no. 32 social sciences in asia - unescounesdoc.unesco.org/images/0001/000188/018872eo.pdfpreface at...

No. 32

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Social sciences in Asia

Bangladesh, Iran, Malaysia, Pakistan, Thailand

Unesco

REPORTS AND PAPERS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

The Reports and Papers are intended to present to a restricted public of specialists descriptive or documentary material as and when it becomes available during the execution of Unesco's programme in the field of the social sciences. They will consist of either reports relating to the Regular Programme of Unesco and its operational programmes of aid to Member States or documentation in the form of bibliographies, repertories and directories.

The authors alone are responsible for the contents of the Reports and Papers and their views should not necessarily be taken to represent those of Unesco.

These documents are published without strict periodicity. Currently available.

SS/CH 11 - SS/CH 15 - SS/CH 17 -

SS/CH 18 - SS/CH 19 - SS/CH 20 - SS/CH 22 - SS/CH 23 - SS/CH 24 - SS/CH 25 -

SS/CH 26 - SS/CH 27-

SS/CH 28 - SS/CH 29 - SS/CH 30 - SS/CH/31- SS/CH/32 -

International Repertory of Institutions Conducting Popu- lation Studies (bilingual : English/French), 1959. International Co-operation and Programmes of Economic and Social Development (bilingual : English/French), 1961. International Directory of Sample Survey Centres (outside the United States of America) (bilingual : English/French), 1962. The Social Science Activities of Some Eastern European Academies of Sciences, 1963. Attitude Change : a review and bibliography of selected research, 1964 (out of print in English, available in French). International Repertory of Sociological Research Centres (outside the U.S.A.) (bilingual: English/French), 1964. Institutions Engaged in Economic and Social Planning in Africa (bilingual: English/French), 1966. International Repertory of Institutions Specializing in Research on Peace and Disarmament, 1966. Guide for the Establishment of National Social Sciences Documentation Centres in Developing Countries, 1969. Ecological data in comparative research : Report on a first International Data Confrontation' Seminar (bilingual : English/French), 1970. Data archives for the Social Sciences: purposes, operations and problems, 1973 DARE Unesco computerized data retrieval system for documentation in the social and human sciences, 1972 International Repertory of Institutions for Peace and Conflict Research, 1973 The Unesco Educational Simulation Model (ESM), 1974. Social indicators: problems of definition and of selection, 1974 D A R E - Information management system Social sciences in Asia: I

Social sciences in Asia I Bangladesh, Iran, Malaysia, Pakistan, Thailand

Unesco

Published in 1'976 by T h e Unesco Press 7, Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France

ISBN 92-3-101324-6 French edition 92-3-201324-X

Printed in the workshops of Unesco Printed in France

OUnesco 1976 [B]

Preface

At its seventeenth session, the Unesco General Conference invited the Director-General "to pro- mote the institutional development of the social sciences" and to prepare "country surveys and studies to determine needs and priorities and the development of facilities in universities and institutes".

Six country studies (Belgium, Chile, Arab Republic of Egypt, Hungary, Nigeria and Sri Lanka) on "Social Sciences Organization and Policy" were published in one volume in 1974. The present publication is the first of a series on "Social Sciences in Asia'' which is intended (a) to provide an inventory; ing needs and priorities; (c) to identify potentialities for social science development; and (d) to discover ways of building up an infrastructure of personnel and institutions.

described under four headings: ground; institutional framework of teaching

(b) to help in assess- .

For each country, the social sciences are historical back-

and research; social science development; major issues and perspectives; and recommendations for regional and international co-operation.

tries concerned have been programmed in the DARE system, which is explained in two other publications in this series: No. 27: DARE, Unesco computerized data retrieval system for documentation in the social and human sciences (1972); and No. 31: DARE information management system; (1975).

This publication attempts to explain who does what and where in the social sciences in five Asian countries; this information will no doubt be useful to the governments concerned in developing their social science infrastructures and policies.

Opinions expressed in the signed contributions are those of the authors and do not necessarilyre- flect the views of Unesco.

Data and information collected on the coun-

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Contents

Page P R E F A C E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

SOCIAL SCIENCES IN ASIA: I

Bangladesh : A. K. NazmulKarim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Iran Gholam-Abbas Tavassoli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Malaysia Stephen Chee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Pakistan Latif Ahmed Sherwani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Thailand Titaya Suvanajataand Amphon Namatra . . . . . . . 49

5

Ba ng I ad es h by A. K. Nazmul Karim

Professor of Sociology Department of Sociology, Dacca University

I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

The social sciences are inextricably connected with a country's social thought. In the Indian sub- continent, an old civilization area, social thought dates back to the beginnings of human history, and first became articulate some two thousand years ago. Kautilya, in the Artha Shastra (Mauryan period), shows a surprising awareness of the mechanism of the working of society and, long before him, anticipates Machiavelli. Vatsyayana's Kama Sutra (period of the Imperial Guptas, 300- 400 A. D. ) was mainly an encyclopaedia of sex knowledge but also gives a picture of Indian society. In general, Indian philosophers and sages were more concerned with ultimate reality than day- to- day human problems. They attained a great religious and philosophic vision but, unlike the Greek and later western thinkers, did not make much scientific inquiry into the mechanisms of society. However, there were some exceptions. The Charbak philosophy, for instance, had a ma- terialistic approach.

Long afterwards, just before the establishment of Muslim Rule in India, the great Persian scholar Al-Biruni (973-1048 A. D. ) visited India to study Indian scholarship and the Indian classics. His observations on Indian society display a deep perception of Hindu social structure; a recent Bengali writer, Nirod Chandra Chaudhury, in autobiography of an unknown Indian has shown how relevant they still are.

No comparable analysis was made until the publication of the Ain- i- Akbari and the Akbarnama in the sixteenth century, giving a graphic account of society and the material resources of the different parts (including Bengal) of the Empire of Akbar the Great. Abul Fazal was a sixteenthcen- tury precursor of the modern statistical approach. Kautilya, Al-Biruni and Abul Fazal, all had an objective approach to social problems; Kautilya's was Machiavellian, Al- Birunils highly "sociological", Abul Fazalls factual and empirical. The

accounts left by the Emperors Babur and Jahangir are also valuable documents on social history, while the Hamayun Nama of Princess Gulbadan, sister of the Emperor Humayun, provides a rare first-hand account of a Mughal harem.

As the Empire of the Great Mughals came to an end (second half of the seventeenth century), the French traveller Bernier visited the Court of Aurangzeb. was so "unprogressive" as compared with Euro- pean. have made his observations immensely valuable. Karl Marx rightly remarked:

He wanted to know why Indian society

His challenging questions and inquiries

'I.. . One can read nothing more brilliant, vivid and striking than old Fraqois Bernier (nine years! physician to Aurangzebe)" - (Marx and Engel's Selected Correspondences, (L. w. ed. ))

Max Weber, R. H. Tawney, Karl Wittfogel and others have contrasted oriental and western society. Muslim chroniclers provide accounts of kings, courts and emperors but they are rather stereotyped and repetitive. One exception is Syed Ghulam Hossain Khan, who wrote when the Empire was in rapid decline after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, and had no longer a master to please. His Seirul Mutakkherin describes events from the fall of the Mughal Empire to the beginning of British power in Bengal and portrays a societyin disarray as a centralized power declined.

Formal scientific history began with the founding (1784) of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, by British Royal Charter headed by Sir William Jones, an oriental scholar. The Society undertook the systematic study of all aspects of Asian society - its history, philosophy, literature, anthropology, geography and the monumental task of translating, interpreting and annotating works from Sanskrit and other important languages. The British administration considered such information important for its own purposes. In addition it needed detailed local data andproceeded to make surveys of various sorts; land settlement, cattle,

7

soils, crops and the like, which, over some two hundred years, accumulated a vast amount of valuable social science data. Bengali economist and sociologist, the late Professor Radhakamal Mukherjee, has made fruitful use of these sources in studying the problems of Bengal and Indian society. (See, for example, the following among his books:

Democracies of the East, London, P. S. King & Sons Ltd., 1923;

The Indian Working Class, Bombay, Hind Kitabs, 1945;

The Economic History of India 1600-1800, London, Longmans Green & Co.,

The Rural Economy of India, London, Longmans Green & Co., 1926. )

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century under the editorship of Sir William Hunter, the Imperial Gazetteer of India amassed a mine of information which also still remains to be fully explored. Un- til 1912, the seat of the British Imperial Adminis- tration was in Calcutta, i. e. in Bengal. Thus the administrators became aware very early of the differences between Bengal and the rest of India, and especially in the land system. See, for example, the writings of James Grant and Sir John Shore on land ownership and land revenues. So- ciety in relation to polity, economy, history and traditions has been studied by many - e. g. W. W. Hunter, Sir Henry Maine, Firrninger, Holling- bery, L. S. S. O'Mally, and Harrongton - but Sir William Hunter's contribution is probably the most valuable (cf. his Annals of Rural Bengal (1868). His Our Indian Mussulmans (1872) attempted an analysis of the Wahabi movement and discontent among the Muslims, which is still vd- uable in the 80 per cent Muslim Bangladesh of today.

In the first decade of the present century in Bengal, a thorough social, economic, political anthropological survey was embodied in District Gazetteers compiled by District Administrators who-had direct knowledge of their areas.

Bengal their own totally alien type of revenue administration raised the question of whether land revenue is a tax or a rent. continued for over a century and still smoulders. In 1831-1932 a Select Committee of the British House of Commons inquired into the affairs of the East India Company. The fifth volume of its report deals with the land system in Bengal. introduction by W. K. Firminger added to a later edition in1917 (rewinted in Calcutta: Indian Studies

The early British attempt to introduce into

The controversy

An

Past and Present, 1962) remains a classic of its kind. Theland svstem of Bengal is one of the most complex in the world. to explain it by economists, anthropologists, geographers, political scientists, and sociologists, and it has been at the centre of various political, economic and social movements. Huq Cabinet appointed a Land Inquiry Commission (1940) under Sir Francis Floud.

8

Attempts have been made

The Fazlul

(See also:

M. N. Gupta The Land System of Bengal; Dr. Radhakamal Mukherjee Land Problems of

S. P. Chatteriee Bengal in Mans: and India, 1933;

I ,

Sir Azizul Huq Man Behind the Plough. ) As explained above, the work of European scholars of great erudition led to the translation of classi- cal literary, philosophical and religious works and the circulation of historical documents which form a rich stock of source materials. Anthro- pologists also studied tribes and people, on the fringe and outside of the main body of Indian society, whose traditions are not recorded in the literary and historical works, and whose cultures were often pre-literate.

British rule could be said to have been established at the Battle of Plessey (1757). years later the University of Calcutta was founded (1856). The British were not at first interested in providing secular education, but encouraged religious education, establishing the Calcutta Madrassa for Muslim boys in 1789 and the Hindu College for Hindu boys in 1817. But British rule, by its very nature, introduced new trends in thinking.

ruler of Bengal, attacked the British settlement in Calcutta in 1856. ing most of the European settlers fled on a ship which had been anchored at Falta, near the Bayof Bengal. Nava Krishna, a commission agent of the East India Company, supplied the few British refu- gees on the ship with food and provisions. victorious, the British rewarded Nava Krishna, founder of the Shova Bazar Raj family. An adopted son, Raja Radha Kanta Dev became theleader of the conservative Hindus, favouring retention of antiquated Hindu institutions such as suttee, and speaking against the remarriage of widows, women's education and so on.

of Bengal. Bangladesh was under the jurisdiction of the Uni- versity of Calcutta until 1947, but Dacca had a residential university as from 1921, and both helped to develop the social sciences.

The conservative trend in Hindu society had a progressive counterpart whose leader, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, cited ancient Hindu scriptures in support of the new age. Both sides however, sought British support in preserving the Hindu community and religion. lims? To the surprise of all the first census (1872), revealed that most of the population in eastern Bengal were Muslim; but they made no appearance in public life. special attention; otherwise, a distorted picture is given by studies which concerned themselves mainly with the Hindu community.

British influence was also affecting Muslim thought, forcing it to consider Islam in relation to the modern age. to compromise.

A hundred

Nawab Sirajud Dowla, the last independent

As his huge army was advanc-

Once

In 1836 English became the official language The educational system of what is now

Where, at this time, were the Mus-

This phenomenon needs

There were those whowanted And therewere the Wahabis, who

believed that Muslim decline not only in India but all over the world in relation to the western powers was due to their deviation from Islam; hence, Muslims must return to the pristine purity of Is- lam, and reject all accretions and deviations. Haji Shariatullah is considered to be the origina- tor of the Wahabi movement in Bengal.

Nawab Abdul Latif and Syed Ameer Ali were the leaders of those who believed that the Bengali Muslims should accept the modern age and western education. Ameer Ali wrote books in English on Islam (e. g. History of the Saracens, TheSpirit of Islam) showing that Islam was not antagonistic to modern science; on the contrary, it was the Saracens who transmitted the science and philosophy of the antiquity and generated new scientific thinking in the West. Khuda Bukash translated the works of renowned German orientalists (e. g. Von Kremer, Well- hauseen). But in a society primarily preoccupied with religion, and in which reform movements were all revivalist, objective scientific thinking made little impact.

The leaders of this group came from the upper strata of the Muslim community, and were mainly concerned with the problems of their own class. The other religious revivalist group was a mass movement. Its leaders came from the masses, and its development took various shapes and forms. In 1878, Jamaluddin Al-Afghani, founder of the Pan-Islamic Movement, visited Calcutta. His teachings had a far- reaching effect on Bengali Muslim intellectuals and journalists (e. g. Rea- zuddin, Reazuddin Mashadi, Mujibur Rahman, Moulana Muniruzzaman Islamabadi, Moulana Mu- hammad Akram Khan) who imparted a strong political flavour to what had primarily been a religious movement. Moulana Muhammad Akram Khan argued that interest and banking institutions were admissible under Islamic canonical laws. He took a leading r61e in founding a number of daily, monthly, and weekly journals.

A small group, Muslim Sahitya Samaj of Dacca (Muslim Literary Society) or the Sikha Gusthi, was particularly active in the nineteen- twenties. These young radicals (Abul Hossain, Qazi Abdul Wadud, Qazi Motahar Hussain) wanted to reject everything that was antagonistic to logic and rational thinking, and all compromise with fanaticism, bigotry and antiquated ideas. Their ideas found no response, and they were soon silenced, or abandoned their more extreme ideas. Some of them, however, continued to plead for more open-mindedness in a society still steeped in traditionalism.

In the Hindu community, Raja Mohan Roy founded the Brahma Samaj. Its aim was to accept what is best in the West and retain what is best in Hinduism. saw the answer to the combined threat of modernism and Christianity in the revival of Sanatan (original and orthodox) Hindu Dharma. Brahma Samaj and

The Muslim scholar S.

Meanwhile orthodox Hinduism

Sanatan Dharma both influenced Hindu society, but attention began to focus on urgent secular economic and political issues.

young Hindus joined anti- partition movements and engaged in terrorist activities providing the foundation for a new secular outlook. Partition reduced prospects for Hindus in the professions and in other occupations. When secular problems demanded secular solutions, Western political and economic thinking began to make inroads among educated Hindus. This turning point marked a departure from traditional thought patterns. Liberal- democratic and socialist- communist ideas began to penetrate. For analogous reasons similar developments took place - muchlater - in the Bengali Muslim community. In 1940, the Muslim League demanded that two separate States be established in the eastern and western Muslim majority areas in India. To forestall unequal competition, they also began to think in terms of social and economic reconstruction rather than in religious terms, Thus, modern thinking in both the Hindu and Mus- lim communities lacks the religious flavour which dominated their thinking in the nineteenth century. However, these modernist ideas are confined to a very small intellectual &lite. The life and institutions of the vast masses of both communities are still controlled and guided by religion.

In 1905, when Bengal was partitioned, many

11. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK OF TEACHING AND RESEARCH

A. Teaching

Formal teaching and research in the social sciences in Bengal can be said to have begun with the establishment of the University of Calcutta in1856. Bengali intellectuals were then under the influence both of British Benthamite ideas and of the revolutionary teachings of the French Revolution. The leaders of the Bengali Renaissance (Vidyasagar, Akshoy Mitra, Dina Bandhu, Bankim Chandra and others) believed in the principles of utilitarianism, the "greatest good of the greatest number". They were also attracted by the ideas of Saint Simonand by Auguste Comte's "Sociocracy". (The neo- rationalism of Comte appealed to the Hindu intel- ligentsia together with the revolutionary ideas of Rousseau and Voltaire.

as separate disciplines against this philosophy- ridden background; they were usually included in the philosophy courses, in line with the European tradition that higher learning is the realm of philosophy and liberal arts. Degrees were being offered in combinations of subjects that could at a time cover the natural sciences, the liberal arts and the classics. However, in the University of Calcutta, Economics was introduced as a new discipline which included Political Science. At

Social sciences could not make much headway

9

undergraduate level, the course was called Ele- ments of Civics and Economics. The B. A. pass in Economics (called Political Economy) consis- ted of three papers: Economic Theory and Bank- ing; Indian Economics; Political Science. The honours course in Economics had three additional papers. The M.A. in the"B" course inEconomics involved specialization in Political Science and Sociology. The Political Economy course was mainly oriented towards political philosophy and laissez faire economics in the English liberal tradition. Economics teaching tended to be literary rather than technical.

In the development of the social sciences, the University of Dacca (founded in 1921) set a pattern which since has been followed by other universities in Bangladesh.

Dacca University was set up on the recom- mendation of the Sadler Commission as a residential university with no affiliated colleges, but on the termination of British rule in 1947, all the degree colleges were brought under its jurisdiction. Calcutta University opened a new chapter in the development of the social sciences. Dacca Uni- versity had secured the services of eminent scholars from both the sub-continent and the west. One important departure from the Calcutta curriculum was the introduction of a three- year honours course, with eight papers for the honours subject, and three each for the two subsidiary subjects. The Department of Economics, under Dr. Panandi-

This ending of previous connexions with

kar, author of Economy of Deltaic Bengal, devoted more attention to practical economics, although Political Science arid Public Administration continued to constitute a good part of the honours and post- graduate courses. Political Science separated from Economics in 1938, a first step towards the split into independent disciplines. The new Department of Political Science offered honours and NI. A. courses. An M. A. course in Public Administration introduced in 1968 led to the establishment of a separate department in 1972. Political Science, originally part of Economics thus developed into a department which in turn subdivided into Political Science and Public Administration.

In1950, Unesco sent Professor Levi-StrauSS, the eminent French anthropologist on mission to Bangladesh. H e stressed the need for ensuring that planning for the development of natural resources should take due account of the development of human resources. After visiting the tribal peoples at Chittagong Hill Tracts (e. g. the Mugs and the Murangs) he described Bangladesh as a veritable paradise for social anthropologists. After his return to Paris, he continued to take an active interest in the development of the social sciences in Bangladesh, and sent a series of scholars to study tribal life and help develop social science teaching and research at the Univer- sity of Dacca.

In 1957, with Unesco's help, the University The set up a separate Department of Sociology.

subject has since beenmaking steady progress and has been introduced into various institutions (e. g. Agricultural University, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Art College, Music College, Co-operative College) and some of the degree colleges. Dacca, Chittagong, Rajshahi and Jahangirnagar Universities have all established faculties of Social Sciences. separate Department of Public Administration in 1972. pline in Sociology in Dacca in 1975-1976, and in other universities later.

The Department of Sociology recruited most of its first teaching staff from the Department of Political Science. Today, it is one of the most popular in the University. It has completed over a thousand unpublished research monographs on various aspects of social life in Bangladesh, and has built up a unique folk museum.

Other institutions are also realizing the importance of continuing sociological education with studies in science and technology.

The University of Rajshahi started a separate Department of Political Science and Sociology in 1963. In 1968, Sociology separated from Political Science. Sociology was introduced in Chittagong University at undergraduate level in 1968 and became a separate department the following year. Both universities have tried to adapt the courses to their own particular requirements.

After Partition in 1947, almost all the degree colleges offered a B. A. (Pass) in Economics, and some an honours course (theoretically confined to the universities). introduced an Honours course in Economics, on the model of the course at Dacca. However, in recent years, on the return of young professors, trained in the United States and the United Kingdom, substantial changes in the curricula have been made, The introduction of new ideas in theoretical economics and such subjects as econometrics have made economics teaching more exact and practical. Teaching no longer lags so much behind the West, but it is debatable whether Western models are really applicable to Eastern conditions.

Economics and some other social sciences are also taught at M. A. level in Jagannath College (Dacca), and at undergraduate level at the Bangla- desh Agricultural University (Mymensingh) in the Department of Agricultural Economics.

