Notes

CHAPTER 1

1. International Labour Office, Poverty and Landlessness in Rural Asia (Geneva: ILO, 1977).

2. International Labour Office, A Basic-Needs Strategy for Africa (Geneva: ILO, 1977).

3. There are a variety of short-cut techniques available, though most are not widely known, such as IMPASSE (IMPact ASSEssment gaming), dialectical scanning, the Delbecq group process technique, cross-impact modelling, and Delphi. Most of these feature a high degree of participation in assessing multiple outcomes from policy proposals. See Dean Runyan, 'Tools for Community-Managed Impact Assessment', Journal of the American Institute of Planning, vol. 43, no. 2 (April 1977) pp. 125-35.

4. Population Reference Bureau, '1977 World Population Fact Sheet' (Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau, 1977).

5. Robert W. Fox and Jerrold W. Huguet, Population and Urban Trends in Central America and Panama (Washington, D.C.: Inter-American Development Bank, 1977) pp. 58-83.

6. The greater Metropolitan Area is made up on the Central Canton of the province of San Jose and ten surrounding cantons in its zone of immediate influence. Excepted are certain sub-districts which, for reasons of topography or excessive distance, do not offer possibilities for integration with this central nucleus.

7. Manuel J. Carvajal and David T. Geithman, 'An Economic Analysis of Migration in Costa Rica', Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 23, no. 1 (October 1974) pp. 105-22.

CHAPTER 2

1. F. Zumbado and L. B. Neuhauser have made a useful study of eight agricultural area cantons, four of them characterised by expulsion, the other four by attraction. It would take further analysis, however, to extrapolate their findings to the country as a whole. See their chapter, 'Evoluci6n de Ia Distribuci6n de Ia Poblaci6n en Costa Rica', in Manuel J. Carvajal (ed.), Politicas de Crecimiento Urbano (San Jose: Direcci6n de Estadfsticas y Censos, 1977) pp. 68-110.

2. Manuel J. Carvajal and David T. Geithman, 'An Economic Analysis of Migration in Costa Rica', Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 23, no. 1 (October 1974) pp. 105-22.

175

176 Urban poverty and economic development

3. Robert W. Fox and Jerrold W. Huguet, Demographic Trends and Urbanization in Costa Rica (Washington, D.C.: Inter-American Development Bank, 1975).

4. F. Zumbado and L. B. Neuhauser, 'Evolucion de la Distribucion de la Poblacion en Costa', op. cit.

5. Costa Rica, Oficina de Planificacion, Estrategia de Desarrollo Regional (San Jose, 1975) p. 50.

6. See, for example, United Nations Centre for Regional Development, Growth Pole Strategy and Regional Planning in Asia, Proceedings of a seminar, Nagoya, Japan: UNCRD, 1975.

7. Zumbado and Neuhauser, op. cit., p. 97. 8. A small portion of this employment is probably located outside· the

Metropolitan Area, in other parts of San Jose Province, but this breakdown of data is not available. The figure for the Agglomeration as a whole is probably in the range of 80 to 90 per cent. Becaux (in the work cited in Table 2.6, para. 1.23) arrived at the figure of 89 per cent by adding the data for San Jose Province to industrial employment figures for the other major cities in the Agglomeration, namely Alajuela, Cartago, and Heredia. Each of these three cities is the capital of a province which fans out to the country's borders from the administrative headquarters clustered in the urban nucleus. For this reason, it is extremely misleading to use provincial level data to describe the spatial distribution of activities in Costa Rica, since four of the seven provinces have their economic and political centres of gravity within the Urban Agglomeration. Only the remaining three provinces - Puntarenas, Limon and Guanacaste - have their capitals outside the Agglomeration.

9. Zumbado and Neuhauser, op. cit .. p. 103. 10. Ibid., p. 105.

CHAPTER 3

1. Conferencia dictada en el Seminario sobre Proceso de Metropolizacion en Costa Rica y America Latina. Escuela de Historia y Geografia, Universidad de Costa Rica, 16 de agosto al17 de setiembre de 1976.

2. An appendix to chap. 4 gives some details about the survey. 3. The index of schooling is defined as the number of completed years of

schooling divided by 11, the number of years in the Costa Rican primary and secondary educational system.

