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Cultural policy

m NigeriaT. A. Fasuyi

Unesco Paris 1973

Studies and documents on cultural policies

In this series Cultural policy: a preliminary studyCultural policy in the United States

by Charles C. MarkCultural rights as human rightsCultural policy in Japan

by Nobuya ShikaumiSome aspects of French cultural policy

by the Studies and Research Departmentof the French Ministry of Culture

Cultural policy in Tunisiaby Rafik Said

Cultural policy in Great Britainby Michael Green and Michael Wilding,in consultation with Richard Hoggart

Cultural policy in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republicsby A. A. Zvorykin with the assistance ofN. I. Golubtsova and E. I. Rabinovitch

Cultural policy in Czechoslovakiaby Miroslav Marek, Milan. Hromadkaand Josef Chroust

Cultural policy in ItalyA survey prepared under the auspices ofthe Italian National Commission for Unesco

Cultural policy in Yugoslaviaby Stevan Majstorovic

Cultural policy in Bulgariaby Kostadine Popov

Some aspects of cultural policies in Indiaby Kapila Malik Vatsyayan

Cultural policy in Cubaby Lisandro Otero with the assistance ofFrancisco Martinez Hinojosa

Cultural policy in Egyptby Magdi Wahba

Cultural policy in FinlandA study prepared under the auspicesof the Finnish National Commissionfor Unesco

Cultural policy in Ceylonby H. H. Bandar a

Cultural policy in Nigeriaby T. A. Fasuyi

The serial numbering of titles in this series,the presentation of which has been modified,was discontinued with the volumeCultural policy in Italy

00&.004. 1FAS

Published by the United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural OrganisationPlace de Fontenoy, 75700 ParisPrinted byPresses Universitaires de France, Vendome

ISBN 92-3-101029-8LC No. 72-95232

© Unesco 1973Printed in France

Preface

The purpose of this series is to show how cultural policies are planned andimplemented in various Member States.

As cultures differ, so does the approach to them; it is for each MemberState to determine its cultural policy and methods according to its ownconception of culture, its socio-economic system, political ideology and tech-nical development. However, the methods of cultural policy (like those ofgeneral development policy) have certain common problems; these arelargely institutional, administrative and financial in nature, and the needhas increasingly been stressed for exchanging experiences and informationabout them. This series, each issue of which follows as far as possible asimilar pattern so as to make comparison easier, is mainly concerned withthese technical aspects of cultural policy.

In general, the studies deal with the principles and methods of culturalpolicy, the evaluation of cultural needs, administrative structures and man-agement, planning and financing, the organization of resources, legislation,budgeting, public and private institutions, cultural content in education,cultural autonomy and decentralization, the training of personnel, insti-tutional infrastructures for meeting specific cultural needs, the safeguardingof the cultural heritage, institutions for the dissemination of the arts, inter-national cultural co-operation and other related subjects.

The studies, which cover countries belonging to differing social andeconomic systems, geographical areas and levels of development, presenttherefore a wide variety of approaches and methods in cultural policy.Taken as a whole, they can provide guidelines to countries which have yetto establish cultural policies, while all countries, especially those seeking newformulations of such policies, can profit by the experience (already gained.

This study was prepared for Unesco by T. A. Fasuyi, Head of the ArtSection, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria.

The opinions expressed are the author's and do not necessarily reflectthe views of Unesco.

Contents

9 Introduction

11 Before the colonial conquest

17 Traditional organization of culture

20 Nigerian culture under colonial rule

26 Current administration and financing of culture

37 Art agencies and cultural organizations

42 The transmission of culture

61 The future

Introduction

Nigeria had acquired great reputation in the world of art long before sheattained her present political and economic position in the world of nations.Nigeria is singularly distinguished in Africa, south of the Sahara, for herrich and vast cultural manifestations, a heritage of the past and a pride ofthe present generation. Her antiquities, especially the masterpieces fromthe ancient cultures of Ife, Benin and Nok, contributed more than anyother factor towards her reputation. Such masterpieces, exhibited in leadingmuseums and galleries all over the world, have become part of the sum totalof the cultural heritage of mankind.

Ideally, the cultural policy of a country should reflect the estab-lished traditions and culture of the people. European countries with long-established traditions and continuous administrative structures, extendingover centuries, find it easy to formulate or discuss their cultural policy.But African countries, having undergone diiferent and drastic politicaland administrative change within the last century, cannot formulate theirpolicy without looking into their glorious past.

It is therefore necessary in this study to look back into history, notto relay mere historical facts, but in order to portray the cultural situ-ation in Nigeria, past and present, in its true historical and traditionalcontext.

Nigerian cultural policy reflects three political phases: (a) the pre-colonial period during which tribal kingdoms or empires existed and underwhich the ancient art of Nigeria flourished; (b) the period between 1900and 1960 when Nigeria was under British rule and influence; (c) the currentphase: present administrative machinery for art and culture, and an evalu-ation of cultural needs and development within the context of a culturalpolicy.

In the pre-colonial period, cultural policies were determined and admin-istered by the traditional rulers or heads of the different cultures thatexisted within the boundaries of what is now known as Nigeria. During the

Introduction

colonial period, a cultural policy was imported and operated for Nigeria bythe colonial administrators. The cultural policy of Nigeria during the pastten years of her independence could be attributed to the political leaderswho emerged after the departure of the British administrators.

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Before the colonial conquest

Long before the advent of the white man to the western coast of Africa,there had existed many ancient kingdoms and empires founded and admin-istered exclusively by Africans. But the origins and development of thekingdoms are obscure as there were no written records. However there existfairly reliable legends in oral tradition describing their origins; and some ofthe facts contained in the legends are being confirmed by recent archaeol-ogical and historical findings. Most notable among the kingdoms thatflourished in areas now covered by Nigeria include the Yoruba kingdom,the Benin empire in the south; the Bornu empire and the Hausa States inthe north. Recent archaeological findings have also confirmed the existenceof an early culture around Nok,1 a village near the centre of the presentNigeria.

Kingdoms in the south

Ife is regarded as the cradle of the two major kingdoms that flourished inthe southern parts of Nigeria, west of the Niger. The origin of Ife itself isobscure; but the most acceptable legend has it that Oduduwa, the founderof Ife, came from the north-eastern part of Africa,2 stopping in one or twoplaces before finally settling down at Ife with his people. His seven sonslater became the founders and rulers of the seven crown divisions of whatlater became the Yoruba land. Ife has since remained the ancestral homeof the Yorubas; and the Oni of Ife, the traditional ruler of Ife, is alwaysregarded as the spiritual head of the Yorubas.

