notes- educ'l research2

8/11/2019 Notes- Educ'l Research2

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.INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

A. Introduction1. Nature and Scope of Educl Research

Definition

Research - a scientific investigation of phenomenon which includes collection, presentation,analysis and interpretation of facts that links mans speculation with reality.by alderon ! "on#ales

- A purposive, scientific and systematic process of gathering, presenting !interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention,for the discovery of truth, or for the verification of e$isting knowledge, all forthe preservation of human life.

%y almorin p.&

Research is but one way to obtainknowledge but there are

other ways'&. (ensory )$perience

- we hear, smell, taste, ! touch- the most immediate way of knowing something but it is undependable and

incomplete- the data we take into our senses do not account for all of what we seem to

feel in the range of human knowing. *e must check it with other sources.

+. Agreement with thers- checking with others on whether they see or hear what we do

can help us discard what is untrueand manage our lives more

intelligently by focusing on what istrue.

. )$pert pinion

- )$pert on their field - know a great deal about what we are trying to find out.%ut depends on the credential of the e$perts

- )$perts can be mistaken too, can never be totally sure. e can give us hisopinion based on his readings, observing others and from e$perience.

/. 0ogic- ur intellect- the capability we have to reason things out

-1here is fundamental changes in logical reasoning of which we need to beaware.

2. (cientific 3ethod

(teps'&. Identification of 4roblem+. "athering of Information Related to the 4roblem. 5ormulating of ypothesis/. 6erifying the ypothesis , through e$perimentation

a. making a designb. putting up the set 7upc. observingd. recording of datae. tabulating 8organi#ingf. graphing the datag. analy#ing

h. interpreting2. onclusion

- re9ection and acceptance of the- hypothesis are e$plained in this section, a generali#ation of the study.- but not all scientists routinely proceed through each of the step- in this order to arrive at a solution of the problem. ftenly a problem may

grow out of perceived conse:uences.

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Purposes of Research (Aims, Obec!i"es, #oa$s%

#oa$ & is the preservation and improvement of the :uality of human life

Purpose' is to serve man

Specific Purposes a' #oa$s of Research

&. 1o discover new facts about known phenomenon. ;Alcohol is a known phenomenon and research may turn it into a kindof fuel e:ual in :uality with gasolinepercent

Charac!eris!ics of Research E'umera!e b* +es! a' a''(-/% as ci!e b* Ara$es (011-%

&. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem+. Research emphasi#es the development of generali#ations, principles or theories that will be helpful in predicting

future occurrence.

. Research is based upon observable e$perience or empirical evidence./. Research demands accurate observation and description.2. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources using e$isting data for a new purpose.=. Although research activity may at times somewhat random or unsystematic, it is more often characteri#ed by

carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.?. Research re:uires e$pertise.@. Research tries to be ob9ective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed, the

data collected and the conclusions reached.. Research involves the :uest for answers to unsolved problems.&>. Research is characteri#ed by patience and unhurried activity.&&. Research is carefully recorded and reported.&+. Research sometimes re:uires courage.

2. Importance of Researcha. 1o provide information

- all those approaches suggest possible ways to proceed, but answers are

not always reliable.- 1hat is why a knowledge of scientific research methodology can be of value- In the scientific method - is were we can get an information that is

accurate ! reliable as we can get.

b. Improves the :uality of lifec. Improves instructiond. Improves students achievemente. (atisfies mans needsf. Reduces the burden of workg. Deep 7seated psychological aspects

%y almorin pp. 2-, by alderon pp. /-=

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Differences %etween Research and 4roblem-(olving

Research 4roblem-solving&. 1here may not be a problem only interest in answering a:uestion or :uery.

&. 1here is always a problem to be solved.

+. A research problem is more rigorous and broader in scope +. A problem to be solved is less rigorous and less broad.

. 1he research problem is not necessarily definedspecifically. . 1he problem to be solved has to be defined specifically andidentified definitely./. All research is intended to solve some kind of problem, butthis is not the primary aim.

/. 4roblem-solving does not always involve research.

2. Research is conducted not primarily to solve a problem butto make a contribution to general knowledge.

2. 4roblem-solving is always intended to solve a problem.

=. Research is concerned with broad problems, recurrentphenomena, and wide application through generali#ation.

=. 4roblem-solving is concerned with a specific problem andonce the problem is solved that is the end of it.

Types of Research

"eneral lassification of Research a. 4ure Research - Bbasic researchC,

fundamental research, theoreticalresearch

- discover basic truth or principles- add to the body of scientific knowledge

-knowledge without any particular thought as to immediate practical utility.)$. ewtons 0aw, %oyles 0aw etc.

b. Applied Research- involves seeking new application of scientific knowledge to

the solution of a problem e$. 4roducts of genetic engineering, biotechnology,

discovery of 0actobacillus plantarum food drink.c. Action Research- decision oriented research

involving the application of the steps ofscientific method in response to an immediateneed to improve e$isting practices.