Jahangirnagar University, started near Dacca a few years ago, has a Department of Economics.

Political Science is taught as a major subject in the four general universities of Bangladesh; an honours course in it is taught in some of the provincial colleges. The subject attracts the biggest number of students at both undergraduate andpost- graduate levels. A separate Department of Politi- cal Science is to be set up at Jahangirnagar Uni- versity. Courses in outlying universities tend to

Dacca established a

Anthropology may become a separate disci-

Rajshahi and Chittagong both

10

follow the Dacca pattern, but some are introducing new courses and empirical research e. g. Chitta- gong, Rajshahi (and Dacca itself).

to the University of Dacca where it was introduced in 1948.

but perhaps Social Psychology should be. Psy- chologists in Bangladesh regard psychology as a biological science but it can be argued that, as many recent developments closely concern the social sciences, the major interest of psychology has also come to centre around them.

At Rajshahi, psychologywas introduced as a separate discipline in the fifties, and in 1965 at Dacca University, where it developed into a full department, with honours and graduate courses. The subject is also gaining popularity in affiliated colleges. ingly realized and psychologists have been consul- ted in connexion with civil service appointments, absenteeism of workers, industrialunrest, and so on. Urbanization and industrialization are changing traditional social relationships; the support a person found in the family and community in rural Bangladesh is seldom available under modern urban or industrial conditions, and various kinds of socio-psychological problems result.

There is a Department of Statistics and a separate Institute of Statistical Research and Training at the University of Dacca, and Rajshahi, Chittagong and Jahangirnagar have also set up Departments of Statistics.

The Department of Geography at Dacca has built up a strong tradition of research and publications, and takes a special interest in Human Geo- graphy and socio- economic life. partments in other universities also cover Human Geography.

than it does in the universities, since Bangladesh is the country with the highest density of population and has already passed the danger point in population increase. Unfortunately, efforts to develop demography studies in the Department of Economics and Sociology of Dacca University have not been very successful,

Law remains a very legaiistic subject, with hardly any attempt to investigate relations between law and society. However, a new honours course at Dacca University will be concerned with theories of law and the significance of law in relation to society. much of its criminal and other law dates from British rule, and did not evolve out of indigenous social conditions. The new honours course will therefore include two additional subjects: Law and Society; and Criminology.

A separate Faculty of Social Sciences now exists at Dacca, Rajshahi, Chittagong and Jahan- girnagar, permitting a new perspective in the organization of social science disciplines.

International Relations teaching is confined

Psychology is not regarded as social science,

Its practical utility is being increas-

Geography de-

Demography should receive more attention

Such studies are essential because

Chittagong has a Committee of Research in the Social Sciences, and Dacca has set up a Centre of Advanced Study and Research in Social Sciences.

Dacca's Department of Sociology has various plans: courses in Social Anthropology which may ultimately develop into a separate Department of Anthropology; courses in Criminology and Penology; and courses in the Sociology of Art and Literature.

The Department of Economics at Dacca plans to introduce Public Finance, Economics of Plan- ning, Econometrics and other specialized courses.

Under Government and United Nations sponsorship, a College of Social Welfare and Research Centre offering an honours course and a master degree, was established in Dacca University in 1958.

internal decision in autonomous universities, aided by the fact that personnel were available and by encouragement from various United Nations agencies, by foundations, and by the Government.

course a student takes one main and two subsidiary subjects, one of which may be from the humanities group. After obtaining an honours degree he corn- pletes another year for an M. A. in the subject of his choice. There may soon be an M.Phi1. course, based on advanced theoretical teaching, a rigorous training in research methodology, and an essay or dissertation. grees but the necessary research has been difficult to organize in social science departments because of the shortage of trained personnel. duction of an M. Phil. course should strengthen work at level of the Ph. D (which has hitherto been awarded on the quality of the thesis presented - no requirement of course work). The Ph. D. student works under guidance but is otherwise a freeagent.

general universities (Dacca, Rajshahi, Chittagong and Jahangirnagar), Mymensingh Agricultural Uni- versity, and the Bangladesh University of Engineer- ing and Technology. The Faculty of Social Science at Mymensingh teaches Rural Sociology and Agri- cultural Economics in addition to the purely agricultural subjects in order to give the student the social background to his future work. gineering University has similarly got a Faculty of Social Science which gives elementary courses in Economics, Sociology, Civics, Accountancy. Its Faculty of Architecture also provides its students with a certain knowledge of society and the social environment.

research and training in social sciences, e. g. Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development, Comilla; Academy for Manpower and Industrial Development, Faridpur; Institute of Development Economics; Institute of Local Government Studies; National Institute of Public Administration.

New disciplines have thus been developed by

In the three- year Social Science honours

All the universities offer Ph. D de-

The intro-

The above is the general pattern at the four

The En-

Other institutions are concerned with studies,

11

B. Research

Institute of Social Welfare and Research(Dacca)

Training and research are provided in a two- year course leading to a Master's degree in Social Wel- fare. Welfare. In addition to the regular university courses, short training programmes for social welfare workers are arranged as and when requested by governmental or other agencies. rector has a staff which includes two Ph. Ds. Stu- dents are placed under different agencies and projects for field training. Lectures, symposia, de- bates, and excursions are arranged. The library receives periodicals and professional journals, and contains some 18,000 books and reports. Its facilities are also open to non- students.

There is also an honours course in Social

The Di-

Bureau of Economic Research

The Bureau of Economic Research, established in Dacca in 1956, provides an outlet for university research, especially for staff from the De- partments of Economics and Commerce and the Institute of Business Administration. pleted 35 research projects. It has a library of 1,500 technical books, a laboratory with 9 calcu- latingmachines, and access to the computer at the Atomic Energy Centre in Dacca. Seminars are generally held at the planning stage of research projects and after their completion. training course in Methodology is held annually for research leading to the Ph. D.

It has com-

A six-week

The Institute of Statistical Research and Trainin P

U

This Institute was established in 1963 at the Uni- versity of Dacca. Besides offering courses rang- ing from certificates and diplomas to M.Phi1. degrees in statistics, it does research in demography and planning, and makes attitudinal studies.

The Bangladesh Academy for Rural DeVelODment. Comilla

Established in 1959, the Academy publishes studies on CO- operatives, rural economics, farm management, rural administration, family planning, youth work and the like.

Bgngladesh Agricultural University

The Faculty of Agricultural Economics provides cour s e s in res ear c h m e tho dolo gy , agricultural economics and rural sociology.

Bangladesh Institute of Development Economics (Dacca)

Publishes research papers and a journal.

12

The National Institute of Public Administration, the Local Government Institute, the Management Development Centre, the Family Planning Associa- tion, the Cholera Research Laboratory, the Diabetic Association and other organizations engage in mis- cellaneous research studies and projects. A few young sociologists have started an "action oriented" programme at Baitul Aman, Faridpur. Stu- dents of the Department of Sociology of Dacca Uni- versity, are required to write research monographs in conjunction with their course work, and have already produced over a thousand (unpublished).

111. SOCIAL SCIENCE DEVELOPMENT: MAJOR ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES

There has been a recent tendency everywhere to as- similate social science with money- making professions such as law and medicine. has been carried too far. be their primary aim. the social sciences produces experts, who, if they are to advance their subjects by research and training, would be qualified for only one job, namely, teaching. But in Bangladesh scope for that is too limited, and they have to take the jobs that offer - seldom with much opportunity for utilizing their specialized training.

Social sciences should be primarily considered, not as professional subjects, but as intellectual pursuits. Lack of this perspective has done harm to their proper development the world over. compartmentalization of knowledge has done more harm than good. realizing the importance of an interdisciplinary approach, and of introducing the undergraduate to general subjects (history of civilization, general anthropology, cultural and social history), so that he takes a holistic rather than a narrow attitude to the discipline in which he will specialize.

In the developing countries of Asia, hardly any textbooks are written in the local languages. The student is expected to read texts by Western authors - not the ideal preparation for deve4oping a critical approach to the problems of his own country. Until countries can prepare their own textbooks, the undergraduate must be made aware of the realities of his own culture and society by direct participation and observation.

Our recommendations in this connexion are that:

But the analogy Money-making cannot

The university teaching of

The

Social scientists are increasingly

Another point needs special attention.

1. Chairs should be established in the universities for the study of different aspects of Bang- ladesh society. Encouragement should be given for the writing of textbooks by the proposed Bangladesh Insti- tute of Social Sciences, as well as by the universities. Foundations should be established in the different branches of social science. These foundations should encourage and reward the writing and publicationof standard works.

2.

3.

4.

Methods of teaching

Classroom lectures need to be supplemented by informal talks, tutorials, seminars and field work. For lack of teachers, tutorial groups in colleges may number 25, 50 or even exceed 60. However, in the universities, tutorials consist of 5 or 6 students. Seminars may also be organized. But advanced studies also demand practical field work, a necessity still to be appreciated in Bang- ladesh. Field work involves visits to important institutions, study tours, and residence for short periods among urban, rural or tribal communities.

In Bangladesh, there has been an incredible increase in the numbers of undergraduates and graduate students, and it has become almost impossible for the five universities (four of them founded after 1947) to cope. Unfortunately, there has been no comparable rise in the standard of teaching. Quantity has diluted quality. Without proper facilities for research there cannot be any real rise in the standard of social science teaching even after the introduction of M. Phil. and Ph.D. degree programmes. At present most teachers and students go to the West for studies at Ph. D. level. This is, in one sense, welcome and beneficial, because the graduate is exposed to a different intellectual climate. But in most cases he learns techniques of research and becomes ac- quainted with theories which have little bearing on the problems of his own country. The development of research facilities and a research atmos- phere at home would help to overcome this problem .

have in fact trained abroad, research programmes must be in operation at home, perhaps at a central institute for the social sciences or centre for advanced studies, with a library modelled on that of the London School of Economics, a data bank, and similar facilities. Teachers at universities and colleges could be invited to stay on study leave for ayear or two without other specific assignment. Perhaps the nucleus is already available at the Centre of Advanced Study and Research in Social Sciences established at the University of Dacca in 1974.

The promotion of advanced studies shouldnot stop with Ph. D. programmes in the universities. Opportunities should be extended to the affiliated colleges which employ over two thousand teachers in the social sciences, most of whom have no access to higher training in the subject of their choice. They lack proper library facilities, and the money to pay for such studies. A possible solution would be to provide senior research fellowships, reserved for teachers of affiliated colleges only.

To make full use of the skills of those who

Theory and concepts may be of universal

validity, but textbooks by indigenous authors are necessary to locate them in a Bangladesh and Asian context. Most research is at present in English. Ph. D. candidates and authors of textbooks could be encouraged to write in Bengali. Social sciences will remain alien until standard works become available in the national language.

Most Asian countries have no museum of natural history. This handicaps the development of anthropology and the biological sciences. The social sciences draw on biology for much of their data. The old concept of a museum as a store- house for relics must be changed. symposia can help to make them more dynamic. Nothing unfortunately has yet come of a Unesco proposal, about a decade ago, to set up a Folk Art Museum at Dacca.

Social scientists urgently require the help of documentation experts, and well- equipped reference libraries. The setting up of a reference library on the pattern of that in the London School of Economics (see above), and a data bank and documentation centre with the necessary equipment would require international co-operation.

empirical studies are necessary. undertaken in Bangladesh have been based on hypotheses taken from the West. been mostly futile, or at best trivial. plied research is undertaken, hypotheses have to be built up, through the development of a theoretical framework valid for Eastern societies.

research, its qualitycannot be expected to improve. The teacher-student ratio has to be kept at a reasonable level. done in Bangladesh (one teacher to about 200 students in the colleges, one to 25-50 in the universities). This has practically ruled out the possibility of doing research. ford a workable ratio. Study leave, study advance, sabbatical leave and so on to enable teachers to do research at home or abroad seem the only solution. A research infrastructure has to be built up in the colleges and universities, and links established between university social science departments and non-university research institutions.

dence. play in the rebuilding and reconstruction. This makes applied research all the more necessary. cial science resources cannot be augmented with international co- operation. Bangladesh should thus aim, in a first phase, at developing regional co-operation among Asian countries, and in a second, at promoting international cross- cultural contact.

Seminars and

To bring the social sciences nearer to reality, So far, those

Hence results have Before ap-

Unless social science teaching is related to

This unfortunately has not been

The country simply cannot af-

Bangladesh has only recently gained indepen- Social scientists have a significant r81e to

But so-

Social scientists in

13

Iran

by Gholam-Abbas Tavassoli Professor and Director, Department of Sociology,

University of Teheran

I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Until the Second World War, the social sciences as such were hardly known in Iran. widest sense could they be said to exist in the form of political science, law and theologyonone side, and on the other, history, geography andre- lated subjects.

There were more orless autonomous courses in these subjects in theFacultyof Arts andLetters and the Faculty of Law in Teheran University, Iran's first modern university, founded in 1934. There were no social sciences such as sociology, but related studies which dealt with social practice in Iran.

However, various aspects of social problems were subjected to rational analysis, particularly in the press where, since the beginning of the century, articles written from a more or less sociological viewpoint have been appearing. This was particularly true of the socio- political leftish press which used sociological ideas in a new fashion as a form of ideological propaganda.

Their authors tried to spread and popularize new concepts, which were evolutionary and marxist, and hence sociological.

The revolution which broke out in Iran in 1905 and other liberal movements took their ideas from Montesquieu, the French Revolution and rev- olutions in other aestern countries, and introduced ordinary people to such ideas as the scientific analysis of society, democracy, and class warfare.

from a particular view of society. They did not amount to what could specifically be called social science. The use to which the ideas were put could not even be called correct, authentic or scientific. But they certainly did serve to draw attention to new matters for social analysis and res ear ch.

Only in the

These latter, it will be noted, all derived

A course entitled "Sociology of education" was started in Teheran University in 1936. A Chair of Educational Sociology was established in 1939. For a long time, this was the only sociology course available. It was extended from one hour to three a week in 1942-1943. Political economy, political sciences, international law, comparative law and administrative law were taught at the School of Political Sciences which had been founded in 1899, long before the University of Teheran.

ciety goes back to the tenth century. Ebn6-Khaldoun, the well- known Moslem historian and sociologist, was the founder of the philosophy of history and, in a sense, of modern sociology. Biruni (tenth century) could be called the first Iranian ethnologist. He spent several years of his life in India, and after learning Arabic, Pahlavi and Sanskrit, he wrote his famous Essay on India, a book of historical ethnology which is still of relevance today.

The Sciences of Society, by Dr. Mahdavi, published in Persian in 1944, was mainly devoted to the sociological categories of Comte and Durkheim, and was a compendium of pre-war French sociology which, incidentally, still continues to have an influence.

until 1957, when several modern social science courses were offered in the Faculty of Arts and Letters at Teheran. In the same year, the first social science seminar was organizedwith Unesco participation by the United Nations Information Centre in Iran.

Finally, in 1958, the Social Studies and Re- search Institute was set up in Teheran University with three functions: teaching, research, and consultation.

The interest in social science in Iranian so-

The Iranian first book on modern sociology,

The social sciences did not become autonomous

14


Teaching and research were at first confined to the university and higher education. years, new universities have been founded, and colleges for advanced studies have been started, mainly by private groups.

As used in the department concerned in Teheran University, the term social sciences meant, primarily, sociology, demography, and psycho-sociology; and secondly, economics, human geography, the social history of Iran, law, politics, and social statistics. These were all included in post- graduate courses in the Social Studies and Research Institute and the bachelor course in the Faculty of Arts and Letters in Teheran University.

The term social sciences will be used here in the widest sense to include what might be called secondary social science subjects such as economics, law, public administration, history, human geography, educational theory, theology, international relations, accountancy, and commerce and related subjects.

TEACHING

In recent

(a) Teheran University

Sociology and its related disciplines are now grouped together in the autonomous Faculty of Social Sciences and Co-operative Studies. This Faculty has four departments: sociology, anthropology, demography, CO- operation.

lished for (1) law and political sciences and (2) economics.

History, geography, psychology, philosophy, archaeology, linguistics, and other human sciences are taught in separate departments or institutes of the Faculty of Arts and Letters. departments are not large, but are well andfirmly established.

Islamic Studies. Formerly, it offered bachelor and master degrees; now master courses and doctorates are offered in its five departments.

The University's Institute of Management, founded in 1953, became in 1963 a faculty with three departments: public administration, commercial management, accountancy.

The Facultyof Educational Sciences, founded in 1966, offers bachelor and master courses. Subjects include: curricula and methods, educational theory, library training, primary and secondary teaching, physical education.

no age-limit applies. ing courses include social sciences, management, economics, law, geography. Evening and day courses are exactly the same, but it takes five

Since 1967 separate faculties have been estab-

These

There is a separate Faculty of Theology and

There are also evening courses for which Subjects taught in the even-

years to complete the evening course instead of four.

A centre for the study of international relations is still in only embryonic form. The Faculty of Social Sciences and Co-operative Studies in Teheran University is the only faculty in Iran to mention the social sciences in its title.

(b) The teaching system

University education in Iran mostly follows the American system of departments and credits. A credit represents at least one hour of courses per week during the university term. degree the student has to accumulate some 140 credits. partments in the same faculty provides 40 credits, leaving about 60 for the major course and 30 for the subsidiary course.

The number of credits required for a master degree is 30 to 40, and the course takes two years. The number required for a doctorate varies, the main requirement being a thesis which may demand research over several years.

A student can do his post-graduate studies in a subject other than that of his bachelor course, This practice leads to anomalies, in the social sciences as in other faculties, as a post- graduate degree should logically be higher than the bachelor. For example, a languages graduate who does his post-graduate studies in the social sciences may be less qualified in them at the end than a degree- holder in social sciences.

The standards required for a doctorate are very high, and only about ten have obtained doctorates in literature, for example - the most usual subject - in Iranian universities. students study for doctorates abroad. As the oldest, the Universityof Teheran has been tryingto specialize in various social science branches by concentrat- ing on post- graduate and doctorate studies at the expense of undergraduate courses, but this has proved difficult. For the moment it now offers doctorates only in theology and Islamic studies, Persian literature, and law.

In an attempt to cope with the vast influx of students to higher education over the last twenty years, various types of colleges of advanced education, have been set up from private resources in Teheran and other towns and cities, but they leave much to be desired in terms of premises, laboratories, equipment and teaching staff.

istry for Science and Higher Education and the generosity of parents prepared to pay rather high fees are encouraging the private sector also to invest in higher education.

For a bachelor

The basis common to the different de-

A number of

However, the decisions taken by the new Min-

(c)

Between 1962 and 1972, the number of students in higher education in Iran more than tripled,

Numbers studying the social sciences

15

increasing from 27, 653 to 86, 572. figure, 23,900 (27. 6 per cent) are enrolled in the social sciences, 14,704 (17. 57 per cent) in the human sciences and 2,522 in educational science. The rate of increase in enrolments over the ten years was twice as high in the social sciences as the average (see table 2). Some 20,000 of these students will continue on to post- graduate studies in the social sciences. Moreover, many graduates of other faculties also decide to do their post- graduate studies in the social sciences.

As the number of places (especiallyin Teheran University) is limited, the competition is very intense.

Most social science students tend to opt for the applied social sciences (e. g. management, commerce, accountancy) rather than such theoretical subject as social anthropology.

(d) Students abroad

There are some 20,000 Iranians studying abroad. By branch of studies, the following are some percentages: professional courses 55; science 14.1; economics, commerce, management sciences 6.5. In marked contrast to the figures for students at home, only 8 per cent, in all, of those abroad study the social sciences, and of these, most are in the practical or applied branches. This is partly explained by the fact that students can choose their discipline freely abroad, whereas at home, entry is subject to very strong competition.

Of the latter

(e) Social science degrees

Nearly all students who enter higher education continue their studies right through and obtain a degree. For example, in 1969, ten years after the Social Studies and Research Institute was founded, over 500 students had already completed post- graduate studies; and in 1962, five years after the department of social sciences had been setup, over 600 students had qualified in sociology.

The number of students will undoubtedly continue to increase. given in Table 3.

Details of growth to date are

(f) Employment of graduates

It is estimated that 80 per cent of social science graduates in Iran find work in the public service and in public and private commercial enterprises. It is difficult to identify them as such in most of the branches of activity. Sociologists in particular find employment in the public service, often as planners; they may also be found in radio and television or holding such posts as mayor of the administrative capital of a department.

graduates by branch of activity. Table 4 gives details of the employment of

FIG. 1. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY SECTOR OF STUDENTS IN IRANIAN UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF ADVANCED EDUCATION IN 19731974

Agriculture (23.51

'tS

scie nces

Medicine 14.41

RESEARCH

(i) Organization and location

According to Report No. 20 published by the Re- search and Planning Institute in 1971, Iran had some 440 research centres of various kinds, not including the large number of bureaux for research, study, programming and data collection in ministries and other governmental agencies (e. g. the National Petroleum Company, the Im- perial Court, the Central Bank, the International Institute for Research and Adult Literacy, the National Television Service).

