlling classes and

teaching new material. The pressure of time and finances were ranked highest in

Revfew of Lrterature

intensity. These were followed by pressure of planning and controlling classes.

Ranked at a third level were the pressure of clerical work and non-teaching duties.

Ilati (1997) made a survey on secondary school teachers about the

attitude towards the profession of'teachers. He found that all our efforts to produce

effective teachers are in vain if we do not take note of the attitude of teachers towards

teaching profession. He says. the attitude is directly associated with some eternal

values. Iie has experienced the following ideas of negative attitude after direct

contact with teachers.

(a) There is no rapid promotion in teaching profession.

(b) Many people are living a better life by doing bad deeds.

(c) If ' no other job is available then teaching may be preferred.

(d) There is no reward for good deed and one has to suffer a lot if he follows a

noble path.

If the above ideas persist in the mind of the teacher, it is impossible to

love teaching as well as students. This leads to nonutilisation of teacher competency.

Balasundaram (1 997) stated that teachers have to contribute a lot to the

improvement in the quality of education. As such teacher accountability has assumed

new significance. The teacher cannot escape from the accountability they owe to

society in the discharge of their duties as transmitters and communicators of

knowledge.

Gaskell and Hepburn (1 997) observed that the present day schools are

not preparing students appropriately for the changing technological requirements and

increascd worker responsibilities that are the product of industrial restructuring. They

88 - - -- -- - Rev~ew of Literature

found that curriculun.~ at the school stage is not directly relevant to the social and

individual needs. The syllabus and method of teaching do not encourage creativity

among young children.

Watts ((1997) assessed the relationships between school organisational

health, teacher commitment, and student achievement. The result provided

confirmat~on to the existing literature which suggests the importance of a school

climate on student achievement.

Wu (1997) designed a study to investigate the relationships among

demandingness, resistance, assumed responsibility and teachers' sense of efficacy.

No significant relatic~nship was found among personal characteristics and teachers'

sense of efficacy.

Bray (1998) indicated that teachers' interaction with their colleagues

mirrored the constructivist goals they established for their students. The teachers took

the "lead in learning"' as they formed a learning community similar to that which they

expected of their students. He found the metaphors of teacher as inquirer, listener,

coach, net worker and colleague to capture the essence of the teachers' role with their

colleagues.

Burke (1998) plumbed the human depths of classroom life and

educational practice from the students' perspective and uncovered what makes some

teachers "inspirational". The results showed that inspirational teachers were thought

to be caring, positive about life and dedicated to their students.

Caine ( 1998) examined the perceived influence of the principal on the

professional growth of teachers from the perspectives of selected teachers and

principals. IIis findings were:

( I ) The principals have an influence on the professional development of the

staff.

(2) Teachers need to be involved in the decision-making process. Meaningful

professional development occurred in schools in which teachers were

actively involved in the planning.

(3) Continuous professional development is achieved when teachers engage in

frequent talk about teaching.

Davey (1998) investigated the difference in the level of job satisfaction

among teachers who are assigned to site based managed schools and those assigned to

non-site based managed schools in two districts in Mississippi. He found that the

teachers of site based schools show difference in the variables creativity and

achievement.

Duffy (1998) analysed and reported some teacher characteristics.

According to them, the best teacher succeeds in developing student creativity while

maintaining orderly c:lassrooms, being taskmasters liked by their students, balancing

expectations and frustrations and helping students develop skills in real life learning

situations. Resolving such teaching dilemmas is like balancing round stones.

Giova~~nelli (1998) made an investigation to determine if reflective

disposition towards teaching explained variability in the effective teaching. He found

that reflective disposition is related to effective teaching especially in the domains of

90 - - - Review of L~terature

instructional behaviour, classroom organisation and teacher expectations. These

findings may have implications for future recruitment and admission policies.

Pulparambil (1998) conducted a study on the problems of affiliated

colleges. This study was designed and carried out involving a samples of 20 people

including principals, vice principals and heads of departments, A questionnaire

consisting of 10 statements regarding their work details, constraints, causes of

constraints, problems faced by students and job satisfaction in work which may

reduce efficiency and effectiveness in their organisation. They gave weightage to

each point.

Delay in official decisions comes first followed by lack of experts to

consult in the second and lack of punctuality on staff in the third position. The least

important factor appears to be lack of transportation facilities (since everybody may

be having one's own vehicle and the job being non-transferable) followed by lack of

experience and lack of knowledge about work in the eight and ninth position.

Mahon (1998) discussed the reason why so many teachers teach badly.

He suggests that good teachers are primarily translators who communicate basic

principles to those who know little or nothing of the subject.

Kaj and Sheejalal (1998) made a study to examine the relationship

between teacher effectiveness and professional attitude of prospective teachers. They

found a positive correlation between teacher effectiveness and teacher attitude. The

study also revealed that male and female prospective teachers do not show any

significant difference in their attitude towards teaching profession. They found that

91 - -- - . Review of Literature

for providing and developing desirable characteristics in the learner, effective teachers

with favourable attitude towards teaching are required.

Teachers have to be sensitive to the emotional needs of children.

Tevcn (1998) found that students' perceptions of their teachers' caring was found to

be positively related to their perceptions of their teachers' tolerance for disagreement,

immediacy, responsiveness and assertiveness while negatively related to teachers

verbal aggressiveness. All these contributed a significant amount of variance to

teacher evaluation, student Yearning and student perceived teacher caring.