)$. Ese of traditional method in teaching couldbe improved by using cooperative learning.

%y almorin pp.&&-&+

4. Kinds and classification of Research

a. According to 4urpose&. predictive or prognostic

- has the purpose of determining the future operation of thevariables under investigation.

+. directive research- done based on the findings to remedy unsatisfactory

condition if there is any.. illuminative research

b. According to "oal&. basic or pure research+. applied research

c. According to 0evel of Investigation&. e$ploratory research- studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation+. descriptive 7 studies the relationships of the variables.. e$perimental - studies the effects of the variables on each other

d. According to the 1ype of Analysis&. analytic approach7 the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the

research situation+. holistic approach -

e. According to (cope &. action

f. According to hoice of Answers to 4roblems&. evaluative+. developmental

g. According to (tatistical ontenta. :uantitative or statistical 7 which inferential statistics are utili#ed to determine the results

of the studyb. non 7 :uantitative 7 descriptive data are gathered rather than :uantitative data

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h. According to 1ime )lementa. istorical 7 describes what wasb. Descriptive 7 describes what isc. )$perimental 7 describes what will be

- are the ma9or research method according to area of field activity- by alderon pp. &&-&

i. According to place of studya. 0ibrary research 7 done in the library where answers to the specific :uestions or

problems of the study are available. istorical research make use of the library as well asarcheological findings.

b. 5ield research 7conducted in a natural setting . o changes are made in theenvironment. It is applicable to descriptive survey and e$perimental method

c. 0aboratory research 7 is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions by isolating thestudy in a rigorously specified and operationali#ed area.

). Hi'ra'ces !o Scie'!ific I'2uir*

a. 1radition. - 1his is accepting that customs, beliefs,practices, and superstitious are true and are parts ofthe daily lives of men.

b. Authority.- 1his is accepting without :uestion, an opinion about a certain sub9ect which is given by someone who is

considered an authority on the sub9ect.

c. Inaccurate observation. 7 1his is describing wrongly what is actually observed.

d. vergenerali#ation. 7 1his is establishing a pattern out of a few instances.

e. (elective observation. 7 1his is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an overgenerali#ation and ignoring otherpertinent patterns.

f. 3ade-up information. 7 1his making up information to e$plain away confusion.

g. Illogical reasoning 7 1his is attributing to some thing to another without any logical basis.

h. )go-involvement in understanding. 7 1his is giving an e$planation when one finds himself in an unfavorable situation.

i. 3ystification. 7 1his attributing to supernatural power, the phenomenon that cannot be understood.

9. 1o err is human. 7 this an attitude that admits the fallibility of man.

k. Dogmatism. 7 1his is an unwritten policy of certain institutions and government prohibiting the study of topics that arebelieved to run counter to the established doctrines of such institutions or governments.

3. 4ua$i!ies Neee b* a Researcher

a. Intellectual uriosityb. 4rudencec. ealthy riticismd. Intellectual onesty

Acronym- R)()AR)R

R-Research riented)- )ffective(- (cientific

)- )fficientA- ActiveR- Religious- reative- onest)- )conomicalR- Resourceful

%y almorin pp.&-+

6. Research ro!lem and Its "ttendant #ualificationsa. haracteristics of a good research problem

&. It must be relevant.

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+. B B B within the researchers interest and capabilities.. B B B clear , specific ! attainable within a given period of time./. Information should be available.2. (hould not be harmful to the people and society=. ew

?. 4rovide information for planning , development andlegislation

%hagwani p. ?@. (3AR1 - specific, measurable, achievable, realistic ! time-bounded

almorin p. +2

Sources of a Research ro!lem&. *hen there is a dissatisfaction of services and information+. 4roblems maybe encountered in the classroom or at work.. %reakthroughs in science and technology may present une$pected problem/. Research thrusts and priorities of certain organi#ation.2. 3isconceptions on culture. %y %hagwani p.?=. 3ans ma9or problems.?. is speciali#ation.@. 3ethods of teaching. )$isting and past researches&>. 1heses, dissertations, research 9ournals by almorin pp. +2-+=

RESEARCH PRIORIT5 THRUSTS;ommission on igher )ducation>+-+>>

%y almorin p.++Here are some research 2ues!io's. ;hich o'es (if a'*% o *ou !hi'< are researchab$e= Or 'o' researchab$e=

&. Is "od goodK +. Are children happier when taught by a teacher of the same genderK . Does high school achievement influence the academic achievement of university studentsK

/. *hat is the best way to teach grammarK

2. *hat would schools be like today if *orld *ar II had not occurredKTHE PRO+LE6

1he main goal of this study was to innovate an e$isting A-D onverter into a trouble-simulator, assess its production andfunctional efficiency at 6(A51, 1 during the academic year +>>=-+>>? in order to propose a production package formass-production of A-D onverter 1rouble (imulators.