1. 'The Nok Culture', West African Review, 156.2. Rev. S. Johnson, The History of the Yorubas, London, Routledge, 1921.

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OYO KINGDOM

The most powerful kingdom to emerge from Yoruba land was Oyo, foundedby Oranmiyan, son of Oduduwa, who became the first Alafin of Oyo. As aresult of its power and influence, Oyo later became the administrative andpolitical centre of the old Oyo kingdom which flourished until the earlynineteenth century. Historically notable among the early Alafins wereShango, who was later deified as 'god of thunder'; Ajiboyede, who regainedold Oyo from the Nupes and captured their king, and during whose reignthere was peace in Oyo; and Abiodun, who was the last Alafin to reignbefore the collapse of the kingdom.

At the height of its glory, the Oyo kingdom cut across the presentboundaries of Nupe to the north, Dahomey and Togo, to the west, extendingeastwards to the River Niger.1 The supreme head of the kingdom was theAlafin of Oyo who was regarded by his subjects as second only to the gods.The kingdom was divided into a number of provinces headed by Oba orviceroys who owed allegiance to and depended on the Alafin for externalprotection. The internal administration and organization of each sectionalor provincial unit rested with the Oba, who in turn established a councilof chiefs for the over-all control of his area. Members of the council usuallyincluded heads of various cult societies, outstanding warriors, religious andpolitical leaders.

The council of chiefs was responsible, after due ritual consultations, forthe election of the Oba from the ruling house. Once elected and crowned theOba assumed the spiritual and political power of his domain. The excessesof any Oba could however be checked by the chiefs in council. For example,in Oyo itself, the Oyomesi (Local Council of Chiefs), constituted a checkon the Alafin as all important policies were usually discussed and approvedby them before they could be effected.

It was by this highly organized system of administration that Oyo, thelargest kingdom of the Guinea Coast,2 was administered. The system didnot however eradicate internal rifts and dissensions among the smallerprovincial units whose rulers wanted to be independent.

Encouraged by external European influences and aid from the south,and by the powerful Fulani invasion from the north, some of the rulersstarted to agitate against the Alafin. One after the other, each Oba declaredhimself independent, and the kingdom gradually collapsed. The collapse ofOyo was followed by smouldering hostilities among the newly independenttowns and villages, and this led to intensive inter-tribal wars. The Fulanis,taking advantage of the situation, invaded the kingdom and captured anumber of towns, including Oyo itself in 1837. The Dahomeans launched

1. R. Akpofure and M. Crowder, Nigeria, London, Faber, 1966.2. J. D. Fage, Introduction to the History of West Africa, Cambridge University Press,

1962.

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an attack from the south; but their invasions were <juickly halted byBritish intervention. It was this timely intervention that gave the Britishthe opportunity to establish their influence over the Yorubas.

BENIN KINGDOM

Another important ancient kingdom in the south was centred in Benin,and its influence and power covered the remaining areas of southern Nigeriaoutside the Yoruba kingdom: those extending from the west of the RiverNiger to Dahomey. Its coastal area was named the 'Bight of Benin' byearly European explorers, foremost among whom were the Portuguese.

There were regular contacts between the Benin and Yoruba kingdoms.They had common borders, and both regarded Ife as their spiritual home.In fact it was from Ife that Oranrniyan, founder of the present dynasty ofBenin, came at the request of the Benin elders. He did not, however, staylong; but his son, Eweka, later became the first Oba of Benin. After him,came a line of over thirty Obas, prominent among whom were Oguoba,who built the great city wall and introduced brasswork, and Ewuare, afamous warrior who introduced ivory- and wood-carving, and during whosereign the kingdom was greatly expanded.

At the zenith of its power, the Benin kingdom was highly organizedunder the Oba, who was both the political and spiritual head of his people.The Oba was regarded as divine, but he shared his political power with theseven Uzama chiefs who were next in rank to him. Other important chiefswere the Eghavbo, the feudal and war lords and the chiefs of the royalhousehold. There were also three aristocratic societies who performed someceremonial duties in the Oba's palace. To maintain order and good govern-ment in the kingdom, the Oba maintained a large army.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit Benin and to tradewith them. After the Portuguese, other European traders came; and duringthe period of the slave trade, Benin became a very famous centre. The king-dom later disintegrated as a result of tribal wars. British rule was establishedin Benin in 1897 after the ill-fated mission of Consul Phillips and the conse-(juent punitive expedition.

Because of its power and size, the Benin kingdom enjoyed a prosperouseconomy that was based on agriculture and industry. Its stability andprosperity gave the citizens ample time to practise their arts and crafts,survivals of which are now regarded as masterpieces all over the world.

Benin and Oyo were similar not only in their highly organized adminis-tration, their cultural and artistic maturity, but also in their indigenousgrowth, without Islamic or European contacts.

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Kingdoms in the north

NOK CULTURE

This stone-age culture is believed to have flourished between 500 B.C. andA.D. 200 about the centre of the present Northern Nigeria. The first evidenceof the culture was the finding, in 1936, of a terracotta in Nok, a village inthe Bauchi Plateau. Further archaeological relics were discovered in 1944in another village called Jemaa;1 and similarities in the works led to theassumption that the culture might have existed along the areas now coveredby Katsina Ala, stretching north-westwards to Kagara.

Detailed studies of the Nok terracotta revealed that the people wereagriculturists and probably kept cattle. The ornaments on it also suggestedthat they were fond of ornaments and body decorations. They seemed tohave practised some iron smelting (as indicated by their tin and quartzbeads, found in some tin mines). Considering their similarities, it is alsobelieved that Nok art may have influenced early Yoruba art.2

THE HAUSA STATES

Daura was the spiritual home of the early Hausa States, founded betweenA.D. 1000 and 1200.3 Other States, including Zamfawa, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwariand Yauri, later came under Hausa influence. Because of their geographi-cal and trading positions, Kano and Katsina developed regular tradingcontacts with the kingdoms of Bornu in the north and Mali on the westerncoast.

To help in the administration and organization of the States, the rulerof each State appointed a number of district heads. The district heads inturn appointed village leaders through whom taxes were collected fromfarmers and cattle dealers for the central authority.

