nutrient requirement

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Nutrient Requirements of Tropical Aquaculture Species

Relicardo M. Coloso, Ph. D.SEAFDEC Aquaculture DepartmentTigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

Introduction

Fish nutrition, feed formulation, and feeding management are important requisites in increasing

the productivity of aquaculture farms. Improved feed composition and better feed conversion efficiency

increase fish production, lower the cost of feeds, and minimize the production of wastes from fish farms.

The decreased nutrient load from fish farming will eventually make fish farming more profitable and

sustainable.

A balanced diet for fish is important in ensuring fast growing, healthy, and disease-free fish and

shrimps. Giving food that supplies all the components of good nutrition is essential in good aquaculture

practices. What are the signs of good nutrition in fish and shrimps? Fish and shrimps show well

developed body, ideal weight and length, good muscle development, and good body composition upon

analysis. Their skin and exoskeleton are smooth (no loss of scales or eroded or soft exoskeleton) and

clear. Their eyes are clear and bright and cloudiness or eye cataracts are absent. The backbone is

normal. Their appetite, digestion, and elimination of wastes are all normal. Healthy fish and shrimps

are able to resist infection by disease-causing organisms. They are active, not lethargic, immobile or

weak.

What are the functions of nutrients in food? Nutrients provide energy sources, build tissues, and

are able to regulate metabolism in fish and shrimps. These nutrients are carbohydrates, fats or lipids and

fatty acids, proteins and amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and water.



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Nutrient requirements of tropical aquaculture species

a. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are a large group of organic compounds in plants which include simple sugars, starches,

celluloses, gums and related substances. They are a cheap source of energy and so as much

carbohydrate as the fish or shrimp can use is included in fish diets. They are also used as feed binders

(for example, bread flour, carrageenan, agar, and alginates) to make the feed stable in water. As a

primary source of fuel for heat and energy, one gram of carbohydrate gives 4 kilocalories of energy.

Table sugar (sucrose), glucose (Figure 4.10.1), lactose, bread flour, wheat flour, corn starch (Figure

4.10.1), and cassava starch are good carbohydrates and bread flour, wheat flour, and starches are used as

carbohydrate sources in fish or shrimp diets.

The ability of fish or shrimps to make use of carbohydrates in their diet varies considerably.

Most carnivorous species have limited ability to use carbohydrates compared with omnivorous or

herbivorous species. The carbohydrate levels in grow-out diets for various tropical aquaculture species

is shown below:

Table 4.10.1.

CARBOHYDRATE LEVELS IN

GROW-OUT DIETS

SPECIES % OF DIET

Milkfish 45

Grouper 25 - 30

Tilapia 55

Tiger shrimp 29



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b. Fats or Lipids

Fats or lipids are organic compounds that are important components of biomembranes of animals, plants

and microbes. They are nutrients that are not soluble in water, but are soluble in organic solvents like

ether and alcohol.

Lipid in the diet of fish or shrimps has two main functions – as a source of energy and as a

source of essential fatty acids which cannot be made in the body of the animal. Lipids are also

important sources of fat-soluble vitamins. Lipids provide a secondary storage of heat and energy. It is a

more concentrated form of energy in that one gram of fat or lipid gives 9 kilocalories of energy. Fish and

shrimps require

3 (Figure 4.10.2) and

6 (Figure 4.10.3) fatty acids in their diets because they cannot

make them. The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are linoleic acid (18:26) and linolenic acid

(18:33) and the highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:53),

docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:63), and arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:46) are all needed by fish and

shrimps. Failure to provide these essential fatty acids in the diet can slow growth and prolonged lack of

these fatty acids in the diet can lead to death. Animal sources of fats or lipids in fish diets are cod liver

oil (CLO) (Figure 4.10.4), squid liver oil, and beef tallow and the plant sources are soy bean oil (SBO)

(Figure 4.10.5), coconut oil, and sesame seed oil. CLO is rich in 3 HUFAs and SBO is rich in 6 and

also 3 PUFAs.

The crude fat levels in grow-out diets for tropical aquaculture species can vary considerably.

Diets for marine fish like grouper and milkfish can contain higher levels of fat compared with those of

shrimps or freshwater fish like tilapia as shown below:



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Table 4.10.2.

The essential fatty acid requirements of tropical aquaculture species also differ for warmwater

tropical fishes or shrimps. This is shown below:

Table 4.10.3.