4. See Bruce Herrick, 'Urbanization and Urban Migration in Latin America: An Economist's View', in Francine F. Rabinowitz and Felicity M. Trueblood (eds), Latin American Urban Research, vol. 1 (Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1971 ).

5. OFIPLAN, Metas de Progreso (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 1978-82), Version Preliminar (San Jose: Oficina de Planificacion Nacional y Politica Economica, 1977) pp. 116-17.

6. Carlos Raabe, Oficina de Planificacion, private communication, 8 September 1977.

Notes 177

CHAPTER 4

1. These matters are discussed in general in the works of Chenery and Kuznets. See, for example, Hollis Chenery and Moises Syrquin, Patterns of Development, 1950-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 48-53; Simon Kuznets, Six Lectures on Economic Growth (New York: Free Press, 1959), pp. 43-67; and Kuznets, Economic Growth of Nations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971) pp. 199-302.

2. These figures have been derived from Tables 4.A.1 and 4.A.2 using rounded figures for output. For the three years under observation, labour productivity was: 1963 = q':13,700, 1973 = q':19,581, 1976 = q':18,616. Note that these figures are calculated in terms of colones of 1966.

3. The ILO's World Employment Programme has used this framework extensively. See, among others, Amartya Sen, Employment, Technology, and Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975) esp. ch. 1.

4. Of the adults who said they would like to work (only housewives or 17 per cent of all adults surveyed), 4 per cent wanted to work full-time and 13 per cent part-time.

5. Category of present or formerly employed workers:

Permanent employee 65% Temporary employee 8% Self-employed and other 8%

Sub-total 81% of sample 6. Another possibility is somewhat less comfortable. It suggests that the

surveyors were less than diligent in carrying out that part of the survey which inquired about alternative sources of income. Regardless of the reason, the survey's findings ought to be seriously considered, precisely because of their unexpectedness.

7. Feeling of lack of training: Yes No No response

12% 36%

2%

50% of sample which was the total proportion of workers, excluding self-employed.

CHAPTER 5

1. International Labour Office, The Basic-Needs Approach to Development (Geneva: ILO, 1977).

2. See, for example, Lester Thurow, 'Toward a Definition of Economic Justice', The Public Interest, vol. 31 (Spring 1973) pp. 67-9.

178 Urban poverty and economic development

3. For a discussion of methods, and review of some methodological pitfalls, see D. G. Champernowne, 'A Comparison of Measures of Inequality of Income Distribution', Economic Journal (December 1974), and F. A. Cowell, Measuring Inequality (New York: John Wiley, 1977). Shail Jain presents results for eighty-one countries in his Size Distribution of Income (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1975).

4. Inter-American Foundation, They Know How (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1977).

5. Planning and Development Collaborative International (PADCO), 'Social and Economic Components in Support of Housing Guarantee Projects', mimeo (Washington, D.C.: 1976).

6. Arthur F. Raper, Rural Development in Action (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970). Charles Hampden-Turner, From Poverty to Dignity (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1975).

CHAPTER 6

1. PADCO, 'Social and Economic Components in Support of Housing Guarantee Projects', mimeo (Washington, D.C.: 1976).

2. Irma Adelman and Cynthia Taft Morris, Economic Growth and Social Equity in Developing Countries (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1973). Costa Rican data are from UN/ECLA, Economic Survey of Latin America, 1969 {New York: United Nations, 1970) p. 366.

3. Shail Jain, Size Distribution of Income: A Compilation of Data (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1975).

4. cf. Hollis Chenery and Moises Syrquin, Patterns of Development, I950-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975).

CHAPTER 7

1. Inter-American Foundation, They Know How (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1977).

2. Charles Hampden-Turner, From Poverty to Dignity (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1975).

3. Citations include William Mangin, 'Latin American Squatter Settlements: A Problem and a Solution', Latin American Research Review, vol. 2, no. 3 (Summer 1967) pp. 65-98. Oscar Lewis, 'Urbanization Without Breakdown: A Case Study', The Scientific Monthly, vol. 75 (1952) pp. 31-41. Kenneth Karst, Murray Schwartz and Audrey Schwartz, The Evolution of Law in the Barrios of Caracas (Los Angeles: Latin American Center, University of California, 1973).