During the fifteenth century there reigned a powerful queen in Zariacalled Amina who conquered some of the older Hausa States in addition toNupe and Kororofa. She later directed the building of the great defencewalls to protect her cities; some of the walls still survive. Zaria later becamea slave trading centre while Kano developed her leather industries andagriculture. Each of the States rose to power and prominence from time totime until Bornu became their overlord.

1. 'Mining for History', Nigeria (Lagos), 71.2. 'The Nok Culture', op. cit.3. C. R. Niven, A Short History of Nigeria, London, Longmans, 1955.

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KINGDOM OF BORNU

The Kingdom of Bornu was the first part of northern Nigeria to emergeclearly into history at about A.D. 750.1 It was well placed geographicallyfor development, being a convenient settlement area for early peoplescoming from the east through Egypt. A forerunner kingdom of Zaghawawas believed to have existed near the present Western Sudan; it collapsed,breaking up into several kingdoms. One of the kingdoms, located aroundKaren basin, now partly corresponds to the present Bornu Province inNigeria. The extended kingdom later became powerful enough to exacttribute from Kano and other Hausa States. The kingdom was centrallyruled by the Mai through his appointed provincial governors.

PtTLANI EMPIRE

The Fulanis, whose origin is historically uncertain, were ardent Moslemswho had settled peacefully in many Hausa States. They intermarried withlocal people and gained positions of influence as a result of their greatunderstanding of the Koran. Their unmixed loyalty and devotion to thecause of Islam caused concern among the Hausa kings against whom theypreached; the kings were accused of tolerating pagans in their domains,contrary to the teaching of Islam.

A local disturbance in Gobi, one of the strongest Hausa States, gavethe Fulanis under Usman Dan Fodio the opportunity of launching theJihad—the holy war against the infidels. With their well-organized andunited army, devoted to the ideals of Islam, they attacked the unco-ordinated Hausa States, which crumpled one after the other. By 1830the Fulanis had conquered all modern Northern Nigeria exceptingBornu, which strongly resisted them. The Jihad later spread southwards toIllorin where the ancient Yoruba town was captured.

The Fulani empire, too large to be ruled centrally, was divided into twobig provinces with headquarters in Sokoto and G-wandu. Sokoto washowever the imperial capital with the She as the spiritual and temporalruler. The indirect system of administration inherited from the HausaStates was continued with necessary modifications. The Jihad not onlyestablished Islam firmly in all the empire, but brought political and econ-omic stability.

Other settlements

Outside the kingdoms and empires that were centrally organized and ruledby historically known Obas and Emirs, there were other settlements andtribal groups in northern and southern Nigeria. The tribal groups include

1. Akpofure and Crowder, op. cit.

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Igala, Idoma, Junkum and Tiv in the north, and the Ibo, Ibibio and Ijawin the south. Within the tribal settings there were organized towns andvillages in which the elders directed the administration of social and culturalprogrammes. Some big towns had traditional rulers, similar to those inYoruba and the Hausa States. Early European explorers, traders andmissionaries have recorded their meetings with such traditional rulers,especially those along the Bight of Biafra. Old Calabar, Brass, Opobo,Bonny and Okrika were some of the notable and highly developed towns.During the efforts of the British Government to stop the slave trade andextend British rule, treaties had to be signed with traditional rulers. Someof the northern groups were not concjuered during the war of Jihad and,until British rule was established, remained independent kingdoms.

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Traditional organizationof culture

Art and cultural activities were closely interwoven with, the social life ofthe kingdoms under the traditional rulers, who were not only political headsbut also the spiritual leaders of their people. In the States and locally,councils or meetings of elders advised the traditional heads in planning thecultural programmes. The main administration of cultural programmescame under each traditional head, who in turn delegated his powers tohis chiefs. The local chiefs would then assign different aspects to peopleaccording to their ability and talents. Under this division of labour, thedifferent members of the society contributed their quota towards the successof the programme. The carvers made masks; the costume-designers madedresses; the musicians and the dancers created dances with the relevantdrum beats and music. The priests performed rituals according to the direc-tion of the gods while the farmers and palm-wine tappers were responsiblefor providing food and drinks.

This traditional administration of cultural activities was to some extenta social obligation system in which everybody was willing to contribute his(juota for the success of the agreed socio-cultural programme. It encouragedactive and willing participation by the people in cultural programmes.Talents used for the benefit of the society were appreciated. It was, in short,a system that was very suitable for the needs and condition of the time.

Role of artists

In many of the cultural settings that existed in Nigeria, the arts contributedin no small way to most of the social activities, and enhanced them spiri-tually and aesthetically.

In such societies where art and cultural activities were closely inter-woven with social life the importance and status of artists were unique.As all social activities usually centred around the traditional head of the

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Traditional organization of culture

society, his house, Ms dress, his dances and so on were designed by artistswho were in a position to know what was aesthetically and spirituallysuitable. The traditional head in turn bestowed such important duties. Asa result, the artists were highly respected in the community and theircontributions were highly valued and appreciated.

It was the artists who dictated the cultural pace of the society; and itwas they who directed the social taste. In the absence of machines or othertechnological devices, most articles were designed and produced by artistsand craftsmen. Many people were skilled in one or more crafts, but theworks of the competent and talented were always in great demand. Thisgave the artist or craftsman a measure of control in the economic life ofthe society.

Recompense

The chief artist was usually left to organize the actual and physical pro-duction of art works for cultural programmes, either in his compound orat an allocated area within the community. He was empowered to scoutfor the talented and experienced artists and assign duties to them. He gaveduties to each type of artist (carver, musician, drummer and so on),according to his ability and experience. As they were all working for thesame purpose, there was co-operation and understanding among the differentartists in planning and carrying out the cultural or religious programmes oftheir society. Artists undertook their different assignments usually withoutpay; but they received the personal gratitude of the Oba and the society'spraise in general. It was also usual for artists to receive free cash crops,cattle and clothing to cover their needs while thus serving the society.When some financial compensation was involved, the traditional head mettheir demands; but the artists valued the social honour and praise more thanany financial compensation. After the completion of a programme, theyreturned to their main occupation until they were commissioned again.Financial subsidies or material assistance were therefore given only whilethe artists were contributing to a cultural programme.

Training

As there was no formal education in Nigeria before the European mission-aries came, artists (sculptors, musicians, poets, dancers) were trained underan apprenticeship system. Each of the arts was usually practised as afamily trade and the techniques and secrets were handed over from theelders to their children. For example, a child born to a wood-carver wouldstart as early as six years of age to practise his father's craft. He firstlearned the different types of the woods, then the tools and techniquesused by his father in carving. By the time he was 16 or so, he had acquired

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Traditional organization of culture

enough skill and confidence to produce good work on his own. In additionto being taught how to carve, he was also introduced to the social andreligious uses of different types of carvings.