Usually, the titles of such centres give little indication of the type or amount of research carried on.

Mention has already been made of the Social Studies and Research Institute. There is also an Institute for Co-operative Studies and an Economic Research Institute. The Faculty of Arts and Let- ters of Teheran Universityhas institutes of history, geography, archaeology and psychology attached to its corresponding departments. Some of the provincial universities have similar institutes. Field research in archaeology, town- planning and geography have greatly developed over the last ten years. Outside the universities, the Higher Education Studies and Planning Institute, and the Council for the Development and Encouragement of Scientific Research (both attached to the Min- istry for Science and Higher Education) arrange and subsidize a certainamount of social research.

However, most research in Iran is done on an individual basis.

16

Table 1 - Growth in number of students: from 1962-1963 to 1970-1971

Academic year 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72

Number of students

Female 4,153 4,438 5,001 7,039- 8,862 12,132 15,070 16,949 19,027 - Male 20,273 20,447 20,372 22, 644 28,020 34,855 43,124 45, 319 55, 681

Totals 24,436 24,885 25,373 29,683 36,882 46,987 58,212 62,268 74,708 86,572

1962-1963 Index = 100 1970-1971 Index = 306 Annual growth rate 22. 9

Source: Documents of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Sciences and Higher Education (1971). See also subsequent tables.

Table 2 - Growth in number of students by sector

Sector Number 1962- 63

Number Growth index 1971- 72 (1962-63 = 100)

Social Sciences

Human Sciences

Engineering

Medicine

Natural Sciences

Agriculture

Fine Arts

Education

3,159

7,859 -

2,637

6,180

2,264

898

564

1,074

23,900

15,211

15,984

9,893

11,749

4,154

8,159

2,527

756

19 3

606

160

518

462

560

234

Totals 24, 635 86,572 351

Source: Statistics published by Ministry of Education (1964) and the Higher Education Studies and Planning Institute (1973).

17

Table 3 - Graduates: numbers and percentages by study sector

1962- 63 1972- 73 Foreign Numbers Percentage Numbers Percentage Universities Study

Sector (1971) No. %

Social Sciences

Human Sciences

Education

Engineering

Medicine

Natural Sciences

A gr icul tur e Fine Arts

244

1,634

920

336

565

380

142

61

5. 7 38. 0

21. 4

8. 3

13. 1

8. 8

3. 3

1. 4

4,151

7,902

501

5,414

1,974

4,530

998

532

15. 77

30. 1

1. 9

20.56

7. 5 17.22

3. 79

2. 02

249

104

30

722

321

288

95

137

12. 8

5. 3

1. 5 37. 2

16. 5

14. 8

4. 9

7. 1 Law (included in "Human 326 1. 34 Sciences" in 1962- 63)

Totals 4,802 100 26,328 100 9,096 101

Sources: Ministry of Education (1964) and Ministry of Science and Higher Education (1973-74).

(Thousands)

30 1

FIG. 2. IRANIAN STUDENTS BY MAIN STUDY SECTOR 1969-1974

Social Human Engineering Natural sciences Sciences sciences

Source: Statistics on higher education in Iran, IRPS, 19781974.

I

Medicine Agriculture Education Fine arts Law

18

Table 4 - Graduates employed by study sector and occupation in 1966

Totals Study Human Educa- Fine Social Natural Engineer- A gricul- Sector Sciences tion Arts Sciences Sciences ing ture Occupation Law Medicine

Technology and arts

Administra- tors and managers

Office employe e s

Service in- dust rie s

Commerce

A gricul tu r e Mining

Totals

% 70 70 % 70 %

52.2 33.9 71.9 53 22. 8 35. 7

3. 4 4. 4 7. 1 11. 9 10. 6 2. 1

33. 9 38. 5 15. 1 26. 7 67. 8 42. 8

4. 5 12. 0 1. 3 2. 5 6. 2 7. 9

2. 1 2.2 0. 3 4.7 20. 4 2. 6

1. 0 2. 2 0. 4 0. 8 1. 0 1. 2

2. 9 6. 8 3. 9 0. 4 1. 2 7. 7

%

53

7. 2

24

3. 5

1. 2

0. 5

10. 6

% %

90. 8 55. 5

2. 3 6. 1

3. 8 30. 5

2. 4 2. 1

0. 2 0. 5

0. 1 4. 1

0. 4 1. 2

%

43. 2

4. 0

35. 7

6. 8

3. 1

1. 3

5. 9

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Census of Iran 1966, Report of the Iranian Office of Statistics 1967.

Research groups are mostly attached either to establishments of higher education, or to ministries and autonomous public agencies.

1971, the following numbers of them should, theoretically, have been doing research: 303 in the universities; 37 autonomous groups; 24 hospital centres; 78 other outside universities.

In the university group, the largest were involved in medical research (146). Next came the social sciences (85), including 23 in philosophy, psychology, linguistics, and other social sciences, and most of the remainder in the applied social sciences.

Many of the centres concerned do no research at all. The Higher Education Research and Planning Institute report considered that only 110 out of the theoretical total of research centres were active; and only a dozen of the social science centres were considered as active.

Apart from the social science research groups just mentioned, the only other social science re- searchof anyimportanceis done by a private institute of psychology which makes marketing and related studies.

In the groups involved in higher education in

These figures are, however, misleading.

(ii) Classification of research

It is practically impossible at present to make the distinction between basic and operational research. the first stage of collecting data, and are

The social sciences in Iran are stillat

primarily concerned with the utilitarian purpose of developing the country's economic and socio- cultural resources. Neither the government nor the universities are prepared to devote much money which can give results only over the long term.

Moreover, fundamental research demands infrastructure solidly based on descriptive information and data. Fundamental research is essential in certain branches, but the distinction is often difficult to make. attempt a classification of research by discipline.

(iii) Financing and sponsorship

No satisfactory figures on the financing of social science or other research are available.

The annual university budget of the Social Studies and Research Institute is a mere $150,000, although a further $250,000 is paid by various governmental or international agencies for research carried out by the Institute on their behalf.

The Higher Education Research and Planning Institute made an analysis of 238 projects in 1970 which showed that 74 per cent of these were financed by the establishment concerned from their own resources; the remainder were financed from outside sources.

In addition to the Social Studies and Research Institute, social research agencies which had the benefit of outside financing include the Economic Research Institute, and the Centre for Rural Studies.

It would perhaps be easier to

The following are possible sources of research

19

finance: the Iranian Planning Agency, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- tions, the Netherlands Government, Unicef, the International Development Agency, United States Technical Assistance, the Japanese Trade Office, the Ford Foundation, Unesco, Iranian regional development agencies, the National Petroleum Agency, and certain organizations concerned with physics, electronics, geology, and other specialized matters.

Some of the above organizations or agencies have in fact contributed experts. But the choice of a recipient of aid usually depended less on its initiative or reputation than on the personal knowledge available to the providing agency. It is estimated that, in 1970- 1972, the totalamount available for research was $66 million. Of the $6 million of this allotted to the universities, the University of Teheran received 95 per cent. Most of these funds went in turn to the Social Studies and Research Institute, the Institute for CO- operative Studies and Research, and the Economic ResearchInstitute, leaving some $430, 000 to be allocated to all of the other research centres at the University.

to sort out the part of their administrative budget which is devoted to research.

However, the total allocated for research by the Ministry of the Economy and the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs amounted in 1971 to $20 million. Figures for other ministries are not available.

The total spent by the ministries on research in 1970 was estimated at 32. 5 per cent of the total national expenditure on research. Social research in Iran has often to depend exclusively on public sources of finance and can seldom be covered by payments for services rendered. Public alloca- tions represent an infinitesimal part of the national budget. In certain disciplines such as demography, a considerable contribution is made from' foreign sources and through payments for research carried out to order.

budget for research is devoted to the social sciences. Of 54 projects approved by the Council for the Development and Encouragement of Sci- entific Research in 1972, for example, onlythree, with a budget of less than $20,000 were in the socio- economic sector.

For non-university research, it is impossible

In any case, only a tiny proportion of the

111. SOCIAL SCIENCE MANPOWER

The Higher Education Studies and Planning Insti- tute made a survey of 3,623 people employed in 44 research centres in 1971. The University of Teheran employed 31. 6 per cent of them. 44 centres, only 15 (661 employees) at different levels of training, were engaged on social science research - mostlyat the Social Studies and Planning

Of the

Institute (184), the Economic Research Institute (40), and the Institute for the Study of Educational Problems (85).

are engaged on social science research, 661 just mentioned, only 224 are graduates. This means that the remainder have a standard of education which hardly qualifies them for serious res ear ch.

about 40 social science specialists have doctorates.

research staff who hold the following degrees: social sciences (sociology, anthropology, and so on) 28; psychology, 18; education, 17; economics, 33; commerce, 12; management, 5; law, 24, history, 5; geography, 4; statistics, 5. Only a quarter of these research workers have the proper qualifications and, even then, do not always work in their own speciality.

Probably about one thousand persons in all Of the

Excluding those teaching in the universities,

The 15 centres referred to above employ151

IV. SOCIAL SCIENCE DEVELOPMENT: M A J O R ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES

The establishment of an independent Faculty of So- cial Sciences in 1972-1973 and the introduction of social science teaching in secondary schools were important developments during the last ten years. However, graduates have difficulty in finding employment; the social sciences receive only a very small proportion of the funds allocated for research; the research worker has few outlets for publishing his results; and there is a shortage of professorial and other staff with the qualifications needed to direct research in the universities. Nevertheless, improvement is possible in a number of ways, including the following.

1. Most universities and the colleges for advanced education which show a preference for literary studies and the applied sciences could easily provide courses in certain branches of the social sciences. In a developing country such as Iran, national and even private sector projects generate a demand for socio-.cultural res ear ch. The continuous co-operation which exists between international and regional agencies could provide possibilities for developing social science teaching and research.

2.

3.

Relation between teaching and research

Despite a statutory obligation to do so, most university departments do not research and confine themselves to teaching. done only where there are independent centres or institutes, and, even in these, few of the teaching staff participate. Teaching and research developed separately; each has its own traditions, which are sometimes contradictory. Research is mostly done

Collective research is

20

by individual professors. The result is that teaching is often too theoretical and rigid, and research is a dead-end,

Administrative posts in research

Even in the independent institutes, there is no post for someone who could organize research, on a continuing and collective basis: the research worker is employed simply as a specialist, without the necessary administrative budget or powers. Some- times, he is employed on a part- time or contract basis, or paid by number of hours worked. His employment is a mere stop-gap, pending appoint- ment to an administrative or teaching post. The newer establishments of higher education make no provision in their statutes for research, which, accordingly, becomes something personal, sub- sidiaryand accidental. There is no infrastructure. Research often has to be done in someone else's institute, and this creates permanent tension between those who teach and those who do research.

the American system of credits, each credit representing at least one hour of courses weekly during term. A student who has to obtain 20 credits weeklyhas little time left for reading. He has to accumulate 140 credits in three years and a half, and is inclined to have too much to do and to get lost in the number and variety of short courses involved. This system also leaves the teaching staff with little time for research, as they are officially required to prepare 8 to 12 hours of courses per week.

No attempt is made to relate research step by step to courses. Research is often fragmen- tary, lacks follow-up, and lacks continuity in terms of either subject-matter or level. The absence of trustworthy data is a perpetual problem, and research has always to start with an attempt to collect the necessary basic statistics.

Research workers are not free to choose their subject, and have few outlets for publication.

There is no research team-work in the institute, each working in isolation on his own project.

There is no exchange of ideas or results, no arrangement for obtaining a conspectus. Even in the case of a member of the regular teaching staff, his participation in research will depend on an administrative situation rather than the research needs involved or his own particular bent.

Even when research is done, the results rarely serve a practical purpose, as the administrative or management staff prefer to take decisions themselves in thelight of the actual circumstances involved.

Many of the problems accordingly derive from the nature of the socio- administrative relations which exist in a developing country.

In spite of all of this, there has been a considerable expansion of teaching and of research done on an individual basis.

As indicated earlier, teaching is based on

V. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CO- OPERA TION

There is no doubt that a considerable amount of international CO- operation in the social sciences, has been organized through the United Nations, the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, the Specialized Agencies, such as Unesco and Unicef, agencies for co-operation set up in Western countries, the Organization for Economic Co- operation and Development (which invites the di- rectors of institutes for development, training and research to a conference every two years), and so on.

In one sense, however, there is probably less direct contact between countries in Asia nowadays than there formerly was between for example, Iran, and Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and China, or between Iran and the Arab countries. One reasonfor this, is that, in the social sciences especially, Asian countries tend to look towards the West instead of developing their own relations among themselves.

to demand attention.

1.

The following points would accordingly seem

Need for a study of ways and means of collecting data and exchanging information at regional level. Need to establish more effective relations between existing associations. Need for joint short- and medium- term research in neighbouring countries. Surveys of the problems common to all the countries of Asia. Publication of an Asian review of the social sciences, and newsletters in Asian and Euro- pean languages ( especially English and French). A better grounding for existing and prospective research workers in the problems of their own region. The regional aspect of financing this infrastructure (considered apart from the question of its finances each country can provide for its own needs, and the question of what may be internationally available).

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

W e would, in conclusion, propose the following as research priorities for Asian countries from the regional point of view.

(a) A study of the regional and international possibilities of financing joint research by groups or all of the Asian countries.

(b) Practical proposals for research on the effects of industrialization in certain more industrially advanced countries (e. g. Japan, India, China, Iran) and on work and employment in general.

(c) Socio- economic studies on the new social classes, ways in which new national income is distribu- ted, and poverty.

(d) Critical and comparative studies of university systems and governmental agencies in countries of the region.

21

(e) More widespread exchanges of professors, post- graduate and doctorate students, and research workers.

(f) More widespread exchanges of views through the medium of conferences, seminars, visits and exchanges of experts and specialists in Asian countries.

These objectives can obviously not be attained except in co-operation with the international agencies and, by its very nature, the r61e of Unesco must here be preponderant.

22

Ma la ysi a by Stephen Chee

Faculty of Economics and Administration University of Malaya

A. SURVEY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IN MALAYSIA

In spite of the relatively recent origin of the social sciences as autonomous disciplines and as a cluster of related disciplines dealing with man and his environment in Malaysia, social science teaching and research have grown and demonstra- ted a capacity of innovation. Nevertheless, the growth of the disciplines has been unbalanced because of institutional slowness, inadequate machinery for promoting and co- ordinating their development, and the fact that some of the social sciences are inadequately related to user needs. This, however, may be changing as a result of a number of factors, chief among which are the expansion of university education and the concomi- tant pressure of student numbers, the increase of social science personnel, and a greater appreciation on the part of government for social science research and teaching in the institutions of higher learning.


Introduction

The development of the social sciences has closely followed the pattern of development of higher education in Malaysia. Before the Second World War, there was little social science teaching and research because of the lack of institutions of higher learning. Raffles College was established inSinga- pore in 1929 to provide teaching and training in the arts and sciences, but merely produced second- level manpower for the colonial administration. Research in the social sciences (mainly in linguistics, history, anthropology and law) was confined to colonial administrators and colonial scholars.

At the end of the Second World War, a commission was established by the colonial government under the chairmanship of Sir Alexander

Carr-Saunders to inquire into and make recommendations concerning university education in British Malaya, i. e. Malaya and Singapore. The Commission recommended that the King Edward VI1 College of Medicine and Raffles College be amalgamated to form a University of Malaya. This was established on 8 October 1949 to serve both the Federation of Malaya and the Colony of Singapore.

The social sciences were treated as part of the Arts Programme, following the traditional division of education into the Arts and Sciences, a legacy of the British colonial practice, which dich- otomized the academic disciplines and dictated that the social sciences develop as part of the humanities in university teaching and research. The emphasis, in the period 1949- 1957, was on cultural- linguistic, historical and geographical studies; although economics was established as a separate department of study as early as 1949 and law was introduced in 1957, there was little teaching of the other core social science disciplines at the Uni- versity. Both the Allen- Braddell Report (1955) and the Aitken Report (1957) noted the underdevel- opment of the social sciences and recommended that they be expanded.

But with the increasing demand for higher education and rapid political changes, the campus at Singapore could no longer serve the needs of an independent Malaya and the self- governing colony of Singapore. By agreement between the Univer- sity and the two governments, however, it was decided in 1958 to establish two autonomous divisions of the University of Malaya, of equal status, one in Singapore and the other in Kuala Lumpur. This was a temporary measure; by 1961 demands for two completely separate national universities had crystallized and legislation was passed to establish the independent University of Malaya and the University of Singapore in October 1961.

Lumpur division of the University of Malaya was 323. By 1961, enrolment in thenational University of Malaya had increased to 1,010, in the Faculties

In 1959, the student population at the Kuala

23

of Arts, Science and Engineering. In 1973- 1974 it was 8,917: 7,829 undergraduates, 690 pursuing diplomas in education, accounting and public administration, and 398 working for master's degrees or doctorates. This growth was bound to have an impact on the development of the social sciences.

However, there was no clear social science movement in Malaysia in the early 1960's. Indi- vidual scholars who advocated the teaching of social science subjects were a minority. The hold of the arts tradition was strong; social scientists and the social sciences had no separate status as such in the Faculty of Arts. That status was ac- quired slowly with the recruitment and overseas training of local staff; the pressure of student numbers; the influence of changing political and socio- economic trends; and, lately, the establishment of new universities and university-level institutes, namely the University of Science (1969), the National University of Malaysia (1970), the University of Agriculture (1971) and the National Institute of Technology (1972).

Growth of the social sciences

The social sciences in Malaysian universities have developed by a mixed process of "split-off", symbiosis, and implantation. In the University of Malaya, economics was taught right from the beginning (1959) in a separate department in the Faculty of Arts but developed into an autonomous Faculty of Economics and Administration in 1965. Elements of sociology and anthropology (especially cultural anthropology) were taught in the Malay Studies Department in the Faculty of Arts. Under the pressure of immediate student needs for more courses and staff sponsorship, the Faculty initiated ad hoc social sciences programmes in the 1970 academic session for first year students con- sisting of courses in anthropology, sociology, general linguistics, social psychology and philosophy. Political science and international relations are good examples of symbiotic attachment to the Department of History in the Faculty of Arts and the Faculty of Economics and Administration. In 1971, anthropology and sociology were combined in a new department to offer a greater choice of courses in the Faculty of Arts and to alleviate somewhat student pressure in the existing departments. Law is a latecomer, the faculty being established only in 1972. Pspchology, social and preventive medicine, and social work operate from the Faculty of Medicine.

While the core social sciences were splitting off from the traditional departments, establishing new organizational boundaries for themselves and forming links with newer studies at the University of Malaya, they were being integrated in the School of Comuarative Social Sciences at the Universiti Sains Malaysia (University of Science Malaysia). The School of Comparative Social Sciences was

established in 1970 to offer a broad, interdisciplinary education in the social sciences, withpro- vision for specialization in anyone of the disciplines of economics, political science, sociology, anthropology and social psychology or in one of the interdisciplinary programmes (urban studies, rural studies and race relations). In an attempt to break away from the traditional concept of arts education, the School of Humanities established in 1970 atthe University of Science offers four major courses (communications, drama, history and literature) with a social sciences approach rather than the traditional "arts" approach.

fected the social sciences. As a result of nationalist pressures, the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (National University of Malaysia), established in 1970, was to be the "focal point of education in the national language" (Malay). The University started with a Faculty of Science (staffed largely by Indo- nesian lecturers), a Faculty of Islamic Studies (by absorbing the former independent Islamic Col- lege), and a Faculty of Arts (staffed largely by lecturers and graduates from the University of Malaya). Within the latter faculty, departments were set up for economics and management, sociology and anthropology, history, geography and education.

The social sciences are widely regarded as having some contribution to make in the more technically-oriented institutions. For example, their humanist rather than any technical contribution to the making of the "complete technologist" or "complete administrator" is stressed in the National Institute of Technology, established in 1972 to offer diploma and degree courses in engineering, surveying, town and country planning, and architecture. This r81e is reflected in the staff- student ratios: 1:25 for the Institute as a whole, as compared with 1: 100 in the social sciences (roughly 17 social science teachers to 1,700 students).

sciences are assigned a Janus-like technical- humanist r8le. Agriculture is defined broadly as an ecosystem involving soil, plants, animals and man. Consequently, there is a conscious attempt to inject econo'mics, sociology, social psychology, anthropology and other subjects into agricultural education.

of the social sciences is their r61e in trainingcen- tres sponsored by government agencies; indeed many ministries have one or more specifically established for their own personnel. pose (e. g. the National Institute for Public Admin- istration, the National Productivity Centre, the Co-operative College) is to train manpower for public service and improve administrative skills,

(1) SteDhen Chee. (ed. ). Universitv Economics

The influence of political trends directly af-

At the University of Agriculture, the social

A third dimension of the institutional growth

Since the pur-

~ -,.