4. Richard Ornstein, ed., The Nature of Human Consciousness (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1973).

5. The data in Table 7.4 show responses to the specific question, 'In a case where the Government is not treating you justly, which mechanism do you think would produce fastest results?'

Notes 179

6. Mumford, The City in History -Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961); The Pentagon of Power, vol. II of The Myth of the Machine (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970). Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961). Howard, Garden Cities of Tomorrow (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965; first published 1898). We note parenthetically that the title 'Garden Cities' does not describe the book's contents well. The book was an attempt to compile historical precedents for economic, administrative, and spatial design of cities that would provide greater correspondence between those who pay for services and those who derive benefits from them.

7. See, for example, United Nations Centre for Regional Development, Growth Pole Strategy and Regional Planning in Asia, Proceedings of a seminar, Nagoya, Japan: UNCRD, 1975.

8. Dudley Seers, 'The Meaning of Development', International Development Review, vol. 9, no. 4 (Dec. 1969) pp. 2-6; reprinted, same journal, vol. 19, no. 2, 1977, pp. 2-7. John Friedmann and Clyde Weaver, Territory and Function: The Evolution of Regional Planning (London: Edward Arnold, 1979). Michael Lipton, Why Poor People Stay Poor - Urban Bias in World Development (London: Maurice Temple-Smith, 1977).

9. John Friedmann, 'Basic Needs, Agropolitan Development, and Planning from Below', World Development, vol. 7, no. 6 (June 1979). John Friedmann and Mike Douglass, 'Agropolitan Development: Towards a New Strategy for Regional Planning in Asia', in Fu-chen Lo and Kamal Saleh (eds), Growth Pole Strategy and Regional Development Policy: Asian Experiences and Alternative Approaches (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978).

CHAPTER 8

1. Translated from OFIPLAN, Metas de Progreso op. cit., pp. 116-17. 2. Miguel E. Morales, 'Region Central: Documentos de Avance', San

Jose: Division de Planificacion Regional y Urbana, OFIPLAN, mimeo (National Planning Office, 1977).

3. Ibid., pp. 8ff. 4. Bernard Becaux, 'The Industrial Sector in Costa Rica', mimeo (San

Jose, 1977). 5. A series of documents published by the National Planning Office in

1977 deal with these matters. See its 'Desarrollo Regional y Urbano' (March 1977), 'La Planificacion Regional en Costa Rica' (1977), and 'Region Central: Elementos de Diagnostico' (July 1977).

6. See also the remarks on ITCO's role and potential in Fernando Zumbado and Lydia B. Neuhauser, 'Evolucion de Ia Distribucion de Ia Poblacion en Costa Rica', in Manuel J. Carvajal (ed.), Politicas de Crecimiento Urbano (San Jose, Direccion de Estadistica y Censos, 1977) p. 108.

7. Charles Hampden-Turner, From Poverty to Dignity (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1975).

180 Urban poverty and economic development

8. Before 1967, various Costa Rican government institutions had small offices involved in community development, with resulting loss of resources and multiplicity of efforts. DINADECO was formed to remedy this situation by centralising community development in Costa Rica with the help of specialised personnel, community level staff, material resources and technical and educational aids.

9. Pedro Pablo Morcillo and Associates, 'Tasa de Valorizaci6n Obras de Infraestructura' (San Jose, August 1977).

10. We are indebted to Emilia Rodriguez at OFIPLAN for this diagram.

Index

Adelman, 1., 108-10, 178n2 administration of government

programmes, 140-63, 169-70 Latin American traditions of,

140-1 see also coordination of policies see also decentralisation,

governmental age distribution, 40, 58, 63, 81

of labour force and unemployment, 58, 76-7

see also population of Costa Rica see also tugurio conditions

agricultural sector, 7-8, 18, 24-5, 28, 48, 101n

agro-industry, 24 planning and service agencies,

152-3 see also economic sector activity

levels see also employment

Asignaciones Familiares, 71, 147, 155

autonomous government agencies, 49, 150-2

see also decentralisation, governmental

banks, 158-63 basic needs, 29, 92, 94, 96, 103-4,

168, 172, 174 in defining subsistence incomes,

104-6 Becaux,B., 27n, 176n8, 179n4

CAN, National Agricultural Council (Consejo Nacional Agropecuario), 152-3

CANcitos, 152-4 capital, access to, 94-5, 128-32 Cartag~, city of, 10, 13, 31, 176n8