Freely was he given his training; and freely was he expected to trainothers for the family trade circle to grow. Although the works of the familyguild were done collectively, yet there was room for individual and originalinnovations. Individual talents were recognized and admired; and newinventions or innovations by any member were adopted by the entire guild.As members of a family, they shared the joys of their achievement, orreverses when they occurred. Every family guild of musicians, drummers orsingers trained their young to accpiire and retain the family tradition withminimal external diffusion.

This apprenticeship and family system of training gave the child enoughearly confidence to learn with ease, and left him in harmony with hisfamily or village background. It enabled the child to develop according tohis ability, without any serious emotional tension. It developed in differentNigerian cultural settings, and achieved the main purpose of modern arteducation which, in Herbert Read's definition, is 'to foster the growth ofwhat is individual in each human being, at the same time harmonizing theindividuality thus educated with the organic unity of the social group towhich the individual belongs'.1

1. Herbert Read, Education through Art, London, 1958.

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Nigerian cultureunder colonial rule

When the slave trade was brought to a halt, the European colonizers metin Paris and agreed to partition Africa among themselves. By the end ofthe nineteenth century, every square foot of the western coast of Africa hadbeen allocated to the different colonial powers. The old kingdoms andempires having been arbitrarily shared, each European country establishedits authority over its conquered or allocated areas. The areas in Nigeria,comprising the major parts of the Fulani empire in the north, the Yorubaand Benin kingdoms and the Ibo, Calabar and Ibibio tribes were allocatedto Britain.

Constitutional developments

In 1900 the administration of all the areas allocated to Britain was formallytaken over by the British Government after the Royal Niger Company'sCharter had been revoked. In 1906 the colony and protectorate of Lagosbecame part of Southern Nigeria and a protectorate was established overthe northern provinces. On 1 January 1914, the two protectorates weremerged, with Lagos, into the colony and protectorate of Nigeria. A legis-lative council was established to advise the governor for Lagos and thesouthern provinces, but the administration of the northern provincesremained the sole responsibility of the governor.

In 1946, a new constitution was introduced, establishing a central legis-lative council to administer the whole country. Regional houses of assemblywere also established to act as advisory bodies to the central legislature onregional matters. Further revisions of the constitution were carried outin 1951 and 1954, to give the regions autonomy and greatly increasedpowers. Lagos was declared a federal territory and separated from thewestern region. After further constitutional talks, regional self-governmentwas given to the eastern and western regions in 1957; and to the northernregion in 1959. The country became independent on 1 October 1960.

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Nigerian culture under colonial rule

Effects of colonization on traditional culture

With, the collapse of the former empires and the spread of British rule theauthority and influence of the traditional rulers was undermined. Theywere obliged to swear allegiance to the Crown of England and to signtreaties of loyalty and obedience.

In most of the big towns, the cultural activities formerly encouragedby the traditional rulers were greatly curtailed, if not suspended. In thesmaller towns and villages, however, where the people still had a measureof control over their own affairs, the people continued to carry on theirtraditional cultural pursuits.

The traditional status and important social functions of the artists weregreatly reduced, with the consequent adverse effects on the quality andquantity of artistic expression.

The early missionaries came to introduce a new religion; all the formerreligious rites and manifestations (including the dance and music) werebanned, and the new converts were encouraged to dispose of any art workswhich had been used in religious rites.

The West European educational system was introduced, replacing theinformal traditional system; it was geared to the needs of the colonialadministration. This objective was stated in a 1921 speech by the firstGovernor of Nigeria: 'The chief function of Government Primary andSecondary Schools ... is to train the more promising boys from the villageschools as teachers for those schools, as clerks for the local native courts,and as interpreters. . . .n

Formal education was started in towns and big villages by the mission-aries. In order to pass the prescribed examinations set and marked inEngland, the students had to learn things which had little bearing on theirown way of life, e.g. the geography and the political, social and economichistory of Britain and the British Empire. Foreign literature was studied.English became the official language, in which all transactions were effected.Indigenous languages were neglected; oral traditional poetry gave way toShakespeare and English literature. Those who managed to study abroadfrequently came back alienated from their own society.

European dances were introduced to replace the traditional dances.Western music was introduced, through gramophone records, to accompanythe new dance forms, as were films, photography and other graphic arts.All these new cultural forms, which were in most cases strange and exciting,developed at the expense of traditional art and culture; a new sense andset of values began to emerge. It was difficult for Nigerians to sense thepossible dangers of this development, but a few expatriates did. Commenting

1. Otinfci Nduka, Western Education and the Nigerian Cultural Background, Nigeria,1965.

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on the situation in 1938, E. H. Duckworth, editor of the government-owned Nigeria maeazine, wrote:owned Nigeria magazine, wrote:

. . . Many of the old crafts, especially those of wood-carving and brass casting, arein very great danger of dying out owing to lack of support.

In the past, many of the chiefs and other important men employed carvers toconstruct beautiful stools, carved doors, panels and posts. Benin City becameworld-famous as a result of the high standard of workmanship in metal castingand engraving attained by her craftsmen in years past. Now, as we travel aboutthe country, we see carved doors and posts rotting and neglected; and on the otherhand, churches with cheap imported hymn boards and brass-eagle reading desks,also Native Administration Council Halls, as at Ibadan and llesha, completelydevoid of everything African.

At Benin City we might at least expect to see carving or brass work incor-porated in the Court House, Post Office, Police Station and other public buildings,but our search will be in vain; even the new Middle School is equally barren. Theskilled brass workers of Benin have received so little encouragement during thepast few years that most of them have abandoned the craft and taken to otherwork. Two years ago it was impossible to get any of suitable quality.

Let us now cross the Niger and visit Awka. Surely here they will have em-ployed local carvers to decorate the doors of some of the public buildings, but weare again disappointed, and only find doors of dull Public Works Departmenttype. Our search for African art work in modern buildings will indeed be a dif-ficult one unless we are told where to go. . . .

The art of the people of Nigeria is something they may well be proud of. Itcan be easily adapted to modern conditions and is one of the contributions theycan make to civilisation and something that brings honour and respect to theAfrican race. Yet many of our men, African and European, in high positions arecompletely unmindful of this fact.