S!a!eme'! of !he Prob$em(pecifically, this study sought to answer the following :uestions'&. *hat is the pro9ect profile re:uired ins the assembly of A-D onverter 1rouble (imulator in terms of'

a. preparation re:uiredMb. procedures involvedM andc. production timeK

+. *hat is the description of the trouble simulator in the aspect of' a. parts and functionM

b. safety measuresM c. procedure of operationM

d. advantages and disadvantages of the simulate or,and

e. comparison with conventional gadgetK . *hat is the average time spent in in9ecting troubles with the conventional A-D converter and the A-D convertertrouble simulatorK / Is there a significant relationship between the assembly aspects of conventional A-D converter and the A-Dconverter trouble simulatorK

THE PRO+LE6

1he main goal of this study was innovating an e$isting A-D onverter into a trouble-simulator, assess itsproduction and functional efficiency at 6(A51, 1 during the academic year +>>=-+>>?.

S!a!eme'! of !he Prob$em

(pecifically, this study sought to answer the following :uestions'&. *hat is the pro9ect description re:uired in the assembly of A-D onverter 1rouble (imulator in terms of'

a. preparation M

b. designc. materials and cost&./ procedures M and&.2 parts and functionK

+. *hat is the level of performance of A-D onverter 1rouble (imulator in terms of'

+.& converting A to D, D to AM+.+ trouble shootingM

. Is there a significant relationship between the assembly aspects of conventional A-D converter and the A-D converter trouble simulatorK

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11. &uidelines in )ritin* the Title 1he aim is usually omitted and sometimes the population is not included. 1hus' the above problem could be statedas a title' 1) 1)AI" 5 (I)) I 1) I" (0( 5 6(A51 A34E()( DERI" 1) (0L)AR +>>+-+>>

&. "enerally, the title is formulated before the start of the research work. It may be revised and refined later ifthere is a need.

+. 1he title must contain the sub9ect matter of the study, the locale o the study, the population involved, and theperiod when the data were gathered or will be gathered only if necessary.

. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the sub9ect matter studied or to be studied. ence, the titleindicates what is e$pected to be found inside the thesis report.

/. It must be as brief and concise as possible.2. Avoid using the terms BAn analysis of,C BA (tudy of,C BAn Investigation of,C and the like. All these things are

understood to have been done or to be done when a research is conducted.=. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid, all words in capital 0etters. A brief and a concise form of the title and a better one follows'

1) 1)AI" 5 (I)) I 1) I"(0( 5 6(A51 A34E()(

Lis! of Research Ti!$es

&. 1)AI", 0)ARI" AD FEIN 5))D%AN3)1D( I 1) 4I0I44I)(

+. "A33A (4)1R4I AA0L(I(5 (I0 (A340)(5R3 NALA( A6) AD I1( 6III1L,

3A%IAL, )"R( RI)1A0

. 1) 3A")1I 41IA0 1RA4'()1- E4 AD 3)A(ER)3)1(

/. A 34E1)R-%A()D "A33A (4)1R3)1RL I1)AI" )6IR3)1A0 RADIA1I6I1L

2. 34E1)R-%A()D (ED 1RA(3I((I3)A(ER)3)1(

=. )6IR3)1A0 RADIA1I6I1L 3)A(ER)3)1(I )"R( RI)1A0, &@&-&@'A %RI)5 AD 4AR1IA0 (ER6)L

?.(3) I)O4)(I6), I34R6I()D 4L(I(A44ARA1E(5R 0A(( D)3(1RA1I

R )O4)RI3)1@. )* I(1RE3)1( 5R A (1ED)1

0A%RAA1RL I I1)R3)DIA1))0)1RI(

. 1-1)(1 AA0L(I( 5 1) )55)1 5 3)1A05A1I"E) 1) R)A1I 1I3) 1 (ED

AD 0I"1 E(I" DA1A (1EDI

&>. 1) )55)1 5 E3A 31I "RA4A1I6I1L (1ED)1( 31I

"RA4 I1)R4R)1A1I(NI00(

&&. I34R6)3)1( 1) 4 I1)R5A)D A)0)RA1I

3)A(ERI" D)6I) 5R 4L(I( 0A%RA1RL)O4)RI3)1

&+. I340)3)1A1I 5 A 3IR1R00)R IREI1%ARD 5R "))RA0 )"I))RI" 4L(I(

0A%RA1RL )O4)RI3)1(

&. E6 50ER)()) I3A"I" 5 6I%0A(1I) -/- A1RAI0A1) DI(1RI%E1I R1 (A340)( 51* 6ARIA1(

;R)D 50*)R AD *I1) 50*)R 5 A1ARA1E( R()E( ;.R()E(. )55II)1( 5 1)R3A0 DE1I6I1L 5 (3) 4I0I44I) *D(

&. )(1I3A1I" 1) 4*)R 5 1) (E+. 3)A(ERI" 1) 0I"1 A%(R41I )55II)1 5 (3) 0A00L A6AI0A%0) 0)A6)(

. (4)I5I )A1 5 (AD I )"R( RI)1A0 AD PA3%A"A D)0 R1)