Carvajal, M. J., 14n, 175n, 179n6 census tracts, zonas and nucleos,

119-20 Central America, 15, 48-9, 148,

159-60 incomes, by country, 9 socio-economic status compared

with Costa Rica, 9, 21 Central American Bank for

Economic Integration, 159-60 Central American Common

Market, 48-9, 148 central valley, 13, 17, 84-6 Chackiel, J., 32 Champernowne, D. G., 178n3 Chenery, H., 177n1, 178n4 church

doctrines on poverty, 141 tugurio groups, 129

cities, see under Cartago, Costa Rica (major cities), growth poles, municipalities, population of Costa Rica, San Jose, urban functional analysis, urbanisation

climate, 13, 19 coffee harvesting, 18, 101n Community Development

Associations (Costa Rica), 129 community development

organisations, 94, 128-32, 139, 152-5, 173-4

construction permits, 157 cooperative programmes, 117, 174

see also community development organizations

see also self-help programmes coordination of policies, 9, 139,

146-8, 150-5, 169-7~ 180n8 see also planning

Costa Rica, 4-12

181

182 Index

Central Plateau, 10, 13, 19, 145 central valley, 13, 17, 84-6 climate, 13, 19 culture, 19-20 government, 5, 10, 145-55 history and growth, 13-30,

145-8 major cities, 10, 13, 19, 31,

176n8 national development plans,

140-7 political sub-units, 5-6, 10-11,

21, 176n8 population, see under population relations with the United States,

5 see also Map 2.1, p. 15

Cowell, F. A., 178n3 culture of poverty, and culture of

wealth, 119

decentralisation, geographic industrial de-concentration

policies, 19, 21, 23-9, 45, 142-9

limitations of policies toward, 19-20, 23-4, 27, 136

see also San Jose, hegemoney of decentralisation, governmental, 141-53, 169-70

advantages and disadvantages, 150-2

democracy in Costa Rica, 5, 18, 65, 94-5, 129-32

see also community development organisations

DINADECO, National Agency for Community Development (Direcci6n Nacional de Desarrollo de Ia Comunidad), 129, 146, 153, 155, 160, 180n8

ECLA, Economic Commission for Latin America, (CEPAL), 109n, 111n

economic linkages, forward and backward, 24, 27, 30

see also growth poles economic sector activity levels, 22,

24-7, 61, 72-3, 79, 115, 122-3

definition of sectors, 86n employment levels, 48-9, 72, 79,

149 growth rates, 72 labour absorption, 29-30, 50,

86-7 see also labour force see also agriculture, housing, etc.

economically active population, see under labour force

education, 21, 154 as source of employment, 149 attainment by income groups, 40,

123-4 index of schooling, 41, 176n3 literacy, 21 migrants with superior education,

28, 41-4 training needs, 63, 69-70, 117,

166, 168, 177n7 training on-the-job, 69-70 tugurio-based school boards,

129 employment, 47-89, 165

by economic sector, 21, 24-7, 48-50, 72, 79, 86

by public/private sectors, 49, 78, 80, 149

by occupation, 78-9 by region, 18-19, 23-8, 50,

52-3, 74 by size of firm, 61 growth rates, 47, 150 opportunities in tugurios, 29,

61-4, 70 opportunities for women, 50-2,

57-8, 76-7, 82, 115-17 policies, 29-30, 67-71 see also economic sector activity

levels see also labour force and labour

markets see also unemployment and

underemployment eradication policies, 118, 122, 148

Index 183

family allowances, see under Asignaciones Familiares

fertility, rapid fall in Costa Rica, 9

financing of tugurios services, 155-62

Fox, R. W., 21, 175n5, 176n3 Friedmann, J., 137, 179n

Garden Cities, 179n6 GDP (gross domestic product), 9,

108 Geithman, D. T., 14n, 175n GNP (gross national product), 73 growth poles, 23-4, 27, 136,

179n7, 179n9 see also decentralisation,

geographic

Hampden-Turner, C., 178n2, 179n7

Herrick, B., 176n4 historical analysis as basis for

poverty assessment, 3, 95-6, 132-9, 140, 144

housing, 158-63 as policy priority, 94, 146 conditions, 122-4 construction, 29-30, 157-8