Curriculum User Needs (Kuala Lumpur: Malay- sian Economic Association, 1973), p. 73.

24

the social sciences have a significant place in the curricula.

Below the tertiary level of education, the social sciences have little impact on the education system, although potentialities for their expansion exist. secondary schools was 1. 68 million in 1963 and 2. 34 million by 1973. Unfortunately, the educational system is still operating within a rigid framework, with the emphasis on uniformity of curriculum and the development of rote skills. ( Although 74 per cent of the primary school and 67 per cent of the lower secondary school time- table are allocated to "social subjects",( 2) these are invariably courses in history, geography, civics, languages and literature. Thus, the core social sciences acquire no pre-university roots. It may be argued that the level required is too high for secondary school pupils, but the elements at least could certainly be usefully introduced.

One gratifying feature is the growing profes- sionalism in the social sciences as the growth in numbers leads to the discovery of a collective identity. existing social science associations.

The student population in primary and

This process is fostered by the few

Trends

Growth has provoked disputes about the nature and r6le of the social sciences, to recognition and acknowledgement of what they represent to "producersff and"users". This has consequences for teaching and research in the educational institutions, and perhaps, for the social scientists! search for professional identity.

social science disciplines are economics, political science, sociology, anthropology and social psychology. Geography and history are regarded as good candidates for inclusion as, but not per se, social sciences. Strangely, law has not been usually thought of as a social science. The reason might have been the historigal identification of law as a profession, training in which was ac- quired in the British Inns of Court and reading in Chambers. With the establishment of a Faculty in the University of Malaya, law is now being recognized as an academic discipline which has links with the social sciences.

A n intellectual consciousness of the social sciences as a distinctive branch of inquiry has evolvedover the past fifteen years. But, although they are commonly defined as the disciplines which study man, human relationships and SO- cia1 institutions, it is less subject-matter than methodology which divides them from the humanities: the real difference lies in their empirical or behavioural approach.

clarified, further ambiguity among social scientists in Malaysia arises from a difference between "autonomists" and "integrationists", i. e.

There seems general agreement that the core

While this distinction has been somewhat

between those who favour the independent, autonomous development of the individual disciplines and those who believe in the interdependent unity of all the social sciences. The first may pay lip service to the desirability of multidisciplinary approaches to teaching and research; the second favour interdisciplinary penetration of the academic programme and welcome the assimilation of the social sciences within a multidisciplinary institutional framework. These views are obviously influenced by the definition each adopts of the objective of social science education and their assessment of users' needs.

Table 1 provides data from a non-random sample survey(3) of persons identified as social scientists on their views regarding the direction of movement of the disciplines.

While it is unsafe to generalize from the information presented, the position of the economists is interesting. Economics has undoubtedly emerged as "queen" of the social sciences in Malaysia. The rapid expansion of university education and the ready placingof economics graduates have accounted for the burgeoning of the discipline in the academic programme. Economics tends to become more technical, and to link up with business studies and mathematical statistics. macy" in the market place and as an academic discipline, economists are singularly impatient with what they see as "social science waffling".

Again, in spite of the small number of cases, the "individualizing" trend in sociology reflects the desire ofits practitioners to institutionalize. Anthropology integrates well with sociology. Malay- sia has never had a department of political science. The colonial administrators may have felt that political science was likely to be subversive of the colonial order. (1948- 1960) and the onset of the Indonesian confrontation in 1963 against the formation of Malay- sia provided the Government and the university authorities with justification for deferring any establishment of a political science department (although the issue was raised repeatedly). Political scientists at present operate on their own in the universities and they have probably learned to accept "integration" as a pragmatic solution.

Conscious of their "legiti-

Certainly the communist uprising

(1) Cf. Ministry of Education, Education inMalay- sia, Vol. I (Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Educa- - tion), p. 49.

(2) Ibid. , p. 53. (3) Questionnaires were sent to 100 persons iden-

tified as social scientists in the five recognized universities. only 52 questionnaires were returned. Five (1 historian, 2 educationists, 1 communica- tionist, and 1 statistician) returned the questionnaires stating that they were not social scientists.

The response rate was poor:

25

Table 1 - Direction of movement of the social sciences

Dis ciplin e "Tendency towards "Tendency towards I I Too soon to say" integration" individualization''

Economics Sociology Anthropology Political science Social psychology Education Geography Public administration History Communication

8 1 2 3 1 2 1 1

1

Total 20 -

~~

15 3

1

4 1 1 2 1

28

-

-

1 1

1

1

- 4

The "warring perspectives" (as one respondent puts it) will not be easily reconciled because of institutional rigidity, personality factors, diver- sity in the sources of social science tradition received by staff members, and the imperatives of growth of the disciplines. There is a trend towards a further individualization of the social sciences. The urgent social demands for qualified manpower have encouraged specialization in higher education. The trend towards individualization remains dominant, but a growing number of academics seem to believe that the social sciences are growing closer together. Cross- boundaryen- rolment by students and cross- boundary "poach- ing" in courses offered by social science departments are certainly increasing. There are a number of reasons for believing that "integration" is increasing. Students demand more relevant courses. The politicization of the academic community of social scientists reinforces this demand and increases the areas of overlap in teachingand research. Interdisciplinary methodology and concern also foster the unity of the social sciences.

11. THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK OF TEACHING AND RESEARCH

The last chapter noted that the structure ofhigher education in Malaysia has changed to accommodate new demands. Although the social sciences were introduced only recently, there is evidence that they are acquiring autonomy from the humanities. At this stage, it may be useful to present a more schematic picture of the .position of the social sciences in Malaysian institutions.

Teaching

Degrees in the social sciences are awarded by the University of Malaya, the University of Sci- ence, and the National University of Malaysia,

but there is no general pattern of teaching organization.

The University of Malaya has a single chair Department of Anthropology and Sociology in the Faculty of Arts; a Faculty of Economics and Ad- ministration with seven chairs (Applied Economics, Analytical Economics, Rural Development, Statis- tics, Business Administration, Public Administra- tion, Accounting); Faculty of Law with several chairs; and an unfilled chair of Political Science and International Relations in the Department of History. in having Departments of Malay Studies, Chinese Studies and Indian Studies, each dealing with the historical, literary and cultural-linguistic subjects of its particular ethnic group. The Malay Studies Department, moreover, has a specialization in Malay anthropology and sociology. This example of overlapping of disciplinary function notwithstand- ing, the trend is towards departmentalization of the core (and peripheral) social sciences in the monolithic Faculty of Arts. At the Faculty of Economics and Administration (FEA), economics is the base discipline in a conglomerate structure with seven divisions; despite a philosophy of integration, the divisions have in practice meant increasing individualization into sub- disciplines. A peculiarity is the subordination of political science as a discipline within the Division of Public Administration.

The truly multidisciplinary organization, with a real interdisciplinary programme, is the School of Comparative Social Sciences (SCSS) at the Uni- versity of Science. The curriculum- has three aims: (a) to provide a combination of core social science discipline which will justify the awarding of a Bachelor of Social Science; (b) to provide for specialization at academically acceptable levels in one discipline while maintaininglinks with compan- ion disciplines; and (c) to allow for problem-area studies in the core social sciences (economics, political science, sociology and anthropology). In

The University Faculty of Arts is unique

26

his first year, the student takes introductory courses in all the core disciplines. If he chooses to concentrate on one of the three problem-areas, he is expected to take no less than six (but not more than seven) courses in each of the second and third years of study. He is further required to compose these courses from two or three disciplines although permission may be granted for a minor concentration in one of the core disciplines within the framework of the interdisciplinary programme (see table 2).

A distinctive feature is the school system. The core social sciences have been housed in a separate school from the auxiliary disciplines. History, geography, linguistics, and communication are taught in the School of Humanities. There is inevitably some discipline- specific identification among staff and students, but any movement towards departmentalization is strenuously resisted.

The two major social science institutions (the Faculty of Economics and Administration at the University of Malaya and the School of Compara- tive Social Sciences) are interesting in another way: they represent two separate attempts at modelling, the first patterned after the London School of Economics and Political Science, and the second after the School of Social Science at the university of Sussex.

On the other hand, the social science teaching programme at the National University of Malaysia in 1971- 1973 has been reminiscent of the history at the University of Malaya, i. e. the social sciences were spread over a number of arts departments. process of "split-off' and implantation. ent position may be described as in table 2.

Economics at the National University is offered bytheFacultyof Economics and Management (FEM) which has six departments (Analytical Economics; Economic Development and Planning; Agricultural and Resource Economics; Business Management; Accounting; Statistics and Quantitative Analysis). Unlike FEA, FEM has a four-year Bachelor of Economics (B. Ec. ) honours course. cialize in their second year at FEA; at FEM they combine two closely related branches during the second and third years and specialize in one of them only in the final year.

The other core social sciences (sociology, anthropology and social psychology) are taught in an Arts department, but there are proposals to establish a Faculty of Social Sciences incorporating them, together with political science (not offered now), somewhat on the same lines as at the Univer- sity of Science, but with economics teaching tending to concentrate on quantitative and business studies.

Eachof the above programmes has its strengths and weaknesses. Economics of FEA and FEMare strongly oriented towards specialization and ''consumer" (i. e. employer) requirements. In an increasingly tight job market for generalists, this is understandable, but the individualization of economics hinders social science penetration.

Development since has been through a The pres-

Students spe-

The

attempt at providing a broad, interdisciplinary education coupled with discipline and area specialization at SCSS is one of the most enterprising in Malaysian education, but avery strenuous effort will be needed to break down ''consumer'' prejudices. It is not comforting to note that the first Bachelor of Social Science graduates had some difficulty in finding employment.

Social science teaching at the two newest universities is, at present minimal. The University of Agriculture has a Faculty of Resource Economics and Agribusiness and a Department of Agricultural Extension and Education located in the Faculty of Agriculture which give courses in economics, farm management, rural sociology, anthropology and social psychology to students in the 3-year diploma and 4- year degree programmes. This University operates a two-semester year and a system of credit points for courses, and has a slightly greater leaning towards the social sciences than the National Institute of Technology (also at university level). The centre for Humanities Studies in this Institute provides courses in economics, sociology and law in the 3- year diploma and 5- year degree programmes, but this is regarded as a humanist rather than a technical contribution.

These differences apart, social science undergraduate teaching at the three main universities follows a roughly similar pattern: (a) multidisciplinary faculty (or school) compulsory

(b) unidisciplinary or interdisciplinary "core" cour s es ;

courses from individual departments or divisions or programmes, and

departments. (c) elective courses from other faculties or

These courses do not produce graduate specialists, but there is a certain amount of specialization in the second, third and fourth years. The Univer- sityof Malaya offers three- year degree programmes in Anthropology/Sociology (Bachelor of Arts) and Economics (Bachelor of Economics), while the Bachelor of Law course extends over four years. The University of Science SCSS has a common Bachelor of Social Science degree. Believing that a more liberal education can be imparted over a longer period, the National University's Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Economics honours courses extend over four years.

Table 3 gives figures of full-time enrolment in first degree and diploma courses.

In all disciplines post- graduate education is inadequate, partly because education only went to bachelor level, but also because Malaysians had little difficulty in finding places in foreign universities. Some students, however, are now registered for higher degrees in the social sciences, mainly at the University of Malaya and the University of Science. But the system of post- graduate education by thesis or dissertation alone has not produced many graduates. There may be a change to a work- cum- dissertation system in the proposed new Centre for Graduate Studies and Advanced Research at the University of Malaya.

27

Table 2

Interdisciplinary programmes at the School of Comparative Social Sciences, University of Science, Malaysia, required starred(l)and elective courses

Urban Studies Rural Studies Race Relations

Year I1

Anthropology

Economics(2)

Politic a1 Science

Sociology

Year I11

Anthropology

Economics

::<Urban Anthropology I Peasant Society & Culture

"Economic Development I Labour Economics Industrial Relations International Economics I Public Finance

':Urban Politics Comparative Public Administration

Issues in Comparative Politics I

Federalism & Plural Societies

Government & Politics in S. E. Asia

;:Asian Urbanization Social Stratification Research Methods I Sociology of Economic

Comparative Case Studies

::One of the courses required

Change

in Race Relations I

for Race Relations

':Urban Anthropology 11

Ethnic Stratification Plural Society &

::Peasant Society & Culture Kinship & Social Organization

Urban Anthropology I

*Agricultural Economics - or -

:<Economic Development I Labour Economics

:: C o m par at ive Pu bl i c Administration

Politics I Issues in Comparative

::Rural Sociology *Research Methods I Sociology of Economic Change

*Tribal & Peasant Economics

::Anthropology of Religion Plural Society & Ethnic Stratification

*Urban & Regional Economics >::Agricultural Prices & Economic Development I1 Marketing Economic .Development & - or - International Economics I1 Monetary Economics Planning

Planning *Economic Development I1 Economic Development &

*"Race", Language & Culture Urban Anthropology I Peoples & Cultures of S. E. Asia

Labour Economics Economic Development I

::Federalism & Plural Societies

Politics I

S. E. Asia

Issues in Comparative

Government & Politics in

Womparative Case Studies in Race Relations I

Social Stratification Sociological Theory *Economic History of

Malaysia (Humanities)

*Plural Society & Ethnic

Urban Anthropology 'I1 Chinese & Indian Society

Stratification

Economic Development I1 Agricultural Prices & Marketing

28

Table 2 (cont. )

Urban Studies Rural Studies Race Relations

Year I11 (cont. ) Political *Development Administration ::<Development Administration Science Issues in Comparative Issues in Comparative

Politics 11 Politics I1

Groups

National Development

Political Parties & Interest

Public Enterprises &

*Selected Themes in Malaysian Politics

Issues in Comparative Politics I1

Political Parties & Interest Groups

So ciolo gy :::Industrial Sociology %ociology of Development *Comparative Case Studies Social Movements Research Methods I1 in Race Relations 11 Social Change Social Movements Attitude Formation & Social Control Social Change Change Sociology of Complex Social Control Social Movements

Sociology of Professions Sociology of Development

Organizations Social Control Research Methods I1

Inter- *Seminar on Urban Problems ::Comparative Studies in ::Research Paper in disciplinary and Policies Rural Development Race Relations

(Seminar) - (1)

(2)

The starred courses are those likely to be required in 1973- 1974. announcedifnecessary. Students who elect a minor in Ecpnomics must take either Micro- or Macro- Economics; in Rural Studies, Agricultural Economics may be substituted for Micro-Economics.

Changes in requirements will be

Source: School of Comparative Social Sciences, University of Science Malaysia.

Teacher education has only a very limited social sciences content. The University of Malaya's Faculty of Education programmes for the Diploma and Master of Education have some, and the Faculty of Economics and Administration offers a Diploma of Public Administration. The Department of Education (at the National University) and the Cen- tre for Educational Studies (University of Science) have attempted to introduce theory of education into the undergraduate social science programmes for students intending to take up teaching careers.

Some institutes below university level provide training in the more technical aspects of the social sciences. studies are offered by the Tengku Abdul Rahman College, the Ungku Omar Polytechnic and the Mara Institute of Technology; the latter also gives diploma courses in public administration and law, and mass communication. The National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA), established in 1972, attempts to integrate the social sciences into its short training programmes for government employees, with the accent on the introduction of new concepts and approaches to management, but most of these courses are too short to allow for any systematic teaching of

Diploma programmes in business

the social sciences. However, most of those attending refresher courses will have had some years of work experience, and might, therefore, appre- ciate the conceptual contribution of the social sciences.

The proportion of students who can be identified as taking social science studies has increased only in the past four or five years. Table 4 gives an estimate of present proportions in the University of Malaya, the University of Science and the Na- tional University of Malaysia.

tries, Malaysian universities are fairly well- staffed, though the problem of increasing student numbers and uneven distribution among the faculties has affected the quality of teaching. The average teacher-student ratio is about 1:15. varies from faculty to faculty within and between the universities from between 1:lO and 1:30. position could hardly be described as being alto- gether satisfactory. First- year courses often consist of mass lectures, e. g. as many as 500 students attending a course in economics. Classes are of more manageable size in the second and third years. Nevertheless, an improvement in the staffing situation is urgently needed as university education becomes more broad- based.

Compared to those in some other Asian coun-

It

The

29

Table 3

Full-time enrolments(1) in tertiary education 1970- 1975

Level 1970 1973 1975 Increase (70) (Target) 1970- 1973 1973- 1975

College level

Ungku Omar Polytechnic

Institute of Technology, Mara

Tengku Abdul Rahman College

University level

University of Malaya

University of Science

National University

University of Agriculture

493 915 1,273 85. 6 158. 2

2,142 4,434 6,000 107. 0 180. 1

1,195 2,162 3,000 82. 6 150. 0

7,777 8,519 8,600 9. 5 10. 6

271 1,548 2,685 471. 2 890. 7

169 1,489 2, 647 781. 1 1,466. 2

585 1,589 2,375 171. 6 305. 9

National Institute of Technology 69 2 1,516 2,450 119.1 254.0

Totd 13,324 22,192 29,030 66. 6 117.9

(1) Excludes post- graduate and off-campus enrolments.

Source: Malaysia, Mid-Term Review of the Second Malaysia Plan, 1971- 1975 (Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer, 1973), p. 187.

Table 4

Estimate of undergraduate social science students in three universities in Malaysia (1973- 1974 academic session)

Total University of Malaya University of Science National University

Number % Number % Number % Number % Malaysia of Malaysia

Total undergraduate population 7, 829(a) 100 1,548 100 1,489 100 10,866 100

Arts/Humanities (b) 2,331 29.8 373 24. 1 501 33. 6 3,205 29.5

"Core" Social Sciences(c) 2,228 28.4 391 25. 3 672. 45. 2 3,291 30. 3

Natural, Physical, Medical, etc., Sciences 3,270 41.8 784 50. 6 316 21.2 4,370 40.2

(a) Excludes Diploma in Education, Public Administration and Accounting Programmes. (b)

(c)

Includes auxiliary social sciences like Geography, History, Cultural-linguistic Studies, Islamic Studies and Mass Communication. Includes Economics, Political Science and Public Administration, Sociology, Anthropology, Law, Social Statistics and Demography.

Source: Computed from university enrolment figures.

30

RESEARCH 2. Classification of research

The primary emphasis in Malaysian universities and colleges has been on teaching. given consideration in staff recruitment and promotion but the pressure to "publish or perish" is not yet part of the academic culture.

Research is

1. Organization

Research is poorly represented in the university structure. Substantial competence exists, but actual activities remain unco-ordinated. The absence of university research institutes is partly explained by the undeveloped state of post- graduate education. There is also a strong tradition of individual publication of monography. Thirdly, the amount of work as consultants with government or private clients is still very small. are all interacting factors.

Most faculties have a committee on research co-ordination, but they do not function well. There is no provision for the recruitment or assignment of staff specifically for research, although a sabbatical is built into the conditions of service. This is not to imply that the social scientistslack interest in research simply that teaching pressures largely exclude it. the establishment of university research centres. A Centre for Policy Research was established at the University of Science in late 1973; it has undertaken certain projects for government and semi- government agencies. With additional staff, it may extend services to cope with the requirements of other types of client.

Outside the universities, the general picture is not much better. Low-level market research is done by less than half-a-dozen commercial research organizations. Government research institutes have worked mainly in the natural, medical and technical sciences, e. g. the Rubber Re- search Institute, the Institute of Medical Research, the National Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research and the Malaysian Agricultural Research andDevelopment Institute. A proposal to establish a race relations institute in the aftermath of the 1969 racial riots was not taken up by the government. Instead, a Ministry of National Unity was creeted in 1972. Its Research Division does field research that might provide policy-formulation in- puts in other governmental departments. Almost every ministry has its own research units, the most important probably being the Economic Plan- ning Unit in the Prime Minister's Department. Although established in 1966, the Malaysian Cen- tre for Development Studies (also located in the Prime Minister's Department) has undertaken little research for lack of qualified social science staff.

These

This may change with

Most research at the universities is basic, done on the department's initiative discipline- based rather than interdisciplinary; and descriptive- historical rather than analytical. Although operational research is minimal, the basic research could have operational value if the public agencies concerned cared to make use of it, and if there were adequate institutionalized links between university research and policy-makers. However, the attitude of policy-makers is slowly changing as academics become involved in contract research and participate in government committees. Re- search on rubber estate subdivision, transport, education, agriculture, and drug- taking, for example, has been farmedout to individuals or groups at the universities. The actual number of studies to date is very small but they should eventually consolidate the status of such research in the universities.