/. "RA4 DRA51I" 5 A (ER) AD A (IN A44RAI" ) A1)R 4RDEI" 1) 4A11)R 5A DE%0)1 E(I" E3)RIA0 AA0L(I(

;A 34E1)R (I3E0A1I (*I" 1) 4A11)R 5 A DE%0)1 a variable that is related to the dependent or independent variable that is not part of thee$periments.- are independent variable that have not been controlled.

%y almorin pp. &/-&=

)$amples'

I'epe'e'! 7ariab$e

teaching method used

I'epe'e'! 7ariab$e

achievement in chemistry

Co'!ro$ 7ariab$e

Intelligence of the respondents

6oera!or 7ariab$e

Intelligence of the respondents

Or:a'ismic 7ariab$es

"ender of the respondentsIntelligence of the respondents

Possib$e I'!er"e'i': 7ariab$es

test was given

?. Research 8orma!@Compo'e'!s of Research S!u*

TITLECHAPTER

- THE PRO+LE6 AND ITS SCOPERationale

1heoretical %ackground1heoretical and

onceptual 5ramework1he 4roblemypothesis

Importance of the (tudy

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Definition of 1erms

0. RE7IE; O8 RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE. RESEARCH 6ETHODOLO#5

Research DesignResearch 0ocal

Research RespondentsResearch Instruments

Data "athering 4roceduresData 4rocessing and Analysis

?. PRESENTATION, ANAL5SIS AND INTERPRETATION). THE OUTPUT

3 3. SU66AR5 O8 8INDIN#S, CONCLUSIONS ANDB RECO66ENDATIONS

5indingsonclusions and Implications

Recommendations%ibliography

APPENDICES

4rescribed Research 5ormat by 6(A51-1

A41)R &

1he 4roblem and Research Design

Rationale1heoretical %ackground' 0egal %asis Related 0iterature Related (tudies onceptual 5ramework (chematic Diagram

1he 4roblem (tatement of the 4roblem (tatement of Assumptions ;optional< (tatement of ypothesis ;optional is for descriptive :uestions

)$ample' (ub-problem' *hat is the status of production of (E( on' a. programs8pro9ects8activities b. administrative support c. policies and strategies

/ d. problems encountered

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-1 Descrip!i"e H*po!hesis&-- 1he status of (E production is good in terms of programs8pro9ects8activities, administrative support and

policies and strategies while problems encountered were fairly serious.-0 - b. S!a!is!ica$ H*po!hesis7 is for :uestions on the relationship or differences of data obtained in descriptive

:uestions.-?

-) )$ample'

-3 (ub-problem' Is there a significant correlation between the skills and attitudes of teachers in the use ofinstructional materialsK

-B E9. S!a!is!ica$ H*po!hesis'

1here is a significant correlation between the skills and attitudes of teachers in the use of instructional materials.

ypotheses are stated in 'u$$ (is stated in negative% or posi!i"e form@opera!io'a$ (s!a!ein the affirmative-++&< the specific :uestions serve as the hypotheses. *ith this fact, it is logicalto presume that all studies in research have hypotheses and for that matter all theses and dissertations have their own

respective hypotheses. onse:uently, no research is conducted without any hypothesis at all.. ypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is easier than hypothesis in the

operational form. 1esting a hypothesis simply means gathering data to answer it./. ypotheses are formulated from the specific :uestions upon which they are based.2. "enerally, findings and conclusions are answers to the hypotheses or specific :uestions raised at the start of the

investigation. ;alderon, pp. &-+>&.ypotheses are formulated from the specific :uestions upon which they are based.&&."enerally, findings and conclusions are answers to the hypotheses or specific :uestions raised at the start of theinvestigation.

Ra!io'a$e of !he S!u*@ Si!ua!io'a$ A'a$*sis

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1his is the first part of hapter I. (ome researchers call it background of the study while others call it situationanalysis. %oth refer to the introduction of the study.

(ome aspects of the background are integrated into the theoretical framework, ob9ectives of the study. 4resentationmust be brief but enough to 9ustify the need to conduct the study.

1here should be theme in writing the background of the study. 1he theme serves as an outline so that there iscontinuity of ideas. 1he theme is based on the important variables of the study, their scope, nature and characteristics.5urthermore, the presentation must be from macro and micro, sometimes known as the deductive approach to datapresentation.