Howard, E., 134, 137, 179n6 Huguet, J. W., 21, 175n5, 176n3

IF AM, Institute for Municipal Development (Instituto de Fomento y Asessoria Municipal), 10, 146-7, 156

illiteracy, 21 ILO, International Labour

Organisation, 2, 92, 94, 175n, 177n

IMAS, Institute for Social Assistance (Instituto Mixto de Ayuda Social), 71, 129, 146, 159-60

IMF, International Monetary Fund, 111n

INCAP, Nutrition Institute for Central America and Panama

(Instituto de Nutrici6n de Centro America y Panama), 106

income as poverty measure, 91-8, 102,

106-8 Costa Rican, per capita, 9 growth, by income decile,

111-12 measurement of, 98-113, 101n migrants v. non-migrants, 34-8 minimum, 99-100, 104-8 relative shares, see under income

distribution sources of, 61-4, 101n tugurios v. non-tugurios, 123 see also poverty and poverty

assessment see also wage and salary levels

income distribution, 6, 90-3, 108-113, 167

Costa Rica compared with other countries, 108-12

measurement of, 92-3, 167-8, 178n3

migrants v. non-migrants, 34-8 tugurios v. non-tugurios, 98-102 widening gap, 108, 110-13, 166,

171 industry, 24

industrial decentralisation policies, see under decentralisation, geographic

see also economic sector activity levels

inflation, 9, 10, 54-5, 106, 108 consumer price index, 55

institutional sector, public v. private, 144, 155

relative employment levels, 78, 80, 149

Inter-American Foundation, 178n INVU, National Housing Agency,

(Instituto Nacional de Vivienda y Urbanizaci6n), 57, 88, 99, 119-21, 146-7, 151, 158, 160-2

ITCO, Institute of Lands and Settlements (Instituto de

184 Index

Tierras y Colonizaci6n), 139, 146, 179n6

Jacobs, J., 134, 179n6 Jain, S., 111n, 178n3

Karst, K., 178n3 Kuznets, S., 93, 177n1

labour force, 25, 47, 58-61, 66-7, 84-5

barriers to participation in, 7 by age and sex, 58, 76-7, 81 by occupation, 78 by region, 21, 49-53, 74-5, 82,

84 growth of, 75 participation rates, 74-5, 81-2,

85 labour markets, 64-7

signs of failure, 64-6 labour productivity, 68-9, 177n2,

117 industrial sector decline of, 49

labour unions, 129 land use, 8, 22 landholdings, concentration of, 18 Latin America, 34, 45, 96, 108-10,

140-1, 143 primate cities, in 10-11 socio-economic development

indicators, compared with Costa Rican data, 9-10, 44

see also Central America LDCs (less developed countries)

relative income shares, 108-12 Lewis, 0., 178n3 Lipton, M., 179n8

Mangin, Wm., 178n3 market basket estimates of poverty

lines, see under poverty assessment

markets, 19, 135 Marxist interpretation of poverty,

133-4, 137 Metropolitan Area, see under San

Jose Metropolitan Area Mexico

compared with Costa Rica, 9, 109-10

migrants status compared to non-migrants,

34-45, 124-5 migration, 11, 31-46, 164-5

acceleration of, 46 by destination, 32-3, 46, 85 by labour force status, 85 causes of, 7-8 conventional wisdoms disputed,

7, 31-2, 43-5 relation to urban poverty, 33-45 reverse migration, 20-1 San Jose as weak magnet for,

32-3 minimum wages, 54, 67-8 Ministry of Labour, 54, 147 Morales, M. E., 179n2 Morris, C. T., 108-10, 178n2 Mumford, L., 134, 179n6 municipalities, 10, 129-31, 140,