In terms of the output of research by discipline, most of the scholarly work for obvious historical reasons, was in the auxiliary social sciences such as history and geography. Since the 1960ts, the post- independence emphasis on development planning and the changing structure of the Malaysian economy have encouraged economic research. There has been less urban and industrial research because of the continuing tradition of socio- cultural studies. Formerly, research on politics tended to focus on national issues. As political science becomes more concerned with behavioural, there is a perceptible shift of emphasis to local matters.

There are observable shifts in the character of research by local social scientists, towards a greater emphasis on questions cf output, for example, on time spent, and a concentration onanaly- tical rather than descriptive- historical studies. There is less respect for intellectual demarcation, more identifying of new research topics within the academic territory of other disciplines. As a result, social scientists in Malaysia are discovering more applications for their methodologies and research findings, and gaining the growing respect of government and industry.

It was mentioned earlier that much research is still monographic and single- discipline. How- ever, academics are becoming involved in more interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary projects in small and medium- scale government sponsored research schemes. For example, three FEA staff helped the Ministry of Transport and Communica- tions to assess the flow of traffic in Malaysia. In 1972, the University of Science undertook a land tenure survey in the large Muda IrrigationScheme, in north Malaysia, for the Federal Government; this huge project, involving a sociologist, an agricultural economist and an economic historian was supervised by the Centre for Policy Research, and will eventually cost about US$200,000. the Economic Planning Unit requested FEA, FEM

In 1974,

31

and SCSS (representing the three major universities) to make urban profiles of 40 Malaysian cities and towns for development planning purposes under the Third Malaysia Plan of Development (1976- 1980).

However, there is still no general pattern of university- government collaboration in research. Each could benefit from more regularized channels for academic participation in development planning and research. Most of the government's consul- tative service, especially for projects of some scale, is still contracted out to foreign firms.

3. Finance and sponsorship

Malaysian academics usually do not have much difficulty in securing funds for small- to medium- scale research. Every university has a fairly adequate allocation for research, and individual departments have small grants which they can spend on minor projects. about 7 per cent of the total university budget at the University of Malaya, most of which, however, goes to the natural sciences. In Malaysia, 90-95 per cent of university budgets are covered by government grants.

Where the government has zponsored relatively large-scale projects (e. g. see above, the US$200,000 land tenure survey in North Malay- sia), it has been generous.

Foreign foundations and international agencies also help, e. g. the Canadian- sponsored IDRCS US$25,000 for a research project on rural-urban migration in West Malaysia. source of foreign support is the Ford Foundation. It started operations in 1962. By the end of 1973, its grants for the establishment of facilities and academic staff training schemes in education, public administration, agriculture and other social sciences at the universities, as well as the provision of advanced training abroad for second-level civil servants and the technical advisory services of foreign consultants, amounted to over US$lO million. Colombo Plan and Fulbright scholar- shi'ps have been used mainly for post- graduate training overseas.

Domestic firms and foundations have been less active in research sponsorship, preferring to invest in social projects with greater publicity value. However, the Lee Foundation (established by a Singapore- based millionaire), has paid for the foreign travel of academics attending conferences abroad and makes grants to scholarly journals.

Despite complaints to the contrary, there is no real dearth of opportunities for research and the means to finance it. The real obstacles are academic laziness or inertia, the lack of a research tradition in the institutions of learning, and a system of promotion that rewards seniority rather than academic output. Another constraint is the limit on fees for work as consultants which research staff may retain at the University of

Research receives

The largest single

Malaya. appearance of a tax.

The rates schedule gives the system the

% retained by staff member university

% retained by Annual receipts

First M$3,000 100 0 Next M$4,000 60 40 Next M$4,000 40 60 Next M$ll, 000 and 20 80 above

This system of profit-sharing is alleged to discourage practical projects. more conventional research. Nevertheless, if the universities are serious about wishing to encourage research and train staff for research in relatively large- scale projects, this and other hindrances should be abolished. They partly reflect hidden prejudices about the amount of money academics may earn, partly an institutional fear that teaching may suffer if academic personnel got too involved as outside consultants. They punish academic initiative, and encourage mediocrity and the displacement of scholarly work by non- recompensed activities. (2)

It does not affect

Manpower

The absence of data makes it impossible to estimate the extent of trained manpower available in the social sciences. It is not likely that the total of economists, sociologists, political scientists, and so onwould exceed 10,000, the number with higher degrees numberless than 1,000. "guesstimates". The current national manpower survey should provide some exact data.

About 2,000 full-time graduate staff are employed in teaching and administration in the five universities and half-a-dozen institutes. Of these, perhaps 1,000 are full- time lecturers and tutors in the social sciences and humanities, but the proportion of social science teachers possessing higher degrees is extremely small. Table 5 gives an estimate for those possessing M. A. Is and Ph. D. Is.

tors are difficult to make. One indirect measure is the output from the universities (see Table 6).

To this 3-year total for 1971-1973 we should add an estimate of about 4,000 social science and humanities graduates from the University of Singa- pore, the University of Malaya, and foreign universities over the past two decades. a rough approximation of 10,000 first-degree "social scientists".

(1)

These are simply

Estimates for the government and private sec-

This would give

Cf. David Lim, "The r8le of the university in development planning in Malaysia", Minerva, Vol. VII, No.1 (January 1974), pp. 18-32.

(2) See Harry G. Johnson, "Observations on the r6le of the university in development planning", Minerva, Vol. XU, No. 1 (January, 1974), p. 37.

32

Table 5

Social science staff members'') at Malaysian universities and institutes Dossessinp hipher degrees 1973- 1974

Discipline M. A. degree

Ph. D. Total

Economics Political Science Social/Cultural Anthropology Sociology Law Social Statistics/Demography History Geography Management/Business Studies Pedagogy/Education Public/Social Administration Linguistics

32 8 10 20 10 13 18 19 21 36 7 21

16 6 2 3

3 7 4 1 17 5 3

48 14 12 23 10 16 25 23 22 53 12 24

Total 215 67 -

282

(I) Excludes short-term expatriate staff.

Table 6

Social science graduates from Malaysian universities 1971- 1973

Total 1971- 1973 1971 1972 1973 Courses ( 4

Arts /Humanities Economics Social Science Law Diploma in Education Diploma in Public Administration

(b)

8 40 1,066 1,268 3,174 362 409 408 1,179

129 129

370 48 2 469 1,321 16 27 28 71

-

Sub- total 1,588 1,984 2,302 5,874

Total number of university graduates 2,362 2,850 3,248 9,460

"social scientists" as a percentage of 67% 69% 70% 62% total number of graduates

(a) Bachelor degree courses, except in the case of diplomas which involve an extra year of study. (b) This refers to the Bachelor of Social Science degree course at the University of Science.

Source: Economic Planning Unit, Malaysia.

The government sector (ministries, schools, statutory bodies, etc. ) employs the largest proportion of university graduates.

Perhaps 30 per cent of first-degree graduates have been absorbed by industry, although the distribution by race is quite uneven, an idiosyncracy of this plural society. Most of the M.A. s and Ph.D's are located in the universities: the government

sector has less than a dozen social science Ph.D's. This is because promotion and recruitment in government service have so far taken no account of post- graduate qualifications.

Most of the social scientists employed have had little or no professional training beyond the academic education received in university. Indeed, it is a reflection of the archaic influence of the

33

British tradition on the educational system that little emphasis is given to professional training. There is a surviving tendency to regard technical training as being suitable for sub- professional occupations only. In part, the paucity of professional training is also due to the lack of professional bodies for the social sciences.

There are less than half- a-dozen national professional associations of social scientists. The largest of these is the Malaysian Economic Associa- tion, founded in 1963 by a group of economists working in government and the University of Malaya. It has a membership of 350 drawn from social scientists (with economists in the majority) working in the universities, colleges, schools, government, and business firms. Besides publishinga scholarly journal, the Association organizes lectures, seminars and conferences on current economic themes. It periodically sponsors refresher courses for teachers of economics in secondary schools. Compared to the economists, the other social scientists are relatively unorganized. The National Geographers Association was founded in 1973 and has a membership of 100, mainly university lecturers and school- teachers. The social science associations have been relatively inactive, unclear about their identities, overlapping, and structurally unstable in terms of membership or financial viability. The position may change with future increases in the numbers of social scientists.

All the universities have student societies for the social sciences. But they are poorly organized and inadequately geared to the intellectual needs of their members. Some of the societies publish an annual magazine, but often with more articles by staff than by student contributors - more because of poor student response than of staff monopoly of space. One or two societies show more initiative, but their efforts are sporadic and have little influence on the genuine pursuit of knowledge.

111. SOCIAL SCIENCE DEVELOPMENT, - M A J O R ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES The social sciences are now growing disciplines in Malaysia, receiving more attention in university curricula, a greater appreciation by government of their contribution to nation- building and socio- economic development, and an increasing recognition of their importance by the private sector. Nevertheless, they are still nascent disciplines which require further nurturing, a greater awareness on the part of their practitioners, and a more ready welcome from policy-makers.

Close identification with Arts education had stunted their growth in three ways. First, the core social sciences (except for economics) had no foundation in the secondary schools. Secondly, their location in arts or humanities faculties inhibited autonomous growthuntil the pressure of increasing student numbers and the need to offer more

disciplines made change inevitable. Thirdly, the social sciences were not perceived separately from the humanities. Colonial and post- independent governments both looked on education as a consumer good; only with development and national planning came a more discriminating view of the contribution of the social sciences, and especially of economics. The distortion is partly the fault of the universities themselves for, in adopting British models, they concentrated more on teaching than on research (particularly practical or consultant research).

There has been no explicit government policy for the social sciences. Recent educational policy has emphasized the r61e of science and technology, but social sciences are not per se favoured in relation to Arts. What has happened is that the government's concern for national unity and the avoidance of communal conflict in this fragmented society has led it to make a good deal of use of social science resources in its research and planningunits.

Universities and social scientists need better links with research users and policy-makers. The use of university social science research by government agencies has so far been minimal, largely because the necessary institutional machinery is lacking.

Social science in a dural societv

The social sciences in Malaysia have a practical relevance that involves more than making a contribution to a broad- based education for university students. (47 per cent Malays, 34 per cent Chinese, 9 per cent Indians and Pakistanis, 10 per cent others), nation- building and socio- economic development are inevitably complicated, and the separate communities can be helped to discover the substance and meaning of racial coexistence in a political society by the social sciences. So far, however, they have played only a minor rBle.

A more effective r61e for them can be found in better teaching and research in all the core and auxiliary disciplines. What passes for social sciences often amounts to nothing more than a disparate collection of courses, depending more on the interests of individual lecturers in each discipline than on logical and theoretical coherence. The first degree is still the terminal degree for most of the university- educated &lite, and the desire to provide an extensive range of courses has been reconciled with the requirement of academic rigour. Having obtained a sound basic training, it is hoped that the graduate will know where to look for knowledge. There is no need to revert to mediaeval scholasticism. Much variety can be accommodated in an education based even on one discipline. But the core social science disciplines should not be fragmented and repackaged in poorly integrated programmes.

In this plural society of 10. 4 million

A more crucial problem is the unbalanced

34

enrolment of the major ethnic groups in the different courses of study. In 1973 for example, more Malays enrolled in arts and social science than in science and technology courses. The Chinese, the second largest student community, did almost exactly the reverse, enrolling mainly in science, engineering and medicine (see table 7). Ethnic har- monyin Malaysia hinges on Malay-Chinese relations, but this pattern in higher education seems to reflect very divergent trends as between the two groups.

No account has yet been taken here of theex- tremelyimportant question of language. The government wants a complete transition to Malay (Bahasa Malaysia or National Language) in secondary and higher education by 1983, English remaining as a second language. less than half the academic staff are proficient in Malay. With heightened pressure on staff to acquire the necessary linguistic skills and convert Univer- sity teaching from English to Malay during the next few years, the result might be stagnation rather than an expansion of course offerings. Social science teaching is caught up in this process of adjust- ment to a new language of instruction and the production of teaching materials in Bahasa Malaysia. In the short run, there will be some loss of staff who will resign and go into the private sector, where English will continue to be used for some time to come. In the short run, too, there maybe some loss of quality in education as both staff and students learn to communicate in the National Lan- guage and experiment with new concepts.

A priority task for social scientists will be to translate material, since almost all the assigned readings are at present in English. The financial rewards may be sufficiently attractive to guarantee a continuing stream of translations, but equallyim- portant is the publication of original scholarly works in the National Language. The prejudice against writing in Malay will not be easily overcome. As inother developing countries, academics prefer publication in English, in an international journal or by a foreign publisher.

and a Sedition Act was passed prohibiting the discussion (by speech or print) of "sensitive issues" likely to dislocate intercommunal harmony. The purpose was to prevent the recurrence of what the government regarded as the excessive criticisms by the opposition parties of the "special privileges" enjoyed by the Malays during the 1969 General Elections. It was commonly felt that these criticisms taxed the limits of inter- ethnic tolerance and resulted in the post-election riots. What has been the effect of this legislation on social science teaching and research? It is difficult to say. So far no academic has fallen foul of the law.

prudent; many issues of social significance are omitted from teaching and scholarly analysis. Yet the proliferation of courses in race relations in the universities attests to the capacity of social scientists to be socially concerned.

Preliminary estimates show that

In 1971, there were constitutional amendments

Social scientists have, perhaps, been over-

Future development in the social sciences will involve the following.

1. Increasing manpower

Many of the departments and faculties are still inadequately staffed. Each university has schemes to train staff overseas, but present recruitment is insufficient to meet the demand, i. e. about 200 in each of the core disciplines in the various universities, and replacements for staff who go to the private sector. More and more generous fellowships are required and university salaries must be made competitive with those in the private sector - salary structures and promotion in the university are not even competitive with those in government service for junior managerial staff.

Teaching ability must be improved as education ceases to be restricted to the privileged few. The implications of "education for the massesl'are insufficiently appreciated, and both curricula and educational techniques must be adjusted to the needs of an increasingly heterogeneous student body.

2. Expansion of teaching programmes

The uneven development of the disciplines is clearly seen in the absence of departments for political science, social psychology. A stronger foundation might be built if all the basic social sciences were allowed to develop as disciplines. been secured, the approach to multidisciplinary orin- terdisciplinary courses may be less liable to produce superficial graduates. The teaching programmes mayindeed be more easily expanded from this basis; moreover, post- graduate education, research programmes and consultancy work would be developed and sustained.

Once this has

3. Improving research

Heavy teaching loads (ten hours or more per week) and large classes (first-year classes often have over 400 students) impede research. There are no arrangements for the release of staff for research, apart from a sabbatical at the end of every 36 months' service. A semester system instead of the present academic year system might give staff more opportunities for research. But research skills must also be improved, and an at- mosphere more conducive to research could be created within the universities by providing more funds, recognizing and rewarding publication, and by fostering greater partnership in community or government- sponsored projects. Apart from sup- plying graduates the university should be regularly involved in policy, problem- solving, research and planning. Most government consultant research is contracted to foreign firms; the government should perhaps give local prophets marginally more hon- our in the universities.

35

Table 7

Enrolments in university education, by race and branch of study, 1973

Degree Courses Malays Chinese Indians Others Total

Arts and Language Economics Law Humanities only, Humanities with Education and Social Science

Islamic Studies Diploma in Education and Public Administration

Science only, Science with E ducat ion

Applied Science Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy Agriculture, Veterinary Science,

Engineering Architecture, Land and Quantity

Forestry

Survey, Town and Country- Planning

3,167 823 63

425 2 63

253

465 2

236

240 178

73

457 48 2 29

234

336

1,728 26 446

170 615

42

245 142 10

8 1

99

187 4 84

24 27

4

28 7 1

13 13

2

14

6

2 2

1

3,897 1,454 103

753 276

69 0

2,394 32 772

436 822

120 ~~

Total 6, 188 4,565 907 89 11,749

Source: Mid-term Review of the Second Malaysia Plan, 1971- 1975, pp. 195- 196.

4. Better research organization

The integration of research with teaching needs a research infrastructure. Social scientists have little knowledge of the activities (and sometimes of the existence) of colleagues. Research units could be set up in large faculties within each university and linked directly (not bureaucratically) to a Social Science Research Centre, which would draw up priorities, contract and fund projects, handle publication and, in due course documentation. The next logical step would be to establish a National Social Science Council to provide liaison between the universities, the government and the private sector, and yet be sufficiently autonomous to safeguard the research interests of the academics, and impartially allocate research funds from the government, the domestic and international foundations and individual sources.

The Council would not be a substitute for the professional associations which social scientists (other than economists) seem to have difficulty in maintaining. A Malaysian Association for the So- cial Sciences might provide better opportunities for contacts between academics and practitioners from diverse disciplines and occupations, attract a sizeable membership, be large enough to prove more lasting, and provoke intellectual discussion between disciplines that could only be beneficial to the development of the social sciences. And it would

be no reason for regret - rather the contrary - if, out of dissent, a number of discipline-based associations came into existence.

5. Enlarging the data base

The paucity of data is largely responsible for the poor level of local content in social science courses and the narrow range of research. The government Department of Statistics makes the census and oc- casional sample surveys, but more topics call for investigation and the surveys should be on a more regular basis. The universities could help in data gathering. A more active publication programme by the main producers of data (government, universities, individuals) could enhance the value of information collected. Field surveys involving the growing student population during the long vacation (February to May) could generate a mass of data. Niceties about exploiting student labour aside, such forays for data or staff-initiated research projects involving alarge number of students would certainly be educational; and social science teaching needs to get out from the lecture hall to the reality of the field situation.

Part of the problem is a question of accessibility. It is reasonable for the government agencies to regard some categories of information as confidential, but not when such information is made available to foreign scholars and denied to those

36

at home. between bureaucrat and academic can perhaps be attenuated by a sincere effort to reach mutual understanding. Often, quite justifiably, the academic researcher is seen by the civil servant as one who only takes, and contributes little that is relevant to his work. Some academics have not been particularly discreet in the use they make of data, spoil- ing the field, as it were, for later colleagues.

It is difficult to blame the government agencies for not making data accessible when universities and individuals in different institutions are so re- luctant at sharing theirs. The absence of a tradition of joint research or institutional collaboration during this period of defensive development of the universities and academic departments partly ex- plains this lack of co-operation.

Eventually, however, the data base for social science research must be accumulated and stored for easy retrieval by future users. It is a matter of some regret that, apart from their published material, few of the universities or government agencies have the necessary means for so doing. Perhaps, libraries could undertake to classify and store raw data collected by researchers, in addition to their books and journals. At present, the Faculty of Economics and Administration is the only one to have a qualified librarian for this work.

need more and better teaching in the core and auxiliary disciplines, a greater consciousness about research, a recognized collective identity, and a more extensive and efficient infrastructure for generating data. But unless social scientists find their individual identity, how can a collective identity emerge? This may seem to misplace the causal relationship. Malaysia has the organizational energy and the financial means; the individuals are pitiably few.

The sometimes antagonistic relationship

In summary the social sciences in Malaysia

IV. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

About 90 per cent of the social science staff in Malaysian universities have a Master's or Doctoral degree from western universities (mainly in the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada). Forty per cent are members of British or American professional associations, 60 per cent are members of local ones. Only a handful have connexions with regional bodies. Sabbatical leave is usually taken in Europe and the United States, partly because many are taking Ph. D. degrees there. However, many social science Ph. D's prefer to spend their six months' sabbatical doing local or regional res ear ch.

The reasons are obvious: political instability in the region, paucity of resources in South East Asian universities, the lack of "reputation" of regional journals, difficulty of communication, absence of

Regional CO- operation has been slow to develop.

a research tradition. Within the last few years, nevertheless, the number of Malaysian students and staff visiting other universities has increased and these more or less superficial contacts help to develop regional academic links. However, a more serious effort is needed.

The fact that Malaysia has failed in the past to attract the international bodies has not resulted in undue hardship. Without the physical presence of these organizations, individuals have become involved in research or consultant work for the Uni- ted Nations and other agencies. Over the pastfew years, however, certain mainly technical regional offices have been located in Malaysia. The Asian Centre for Development Administration was located in Kuala Lumpur in 1973 but its impact is still to be felt. The Regional Institute for Higher Educa- tion Development, located in Singapore, has as its first director the former dean of the Faculty of Economics and Administration of the University of Malaya. of Malaya is the president of the Association of South East Asian Institutions of Higher Learning.