1he introductory statement must be eye catching. 1he issues relating to the investigation should be :uoted ordocumented to encourage readers to read on. 1he study should also be recent.

1he last part of the study is a brief situational analysis to present information on the problem and what prompts theresearcher to venture into such a study is relevant and contributes to the e$isting fund of knowledge.

Theore!ica$ a' Co'cep!ua$ 8rameor involves selecting two or

more groups that differ in a particular variable ofinterests and comparing them on another variable or variables.

Attempts to determine the cause or conse:uences ofdifferences that already e$ist between or amonggroups of individuals

/.E9perime'!a$ Desi:' In e$perimental design, the researcher needs to e$plore the nature, characteristics, relationships anddifferences of one or more variables. 1he term Be$perimentC re:uires manipulation of variables to observeeffects or results.

1his design describes what will be. It means that a researcher has to determine the effects of variablesbeing manipulated together with the main ob9ectives of the study. 1he main ob9ectives of the are thedependent variables or output of the study. 1he factors that influence dependent variables are theindependent variables.

Is considered as he most powerful educational research because a researcher manipulates, changes oralters the inputs or independent variables to see the effects on the dependent variables. 1he mostcommonly-used method to advance scientific knowledge. ;%hagwani, pp. ?-/#roup Pre!es!>Pos!!es! Desi:'

1his design is similar to the one-shot case studyM however the researcher administers the pretest before thetreatment and the posttest after the treatment. 1he illustration of this design is as follows'

& O +*here' OQ treatment &Q pretest +Q posttest

0.The O'e>#roup Pre!es!>Pos!!es! Desi:' 1his design is similar to the one-shot case studyM however the researcher administers the pretest before the

treatment and the posttest after the treatment. 1he illustration of this design is as follows'& $ +*here' $ Q treatment

& Q pretest + Q posttest

. The S!a!ic>#roup Pre!es!>Pos!!es! Desi:'

1his design involves two groups-the e$perimental and control groups. 1his design is better than the one-shot casestudy and one-group pretest and posttest design. %oth groups receive separate treatments. 0ets say the e$perimental groupwill be e$posed to the cooperative learning strategy the control group to the conventional lecture method. %oth groups will besub9ected to the pretest and posttest. 1he illustration is as follows'

& O& +

O+ /

*here' O& Q )$perimental "roup 1reatment O+ Q ontrol "roup treatment & Q 4retest of the e$perimental "roup + Q 4osttest of the e$perimental "roup Q 4retest of the ontrol "roup / Q 4osttest of the ontrol "roup

- - - - - Q ot randomly formed

20

( )*here$

( + treatment ) + #osttest


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1he cooperative learning strategy is the new approach to teaching. 1he absence of randomi#ation done to thegroups of respondents is the limitation of this design. 1he age, year level, grade point averages are among the possible factorsthat affect performance

True E9perime'!a$ Desi:'s

&. Ra'omie Pos!!es!>O'$* Co'!ro$ #roup Desi:'

1his design nearly controls the reliability or consistency of the output. 1here are also two groups similar to the staticgroup pretest-posttest design. owever the presence of randomi#ation and the absence of the pretest make the difference. 1heabsence of pretest is the limitation of the study. 1he pretest result will describe if the two groups are e:uated or not. 1herandomi#ation alone as the process of selecting participants is not enough to tell if the two groups are e:ual.

R O& & R O+ +*here' O& Q )$perimental "roup 1reatment

O+ Q ontrol "roup 1reatment >& Q 4osttest of the )$perimental

>+ Q 4osttest of the ontrol "roup R Q Random Assignment

1he absence of pretest is the limitation of the study. 1he pretest result will describe if the two groups are e:uated ornot. 1he randomi#ation alone as the process of selecting participants is not enough to tell if the two groups are e:ual.

0. Ra'omie Pre!es!> Pos!!es! Co'!ro$ #roup Desi:'

1he randomi#ed 4retest-4osttest ontrol "roup Design is similar to the Randomi#ed posttest-nly ontrol "roupDesign when it comes to application. 1he only difference is the presence of a pretest before the employment of treatment.4re-test results will tell i f the two groups are e:uated. If the two groups are not e:ual, there is a tendency to come up withpredictive results that reveal a significant difference between the performances of students e$posed to two separate methodsof teaching. 1hus, the ob9ective of identifying which method of teaching is more effective will not be reali#ed.