Groupers need 1% 3 HUFA fromfish oil (CLO)

Milkfish need 1-1.5% 3 PUFA(from SBO and/or CLO)

Tilapia need 0.5% 6 PUFA(from SBO and/or CLO

Tiger shrimp need 0.5% 3 PUFA

and <0.5% 6 PUFA(from SBO and/or CLO)

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTSOF TROPICAL AQUACULTURE SPECIES

CRUDE FAT LEVELSIN GROW-OUT DIETS

SPECIES % OF DIET

Milkfish 11(1:1 CLO:SBO)

Grouper 11.5(CLO)

Tilapia 4(1:1 CLO:SBO OR

NONE ADDED)

Tiger shrimp 9(1:1 CLO:SBO)



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c. Proteins

Proteins are macromolecules that occur in every living cell as components of tissues and organs of fish

or shrimps. They are needed for growth, and tissue maintenance and repair. Fish and shrimps must eat

proteins to provide a steady supply necessary for replacing worn-out tissues (maintenance) and for

making new tissues (growth and reproduction). Proteins function in two ways: They provide the ten

essential amino acids (histidine, methionine, arginine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine,leucine, lysine,

valine, and phenylalanine) which cannot be made in the body of the animal and thus must be obtained

from the diet. Proteins are also a tertiary source of energy in that one gram of protein can give 4

kilocalories of energy. Inadequate dietary protein will slow growth and severe lack of protein in the diet

can lead to death. Common protein sources in fish or shrimp diets are classified into two – animal

sources such as fish meal (Figure 4.10.6), shrimp meal, squid meal, and meat and bone meal; and plant

sources such as soy bean meal (Figure 4.10.7), pea seed meal, cowpea meal, and leaf meals.

The nutritive value of dietary protein really depends on the ability of the protein source to fulfill

the essential amino acid requirements of fish or shrimps. The closer the profile of amino acids in the

protein source to the requirement level, the higher is the nutritive value of the protein. Thus, the

essential amino acids coming from the diet must satisfy the amino acid requirements of the animal to be

of any nutritive value.

Complete protein sources are those that contain all the essential amino acids needed by fish or

shrimps. Animal protein sources are usually complete proteins. Some protein sources especially plant

protein sources lack certain essential amino acids. For example, soy beans lack methionine and are said

to be limiting in methionine. Corn lacks lysine and tryptophan and is said to be limiting in these amino

acids. It is therefore ideal to have a mixture of protein sources to provide a good amino acid balance

needed by the animal.



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The following table shows the essential amino acid requirements of some tropical aquaculture

species:

Table 4.10.4.

*Borlongan and Coloso 1993;

** Millamena et al., 1996-1999

***Coloso et al., 1999, Murillo-Gurrea et al. 2001, Coloso et al. 2004

The crude protein levels in fish or shrimp diets also vary. Grow-out diets for carnivorous species

like grouper contain more protein (44% or higher) while grow-out diets for omnivorous or herbivorous

species such as milkfish or tilapia can contain much less protein (28-32%). This is shown in the table

below:

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS (% OF PROTEIN)

MILKFISH* TIGER SEAPRAWN** BASS***

ARGININE 5.2 5.3 3.6HISTIDINE 2.0 2.2ISOLEUCINE 4.0 2.7LEUCINE 5.1 4.3LYSINE 4.0 5.2 4.5METHIONINE + CYSTINE/2 2.5 2.4 2.9PHENYLALANINE + TYROSINE 4.2 3.7THREONINE 4.5 3.5TRYPTOPHAN 0.6 0.5 0.5VALINE 3.6 3.4



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Table 4.10.5.

In addition, the crude protein levels in diets for other life stages of tropical aquaculture species can also

vary. The table below shows higher levels of protein for larval stages to support rapid growth and for

broodstock stages to support ovarian maturation and production of good quality eggs and larvae.

Table 4.10.6.

CRUDE PROTEIN LEVELSIN DIETS FOR OTHER LIFE STAGES

SPECIES % OF DIET

Milkfish - larvae 46fry 38-44broodstock 48

Grouper – larvae 48 – 50broodstock 44

Tilapia - larvae 38broodstock 44

CRUDE PROTEIN LEVELSIN GROW-OUT DIETS

SPECIES % OF DIET

Milkfish 27 (ponds)32 (floating cages)

Grouper 44

Tilapia 28

Tiger shrimp 42



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d. Vitamins

Vitamins are organic substances that are present in small amounts and are vital for the health and well

being of fish and shrimps. There are two classes of vitamins depending on their solubility

characteristics. The water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C, vitamin B complex, folic acid, inositol,

choline, and pantothenic acid. The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K. Fish meal, organ

meats, leaf meals, yeast and other microorganisms are good sources of vitamins. The vitamin

requirements for tropical species have been determined in some species but not in others. It is difficult to

determine the vitamin requirements of fishes and shrimps because these are in minute amounts, the basal

diet must contain purified ingredients free of vitamins, and the water medium must also be vitamin-free.