147-50, 154, 157-8 see also IF AM

Neuhauser, L. B., 14n, 22, 24, 175n2, 176n, 179n6

nucleos, as tugurio units, 119-20, 151

nutrition programmes, 106, 147

occupations, 78-9 OFIPLAN, Office of Planning and

Economic Policy (Oficina de Planificaci6n y Politica Economica), xiii, 11, 45, 99, 121, 129, 147, 150-1, 176n5, 179n

organisations serving tugurios, 129-32

see also DINADECO, IMAS, INVU

Ornstein, R., 178n4

PADCO, Planning and Development Collaborative International, 103, 178n

People's Communal Development Bank, 163

Index 185

planning, 3, 11, 134-8, 140-63, 169-70

development plans, 142-7 institutions for, 145-8 Planning Regions, 145-6 see also coordination of policies see also policies for combating

poverty policies for combating poverty, 6,

11, 23, 27-30, 45, 94-6, 102-4, 113, 128, 139, 144-8, 165-6, 171-4

church views on, 141 Costa Rican priorities, 146-8 employment generation, 59,

67-71 incidence of benefits, 24 self-financing of programmes,

155-6 trickle-down and trickle-up

effects, 23, 111-12, 137-9 women's roles, 50-1 see also decentralisation

population of Costa Rica, 8-14, 35-43, 84, 100, 123-4,

age distribution, 37-41 attraction to peripheral regions,

20-2, 27 birth and death rates, 9, 32, 46,

51 dependency rate, 34-9, 115-16 family size, by income group, 36,

115-16 growth, 13-18 migrants, 31-46 shift toward San Jose, 11, 13,

18-20, 23-8 shrinking in Central Canton, 11,

13 spatial distribution, 10, 14, 35,

56, 84, 100-1, 123-4 urban/ rural com pari sons, 21-2,

74-5 see also migration see also social indicators

Population Reference Bureau, 175n4

poverty analytical approaches to, see

under poverty analysis benchmark levels (poverty

lines), 104-8 causes, 1-2, 7, 41, 64, 119,

133-7, 172-4 culture of, 119 definitions of, 90-1, see also

poverty analysis and poverty assessment

LDCs, other countries compared with Costa Rica, 108-10

non-spatially concentrated, 2-3, 5-7,45, 56, 60, 90, 99, 102, 104, 126-7, 164-5, 171

spatial dimensions of, 1. 5, 7-8, 101-5, 119-20

stereotypes and myths, 122, 126-7, 144, 164-5

trickle-up and trickle-down processes, 23, 111-12, 137-9

tugurio boundaries defined, 102, 105, 119-20

see also poverty analysis see also poverty assessment, six

approaches to see also tugurios

poverty analysis, alternative approaches to, 2-3, 8, 90-7, 112-14, 126-8, 136-8, 164, 170-4

biographical perspective, 144, 172, 174

fallacy of aggregates, 6, 138-9, 172-3

normative elements, 133-4, 137-8, 164, 166

qualitative and subjective approaches, 117-19, 126-8, 167, 170-4

short-cut methods, 3, 175n3 six approaches, see under poverty

assessment poverty assessment, six approaches,

90-7, 166-9 capital access, 94-5, 128-32,

168-9 historical factors, 95-6, 132-9,

169

186 Index

income distribution measures, 92-3, 108-113, 167-8

income per capita, 90, 98-104, 167

market basket estimates of poverty lines, 91-2, 104-8, 167

social indicators, 93-4, 114-28, 168

see also poverty analysis, alternative approaches to

'poverty locating' agencies, 103 Practical Concepts, Inc., xiii price levels, see under inflation primate cities, 10-11, 18-20, 23-8 private sector, 144, 155

see also public sector employment PROVIS, National Program of

Social Interest Housing (Programa de Vivienda de Inten!s Social), 153, 160-1

public sector employment, 49, 68, 78, 8~ 145-5~ 157

government as employer of last resort, 49, 149

Raabe, C., 176n6 Raper, A. F., 178n6 regional analysis, see under urban

functional analysis regional development policies,

145-6 relative deprivation, concept of,

92-3, 167-8 Rodriguez, E., 180n10 Runyan, D., 175n3

salary levels, see under wage and salary levels

San Jose Metropolitan Area, 5, 10, 13, 31, 44-5, 47, 99-100, 114, 144, 147, 176n8