Commenting on the unsuitability of European dress for a tropical climate,he continued:

We suggest that more use should be made of African hand-made cloth andAfrican dress designs.

This hand-made cloth is a little more expensive than machine-made cloth, butit will last for years, and by purchasing such material encouragement is given toone of our important village industries. In our study of import and export stat-istics we are liable to forget the value of our internal trade, especially from thepoint of view of the health and happiness of our people. Some of our village indus-tries give employment in the aggregate to a vast number of people. It is estimatedthat at least 60,000 people are engaged in the mat-making industry alone.

We cannot lightly neglect the fostering and development of our home industries.Our weavers, dyers and carvers especially need our patronage if they are to

survive the impact of shoddy machine-made_goods. Some people say, why notstart machine-run factories in Nigeria? We doubt if such factories would bringhappiness; on the other hand, we are certain that by giving more attention to ourvillage crafts and to practical forms of education, and also to the education of ourgirls, we could transform our villages into places of health, centres alive with little

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home industries carried on by educated people not ashamed to work with theirhands and prepared at times to engage in work for the community....

These were the words of an. expatriate observer; and they constituted afactual and objective review of the cultural situation in the country. Hisideas were re-echoed and confirmed in another article written in the samemagazine by K. C. Murray, who wrote as follows:

African art, however, is now in. a transitional stage, and it is yet uncertainwhether it will gradually disappear or whether it will be able to assimilate ideasfrom Europe and still keep its character.

Under modern conditions it cannot stand still, but if it is to develop and sur-vive as art and keep its valuable qualities, it must be firmly based on the tra-ditional work.

The younger generation who have been to school axe unfortunately mostlyignorant... of their local traditions and history, and fail to appreciate ... Africanart. The old religious carvings are gone or are disappearing. . . . No study is beingmade of Nigerian music, and it is neglected in schools.

In craft work, improvements in technique are taken up by newcomers so thatthe traditional craftsmen, who are not being helped, are likely to die out graduallyalong with their inherited knowledge of materials and design.

Europeans, many of whom have a great respect for African art, could help tomake circumstances favourable for its survival but, officially, practically nothinghas been done to foster and encourage its survival. On the very rare occasionsthat buildings have been decorated with African work it has been due to indi-vidual initiative and not to official policy.

European action and admiration, however, cannot save African art; its exist-ence finally depends on the respect, admiration and support of Africans themselves.

Cultural landmarks during the period

The colonial era did see some development or improvement in artistic or cul-tural matters; there were some developments which could be regarded as cul-tural landmarks of the era. They included: (a) the establishment of Nigeriamagazine; (b) the establishment of museums of antiquities; (c) the creationof the post of the Federal Art Adviser; (d) the creation of departments of art.

Some of these developments have been taken over and continued by theindependent Nigerian Government. Their subsequent history is discussedin later chapters, but their beginnings can be briefly mentioned here.

NIGERIA MAGAZINE

Nigeria magazine was first published in 1923 as Nigerian Teacher, a govern-ment publication on educational and cultural matters. The title was changedin 1927 to Nigeria and later developed into the federal government culturalinformation journal.

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It has regularly carried features and articles since on cultural activitiesfrom all parts of the country. It started^its literary supplement about fouryears ago. The literary supplement carries literary and scholarly articles andresearch works of Nigerian scholars prominent in art and culture. Photo-graphs of dances and other performances are regularly featured. Notableamong its past editors are E. H. Duckworth and Michael Crowder, bothof whom used the magazine to publicize and promote Nigerian art andculture.

MUSEUMS

After the punitive expedition to Benin in 1897, many of the capturedbronzes were sold as scrap metal. It was really owing to the initiative of theGermans, who preserved the majority of the works in their museums, thatBenin became famous. In 1911, a German professor came to Nigeria andbrought to light the treasures of Ife; some of the best works are now inFrankfurt Museum.1

Some British administrators realized that the disappearance of suchworks would be a great loss to both the British and Nigerian peoples. Theytherefore campaigned for the creation of local museums where remainingspecimens could be preserved and displayed. Outstanding among the advo-cates of this policy were S. Milburn and E. H. Ducfcworth (both formereditors of Nigeria magazine). They used the magazine not only to popu-larize other aspects of Nigerian art and culture, but also to appeal to thegovernment to build museums to keep the best of the Nigerian art works.E. H. Duckworth in an editorial in the paper in 1937 wrote about Nigerianart and culture as follows:

Our African contributors by researching into and describing the antiquities, thecraft work, the customs of the country, can help to create in the mass of the peoplean appreciation of Nigerian art and culture. The museums of Europe and Americacontain great and valuable collections of Nigerian craft work. Some of these arttreasures were sold by the original owners to foreigners for a mere pittance. . . .Help to build up an appreciation of the old things; do not be afraid of them.Respect the past, record its history, treasure its signposts, help to build museumsin Nigeria. The day may come when people will voyage from all parts of the worldto see the museums and exhibition rooms of Lagos, Abeokuta, Ife and BeninCity.

The Jos Museum was the first to be built in Nigeria and was opened to thepublic in 1952. It housed the Department of Antiquities until 1963 whenit was shifted to the Nigerian National Museum, Lagos.

1. K. C. Murray, 'Museums', Nigeria (Lagos), 14, 1938.

24


FEDERAL ART ADVISER

Another landmark was the creation in 1947 of the post of the Art Supervisor.A Nigerian artist, Ben Enwonwu, who had taught art in a governmentcollege and been formally trained in a London art school, was appointedto the post. His duties included the promotion of Nigerian art, locally andabroad, through exhibitions and lectures. In 1955 the post was redesignatedas Federal Art Adviser. In 1957 he was transferred to the Ministry of Edu-cation and his duties widened to include the inspection and teaching ofart in schools. He was also expected to advise the government on mattersof cultural importance.

He felt himself hindered by being under civil-service control; the usuallong procedure of getting financial or formal support for his ideas wasfrustrating. He continued, however, to work as a professional artist andheld several exhibitions in Nigeria and abroad. Among his many outstandingsculptures is the statue of the Queen of England made to commemorateNigeria's independence and now set up in front of the Nigerian Parliamentin Lagos.

DEPARTMENTS OF ART

The establishment of a Department of Fine Art as part of the NigerianCollege of Art, Science and Technology is worth mentioning under theheading of art-education development of the colonial period. The depart-ment started in 1953 with a handful of European lecturers and someinterested Nigerian students at the Ibadan branch of the college. It waslater transferred to the Zaria branch where the Art Department expandedto enable it to introduce a four-year diploma course.