R & O& +R O+ /

O& Q )$perimental "roup 1reatmentO+ Q ontrol "roup 1reatment

>& Q 4retest of the )$perimental "roup+ Q 4osttest of the )$perimental "roup

> Q 4retest of the ontrol "roup / Q 4osttest of the ontrol "roup R Q Random Assignment

. The Ra'omie So$omo' 8our>#roup Desi:'

1his design is the most powerful among the other e$perimental designs. It involves four groups of respondentsM twoe$perimental groups and two control groups. 0ets say the researcher looks into the effectiveness of cooperative learningstrategy in teaching mathematics' the researcher divides &>> students into four groups ;&< "roup A&M ;+< "roup A+M ;< "roup%&M and ;/< "roup %+. )$perimental group A&will be sub9ected to pretestM e$perimental "roup A+ will be having the posttest only.ontrol group %& uses the conventional lecture method with pretest and posttest while control group % +has the posttest only.Differences between the achievement scores of the four groups of respondents will be the ma9or basis for identifying whichmethod of teaching is best suited to teaching mathematics. 1he illustration of this design is as follows' and ounterbalancedDesign. o randomi#ation is done.

)$perimental "roup A& & $ +ontrol "roup %& /)$perimental A+ $ 2ontrol "roup %+ = & Q )$perimental "roup A& pretest + Q )$perimental "roup A& 4osttest Q ontrol "roup %&4retest

/ Q ontrol "roup %&4osttest2 Q )$perimental "roup A+ 4osttest= Q ontrol "roup %+4osttest

O Q 1reatment

The 4uasi>E9perime'!a$ Desi:'s4uasi>e9perime'!a$ esi:'s include' the 1ime-(eries )$perimental DesignM 3atching-nly 4retest-posttest

Design and counterbalanced Design. o randomi#ation is done among the designsM instead, the employments of severaltechni:ues are the bases for controlling possible threats.

-. The Time>Series E9perime'!a$ Desi:'

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1his design is the elaboration of the ne-"roup 4retest-4osttest Design. 1he difference is in the mode ofapplication. It involves repeated measurements or observations over a period of time both before and after the treatment. 1heillustration of this design follows'

& + / 2 O = ? @ &>

*here' &7 2 Q 4retests =7 &> Q 4osttests O Q 1reatment

In the time7series e$perimental design, the validity of results is due to repeated pretests and posttests. *hen theresults are e:ual to one another in the first, second third administrations, the pretest is valid as well as in the posttest after thetreatment.

0. The 6a!chi':>O'$* Desi:'3atching is the process of pairing two variables with e:ual values. 1he two groups have the same characteristics

before the treatment is given. *hen they are e:uated, the treatment will serve as the indicator to determine which groupperformed better after its administration.

. Cou'!erba$a'ce Desi:'

In this Design, each group is e$posed to all treatments, no matter how many there are, but in a different order. Itillustrates that all treatments are given to the three groups of respondents. 1he difference is the order of employment.omparison of the results in the first, second and third analysis will be the basis for identifying validity or which treatment ismore effective. If no significant difference e$ists, we can say that all treatments are effective or vice versa.

8ac!ors !o be Co'siere i' E2ua!i': #roups

&. Ra'omia!io' is a way of controlling threats to validity. It makes the group heterogeneous by using the randomtechni:ue. In our e$ample, to determine the participants of e$perimental group and control groups, the odd andeven techni:ue may be used. If there are /> students in a class, the counting shall be & and +. All number &sbelong to group & or the e$perimental group, and the control group is composed of number +s

0. 6a!chi': or Pairi': 3atch or pair students with e:ual characteristics like their "rade 4oint Average;"4A "4AM4airs + may be @2 "4As etc., until you come up with desired population. S!a!is!ica$ ma!chi': is the most reliable techni:ue in e:uating groups. 5or e$ample, you may first administer thepretest then have the initial groups under say under $ and y. ompute for the correlation coefficient. If correlationcoefficient is high, you may conclude that the grouping is valid. Lou may also group the respondents into +M then assigngroup one as e$perimental and the other as the control group. After pre testing two groups, compute by using the t-test ofuncorrelated means to determine if there is a significant difference. If the computed t is lower that the critical t with thecorresponding level of confidence, it means that there is no significant difference. *hen there is no significant difference,

it means that the two groups are e:ual. ence, the grouping is validProbabi$i!* ra'om samp$i':

1his type of sampling provides e:ual opportunities for the population to be chosen as participants of the study. 1hisis commonly used in descriptive research.

No'>probabi$i!* samp$i':

1he selection of respondents is based on the convenience of the researcher and the purpose of the study. It doesnot involve systematic selection of the participants. 1he :ualitative studies like ethnographic, case study and historical neednot select respondents randomly. Lou would only include participants who possess characteristics that could provide relevantinformation to the investigation.

1ypes of commonly -used probability random sampling

&. (imple random sampling

+. 4roportional random sampling. (tratified random sampling/. (ystematic random sampling

Probabi$i!* ra'om samp$i':



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1ypes of commonly -used probability random sampling

2. (imple random sampling=. 4roportional random sampling?. (tratified random sampling@. (ystematic random sampling

4UALITATI7E RESEARCH 6ETHODS AND TECHNI4UES

4articipation bservationNey-Informant Interviewing0ife istories(tructure Interviews and (urveysFuestionnairesRatings and Rankings0isting, (electing and sorting(emantic differential and 4ro9ective 1echni:ues ;otes' (oledad E a devise designed or adopted by the researcher for data-gathering. 1herefor to arrive ataccurate findings and conclusions, the instruments used by a researcher should be valid and reliable to ob9ectively answer thepurpose of the study as discussed in the statement of the problem.