defined, 10, 17 6n6 hegemony of San Jose, 13-30 population, see under population

of Costa Rica primate city, character of, 10-11,

18-20, 23-8, 176n8

statistical tables on, 56, 58, 84-8 see also San Jose Urban

Agglomeration see also Fig. 6.1, p. 100, and

Maps, p. 16-17 San Jose Urban Agglomeration, 5,

7, 10, 13, 17, 27-31, 100, 144-5, 154, 176n8

employment rates, 53-4 migration rates, 46 see also San Jose Metropolitan

Area 22 and 23 see also Fig. 6.1, p. 100, and

Maps 2.2 and 2.3, pp. 16-17 sectors, see under economic sector

activity levels Seers, D., 179n8 self-help programmes, 29, 118,

122, 128-32, 155-6, 160-1, 166, 172-4

cooperatives, 117, 174 Sen, A., 177n3 sex distribution

of unemployment, 59, 81, 85 of labour force, 76-7, 81, 85 see also women

slums, see under tugurios social indicators, as poverty

measures, 90-1, 93-4, 114-28, 168

changes in meaning over time, 169

Costa Rican data, 4, 21-2, 37, 42-3, 114-29

see also basic needs social justice, 93, 138 social security, 54, 161 social services, 9, 20-2, 29-30, 71,

103 see also basic needs see also community development

organizations see also coordination of policies see also DINADECO, IMAS,

INVU see also education see also social indicators see also social security

Index 187

subsistence incomes, 104-7 suburbanisation, 11, 13-14, 18

problems of, 14, 23, 28 survey of tugurio households

(1977) methodology, 59-60, 88-9 results, 33, 58-64, 71, 129, 131,

166, 177n6 Syrquin, M., 177n1, 178n4

technology, appropriate, 68, 96 Thurow, L., 177n2 training, see under education tugurio conditions

age composition of residents, 37-41, 58, 115-16

economic activity, by age, sex and income levels, 58, 115

population, 56-7, 100 problem solving mechanisms, 131 social conditions, 114-28 subjective impressions of,

117-19, 121,126-7 unemployment rates, 56-64, 115

tugurios, 6, 4 7 defined, 56-7, 88-9, 98-9,

119-20 employment situation, 56-64 historical genesis, 121, 125 migration as explanation of, 31-4 organisations providing services,

129, 131, 153-5 services, financing of, 155-6 spatial boundaries of, 119-21 typology of, 89, 99, 120-2

underemployment, 51-4, 83 equivalent unemployment rates,

54, 83, 88 measurement of, 51-2, 83n urban/rural, 88 visible/invisible, 52, 83, 88

unemployment, 51-2 causes, 166 market mechanism failures, 64-7 remedial policies, 67-70 unemployable persons, 70-1,

104, 107, 112

see also unemployment rates unemployment rates, 51-2, 58,

76-7, 83, 115-17 by age and sex, 81, 85 by income group, 43, 59 by region, 74-5, 82, 84-5 changes(1963-76), 75 definitions, 60 equivalent underemployment

rates, 83, 88 in tugurios, 43-4, 56-64, 165 of migrants, 43-4 see also unemployment and

underemployment United Nations, 92, 111 n United Nations Centre for

Regional Development, 176n6, 179n7

United States, xiii, 92, 152 relations with Costa Rica, 5

United States Agency for International Development (A.I.D.), xiii

Urban Agglomeration, see under San Jose Urban Agglomeration

urban functional analysis, 20, 28-9, 134-8

see also growth poles urbanisation, 8-9, 31, 165

problems associated with, 11, 154, 165, 170

trends in Costa Rica, 8-31, passim

see also cities see also San Jose Metropolitan

Area, hegemoney of see also San Jose Urban

Agglomeration

wage and salary levels, Costa Rica, 26-7, 55

by region, 86 by sector, 26 minimum wages, 54, 65 nominal and real, 54-5 sources of income, 62-4

welfare programmes in Costa Rica,

188

see under Asignaciones Familiares and social security

women, 50-2, 115-17 employment levels, 57-8, 76-7,

82

Index

worker-owned firms, 68-9 World War II, 95, 137-8, 148, 169

Zumbado, F., 14n, 22, 24, 175n2, 176n, 179n6