Wesley ( 1 998) announces that a high school teacher outlines eleven

non-traditional expectations for new teachers. Teachers should empathise with

students; create partnership with school community members; account to others;

embrace adversity; take t.he long view; demonstrate competency and interest in others;

keep believing in studerits; maintain high performance goals; share reflections with

colleagues; admit and rectify mistakes; and wait patiently for results.

Birney (1999) investigated the importance of retention in the

educational process. IIe also examined the innate characteristics which are of

importance in promoting quality teachers who will remain in the profession. He

concluded that the teachers are strongly influenced by the innate characteristics which

they possess and the combination of principal support and innate characteristics are

significant factors in determining teacher retention.

The purpose of the study by Brice (1999) was to provide educators

with the information about the variables related to school climate. He found that

school climate and job satisfaction are statistically related.

The study of Smith (2000) emerges from the relevant issues that

teacher motivation is viewed as a major factor increasing student achievement. He

found that the principal's leadership style is a key factor in teacher motivation. His

study also revealed that the teachers' years of service had no effect on the teachers'

level of motivation

'The need to attract and retain well-qualified and motivated teachers in

the classrooms of our nation's schools is a prerequisite to creating and maintaining

quality educational programs. The idea of allowing teachers to be leaders within their

profession is an idea proposed both to attract and retain teachers and reform and

improve education.

Williarn. Ponnambala and Anandan (2000) found that teacher

effectiveness and organisational climate are interrelated. It was found that in schools

having controlled climate, efficiency of the teachers was low. At the same time the

efficiency of the teachers was average and above average in climate which was

autonomous.

3.4 Studies on Sociological Factors Leading to Nonutilisation of Teacher

Competency

It is rightly said that the school curriculum of a country reflects its

socio-cultural ethos and is a mirror of the kind of society that is envisaged. It is

generally agreed by all that parents and community involvement in schools enhances

the quality of teaching.

Block (1988) recommended that to build commitment among teachers,

the workers must have the freedom to choose their own path to achieve results and the

Review of Literature

passive bchaviour m ~ ~ : s t be discouraged. Passive behaviour is "an extreme form of

withholding". Passivt: people remain silent as a strategy for getting what they want

and hampers teacher eficacy.

Gonsalves (1989) reported from his survey that less than 50% of the

teachers were satisfied with their Jobs. The reasons for dissatisfaction were transfer to

remote places. assignment of tasks such as family planning survey, preparation of

electoral roles etc. Despite these, they were interested in teaching but lack of

reference books, audio-visual aids etc. hampered their work.

Spring ('1989) revealed from his study that teachers' responsibility is

to maintain their knoviledge and skills in order to provide the best education possible.

If teaching circumstances are repressive and teachers struggle for survival - facing

large classes, a poor working environment, masses of paperwork, unsafe conditions -

it will be difficult for them to focus on the needs of students.

Pestongee (1991) found that the level of performance should be a

function of the valenc:e of effective performance on the job rather than of the valence

of the job itself or job satisfaction. The level of performance is closely affected by the

basis for attainment of reward.

'I'radilionally the teachers have enjoyed a position of great respect in

the society. But with the rapid expansion of educational facilities, hundreds and

thousands of teachers were employed and on the whole the status enjoyed has

diminished during thc last few decades. Some of the reasons for this can be attributed

to: ( I ) deterioration in service conditions, (2) isolation in work, (3) phenomenal

94 ~ - Review of Literature

expansion of educational system, (4) non-performance of duty by teachers properly,

and (5) changing value system in society (Nagpura, 1992).

Leithwoo,i, Paul and Coresens (1994) highlight the need for

devcloping expert leadership for future schools.

Sheenu (1995) emphasised the importance of the utilisation of

available community resources in the teaching of Biology in the secondary schools of

Kerala.

The project by Haridas (1999) on local level planning for improving

educational standards indicated that active intervention by the local public, including

parents and guardians of the pupils (through agencies such as parent-teacher

associations, school complexes and mother's clubs), local government functionaries

and people's representatives, would go a long way in improving the teaching-learning

environment in schools; and the general level of performance of students. The levels

of performance of the low achievers in the so called poor schools could be raised

substantially.

Due to recent development, many schools are seeking to increase the

level of parental participators within schools. Ramirez (1999) conducted a study on

the involvement of parents in school activities. The results suggest that increasing

parental involvement would benefit the school. The study also suggests that teachers

may be unaware of school practices that increase levels of parental involvement and

increase levels of student achievement.

Due to the illiteracq of the family, children do not get any academic

support. proper guidance or encouragement. Parents are too busy with economic and

domestic problems to take any interest in the performance of their children at school.

Spain (1999) noticed that positive teacher parent contact has a positive

effect on student attitude towards reading, student attendance, and reading

achievement^

The review of related literature presented above enabled the

investigator to get an idea of what has already been covered in the area under

investigation and realisc the magnitude of the problem. A closer scrutiny of the

studies conducted in the various parts of the world has convinced the investigator the

importance of factors which help in the complete utilisation of teacher competency

and hence the relevance of taking up such studies which, in turn, would help the

teachers, pupils, parents and administrators in contributing to the economic and

educational progress of the country. The review has also helped the investigator to

conceive the design of this study and execute it appropriately.

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