1hese instruments depend on the nature of the problem and the research design. Descriptive studies usuallyemploy :uestionnaires, interviews and observations while historical research uses documents and observations. )$perimentalstudies may or may not use :uestionnaires but manipulate variables, observations and documentation.

lassification of data-gathering instruments'a. Researcher I's!rume'!s

1he researcher obtains information or data himself with lit tle or no direct involvement of other people.b. Subec! I's!rume'!s 1he data is collected by directly involving the respondents. )$. Data maybe collected by asking for a copy of the availablescience facil ities and e:uipment, indicating actual numbers, from the list, the researcher may determine e$tent of availabilityand ade:uacy.

c. I'forma'! I's!rume'!1he data collected from those knowledgeable or aware of the sub9ect. 1he researcher may ask school administrators,science teachers and students to evaluate e$tent of availability and ade:uacy of science facilities and e:uipment of the(Es in Region &.

Commo'$*>Use Research I's!rume'!s

-. 4ues!io''aire

Is a written or printed form containing the ob9ectives of the study. 1his is administered on the respondents to elicit there:uired data based on procedures made by the researcher. It is the most convenient and also the easiest way to gatherdata. 1he researcher may or may not personally administer the :uestionnaire provided all instructions are clearlyspecified. 1here are two types of :uestionnaires, the open-ended and close 7 ended.

Ope'>e'e 2ues!io''aire

4rofile of the igher )ducation Institution in Region &

ame of Institution'1ype of Institution0evel of Accreditationumber of 4ersonnel

3arriage 4ractices of Indigenous 4eople in the interland 3unicipalities of Ilocos (ur

&. *hat tribe do you belong toK +. %riefly describe the marriage practices of your tribe.

GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG. *hat animal8s and how many are to be butchered for the weddingK

losed-ended :uestionnaire

)$ample S & 4ersonal 4rofile

&. (e$' 3ale 5emale+. ivil (tatus'(ingle3arried *idow. ighest )ducational Attainment'

%achelors Degree%achelors Degree with 3A83( Enits3asteral Degreethers, please specify

)$ample S+ - ;%hagwani, pp?=-??. omputers

Pri'cip$es i' Co's!ruc!i': !he 4ues!io''aire&. Avoid double :uestions. 1he answer to one half of the :uestion may well be different from the answer to the other half.)$. ow do you rate the efficiency and friendliness of the staffK

+. Avoid potentially offensive :uestions.)$. Do you work or are you a housewifeK

. Data should be :uantified whenever possible.)$. Distances, fre:uency of occurrence, pay and other such data lately-Imprecise-use at any time in the last + weeks.)$. ave you been under stress at work latelyK

/. Avoid :uestions where the answer for virtually every respondent would be the same.

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)$. At ebu ormal Eniversity, more women than men are in the senior management.

2. 1he range of responsive options should cover all possible answers. ther forms for marital status are omitted, e.g.widowed, separated, unmarried partner, etc. when you cannot foresee all possible answers to a :uestions include catch-all option and others.

)$. 3arital statusK single8married8divorced

=. Neep the language single.1here are the other ways to buy a computer e.g. from the factory.)$. *ould you prefer to buy a computer through a retail outlet than by mall orderK

?. Avoid negative statements in true8false or agree8disagree.)$. 1he customs officer was not unreasonable ;agree8disagree. Avoid emotional language and prestige bias.)$. *hat do you think about the policy to pay murderous terrorists who threaten to steal the freedom of peace loving peopleK

&&. Avoid leading :uestions.)$. Lou dont smoke, do youK

&+. Avoid asking :uestions that are beyond respondents capabilities.)$. ow did you feel about your brother when you were = years oldK

&. Avoid false premises.)$. 1he post office is open too many hours.

Do you want it to open four hoursK

=. Avoid overlapping or unbalanced response categories.)$. Are you satisfied with your 9ob or are there things you dont like about itK

&2. Avoid response set8response bias.

I'!er"ie

It involves face-to-face contacts between the interviewer and interviewee. (ometimes a researcher interviews to

confirm data obtained from the :uestionnaire. owever, interviews alone would be enough for gathering data, depending onthe nature of the problem. 1his data-gathering techni:ue is :uite laborious especially when the population is large. 1heresearcher should personally meet respondents and needs to have ade:uate interviewing skills so that the ob9ective of thestudy maybe achieved. According to (ison ;&&


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. It is faster and cheaper./. It is more accurate.2. It gives more comprehensive information. +5ormula ' 6 T U(e ;&-p.>&.2>> in a population. 1he &,2>> may be arranged in an alphabetical order, the are numbered &,+,,/, and 2 for thefirst set, second and third set and so on until the desired population is covered. )very 2thof the set is selected as part ofthe sample until ++ is reached.