Graduates since 1959 have been taking up teaching jobs in schools andcolleges. Some have gone into advertising, publishing and television. Unfor-tunately, the training provided under the European lecturers was basedmainly on European art standards and values.

Before the establishment of the college in Zaria, some sandwich artcourses had been started at the Yaba Technical Institute, founded in 1948.Art classes introduced there in 1952 were designed to provide in-servicetraining for graphic artists in the different government departments. Bothdepartments of art are further discussed below.

25

Current administrationand financing of culture

Under the Nigerian Constitution, each of the states has considerable powersregarding its own cultural policy and administration. Each can initiatecultural programmes; build and maintain cultural centres; and decide whattype of cultural education it believes best for its citizens. While the statesare thus autonomous in their cultural pursuits, the federal governmentinitiates national programmes to promote national cultural unity. Inter-national cultural exchanges and programmes are the exclusive domain ofthe federal government.

Federal administration and financing

There is no separate Ministry of Culture, Nigeria in this differing from manyEuropean and African countries whose art and cultural programmes areplanned and implemented by a single ministry. Cultural policy is thereforenot embodied in a single document. Every ministry formulates its ownpolicies and federal art and cultural responsibilities are shared amongdifferent ministries as follows:Federal Ministry of Information: (a) cultural promotion; (b) international

cultural exchanges; (c) cultural information and publications; (d) massmedia.

Federal Ministry of Education: (a) art and cultural education; (b) art exhi-bitions and artists' societies; (c) museums and monuments; (d) Unesco-sponsored cultural activities.

Federal Ministry of External Affairs: (a) international cultural exchanges(see Federal Ministry of Information above); (b) industrial and culturalexhibitions.

Federal Ministry of Trade and Industry: (a) international trade fair andcultural display; (b) promotion of art and crafts industries.

26

Current administration and financing of culture

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF INFORMATION

Cultural promotion

The Cultural Division of the ministry plans and handles major governmentcultural programmes (e.g. the annual independence celebration, local andinternational festivals of the arts, international cultural exchanges) andmaintains an exhibition centre for art exhibitions of local and foreignartists. Until 1968 the division was headed by the editor of Nigeria maga-zine, assisted by a few officials. In that year the new post of Federal CulturalAdviser was created to give professional guidance. The former Federal ArtAdviser, a renowned and experienced Nigerian artist, was appointed intothe post. As the division does not have snineient professionally trained staff,it often sets up ad hoc committees or calls on the Nigerian Arts Councilto help.

International cultural exchanges

Various cultural agreements with other nations are prepared by theministry after due consultation in ad hoc meetings (usually with theministries of external affairs, education, trade and industries).

Cultural information and publications

The Information Division regularly publishes books, pamphlets, journalsand documentation on government activities, programmes and policies(e.g. information and photographs of official, social and cultural events,articles on Nigeria's participation in international festivals, pamphletsentitled Our Cultural Heritage, Nigerian Music, Nigerian Drama).

The photographic section of the division arranges regular film and photoexhibitions on important events; its film unit has produced some documen-tary and feature films.

The administrative head of the Information Division is a civil servant,but his staff are professionally trained for their different jobs.

Moss media

The major government mass media (broadcasting, television, film, photo-graphy, libraries, press) come under the direction or supervision of theministry, the services being allocated either to departments of the ministry orto autonomous bodies, established and financed by the government throughthe ministry (broadcasting and television come under the Nigerian Broad-casting Corporation, library services under the Nigerian Library Board,government publications under the Nigerian Press Corporation, while theDepartment of Film and Photography is part of the Information Divisionof the ministry). The financial and administrative structures are as follows.

27


Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). The NEC was set up by an Actof Parliament in 1956 as a corporate body to succeed the old NigerianBroadcasting Service (which, was a department of the Federal Ministry ofInformation) and 'to reflect the wealth of culture in the country; and topromote the unity of the federation'. The corporation is headed by adirector-general. It has four directors, one of whom is in charge of thetelevision services.

Transmission was at first centralized in Lagos and picked up by the otherstations. Later, the system was decentralized to give each of the formerthree regions an opportunity of listening to local programmes, often givenin the local languages.

The corporation now maintains a network of stations through which ittransmits its programmes to all the states in the federation. State broad-casting houses have powers to originate and relay their own cultural pro-grammes; these may also be incorporated in the national programmes.State and provincial broadcasting reflect local cultures and carry the ser-vices of the NBC to Nigerians in the villages and hamlets.

NBC-TV operates on channel 10 in Lagos and covers the parts ofWestern State which are near Lagos. There is an estimated 35,000 sets inthe Lagos area and 50,000 in the whole country. At an average of sevenviewers per set, some 250,000 watch NBC-TV programmes within a forty-mile radius from Lagos. One of the aims of the television service is topromote awareness of the Nigerian cultural heritage.

National Library Board. The ministry is responsible for national libraryservices through its National Library Board, whose members include edu-cationists, eminent citizens and government officials.

A director is responsible for the general administrative and professionalaspects. The board co-ordinates the work of the regional and other insti-tutional libraries.

Film censorship. New films coming to Nigeria are first viewed to decidetheir suitability for adults or children by the Film Censorship Board, set upby the ministry. Its members include representatives of the Ministry ofEducation, the police and the Social Welfare Department. The board cantake disciplinary action against any cinema house contravening its orders.

Nigerian National Board. The federal board for newspapers and other pub-lications has a chairman who is responsible to the Commissioner or Ministerof Information. The board works in co-operation with the InformationDivision of the federal Ministry of Information to publicize governmentactivities and to relay information to the public.

28


FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

The section of the ministry which deals with the art and cultural pro-grammes is headed by the Federal Art Adviser.

Art and cultural education

The ministry plays a leading role in the promotion of art and culturalsubjects in schools and colleges. It helps the states in reviewing the syllabusand in planning the curriculum; and if the state so requests, in inspectingthe state's art schools. It circulates visual aids, including Unesco artslides, to schools and colleges. The head of the Art Section also serves onexamination panels, so ensuring a certain standardization in the artexaminations.

Art scholarships. The government awards only a few scholarships annually toart students, as the main priority for awards goes to science and technicalsubjects. This trend in most developing countries is justified only by thedire need for more technical personnel for economic development; it mustbe realized, however, that art and cultural education is likewise needed togive the necessary spiritual and aesthetic overtones to scientific and tech-nical education.