The vitamin requirements for growth of some fish species are shown in Table 4.10.7.

e. Minerals

Minerals help to build and maintain the tissues of fish and shrimps and regulate metabolism. There are

four major classes:

•TOXIC ELEMENTS – CADMIUM, ARSENIC, MERCURY, LEAD

•MACROMINERALS – SODIUM, POTASSIUM, CALCIUM, PHOSPHORUS,MAGNESIUM, SULFUR, CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN,NITROGEN, CHLORIDE

•MICROMINERALS OR TRACE ELMENTS -- IRON, ZINC, IODINE,MANGANESE, FLUORIDE, COPPER, SELENIUM,MOLYBDENUM, CHROMIUM, COBALT

•ULTRATRACE ELEMENTS – SILICON, VANADIUM, NICKEL, TIN,ALUMINUM, BORON



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Good sources of minerals are fish meal, leaf meals, seed meals, flour, and rice bran. Aquaculture

diets can contain up to 2-4% each of vitamin and mineral premixes. The stable form of vitamin C,

Magnesium ascorbyl phosphate is used because ascorbic acid is rapidly destroyed upon contact with

water. Oftentimes, additional vitamin A and E are also added especially for broodstock feeds.

f. Water

Most vital to life on earth, animals need a continuous supply of water. This is especially true for aquatic

animals which live in the water. They need clean water to survive. Water functions as a liquid solvent

for all the body’s chemical processes, transports secretions and metabolites to meet the needs of cells,

gives the body form and structure, maintains stable temperature, lubricates tissues and organs for

effective movement, and a medium for survival and growth of aquatic organisms.

Summary

The two most important factors to consider in formulating a feed for any aquaculture species are

nutrient requirements and feeding behavior of the fish or shrimp. Adequate nutrients must be given to

fish or shrimps for them to grow fast, be healthy and free of disease. Feeds must be given to suit the

feeding behavior of animals. The culturist must know what diets to give to a fish that swallow food

whole and shrimp that nibble slowly on their food. Some fish feed on the surface, some on water

column, and still others are bottom feeders. Nutrient requirements also vary with various life stages.

The culturist must know the nutrient requirements of these life stages to provide good nutrition and

ensure rapid growth of the cultured species and minimize the production of waste from the farming

activity.



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References and suggested readings:

Borlongan IG, Coloso RM. 1993. Requirements of milkfish (Chanos chanos Forsskal) juveniles for

essential amino acids. J. Nutr. 123: 125-132.

Coloso RM, Murillo-Gurrea DP, Borlongan IG, Catacutan MR. 1999. Sulphur amino acid requirement

of juvenile Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer . J. Appl. Ichthyol. 15: 54-58.

Coloso RM, Murillo-Gurrea DP, Borlongan IG, Catacutan MR. 2004. Tryptophan requirement of

juvenile Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer . J. Appl. Ichthyol. 20: 43-47.

Halver, J. 2002. The Vitamins. In Fish Nutrition (Halver, J. E. and Hardy, R. W, eds) 3rd

edition,

Academic Press, San Diego, CA, U. S. A. pp. 61-141.

Millamena OM, Bautista-Teruel MN, Kanazawa A, 1996. Valine requirement of juvenile tiger shrimp

Penaeus monodon (Fabricius). Aquac. Nutr. 2: 129-132.

Millamena OM, Bautista-Teruel MN, Kanazawa A. 1996. Methionine requirement of juvenile tiger

shrimp Penaeus monodon (Fabricius) Aquaculture 143: 430-410.

Millamena OM, Bautista MN, Reyes OS, Kanazawa A. 1997. Threonine requirement of juvenile marine

shrimp Penaeus monodon (Fabricius) Aquaculture 151: 9-14.

Millamena OM, Bautista MN, Reyes OS, Kanazawa A. 1998. Requirements of juvenile marine shrimp

Penaeus monodon (Fabricius) for lysine and arginine. Aquaculture 164: 95-104.

OM Millamena, RM Coloso, and FP Pascual (editors). 2002. Nutrition in Tropical Aquaculture.

Essentials of fish nutrition, feeds, and feeding of tropical aquatic species. SEAFDEC

Aquaculture Department, 244 pp.

Millamena OM, Teruel MB, Kanazawa A, Teshima S. 1999. Quantitative dietary requirements of post

larval tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon for histidine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, and

tryptophan. Aquaculture 179: 169-179.

Murillo-Gurrea DP, Coloso RM, Borlongan IG, Serrano Jr. AE. 2001. Lysine and arginine requirements

of juvenile Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer . J. Appl. Ichthyol. 17: 49-53.



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Table 4.10.7 . Vitamin requirements (mg/kg dry diet) of fish.

a. R –

required

but levelnot

known; N

– norequireme

nt

shown; ? – unknown

(Halver, 2002).

Vitamin Salmon Trout Carp Channel

catfish

Sea bream

Thiamin 10-15 10-12 2-3 1-3 R

Riboflavin 20-25 20-30 7-10 9 R

Pyridoxine 15-20 10-15 5-10 3 5-6

Pantothenic

acid

40-50 40-50 30-40 25-50 R

Niacin 150-200 120-150 30-50 14 R

Folic acid 6-10 6-10 N R R

Cyanocobal-

amin (B12)

0.015-0.02 R N R R

myo-Inositol 300-400 200-300 200-300 R 300-900

Choline 3000 2000-4000 1500-2000 R R

Biotin 1-1.5 1-1.2 1-1.5 R N

Ascorbic

acid

100-150 100-150 30-50 60 R

A 2000-2500

IU

2000-2500

IU

1000-2000

IU

1000-2000

IU

1000-2000

IU

D 2400 IU 2400 IU N 500-1000 IU ?

E 30 30 80-100 30 ?

K 10 10 R R ?

nutrient requirement

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