2. 3ultistage sampling- this design is done in several stages. 1he population individuals are grouped into a hierarchy ofunits and sampling is done consecutively.

=. luster sampling - the population is grouped into smaller units or cluster for instance, districts, municipalities or citiescomposed of population individuals and are selected by random sampling or systematic sampling

No'scie'!ific Samp$i':&. 4urposive sampling 7 is base on choosing individuals as samples according to the purpose of the researcher as his

controls. An individual is chosen as part of the sample because of good evidence that he is a representative of the totalpopulation.

+. Incidental sampling- is applied to those samples which are taken because they are the most available. 1he researchersimply takes the nearest individuals as sub9ects of the study till the sample reaches the desired si#e.

. Fuota sampling 7 this design is popular in the field of opinion research because it is done by merely looking forindividuals with the re:uisite characteristics .

After obtaining the si#e of the sample, you may now determine the sampling techni:ues to be employed. 1here are twogeneral types of sampling , namely'&. 4robability random sampling+. on-probability sampling

Probabi$i!* ra'om samp$i':




1ypes of commonly -used probability random sampling(imple random sampling. 4roportional random sampling&>. (tratified random sampling&&. (ystematic random sampling

Re"ie of Re$a!e Li!era!ure

1hree parts

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&. Related Readings- ma9or sources' laws, department directives, such as circulars, orders, memoranda, Q serve as legalbases for the study, sources are arranged in a chronological order from past to present.+.Related 0iterature- any written materials such as book, 9ournal, maga#ine, novel, poetry, yearbook, encyclopedia areconsidered as literature.&. Related (tudies - published and unpublished research studies are sources of materials that are included in this section.

T*pes of Sources-. "eneral references - inde$es ' w8c list the author, titles, places of publication of articles and other materials on education

abstracts' give brief summary of various publications.

+. 4rimary sources - are publication in which individuals who do research report the results of their studies e$. Hournals. (econdary sources - are publications in which author describes the work of others. )$. 1e$tbooks, educational encyclopedia, research reviews, and yearbooks

;h* !he Re"ie

&. Review of related literature provides the researcher knowledge and background on the sub9ect under study.+. 1he review will enable the researcher to avoid duplicating what has been studied already.. If a study on the same topic has been conducted before, the review provides the researcher information about

the aspects of the problem which have not been investigated before./. 1he researcher will be helped in developing various parts of his study such as definition of problem and2. terms, research design, sampling, and data gathering techni:ues.=. 4rovides the researcher information of the weaknesses and problems of previous studies and some ideas on

how to handle or avoid them in his own study.?. 4rovides the researcher ideas on how to proceed with his own investigation.@. In relational and e$ploratory study, provides the researcher bases in determining what variables are related

with each other, the types of their relationship, and how to analy#e and measure these relationships.. 4rovides findings and conclusions of past studies which the researcher may relate to his own findings and

conclusions.&>. (tudies reviewed will provide the researcher motivation and impetus that will provide the researcher motivation

and impetus that will ensure a good progress toward the goal of completing his study.&&. A summary of the writings of recogni#ed authorities and of previous researches provides evidence that the

researcher is familiar with what is already known and what is still i@ntested.

4UANTITATI7E AND 4UALITATI7E RESEARCH

4ua'!i!a!i"e Research assigns numbers to observations and produce data by counting and measuring things, hence theuse of statistics in the treatment of data generated

Fuantitative 3ethodologiesFualitative 3ethodologies

4reference for precise hypothesis stated at the outset 4reference for hypothesis that emerge as study develops

4reference for precise definitions stated at the outset 4reference for definitions in conte$t or study progresses

Data reduce to numerical scores 4references for narrative descriptions

3uch attention to assessing and improving reliability of scoresobtained from instruments

4references for assuming that reliability of inferences in ade:uate

Assessment of validity through variety of procedures with relianceon statistical indices

Assessment of validity through checking sources of information;triangulation. *rite an effective conclusion. An effective conclusion in a 1hesis8Dissertation report should answer the mainproblem. onclusions are always derived from the study findings.

&&.

&&. Pare'!he!ica$ ocume'!a!io'& Au!hor a' Da!e

; A4A 7 American 4sychological Association = ? @

&> = ? @

&> = ? @

&>

4roblembservation "uideFuestionnaire4ilot 1esting

3aterialsAssembly of "adgetAns. f problem no.&

Ans. f problem no.+Interpretation of table(ummary of findingsonclusion

RecommendationAction planAbstract

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notes- educ'l research2

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