Although opportunities for individual involve- ment in the activities of international and regional organizations exist, the impact is diffused. The temptation to plead for more sponsorship of Malaysian social science activities by international organizations is great, but many believe national social science development and institutionalization to be a national responsibility. This is not of course to question the universality of science, but merely recognizes the need for a national community of scholars and national academic resilience. The social sciences in Malaysia have potentialities and opportunities; what is perhaps most needed is a determination to exploit them. ences have been implanted in fledgling institutions in Malaysia but not rooted in the local environment. Consequently, teaching often comes perilously close to jargon-spinning and the peddling of western models not properly related to Asian social thought or culture. develop their own paradigms. Once given the individual and collective commitment, domestic resources are adequate to the task of developing the social sciences.

Extra-national resources could be more legiti- mately employed in fostering the growth of ties between individuals and institutions concerned with social science development in Asia. tional organizations (such as Unesco) and the regional institutions have obvious financial, advisory and intermediary r6les. Three main categories of needs form a potential agenda of action for international and regional CO- operation in social science development.

The vice- chancellor of the University

The social sci-

Malaysian academics must

The interna-

1. Institution building

(a) Developing area studies programmes located in major universities in Asia;

37

(b) Establishing in each Asian country an Institute of Development Studies;

(c) Subsidizing the formation of regional professional associations in each of the core social sciences; and

search in social science. (d) Founding a University of Asia for advanced re-

2. Infrastructural support

(a) Helping the establishment of bilateral andmulti- lateral ties between universities by e. g. a system of exchange professorships or research fellow ships;

(b) Promoting a regional series of textbooks on social science subjects as well as financing collaborative comparative studies by Asian social scientists;

(c) Sponsoring annual or biennial conventions of social science scholars on specific topics;

(d) Encouraging the growth of regional and

sub- regional social science journals; and

search on common themes. (e) Financing collaborative interdisciplinary re-

3. Documentation

(a) Establishing a Social Science Documentation Centre in each country as a clearing house for Asian social science material; and

(b) Promoting the flow of material and accessibility of data through inter-university consortia, within and between countries.

Some of the above suggestions are long term and would require huge outlays, but many could be taken up immediately. There is an urgent need to identify social scientists operating in each country. Out of knowledge about each other's existence, Asian social scientists themselves might cultivate informal ties that will sustain the more structured means of communication suggested above.

38

Pakistan by

Latif Ahmed Sherwani

Deputy Secretary, Pakistan Institute of International Affairs Karachi


Although the social sciences are more than two cen- turies old in most Asian countries, including Paki- stan, the term ''Social sciences" is new, and teaching and research in the several disciplines covered by it have been introduced recently.

mean those disciplines which study human behaviour scientifically. dition to law, economics, demography, political science, social and cultural anthropology, social statistics, social psychology, and sociology, (which Unesco has described as the ''core" disciplines), criminology, history, public administration, international relations, and management and business studies (i. e. business administration), may also be included. as full disciplines in Pakistani universities.

tan inherited only one established centre of higher education - the University of the Punjab at Lahore. Founded in 1882, it provided courses in only three social sciences (economics, political science and history). college which prepared students for degrees in law, and a large number of general affiliated colleges. Some months before Independence, first steps had also been taken to establish the University of Sind at Karachi. and a new campus was built at Jamshoro. universities have been set up at Peshawar (1950) and Karachi (1951). up at Lyallpur in 1961, incorporated the Punjab Agricultural College which was estabIished in 1919. In 1970 the University of Baluchistan was set up at Quetta, and Gomal University is now being established at Dera Ismail Khan.

The universities are corporate autonomous bodies but their statutes are subject to approval by the governments of their respective provinces, which also provide most of the funds. The Provin- cial Governors are Chancellors of the universities

According to this writer, social sciences should

He therefore suggests that, in ad-

Not all of these subjects are recognized

At independence in August 1947, West Pakis-

The University also had a constituent

In 1951 it was shifted to Hyderabad Further

The University of Agriculture set

in their provinces and appoint the chief executives (Vice-Chancellors). Universities receive additional grants from the Central Government donations, from individuals and firms.

badin 1973, operates through correspondence courses, television, radio, and seminars, but will not be considered in this report.

Islamabad was established in 1965. The Central Government provides all the funds and the Chan- cellor is the President of Pakistan, who appoints its Vice- Chancellor. courses at post- graduate level only and has no constituent or affiliated colleges.

courses are now being provided in eight social science disciplines. These are (1) Law, (2) Economics, (3) Political Science, (4) Sociology, (5) History, (6) Public Administration, (7) International Rela- tions, and (8) Business Administration. Courses are also being given inother social science subjects as part of other disciplines. In the University of the Punjab, for instance, Economics includes "Demography" and "Problems of Population", covers topics such as world population growth, world population and resources, and distribution of world population. "Cultural Anthropology", "Social Statistics", and "Criminology" are separate courses in Sociology. In the University of Sind, "Cultural Anthropology" is included under Educa- tion. In the University of Karachi, "Population Problems", "Social Statistics", "Social Anthro- pology" and "Criminology" are courses under So- ciology, while Psychology includes "Fundamentals of Social Psychology" and "Current Perspectives in Social Psychology". All social science subjects will no doubt eventually attain the status of full- fledged disciplines in Pakistan universities.

terioration in teaching standards. many senior positions were held by Hindus. After Partition, Hindu teachers who left Pakistan for India were replaced by Muslims who in most cases

The Peoples Open University, set up at Islama-

In addition to the above, the University of

The University provides

Compared with only four disciplines in 1947,

Rapid expansion of education led to some de- Before 1947,

39

had neither the same qualifications or teaching experience. created acute staff problems. teachers ''found themselves teaching classes com- posed of persons who only a few days before had been their student colleagues". ( 1) Furthermore, many of them were looking for better-paid jobs in government or business and left as soon as they got them. Discipline among students also suffered.

Despite these problems, new social science disciplines were introduced and existing courses (except in Law) were extensively revised to bring teachers closer to everyday realities.

In the University of the Punjab, for example, "International Trade", earlier part of "Money and Banking" became a full course. "Planning and Economic Growth, with special reference to Pakistan'' was introduced, and, in view of the rapid growth of population, also a full course on "Problems of Population". "Agricultural Economics'' was another new course. troduced two courses on comparative political systems, relating to advanced and developing countries respectively, together with full courses on Paki- stan's "Ideology, Government and Politics" and another on the "Pakistan Movement, Institutions and External Relations and Problems".

Law occupies a special position. universities it has a separate faculty and professional colleges (constituent or affiliated). Most of the teachers are practising lawyers, and courses are related primarily to the requirements of the courts of law - hence the absence of major revisions. The law courses are given in the evenings and involve less work than other disciplines. Most students either study simultaneously for another degree or have a job during the day so that, like the teachers, they cannot devote all their time to law. Nevertheless, for several reasons, law students are many more than in any other social science. degree carries a considerable advantage in the competition for jobs. If no jobs are available private practice is a possibility, and often leads to a'career in politics. Thirdly, familiarity with the law seems to have become a necessity of everyday life in Pakistan.

Human behaviour is inherently complex, and all the more so under conditions of industrialization and urbanization. Each social science can study human behaviour only from its own viewpoint - economists are primarily concerned with the allocation of resources, political scientists with governmental organization, social psychologists with the place of the individual in society, sociologists with social organization. No one discipline can give a complete picture of the behaviour of man; and when human behaviour is studied by several disciplines, their studies necessarily overlap. Myrdal has remarked "all problems of livingare complex; they cannot be fitted into the pigeonholes of our inherited academic disciplines, to be dealt with as economic, psychological, social or political

The establishment of new universities In many cases,

A new course,

"Political Science" in-

In all the

A law

As Gunnar

problems. Sometimes - for teaching purposes and for greater efficiency in research, through specialization - the old disciplines have been retained and even separated into sub- disciplines; however, we do not attach the same significance to these divisions as in earlier times". (2)

The study of human behaviour thus obviously demands an interdisciplinary approach. As Murray L. Wax has noted: "How can one study poverty without studying the framework of production and trade in which people are poor; and conversely, how can one study the economy without studying how it en- courages the displacementi and migration of peoples and their location as urban pobr? How can one study crime without studying the political machinery that defines crime and labels men as criminals; and conversely, how can one study the Statewithout studying the government. 'I( 3, As another scholar has pointed out: "The insights of social psychology - particularly those aspects that focus on group dy- namics - can be applied to the international system, with each State considered as a member of the group. 4)

This relationship is reflected in the organization of the courses in Pakistani universities. the University of the Punjab, for example, Inter- national Law and External Relations are included in Political Science. In Karachi, Political Science and International Relations come under International Relations. History of European Diplomacy, and History of India and Pakistan (1858- 1947) are common to the two disciplines of History and Interna- tional Relations. In all the universities, Public Administration is included under Political Science. (Until late in the nineteenth century, Political Sci- ence and Economics, now separate, were the single discipline Political Economy. )

one course in Economics, but is now a full discipline in several universities, and covers Cultural Anthro- pology, Social Anthropology, Social Statistics, Political Sociology, Sociology of Population, In- dustrial Sociology, Sociology of Development, and Criminology. (Several of these are of course also being studied from a different angle under other disciplines. )

In

In the earlyyears, Sociology tended to be just

(1) Ralph Braibanti, Research on the Bureau- cracy of Pakistan, Duke University Press, Durham, N.C., 1966, p. 22.

(2) Asian Drama, Vol. I, Penguin Books, 1968,

( 3) p. 12. "Myth and interrelationship in social science", in Muzafer Sharif and Carolyn W. Sharif (eds. ), Interdisciplinary relationship in social sciences, Aldine Publishing Co. , Chicago, 1969, pY81.

(4) Marshal R. Singer, Weak states in a world of powers, The Free Press, New York, 1972, p. 40.

40


A. Teaching

Economics Political Science Busines s Administration International Relations So c io10 gy His tory

The framework for teaching social sciences is in general much more adequate than that for research, but this varies from university to university and

Karachi ___ Sind

543 163 328 133 306 210 73 157 31 82 5

from discipline to discipline. For instance, Punjab alone offers a Master of Arts in Public Administra- tion. Although Peshawar and Karachi were established at about the same time, Peshawar provides only four social science courses (Law, Economics, Political Science, History), while Karachi offers in addition Sociology, International Relations, and Business Administration. Business Administration is taught at only two universities (Karachi and Pun- jab). stitute of Business Administration, with 16 teachers, (including two professors and two associate professors), while the Punjab Department is run on a co- operative basis with the Departments of Economics, Administrative Science, and Business Education, the Law College and the College of Commerce. The Punjab Department has three permanent staff (and only a single associate professor) and some 15 visiting staff.

Conditions for the award of the first degree are not uniform. In Law, the first degree (Bache- lor of Laws (LL. B. )) is not awarded until two years after graduationin Arts, Science or Commerce. In the Arts Honours course, the candidate takes one main and two subsidiary disciplines. In Karachi, the Honours Bachelor of Business Administration degree (B. B. A. Hons. ) takes two years after grad- uation. In all other cases, the first degree in social sciences is at Master level. universities can award M. Phil. and Ph. D. degrees

Karachi has a self- contained constituent In-

Almost all the

The 1974 teaching staff at Karachi were as follows: Economics 13, Political Science 12, Business Ad- ministration 16, International Relations 6, Sociol- ogy 11, History 7.

pline to discipline, being very high in Law and Economics. In affiliated colleges, the proportion of part- time to regular teachers tends to be high. In the special circumstances of Pakistan, 1:15 is generally considered to be a satisfactory teacher- student ratio.

usuallyhas its own chairman, despite the fact that some are verylarge and some very small, and staff may be highly qualified or much less qualified. The chairman need not necessarily be either the senior or most highly qualified teacher. Under a system recently introduced, the chairmanship rotates among the three most senior, so that often the chairman may be junior in service and less qualified than some of his colleagues.

Interest in the social sciences is growing in Pakistan. According to one rough estimate, their students number one in every four. Economics and Political Science attract the largest numbers, mainly because they offer more openings for graduates. The Institute of Business Administration in Karachi also understandably attracts large numbers.

The teacher- student ratio varies from disci-

Each discipline is organized separately and

in various social science disciplines. offers an LL. M. (Master of Laws) and Karachi alone a Ph. D. in Business Administration. But because library facilities are inadequate and few teachers are competent to supervise research at post- graduate level, few students enrol for LL. M., M.Phi1. or Ph. D. degrees, most preferring to take them abroad.

uniform. For instance, Islamabad alone has a Facultyof Social Sciences and awards a corresponding Master of Science (M. Sc.) degree. In Peshawar, Economics, Political Science and History come under Humanities; in Karachi these three, and So- ciology and International Relations, are grouped under Arts. In Punjab, Business Administration comes under Arts, and Commerce is a separate faculty, while in Karachi, Business Administra- tion and Commerce constitute one faculty.

Numbers in the social sciences vary considerably. In 1973-1974, for instance, enrolment of students in Honours and Master classes in two universities was as follows:

Punjab alone B. Research

Social science grouping under faculties is not

For several reasons, Pakistan made a very poor start in research. Library facilities were wholly inadequate, and the numbers trained in research techniques were small. Furthermore, the struggle for independence had not been long or bitter, so that, when the new State came into being, people worked to build a new society, but there were hardly any clear guidelines.

land was primarily a political movement for freedom from the domination of the Hindu majority in the sub-continent, and hardly any thinking had been done about the character and socio- economic structure of the new State.

People in Pakistan are much more impressed by the poetical and by the verbal cleverness of what is said rather than by the argument. As one foreign scholar, Braibanti, has said: "Reading serious scholarship with copious documentation or carefully developed reasoning is often looked upon as inferior because it is "dull".

The Muslim struggle for an independent home-

The reading

41

preferred is the provocative essay (preferably sa- tirical) of the type found in popular periodicals. This attitude conduces little respect for the written or spoken exposition if it is qualified by scholarly caution and circumspection. "(1)

try confronted with difficult political, social and economic problems. undertaken in the universities, but the one established university in the early years had serious staffing difficulties. Private research was not feasible. The Government had to step in. This is partly why, even in later years, very little private research has been undertaken, and almost all worthwhile research has had to be wholly or mostly financed by the Government or by Government- approved foreign agencies.

Many researchers feel free to criticize developments under past governments, but become cautious about current policies and findings that might seem to contra- dict them. tists and could be detrimental both to the country and to the Government. vinced that every Government in Pakistan has had the same objectives - the glory of the State and the welfare of the largest number of people - albeit according to its own lights. tive criticism should therefore always be welcome.

The circumstances being so unfavourable, it is understandable that there has been no fundamental research and that none is likely for some time to come. This may also apply to many other developing countries. It is very unfortunate, since basic research deepens our insight and our understanding of economic and social conditions. But such research is much too expensive and many developing countries simply cannot afford it. Paki- stani social scientists have therefore been engaged in research on specific problems involved in the formulation of policies.

Little research is being done in Law, Political Science, Social and Cultural Anthropology, Social Statistics, Social Psychology, Criminology or Busi- ness Administration. Economics is a different case, however. From the very start, Pakistan had to face serious problems of economic growth. The authorities were trying to determine the conditions for rapid economic development, and financed or sponsored a number of research organizations.

The Pakistan Institute o! Development Eco- nomics, established in 1957 at Karachi with the co- operation of an American foundation, autonomous in 1964 under an order issued by the President of Pakistan. In 1970, its headquarters, and library of some 28,000 volumes, were shifted to Dacca (then part of Pakistan). The small branch left at Karachi has since been reorganized, and has become a full Institute in Islamabad.

by the Secretary of the Pakistani Ministry of

Nevertheless, research was needed in a coun-

It should normally have been

This involves one major weakness.

This does no credit to our social scien-

The present writer is con-

New ideas and construc-

became

The Institute has an Executive Board, headed

Education. Most of the Board's members are senior government officials, nominated by the Government. The Institute has always been government-financed, but also receives substantial grants from American institutions, including a recent Ford Foundation grant of $250,000 to rebuild the library and provide facilities for training its staff. The Institute promotes research in development economics and provides facilities for training in economic and demographic analysis. It publishes the quarterly Pakistan Devel- opment Review, andvarious monographs and reports.

The Board of Economic Inquiry (Lahore), established in 1919, is now financed by the Govern- ment of the Pakistani Punjab. Its Board of Governors, headed by the Chairman of the Planning and Development Board of the Punjab province, includes senior Punjab officials, university staff, and financial and business interests.

resulted in some 150 reports and numerous pamphlets; almost three- fourths of these publications deal with such rural problems as the size of land holdings, irrigation, marketing and livestock. At the moment it has no regular publication.

North-West Frontier province was established in 1953 at Peshawar. This Board is under the control of the University of Peshawar, whose Vice- Chancellor also heads a sixteen- member managing committee of the heads of provincial government departments. Financed by the local government, the Board does research in agricultural, industrial and labour economics. It has published about 80 reports.

In 1973, the University of Karachi started an Applied Economics Research Centre on problems of Pakistan in general, and Sind in particular. It received a grant of $8,000 from the Ford Founda- tion. Its regular financing is the responsibility of the Government of Sind and the University of Karachi. It has started work on six projects. At present, one teacher from the University of Cali- fornia and another from Simon Frazer University are associated with its work.

State Bank of Pakistan is now the largest research organization in the country. Established in 1951, it assists the State Bank in formulating monetary and credit policies and advises the Government on economic and financial matters, keeping a close watch on domestic and international economic developments. the Economic Adviser of the State Bank. Research covers six sectors: Monetary and Banking; Balance of Payments and International Institutions; Capital Market, Industrial Production and Prices; Agricul- tural Economics; Planning, Development and Pub- lic Finance; and Islamiyyat (Islamic Studies). The Department publishes the monthlystate Bank Bulletin;

Its research on socio- economic problems has

A similar Board of Economic Inquiry in the

The Research Department of the semi- government

Executive control is exercised by

(1) Braibanti, cited, pp. 56- 57.

42

and a comprehensive review of economic conditions and a yearly report on currency and finance.

The State Bank Library is one of the best organized and equipped in the country, containing some 42,000 books andpamphlets, and 15,000 bound volumes of journals and newspapers. to 200 periodicals and newspapers, and has files of news clippings, arranged under 132 heads, dat- ing back to 1950. In 1968 a micro-film laboratory was also added.

Almost all the major commercial banks (recently nationalized) have research departments, the best known being that of the United Bank Limited Karachi. It was established in 1967. It keeps up to date onsuchsubjects as the oil crisis and international monetary problems, and prepares reports for the Pakistan Planning Commission, the Taxa- tion Commission and other national agencies.

It subscribes

It publishes a Monthly Economic Letter.

Wholly private economics agencies include the I _ -

National Institute of Social and Economic Research (Karachi), established in 1970 and financed by business interests. are businessmen.

It promotes understanding between private and public policy- makers and administrators, publishes books and pamphlets, and organizes meetings, panel discussions and seminars.

zation but the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics recently decided to concentrate in the coming years on problems arising from the rapid growth of population, and has accordingly set up a Population Section with a very handsome grant from American AID of $750,000 to be utilized during the next five years.

Sociology is the subject of several projects. With funds provided by an American university, a three-year Family Structure and Fertility Out- come Project was recently started under the aus- pices of the Department of Sociology at the Univer- sity of Karachi, to investigate variations in family structure in the developing society of Pakistan and the relationship of such variation to family planning and fertility behaviour. The Project is headed by Dr. Jahangir Khan. The same department has another project, Changes in the Status of Women, financed by the Ford Foundation. It was started in December 1973, to run for one year. Dr. M. S. Baqai is in charge.

versity of Agriculture recently completed a study for the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development on the r8le of co-operatives in initiat- ing or CO- ordinating planned change in communities in Pakistan. Another project (Sociological Study of the Values, Attitudes and Motives of the Rural People as regards Family Planning in the Punjab) was started in March 1974, under Dr. Haider Ali C haudhari.

tial work in history. The Pakistan Historical

Most of its managing committee

Demography has no separate research organi-

The Department of Rural Sociology of the Uni-

Two research organizations have done substan-

Society (Karachi) was established in 1950 to pro- mote historical studies of Islamic civilization and the India- Pakistan sub- continent. The Executive Committee is elected for three years. Society's expenditure is at present met by a government grant-in- aid. The Society has published about 50 books and pamphlets, including A History of the Freedom Movement, in several volumes, for which the Government made a special grant of Rs 250,000. It has also organized annual conferences at different places in Pakistan at which research papers are read by scholars. The Society's Journal is published four times a year.

The other history organization is the Research Society of Pakistan (Lahore), established in 1963 with finances provided by the Evacuee Property Trust Board. In 1965 the Society was formally integrated with the University of the Punjab as a semi-autonomous body, having its own board of governors, and with the Vice-Chancellor as its President. The Society caters for scholars interested in the history and cultural heritage of Pakistan and Muslim India, early and modern with priority to the Muslim heritage of Pakistan. has published about 30 volumes: its quarterly Journal was started in 1964.