The attitude of the government in regard to the training of teachers ismore positive. In 1968 it started a 'crash programme for the training ofteachers'. Scholarships are awarded on a quota basis: 60 per cent for science,30 per cent for liberal arts, 10 per cent for cultural and creative subjects.Over one hundred art, music and drama students had been awarded 'crashscholarships' during the past two years. Once they have completed theircourses, the number of specialist art teachers available to schools andcolleges will be greatly increased.

Schools exhibition. The ministry organizes an All-Nigeria Schools ArtExhibition and Competition:

1. To promote cultural contact and understanding among children in all thestates of the federation, with a view to developing a common national artisticheritage.

2. To enable children to see how their counterparts in other states solve their aes-thetic problems—their methods and techniques, their materials and impro-visation.

3. To give art teachers the opportunity of seeing the standard of works in otherschools so as to improve and guide the teaching of art in schools.

The state ministries of education help in the collection and selection ofworks. The original scheme was started to coincide with the tenth anni-versary of Nigeria's independence. After its opening show in Lagos the

29


exhibition, is sent round the state capitals. Prizes in the form of art materialsare awarded to students for outstanding works.

International children's art exhibitions. The ministry arranges Nigerian par-ticipation in international exhibitions of children's art; it keeps a libraryfrom which selections are made and forwarded. During the past few yearsNigerian children have been consistently winning major prizes in theseexhibitions: in 1970 alone, seventeen prizes were won at international artexhibitions in Venezuela, Tanzania, Japan and India. This of course is asource of pride and encouragement to both the officials and the schools.

Artists' societies

Matters concerning art and artists' organizations are also dealt with by theministry. Some of the organizations apply either for government recognitionor for subvention, or both. Some have been recognized and given subven-tions. The Society for Art and Humanities (whose main objective was thecollection of art works for the proposed Museum of Modern Art) receivedover £30,000 in subventions in four years from the ministry. The Inter-national Institute of African Languages and Culture also receives an annualsubvention of £500. Other societies that have been recognized or aidedinclude the Society of Nigerian Artists, the Society for Education throughArt, the Nigerian Museum Society and the Society of Art Teachers.

National museums

Government grants to the national museums are channelled through theMinistry of Education, which is also responsible for their administration.The Federal Commissioner or Minister of Education is responsible for theappointment of members to the National Antiquities Commission, which iscomposed of distinguished men of culture and notable scholars in the artsand humanities. The commission is responsible for the establishment andmaintenance of museums and for the discovery, preserving and study of tra-ditional art and culture; it also has power to schedule monuments and antiqui-ties, and to control archaeological excavations and the export of antiquities.

The Director of Antiquities is professionally and administratively re-sponsible for museums all over the country; he has the assistance of a deputydirector and the curators of the different museums. Other officers concen-trate on archaeological, iconographical and architectural research. Govern-ment expenditure on the Department of Antiquities over the past ten yearshas been as follows: 1960/61, £47,190; 1961/62, £54,240; 1962/63, £98,790;1963/64, £87,100; 1964/65, £87,500; 1965/66, £83,870; 1966/67, £91,340;1967/68, £92,650; 1968/69, £81,250; 1969/70, £79,610.

30


Unesco-sponsored cultural activities

The Art Section of the ministry works with the National Commission forUnesco in planning and organizing Nigeria's participation in Unesco cul-tural and sponsored special programmes, e.g. the recent Education Yearcelebrations, in which the Art Section, in collaboration with state ministriesof education, mounted art exhibitions and put on cultural displays. Thesection coEects materials for publication and promotes the circulation ofUnesco papers, journals, visual aids and so on.

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS

This ministry has a Department of Information which also covers culturalmatters, including publicity and information through embassies abroad.Information officers attached to the embassies perform, the duties usuallycovered by cultural attache's.

The ministry receives an allocation for cultural and industrial exhi-bitions, and participates in the drafting and implementing of culturalagreements.

The ministry determines Nigeria's foreign cultural policy; after thenecessary political consideration, it makes recommendations regarding thecountries with which Nigeria should be culturally associated.

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF TRADE AND INDUSTRY

This ministry's connexion with cultural affairs is through the promotion ofindigenous art and craft industries. In co-operation with the state ministriesof trade, it encourages the production of local materials and arts and crafts,and subsidizes and encourages corporative societies. Products are regularlycollected and exhibited in local and international trade fairs. Occasionally,other cultural displays are arranged as part of such trade fairs. Theministry initiates the programmes; the expenditure is borne by the FederalMinistry of Information.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITUREON ART AND CULTURE

It is very difficult to know how much exactly the federal government spendsannually on art and culture. As already indicated, four ministries are in-volved, and even within them, more than one division may be dealing withcultural matters (cf. the account of the Ministry of Information above).

The figures given in Tables 1 and 2 below are derived from the annualestimates and do not necessarily mean the actual amounts spent. In fact,the government invariably spent more on art and culture than the sumsgiven in the annual estimates. This is because certain programmes were

31

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arranged after the estimates had been prepared and the money had to befound for them.

This happened in 1970/71 for example. By the end of 1970, three monthsbefore the end of the financial year, the government had spent about£100,000 on different cultural programmes including (a) £30,000 for aNigerian group sent to Expo '70 in Japan, (b) £30,000 for the 1970 All-Nigeria Festival of Art, (c) £10,000 for participation in a trade fair inDahomey, (d) £16,000 on cultural exchangeprogramm.es. Thus, money is pro-vided for approved cultural programmes from time to time, regardless of whatthe estimate foresees.

The states

ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY

After the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern territories in 1914,Nigeria was ruled centrally by a colonial federal government in Lagos,through a number of provincial administrative centres.

Following a constitutional review, Nigeria was divided in 1952 into threeregions. Lagos, the federal capital, remained a separate territory admin-istered by the federal government through the local council. Each regionalgovernment was autonomous and had powers on many constitutional mat-ters, including education and culture. Art and cultural matters were dealtwith in the regions under different ministries: Eastern Region, InternalAffairs; Western Region, Home Affairs; Northern Region, Local Govern-ment and Tourism. The Western Region was later subdivided, so increasingthe number of regions to four. The Ministry of Community Development wasmade responsible for the festival in the mid-West.

In 1967, the country was redivided into twelve state units (including theState of Lagos), which became responsible for local cultural matters. Likethe federal government itself, they have no written cultural policy and donot concentrate cultural matters under one ministry. Provincial and localcouncils have a major role in planning and executing local cultural pro-grammes, most of which they also finance. The state governments' culturalduties cover: cultural promotion and festivals of the arts; art and culturaleducation; cultural and community centres; museums and libraries; massmedia and cultural information; State expenditure on culture.