Public Administration has no separate research organization but Dr. Muneer Ahmad, Chair- man of the Department of Administrative Science, University of Punjab, has been doing some work on his own. Regular research programmes exist in several government in- service training institutes for officials and executives of public corporations and local bodies, e. g. the Pakistan Administrative Staff College and the National Institute of Public Administration at Lahore, the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development at Peshawar, and the Na- tional Institute of Public Administration at Karachi. All four publish regular publications and various mono graphs.

Karachi, is for all practical purposes a continua- tion of the Indian Institute of International Affairs, New Delhi, whose library, furniture and other as- sets were transferred to Karachi in 1947 (the writer of this report having played a leading r81e in the transfer). 15-member Council, elected from amongst its members. from the Government, and considerable sums from renting parts of its building to commercial houses.

The Institute promotes research in international politics, economics and law. Its quarterly Paki- stan Horizon, first appeared in 1948. It has also published a Bibliography, three volumes of documents on Pakistan's foreign relations, and about a dozen pamphlets. Several of its staff (including the present writer) have contributed to foreign scholarly journals and participated in conferences in different parts of the world.

has no regular staff and, except for a small initial

Half the

The Society

The Pakistan Institute of International Affairs,

The Institute is autonomous and has a

It receives regular and special grants

The Council for Pakistan Studies, Karachi,

43

grant from a Pakistan bank, receives no financial assistance from any source. The Council was founded some eight years ago by the present writer and is managed by a committee of sponsors who are all scholars and writers. They do all the work and receive payment according to the nature and amount. The Council has published four studies.

tablished as an autonomous body at Islamabad, is financed by the Government. Its Board of Gover- nors is headed by a retired senior career diplomat. It studies international strategic, political and economic issues of special interest to Pakistan for the benefit of the Government and the public. It plans to publish a journal and books and pamphlets from time to time.

interdisciplinary approach which, because of the unsatisfactory state of research in several disciplines, Pakistani social scientists find it difficult to undertake on their own. With assistance from abroad, therefore, some of the universities have taken the initiative in establishing institutions and doing such research.

The University of the Punjab established a Socio-Economic Research Project in 1956 which, in 1959 became the separate Social Science Re- search Centre of the University, which finances it. In the early years, thecentrewas able to raise additional funds from the projects done under con- tractwith outside agencies. In 1962 the AsiaFounda- tion provided Rs 100,000 for use during difficult financial periods. In 1964, when the objectives were redefined, it was stated that the Centre would initiate research projects on sociological, economic and demographic problems of West Pakistan and train suitable people for social research. Under a further modification in 1966, the Centre was to provide post- graduate training in empirical and methodical research. Since 1969, when funds were reduced to Rs 25,000 per annum, activities have been very much curtailed, but the Centre has substantial work, and some fifty completed research projects to its credit.

In 1971 a Social Science Research Centre was set up at the University of Karachi. Funds from the Sind Government have enabled it to construct its own premises. It started a family planningpro- ject with finances provided from the PL 480 account, for a three-year duration, with the possibility of an extension for another year.

Interdisciplinary reseamh at the Institute of Business Administration (Karachi) includes about 30 reports (government or business sponsored) on such subjects as foreign trade, employment, de- valuation and insurance. A major item is the Joint Research Project for Slum Improvement and Urban Development, originally sponsored by the Pakistan Planning Commission; the Netherlands has provided financial assistance as well as experts. The project is estimated to cost Rs 4 million and run for five years, but may go on somewhat longer.

The Institute of Strategic Studies, recentlyes-

Socio- economic problems obviously call for an

Realizing that, as stated in The Education Policy 1972- 1980 (Ministry of Education, Islama- bad, March 1972, p. 14), the "advancement of knowledge and the promotion of research are as essential functions of a university as teaching and conducting examinations", and that the "study of various contemporary societies, particularly those which affect our national interests, is of vital importance", the Government has recently set up area study centres at the different universities as follows: Punjab - India-Pakistan sub-continent; Karachi - Europe; Sind - Far East and South East Asia; Peshawar - Central Asia; Baluchistan - Middle East and Arab countries; Islamabad - Africa and the Americas.

C. Manpower

It is very difficult to give the numbers of social scientists in Pakistan. sities have been producing 2,000 lawyers and 1,500 other social scientists (at Master level). are no specialized institutions for preparing candidates for particular jobs, students who have taken an LL. B. or Master's degree are considered to have completed their education.

About one- third of those who complete law courses go in for private legal practice. A very small number join family businesses. Most of the ladies simply become housewives. The most talented or well connected first try for executive jobs in government and semi- government offices, for considerations of both salary and prestige. Apart from those who make direct use of their qualifications, e. g. economists in the Planning Commission, most who enter the public service make little further use of their specialized knowledge. A very small number also go to foreign missions and firms, where they get very good salaries and also work under good conditions. The remainder seek appointments in the universities, research organizations and colleges - which accordingly do not attract the most talented; and graduates who take clerical jobs in government offices and private businesses have practically no opportunities for making use of their specialized knowledge.

Science, Sociology, History) have national associations, but these are not very active. Worse still, others have no such associations at all. This is indeed very unfortunate, as associations can both defend the interests of members and advance research by, for example, holdingmeetings, discussing papers, establishing contacts in other countries, learning about new developments, and putting for- ward solutions to current problems.

Individuals can of course study problems and publish findings and recommendations, but these are hardly likely to get the same consideration as those of a group, for two reasons: the findingsand recommendations of a group will in principle be

In recent years the univer-

As there

Certain disciplines (Law, Economics, Political

44

more balanced than those of an individual; and secondly, a group will probablyfind it easier to obtain publicity for its views and a hearing from the authorities.


The Government's education policy aims at "building up and nurturing the total personality of the individual, dynamic, creative and capable of facing the truth as it emerges from the objective study of reality: an individual able to comprehend fully the nature of technical and social change and hav- ingdeep concern for the improvement of society". ( 1) According to present plans, almost the entire expansion in educational facilities will be in the natural sciences; for the time being at least, the Government has no policy for the social sciences.

This indifference to the social sciences seems to be based upon a misunderstanding; according to this writer, the r61e of social scientists in a developing society is as important as that of doctors or engineers, for the simple reason that in the process of development, human behaviour and motives are as important as physical health or the factories which produce goods for the country.

In fact, this writer would go further and say that social scientists have as much responsibility for solving their country's socio- economic problems as the Government inasmuch as the two have their own separate and clearly defined r6les in the same process of development. It is the considered view of this writer that while the Government should, from time to time, define the goals and targets which it desires the country to reach, it should be left to the social scientists to examine how far these goals are attainable in the conditions obtaining in the country. The Government should then refix the targets in the light of the examination conducted by the social scientists and call upon the civil servants to draw up programmes for attaining the revised targets.

But much more important than the attitude of the Government to the social scientists are actual socio- economic conditions. Firstly, teachers (including social scientists) may sympathize with and sometimes quietly work for political parties. This partly accounts for the unusual interest which students take in school and national politics. Break- downs in discipline may follow, and whenever they become serious, the authorities may close down universities and colleges, sometimes for very long periods. by the social scientists and other teachers for improving their knowledge and doing some research on the problems facing the country but because many of them are involved in politics, they spend their free time in non- academic activities.

tutions do not attract the best talent, and library facilities are inadequate, most of our social scientists are not capable of producing good results on their own and very often they simply rehash the

Normally such closures should be utilized

Secondly, since educational and research insti-

views and findings of western colleagues about the developing countries which, as Gunnar Myrdal has pointed out, are nothing but "opportunistic research" that "operates in all western countries, especially in the larger ones actively involved in the cold war". (2) Since the end of the Second World War there has been Ira swelling flood of research" in Western countries on the problems of the developing countries, but it has been primarily motiva- ted by "the international tensions, culminating in the cold war, that have made the fate of the under- developed countries a matter of foreign policy concern in the developed countries".(3) And since conditions and points of view in the developing countries are different from those in the advanced countries, such research contains serious distortions.

Thirdly, as most of our social scientists were trained in Western (generally American) institutions, the concepts and theories with which they are familiar are those taught and practised in the West. Although these, very often, are not applicable to the developing countries, many of our social scientists go so far as to hold their own society and culture responsible for the backwardness of their countries and want to blindly follow Western ways. This is surely a misreading of the history of development, since "the West itself has developed through innovation in science, technology, and social organization, providing new responses to new challenges . . . 'I. (4)

Fourthly, most of our social scientists come from towns and cities and live in them, whereas the vast majority of people in Pakistan live invil- lages and smaller towns which have a less sophis- ticated outlook and few modern amenities. Social scientists thus tend to learn first- hand experiences of the problems of most people.

Fifthly, because of the general belief that those who have wealth have everything, most social scientists (both teachers and researchers) are more interested in advancing their own material interests than in furthering the cause of their country. They often prefer not to express unpopular views about certain national problems which might compromise their chances of advancement.

Lastly, many who do their duty and make their findings known feel that their views will not receive proper consideration from the policy- makers and, therefore, that the work they are doingwill not serve any useful purpose. This of course is a mistaken view of research. Since the findings of a scholar are valuable for their own sake and not for the use to which they are put. (1) Ministry of Education, The Education Policy

1972- 1980, Islamabad, March 1972, p. 1. (2) Asian Drama, cited, p. 12. (3) Ibid. , p. 8. (4) Inayatullah, "Toward a non-Western model of

development", in Daniel Lerner and Wilbur Schramm, Communication and change in the developing countries, East-West Centre Press, Honolulu, 1967, p. 102.

45

And because the Government has framed no policy for social sciences, teaching and research suffer from serious disadvantages and anomalies - no separate provision of funds, teachers in many disciplines too few or not highly qualified enough, and so on. In the University of Sind, for example, not a single sociology teacher is sufficiently qualified to have the rank of Professor or Associate Pro- fessor. Similarly, in Economics at Karachi, of 13 teachers, for 543 students only one has a Ph. D. Despite the urgent need for research, institutions are not being established - not a single one for Political Science, for instance, although it is one of the oldest of the social sciences in Pakistani universities, even more important, there is no machinery to test the findings of social scientists.

that policy- makers should fully understand that economic development, especially under private enterprise, creates its own problems, and especially social problems (poverty side by side with great affluence among a very small section of the population, big slums close to small expensive housing areas, widespread corruption, large- scale tax evasion (except by the salaried class), serious misunderstandings between the "haves" and the "have nots" ).

Moreover, planning is a very complicated process which, according to Bessie A. McClenahan, involves the following ten steps: (i) awareness of needs; (ii) research to discover the present facts; (iii) study of historical background; (iv) evaluation of possible plans; (v) choice of plan; (vi) designing a programme and machinery to implement the plan; (vii) public acceptance of the plan; (viii) carrying out the plan; (ix) re-evaluation of the social situation; and (x) revision of the plan. (1)

tinuous study and research because the underlying factors are constantly changing.

Such matters can be studied properly by those social scientists whose only loyalty is to the truth as they see it, and whose approach is scientific, ratio'nal and intellectual. "It is the ethos of scientific inquiry that truth and blunt truth- speaking are wholesome and that illusions, including those inspired by charity and goodwill, are always damaging. Illusions handicap the pursuit of knowledge and they must obstruct efforts to make planning for development fully effective and successful. "(2)

teaching and research in the social sciences must be strengthened. They must be treated as equals with the natural sciences in Pakistan universities, in three faculties: (1) Social Sciences, (2) Natural Sciences and (3) Arts. This would help offset the present dominance of the natural sciences in the allotment of funds and in attracting talented students.

Moreover, scientific inquiry is possible only in universities and research organizations which have their own finances. Even Braibanti, who is

What can be done? The first requirement is

These problems and processes require con-

As Myrdal has remarked:

To develop a full awareness of this basic truth,

so impressed by bureaucracy in Pakistan, has in the final analysis to admit: "Ultimately, leader- ship in research must rest with groups outside the bureaucracy with maximum access to information. Universities can best perform this function, and it may be that a drift on the part of bureaucracy to classification and secrecy may be counterbalanced by a growing strength of university research and a spreading appreciation for the autonomy, dignity, and utility of professional scholarship. 'I( 3)

and easy access to all the relevant information on national affairs, which in many cases now happens to be in government files and reports. As Braibanti notedin 1965: "the sector of concealedor withdrawn information is understandably large simply because bureaucracy was, less than two decades ago, operated by British officials who were compelled to prevent Indian agitation for independence from obstructing State business. public was the natural enemy of government, and in many ways this relationship has not greatly changed since then". (4) This observationis as true today as when it was made and the "research use of government materials now depends largely on an appeal to goodwill or friendship". (5)

Social scientists have difficulty in getting the foreign materials - books, journals and newspapers- which are essential for their study and research. The universities and research organizations are seldom fully autonomous and are constantly refer- ring to the government for advice about what they should or should not do. Because of the perennial shortage of funds there is rarely a proper reward in financial terms for those who do outstanding work.

the National or Provincial Assemblies or receive diplomatic posts. Even in presiding over meetings of intellectuals, ministers and officials are now almost always preferred.

scientists in an advisory capacity, but seldom allow enough time or adequate facilities to study in depth the issues involved. In any case, the public never knows what advice was given or to what extent it influenced policies.

Looking to the future, it is most important that conditions be created to attract the best available talent. salaries to teachers, as has recently been done in Pakistan, but also enabling social scientists to learn about latest developments throughout the world,

(1) Martin H. Neumeyer, Social problems and the changing society, D. Van Nostrand Corn- pany, New York, 1953, p. 449, footnote. Asian Drama, cited, p. 23.

Research cannot be scientific if denied free

In this respect the

Few (if any) social scientists are elected to

Some government departments invite social

This will mean not only giving adequate

(2)

95-96.

Ibid. , pp. 57- 58. (4) Ibid. , p. 58. (5)

46

and creating more jobs for them (e. g. in new or expanded research organizations).

Research is necessary for its own sake and reinforces teaching, and if the standard of teachingis to improve, it must be given its proper place. Two steps seem absolutely essential.

First, the primary consideration in deciding promotion in the universities should be research and not length of service. Sometimes admittedly, the teaching load is so heavy that teachers have no time for research; but the solution in such cases is to employ additional staff or to allow teachers, say, a year off for research after a specified number of years teaching.

Secondly, working conditions must be improved. Research salaries are less than those of university teachers with the same qualifications and length of service, holidays are much less, and promotion opportunities are so few that most research staff retire in the same position and pay scale in which they were recruited.

availability of reliable facts and figures about national affairs. According to Braibanti, Lt. -Col. Nazir Ahmad, Director-General of the Central Sta- tistical Office, is reported to have "characterized the statistical situation in Pakistan as failing topro- vide a 'worthwhile understanding of (1) the working of the economy as a whole; (2) the social structure of the nation; (3) the nature of the forces and their mutual relationships' and to have remarked: 'There are few (statistical) series that deserve the descrip- tion good and all too many that are worse than use- less'". The statistical offices should be made fully autonomous, and social scientists should be associated with their work.

entists should be subsidized. pensive foreign books could be reprinted in Paki- stan by arrangement with the publishers or authors. At least in major cities such as Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi and Peshawar, social scientists should be afforded easy access to material in government offices and in general and specialized libraries.

In every social science discipline, a small group of really competent teachers and researchers should regularly meet with senior officials to dis- cuss national issues of mutual interest.

Public debate on national socio- economic problems should be encouraged, if necessary with public funds. The talks and seminars occasionally sponsored by the Government are certainly not enough. The real need is that social scientists should be encouraged to produce scholarly books and articles on such problems and for this work they should be properly rewarded. At the moment, if he is lucky to get published, he will be paid either nothing or at ridiculously low rates.

Public debate will also encourage people to buy serious books, thus both creating a demand and helping to educate the public.

As funds are unlikely to be available for the

For social scientists one great handicap is non-

The import of materials needed by social sci- Perhaps some ex-

universities and research organizations from non- governmental sources for quite some time, two practical suggestions can be made. First, both should be made really autonomous, and government officials and nominees on the governing bodies should make way for scholars who command respect for their knowledge, integrity, and familiarity with the problems involved. Two, all funds for the universities and research organizations could be placed in a separate account to be managed jointly by the nominees of both parties. made on the basis of the work possible in the light of the country's needs. could then be re- examined, and adapted according to the availability of funds. Such an examination might suggest certain closures or mergers, e. g. the University of Sind might close its History De- partment (which at the moment has ten teachers and five students) and arrange for the admission of its history students to the nearby University of Karachi; or the Pakistan Institute of International Affairs and the Institute of Strategic Studies could be merged into one organization.

In view of the very serious shortage of funds, library facilities and competent social scientists, and the extent of the socio-economic problems, it is essential to make efficient use of what is available.

Grants would be

Academic programmes

IV. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

Most Pakistani social scientists had their advanced education and training in Western and particularly, American institutions, and understandably feel closer to colleagues in the United States than any- where else. There are other reasons for this: (i) teaching and research in the social sciences receives more attention in the United States than in any other country, and the facilities are more extensive; (ii) most of the books and journals come to Pakistan from the United States; (iii) American institutions often financially assist advanced studies and Pakistani participation in international conferences; (iv) the only foreign language in which most Pakistani social scientists feel at home and competent to express themselves is English. It naturally follows that they are normally more keen to go to the United States than to any other country.

history, language, traditions, and contiguity with several Asian countries. For example, Pakistan and India share the same educational background and (similar socio- economic problems) but uneasy political relations have inhibited CO- operation between the social scientists of the two countries.

institutions have an almost wholly different socio- economic background and Pakistani social scientists

These considerations even outweigh links of

However, as pointed out earlier, Western

(1) Ibid., p. 73. -

47

also need to study non-Western conditions and theories, and to be able to choose accordingly in proposing solutions.

The United Nations and international agencies can be of much assistance in establishing contacts by, for example, making available to Pakistan and other Asian countries selected material from the socialist countries and the comparatively advanced countries of the Third World (this of course will need careful selection, and probably translation into English); and by arranging exchanges and visits - especially from trained personnel from comparatively advanced Third World countries from whom Pakistani teachers and researchers can obtain first- hand knowledge about what is being done in countries with similar problems.

scientists on a regional basis is obviously necessary and desirable. Two or more countries with similar socio- economic conditions could establish joint teaching and research institutions (Iran, Pakistan and Turkey are already collaborating on several projects). With international assistance, such collaborationwill no doubt expand and become more fruitful, and lessen dependence on foreign sources.

It will similarly be useful if social scientists from several countries in the same region separately study identical problems in their respective countries, compare their findings and then make their recommendations. In such experiments assistance from international organizations will be required separately by each country.

Co-operation and collaboration between social

International organizations could be most help- ful in dealing with a major problem in Pakistan and most Asian countries: the inadequacy of library facilities, and the difficulty of keeping them up to date. It is suggested that international organizations should ascertain the requirements of Pakistan and provide assistance in getting the materials required - especially scholarly journals and reports of international conferences in the social sciences from foreign countries and in setting up documentation centres and statistical offices on scientific lines.

Pakistan (and many other Asian countries) would greatly welcome assistance from abroad in establishing institutes of social development interdisciplinary teaching- cum- research ins titu- tions in the social sciences, which would also collect data and make it available.

Some arrangement is also needed for making the findings of social scientists in Asian countries better known. Often they are not known even to Asian scholars involved in tackling the socio- economic problems of their countries, because such research is often done in a national language which is not understood elsewhere. This difficulty might be overcome by publishing Social Science Abstracts, on a regional basis in English, giving details of items being studied, findings and methodology. Unesco which has already done some very good work on similar lines, might consider providing both the initiative and financial assistance in starting such Abstracts.

48

Thailand

Titaya Suvanajata

Assistant Professor, Research Centre National Institute of Development Administration

and

Amphon Namatra

Director Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University

INTRODUCTION

Autonomy and purity form the ethos of science. This ethos, strongly advocated by scientists, however, presents a dilemma to scientists as well as their clientkle. Robert K. Merton has stated this problem interestingly:

Science must not suffer itself to become the hand-maiden of theology or economy or state. The function of this sentiment is likewise to preserve the autonomy of science. For if such extra- scientific criteria of the value of science as presumable consonance with religious doc- trines or economic utility or political appro- priateness are adopted, science becomes acceptable only in so far as it meets these criteria. In other words, as the pure science sentiment is eliminated, science becomes subject to the direct control of other institutional agencies and its place in society becomes increasingly uncertain. (1)

Comparatively speaking, the natural sciences seem to suffer from this dilemma less than the social sciences, and the problem is generally more severe in a developing society than in a developed one, as Third World nations with minimal scientific resources cannot afford to refrain from imposing utilitarian norms. Although, there is an increasing recogxition of the significant contribution of science to development, it has not yet gained mo- mentum. Furthermore, among developed nations like the United States, these utilitarian norms are finding increasing support among scientists, especially social scientists. This phenomenon can be witnessed in various disciplines among the social sciences, sociology, for example. Gouldnerls position on "Reflexive Sociology" is an attempt to formulate a compromise between the "value-free sociologist" and the "radical sociologist". ( 2)

science in Thailand is just this imposition of utilitarian norms, in that it implies cultural orientation

The problematic issue with regard to social

and disproportion in growth between the core and the eclectic disciplines. tempt to capitulate this phenomenon.

The following is an at-


Social sciences in Thailand are closely linked with the legal and administration training institutions from which they emerge. Economics was offered as a course in the Royal Law School (founded in 1897), the first Thai institution to offer education at university level. At the second such institution to be established, the Royal School of Public Ad- ministration (1910), geography and history were required courses. Subsequently these two schools were merged to form the Faculty of Law and Politi- cal Science of Chulalongkorn University, Thailand's first university. (3) At the time "political science'' was almost a synonym for administration, and its purpose of all training offered at the university was to improve the efficiency of the monarchical bureaucracy. As Scheler observed:

The sociological character of all knowledge, of all forms of thought, intuition and cognition is unquestionable. Although the content and even less the objective validity of all knowledge is not determined by the controlling perspectives

Merton. Robert K. . Social Theorv and Social .~

Structure, New York: The Free Press, 1968, p. 597. Qouldner. Alvin W. . The ComineCrisis of U - -~ Western Sociology, New York: The Hearst Corporation, 19 70. Wortong, Bunyen, Moral and Politic Univer- sity: Origin and its relation to democracy2512 (1969), Bangkok, Research Centre, National Institute of Development Administration, 1969.

49

of social interests, nevertheless this is the case with the selection of the objects of knowledge. processes by means of which knowledge is ac- quired are always and necessarily codetermined sociologically, i. e. by the social structure. (1)

Thus, the development of science as innovation is determined by a process of social selection, and its nature and growth are directly influenced byso- cia1 acceptance of types of knowledge. of the historical background is indispensible to an understanding of the present state of the social sciences in Thailand.

They have changed drastically since the constitutional monarchy was introduced in 1932. First National Education Plan that same year extended public opportunities for education. University of Moral and Political Sciences was founded in 1933, perhaps the first social science university in Asia, and offered degrees in law, politicalsci- ence and economics.

One of its purposes was to broaden the base for politicizingdemocracy. Its success in that regard, can be gauged from the proportion of social science graduates in the total population. During the 1907- 1933 period of the Royal colleges, there were 1,312 B. A. graduates - one to every 10,000 Thais in 1933. Within 20 years (1953) of its establishment, there were 5,427 B. A. graduates in law and political science from the University, one to every 3,825 Thais. active in Thai politics than those from other institutions; and those who did not participate actively in politics were mostly absorbed into the government bureaucracy.

Of foreign influences on the Thai educational system, European influences, and especially British and French, were certainly the strongest until the Second World War. After thewar, however, the point of reference changed from Europe to the Uni- ted States, reflecting the latter's changing r8le in international relations, and especially the effort to aiddeveloping nations. During the past three decades, eight regional and other universities have been established, increasing the total from two to ten. Of the Unesco- defined "core" disciplines in social science, only economics, law and political science, are major subjects of long standingin Thai universities; sociology, anthropology, social psychology and social statistics have appeared only during the last two decades, but such eclectic disciplines as public administration, history, accounting and education have been well established for a considerable time.

O n the whole, the "core'' disciplines received less attention than the eclectic disciplines, and the government remained both the major promoter and the major client.

Moreover, the "forms" of the mental

A knowledge

The

The new

These were undoubtedly, more

.


The social sciences in Thailand are considered to include banking, commerce and accountancy, political science, diplomacy, geography, international relations, journalism, public administration, sociology, economics and statistics. (2) Chart I shows the proportion of Thai students enrolled in the social sciences in 1973; it clearly confirms the statement above that some of the core disciplines, including sociology, anthropology and social psychology, have not expanded. The predominance of commerce and accountancy as the predominant discipline may indicate growth in the private sector, as jobs are limited in the public services. In 1972, social science students, numbering 11,991, constituted the second largest group, outnumbered only by the 22,307 in education. numbers graduating was far smaller (2,676 in social science as against 3,974in educationin 1971). (3) Education has the highest growth rate. Strangely enough, all colleges of education were recently established as a multidisciplinary university offering a variety of major subjects. It was also planned, however, to accommodate departments of science, humanities and social science. This development seems questionable, as most universities have their own departments of education.

Although influenced by American models, Thai institutions of higher education show marked differences among themselves, as will be seen below.

The gap in the

(a) Teaching

Thai higher educational training has always been professionally oriented. The main disciplines are taught in small departments attached to professional schools or faculties. For example, the Department of Sociology and Anthropology is aunit in the School of Social Work in one university, in another it is in the Faculty of Political Science. Economics is an exception to the rule. As a result of the emphasis placed on economic development, Economics is well established in Thailand as compared with other main disciplines. Political Science, in the modern sense, is also becoming a strong discipline. Only one newly- established university has a School of Social Science which has Departments of Eco- nomics, Political Science, Sociology and Anthro- pology, Geography and Accountancy and Business Administration. graduate programme in Social Psychology, but one offers a Master's degree in Demography

(1) Max Scheler, Die Wissenformen und die

No university offers an under-

Gesellschaft, quoted from Merton, op. cit., p. 525. Office of the National Education Commission, Educational ReDort. Institutes of Higher Edu-

(2) U

cation in Thailand: 1972, p. 2. (3) Ibid. , Chart IV. -

50

CHART I NUMBER OF SOCIAL SCIENCE STUDENTS AT THE BACHELORS DEGREE LEVEL DURING THE ACADEMIC YEAR 1973

5

1% 3% 6% 6%

7%

12%

4%

81%

SOCIOLOGY &ANTHROPOLOGY

POLITICAL SCIENCE

LIBERAL ARTS

HUMANITIES

ECONOMICS

COMMERCE AND ACCOUNTANCY

Disciplines tend to develop into independent departments, and small departments for each discipline will no doubt eventually replace larger units accom- modating several disciplines. Chart IT, based on the directory of Thai social scientists sponsored by Unesco, shows that economists and political scientists are the major trained groups, mainly responsible for the social science activities at the higher education level in 1973. Personnel trained in sociology, anthropology and social psychology comprise 18 per cent of the total and were mostly trained in the United States. to students varies from 1: 3,826 to 1:20. Theunique

The ratio of teachers

and extreme case of 1:3,826 occurs in an open- admission university which was recently founded to provide mass education and differs from all other Thai universities in not having an entrance examination. The qualitative results of this experiment can be assessed after it produces its first graduates in 1975.

advanced degrees, post- graduate programmes are in fact available at only four of them. speaking, the social sciences are more active than the natural sciences in terms of enrolment andnum- bers completing post- graduate courses. In those terms their order of importance is as follows: Pub- lic Administration, Political Science, Business Administration, Economic Development, Sociology and Anthropology, Demography, Economics, Com- munity Development, Applied Statistics (see Chart 111). If post- graduate programmes are an indication of increased maturity, then its position at Thai universities is promising (see Charts IV and V). Factors contributing to the growth of enrolment in post- graduate studies from 1967 to 1972 (see Chart 111) include the following.

Although all ten universities theoretically offer

Generally

CHART I I PERCENTAGE OF TRAINED MANPOWER IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

ECONOMICS

SOCIOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY

POLITICAL SCIENCE

HISTORY

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

51

CHART IV NUMBER OF SOCIAL SCIENCE STUDENTS AT THE MASTER'S DEGREE LEVEL DURING THE ACADEMIC YEARS 1967-1972

3.€42

3.M5

1.640

1.166

572 482 389

161

Accountance 14

CHART I l l NUMBER OF STUDENTS AT THE BACHELOR'S AND MASTER'S DEGREE LEVEL IN VARIOUS SOCIAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENTS DURING 1973

16

12

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

CHART V NUMBER OF DEPARTMENTS OFFERING B.A. AND M.A. PROGRAMMES AT VARIOUS UNIVERSITIES IN 1973

Tharnrnasat Chuialongkorn Kasatsart Chiengnat NlDA

BACHELOR'S DEGREE PROGRAMME

MASTER'S DEGREE PROGRAMME

52

More universities are now offering such courses in various departments - and after normal working hours, so that government and other employees are able to attend. The government grants leave to officials who pass the entrance examination and enrol at NIDA, where the classes take place during the day time. Salary and promotion in the Thai bureaucracy depend partly on the degree held. Service Commission recently decided that Mas- ter degrees, whether obtained in Thailand or abroad, entitle to the same pay scale - perhaps to discourage those wishing to continue their studies abroad. Jobs for B. A. s are somewhat scarce in Bang- kok and urban areas. Prospects are better for holders of Master degrees, and promotion comes faster.

The Civil

Post- graduate programmes can be recognized as an index of development. However, the existence of M. A. programmes does not indicate that the social sciences in Thailand have reached full maturity. Their aim is to apply science rather than to generate new knowledge. It is accordingly not surprising to find that Western sources, and especially the United States, still remain the remote generators of new social science knowledge in Thailand.

(b) Research

There is a growing awareness of the need for both institutional and specific research. The university and government agency representatives at the Semi- nar on the R8le of the University in National Devel- opment Planning concluded:

At present, the amount of research work along the line of national planning and development is limited. The universities should be in a position to expand this function by improvement of the administration and by emphasis on the research activities in terms of national planning and development. ( 1)

The National Research Council reported that in 1972 there were 129 social science research institutions in Thailand(2), of which 39. 5 per centwere located in nine ministries, 37. 2 per cent in institutions of higher education, 4. 7 per cent at foreign institutions, 9.4 per cent were private organizations and the rest were State enterprises and private associations or foundations. The directory records 1,428 projects, although 25 per cent of these never reached completion. 375 university projects, 61. 3 per cent were completed. Between 1960 and 1972, the National Re- search Council appropriated about five million baht for research as follows:

The data seem impressive.

Of

Projects % supported completed( 3,

Political Science and Public Administration 95 57

Economics 71 41 Sociology and Anthropology 57 56 Law 20 25 Education 12 42

Judging from this information, social science research seems to be on the verge of greatly accel- erated growth, but is subject to the following constraints: Insufficient personnel trained in research

No serious demand for research in social sciences; University administration does not encourage research because of its preference for classroom teaching methods;

Conflicting demands of financial, teaching and research requirements;

Competition for priority between teaching materials and research;

Budget procedures hampering flexibility necessary for efficient research;

No satisfactory inventory of available data; Lack of intermediary institutions to transform research into practice;

Insufficiently well defined conception of interdependence among disciplines resulting in imprac- tical and segmented research with consequent lack of interest in research by both academicians and policy-makers:

research purposes.

methodology;

Failure to utilize post- graduate programmes for

Looking toward the future, however, it does not seem likely that research in Thailand will suffer. The number of interested institutions is growing, the Government is allocating lump sums for research to universities, as budget procedures have been relaxed considerably. Professor William H. Young has summarized the situation as follows:

1. It is clear that a number of influential scholars and public officials are convinced of the value and necessity of improving the quality and quantity of social service research in order to improve the ability of the Government to lead in the development of the country.

(1) Office of the National Education Commission, ReDort: Seminar on the R61e of the Universitv in National Development Planning, Bangkok, Thailand, 1972 (Summary of the Seminar),

National Research Council, Office of the Prime Minister, Research Institutions in Thailand, B. E. 2515 (1972), Bangkok, 1972. National Research Council, Office of the Prime Minister, Directory of supported research -- project, B. E. 2503-2515 (1960- 1973), Bangkok, 1972.

p. 3. (2)

(3)

53

2. It is also clear that the Government is will- ing to spend substantial sums annually on research on various social, political and economic subjects.

3. Thus far, however, the major constraints in- hibiting research by university- based social scientists have not been overcome and despite substantial expenditures and demonstrable need the quality of the present product is not very high and the quantity scanty.

Efforts by the Government to create its own social science research capabilityseems less promising than efforts to improve university faculty competence and output. 5. Among the universities, Kasetsart shows

great promise and Chulalongkorn may be on the threshold of a major advance.

tial for increased research productivity. (1)

(c) Social science manpower

The social science community has only two active associations, the Thai Social Science Association (at present very active in promoting teaching materials invarious disciplines) and the Thai Economist Association.

Most of the social science trained manpower studied in the United States.

Disproportion among disciplines is the rule. For example, there are only a few trained social psychologists, only three anthropologists holding doctorate degrees and seven sociologists with Ph.Dk, but many political scientists and economists hold doctorates. The proportion of these employed in the universities (where opportunities for propagat- ing the social sciencesare greatest) is small - the attraction of the intellect seems to be less seductive than that of economic, political or bureau- cratic power.

4.

6. At present NIDA seems to have great poten-


If the social sciences in Thailand are to grow in quality and quantity to meet the urgent needs of national development, training must be oriented specifically toward Thai society and recognize the interdependence of the different disciplines. As the social sciences have been imported from the very different Western world, this is especially important and Thai social scientists must recognize these differences and adjust their disciplines accordingly. Otherwise social science will become a knowledge- as- commodity status symbol offered by ivory tower academicians. Furthermore, the predominance of eclectic over core disciplines in- hibits the generating base and the spread of knowledge. The recognition of the real relationship among disciplines is a prerequisite for the efficient promotion of a science itself. Perhaps it is time to adopt new conceptions of development, less dominated by economic considerations.

W e accordingly recommend that: (a) Emphasis be placed on the interdependence of

core disciplines and on their relationship with eclectic disciplines.

(b) The manpower disproportion as between disciplines be eliminated together with dispropor- tions in contents and methods.

(c) The emphasis in training in the social sciences be related to conditions in Thai society.

(d) Instead of establishing new institutions for these purposes, the existing ones be suitably adopted.

(e) An emphasis on research methodology in post- graduate training.

(f) University autonomy and freedom from bureau- cratic restrictions in order to progress in the directions stated.

Short bibliography

Gouldner, Alvin W., The Coming Crisis in Western Bureau of State Universities. Summary Report Sociology. New York, The Hearst Corporation, of Present Higher Education, 1972- 1973. 1970. Bangkok, Thailand, 1973.

Merton, Robert K. , Social Theory and SocialStruc- ture. New York. The Free Press, 1968. -

Wortong, Bunyen. , University of Moral and Politi- cal Science: Its origin and relation to democracy 2512 (1969). Bangkok, Research Centre, National Institute of Development Administration, 19 69 (in Thai).

Young, William H., Social Science Research in Thailand: A survey undertaken during the summer of 1970 for the Ford Foundation. Unpub- lished paper, dated 10 September 1970.

- - Office of the National Education Commission.

Report: Seminar on the r6le of the university in national development planning. Bangkok, Thailand, 1972.

Office of the National Education Commission. Educational Report: Institutes of Higher Educa- tion in Thailand, 1972. Bangkok, 1972.

(1) William H. Young, Social Science Research in Thailand: A survey undertaken during the summer of 1970 for theFordFoundation, unpublished paper, 10 September 1970, p. 20

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Reprex S.A.R.L.. B.P. 1572, NOUM~A. Government Printing Office, Government Bookshops: Rutland Street P.O. Box 5344. AUCKLAND. 130 Oxford Terrace, P.O. Box 1721, CHRISTCHURCH; Alma Street, P.O. Box 857, HAMILTON; Princes keet, P.O. Box I 104. Dvnranm; Mulgrave Street, Private Bag, WELLINQTON. Librairie Manclert. B.P. 868, NIAMEY. The University Bookshop of Ife; The University Bookshop of Ibadan, P.O. Box 286, Ieanm; The University of Nsukka; The University Bookshop of Lagos; The Ahmadu Bello University Bookshop of Zaria. All publicurionr: Johan Grundt Tanum, Karl Jobam gate 41/43, OSLO I. ‘7% Courier’ only: A/5 Narvesens Litteraturjeneste, Box 6125, OSLO 6. The West-Pak Publighing Co. Ltd., Unesco Publications House, P.O. Box 374, G.P.O., LAHORE. Showrooms: Urdu Bazaar, LAHORE and 57-58 Murree Highway, G/L%r, ISLAMAEIAD. Pakistan Publications Bookshop: Sarwar Road, ~WALPINDI; Mina Book Agency, 65 Shahrab Quaid-e-azam, P.O. Box 729. LAHORE 3. ‘7% Carrisr’ only: Editorial Losada Peruana. apartado 472, LIMA. Ohr gublicdionr: Distribuidora Inca S.A., Emilio Althaus 470. Lince, casilla 3115, LIMA. The Modern Book Co., 926 Rizal Avenue, P.O. Box 632, MANILA. Osrodek Rozpowzechniania Wydawnictw Naukowych PAN, Palac Kultury i Nauki, WARSZAWA. Dias & Andrale Ltda., Libraria Portugal, rua o Carmo 70, LISBOA. Textbook Sales (PVT) Ltd., 67 Union Avenue, SALISBURY. I.C.E. LIBRI, Calea Victoriei nr. 126, P.O. Box 134-135 BUCURE~TI. Subsniglionr 60 pcriodicalr: Rompresfilatelia, Calea Victoriei nr. 29, BUCURE~I. La Maison du Livre, 13, avenue Roume, B.P. 20-60, DAICAR; Librairie Clairdrique, B.P. 2005, DAKAR. Librairie ‘Le SbnCgal’, B.P. 1594. DAKAR. Federal Publications (S) Pte Ltd., Times House, River Valley Road, SINQAPORE 9. Modem Book Shop and General. P.O. Box 951, MOQADISCIO. Van Schaik’s Bookstore (Pty.) Ltd., Libri Building, Church Street, P.O. Box 7.24. PRETOFSA. All gublicufiom: Editiones Iberoamericanas, S.A.. calle de Ofiate 15, MADRID 20; Distribucibn de Publi- caciones del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Vitrubio 16, MADRID 6; Libreria del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Epigciacas 15. BARCELONA. For ‘Tht Courier’ mb: Ediciones Liher- apartado 17, O N D ~ O A (Viscaya). Lake Houe Bookshop, Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Mawata. P.O. Box 244. COLOMBO a. AI Bashir Bookshop, P.O. Box 1118. KHARTOUM. AI1 publiralimrr: A/B C.E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2, Box 16356, 103 27 STOCKHOLM 16. Fa ‘Tht Courier': Svenska FN-Forbundet, Skolgrand 2, Box 150 50. S-104 65 STOCKHOLM. Europa Verlag, Ramistrasse 5, ZURICH; Librairie Payot, 6, m e Grenus, 1211 GEN~VE 11. Dar es Salaam Bookshop, P.O. Box 9030. DAR ES SALAAM. Nibondh and Co. Ltd., 40-42 Charoen Krung Road, Siyaeg Phaya Sri, P.O. Box 402, BANQKOK; Suksapan Panit. Mansion 9. Rajdamnem Avenue, BANGKOK; Suksit Siam Company, I 715 R a m a I V Road, BAWQKOK. Librairie tvangblique. P.B. 378; Lor$; Librairie du Bon Pasteur, B.P. 1164, LoMB; Librairie moderne. B.P. 777, LOM~. Librairie Hachette, 469 Istiklal Caddesi, Beyoglu, ISTANBUL

Mezhdunarodnaja Kniga, MOSKVA. G-zoo. H.M. Stationery O5ce, P.O. Box 569, LONDON SEI QNH; Government bookshop: London, Belfast, Bir- mingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Manchester. Unipub, a Xerox Education Company, Box 433, Murray Hill Station, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10016. Librairie Attie. B.P. 64, Ouagadougou, Librairie catholique ‘Jeunesse d’Afrique’, OUAMDOUOOU. Editorial Losada Uruguaya, S.A. ; Libreria Losada, Maldonado 1092, MONTEVIDEO. Libreria del Este, avenida Francisco de Miranda 52, EdiT. Galipan, apartado 60337, CARACAS. Jugoslovearka Knjiga, Terazije 27. BEOORAD. Dnavna Zalozba Slovenije Mestni Trg. 26. LJUBLJANA. La Librairie, Institut national d’ktudes politiques. B.P. 2307, KINSHASA; Commission nationale de la RCpu- blique du Zaire pour l’Unesw, Ministhe de I’tducation nationale. KINSHASA.

Uganda Bookshop, P.0. BOX 145, JSAMPALA.

[B.8] SHC.76/XV/32 A

ISBN 92-3-101 324-6