State festival of the arts

Each provincial authority is requested to organize local festivals and selectthe best group to participate in the state festival, usually held in the statecapital. The provincial authorities are responsible for the practical andfinancial administration of the local festivals and for arranging partici-pation in the state festivals.

34


Art and cultural education (primary and secondary schools)

Regardless of political or administrative changes, formal art education Lasalways come under the federal and state ministries of education. Asalready mentioned, education is a domain in the Constitution in which boththe federal and state governments have powers in regard to policy, planningand administration. Primary and secondary schools and colleges are states'matters (although the federal government maintains some inter-statesecondary schools, known as the Federal Government Colleges). The states'ministries are now responsible for the policy-making, administration andinspection of their individual systems of education.

Some state ministries establish local school boards who share powerswith them; others control education centrally. Some states' ministries haveart departments for the planning and inspection of cultural subjects; somealso have local inspectors, attached to the different local councils throughwhom the state inspectors work. Although art, music and drama are listedin the state educational planning, many primary and secondary schools donot teach them, mainly for lack of teachers and materials. During the lastdecade, however, the situation improved as more trained teachers becameavailable.

Some states appoint specialists in cultural subjects to tour their schools,giving demonstrations and organizing exhibitions with a view to improvingstandards. Some also include the arts in their adult education schemes;Lagos State, for example, runs a school of art and crafts as one of thecentres for its adult education evening classes. Many states give scholar-ships annually for the training of teachers, including those specialists in artand cultural subjects.

Museums and cultural centres

One or two states give subventions for the upkeep and maintenance ofmuseums. However, most museums, even if located in states, are maintainedby the federal government. There are also very few state cultural centres,although some local councils maintain community and youth centres. It hasalways been difficult to indicate separately the amount spent in such caseson specifically cultural activities.

Library services

Each state is now responsible for its library services. The former regionsestablished separate library boards through which library services are ex-tended to all parts of the regions. Local and district councils maintain locallibraries. Foreign embassies have regularly donated books. Other notabledonors are the British Council and the United States Library Services.

35


Moss

The former regional governments had separate broadcasting and televisionservices, with local cultural programmes (in various Nigerian languages)which might also be relayed nationally. Again it is difficult to know exactlyhow much each station spends on cultural programmes. With the creationof the twelve states, it may be necessary to review the status and operationsof the regional services.

State expenditure on culture

The state governments annually give subsidies to each provincial or localcouncil to finance local activities and programmes, including culture andfestivals. It is difficult to separate out the amounts spent on purely culturalprogrammes.

Regional government subventions for art festivals since independenceare as shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Regional government subventions for art festivals1960/61-1967/68 (in pounds)

Region 1960/61 1961/62 1962/63 1963/64 1964/65 1965/66 1966/67 1967/68

NorthWestMid-WestEast

_250—

200

_250—

200

5,000250—

700

5,000250—

500

5,000250—

300

5,000250250300

5,000250250300

5,000230250300

These subventions are small as compared with expenditure and subven-tions for other programmes. But they grossly under-indicate the amountsspent on art and culture. They do not include, for example, the cost oftransporting, feeding and housing some 300 or more participants at a typicalfestival, or government subventions for art workshops and industries. Nonethe less, one must agree that expenditure on culture is exceedingly small, ascompared with that on economic and political matters. However, subven-tions have been increasing gradually since independence and with morepolitical stability it is expected that state governments will substantiallyincrease their subventions and grants for cultural programmes.

36

Art agencies andcultural organizations

Ait agencies and cultural organizations have contributed in very greatmeasure to the general cultural awareness and development in Nigeria. Theyprovide the living forces behind all cultural activities and compensatedsomewhat for the seeming official indifference. They can be broadly dividedinto three groups: agencies for the promotion of the arts; societies of pro-fessional artists; institutional or tribal cultural groups (which are found allover the country).

Arts agencies

Arts agencies or organizations spring up from time to time on the initiativeof people who, though not necessarily artists, are interested in the arts. Theyinclude Nigerians and non-Nigerians in different walks of life. Membersusually pay a subscription. If influential enough, or carrying out activitiesconsidered important by the government, they may get official recognitionor a subvention, e.g. the Society for Arts and Humanities and the NigerianArts Council.

SOCIETY FOR ARTS AND HUMANITIES

This society was founded in 1963 by a group of Nigerians and expatriatescollaborating in general cultural programmes in Lagos. Its main objectiveis to establish a museum of modern art. A foreign foundation indicated itsreadiness to help with grants to build the museum, but the civil war inter-vened. Meantime, the Federal Ministry of Education gives the society anannual subvention to finance the collection of art works.

NIGERIAN ARTS COUNCIL

The council was founded in 1959 on the eve of independence by thethen Minister of Information and Social Services and some Nigerians and

37

Art agencies and cultural organizations

Nigerian Arts CouncilAdvises the Federal Government on cultural matters;plans and organizes national and internationalcultural programmes; promotes art. and culture;secures aids for cultural programmesMembersFederal government officials, state governmentrepresentatives, state art council representatives,university representatives and co-opted artists

Executive CouncilPlans and executes all culturalprogrammesMembersElected officials, government officials

ITArt and Gallery•CommitteePlans and organizesart activities, museums,galleries and art societiesMembersSelected professionalartist-painters,sculptors, designersand arcliitects

TMusic CommitteePlans and organizes allmusical activitiesMembersSelected professionalartistes, musicians,musicologists,directors

Council GalleryCurator

Festival CommitteePlans and organizes allfestival activitiesMembersGovernmentrepresentatives,state representatives,university representatives,council officials,other co-opted members

Dance ami DramaPlans and organizes alldrama activitiesMembersSelected professionalartistes/playwrights,poets, authors, actors,other co-opted members

General Purpose CommitteeTakes urgent decisions for the council;supervises the secretariat and galleryFive council members resident in. Lagos

Research CommitteeResearch and studiesin culture,art education,films, slides,reproductionsMembersUniversity representatives,art educationists, -writers,iilm producers,other co-opted members

SecretariatOrganizing SecretaryOther secretariat staff

Organization chart of the Nigerian Arts Council.

38


expatriates as a private organization to promote the advancement of artsin Nigeria. The objectives were set out as follows (see also the organ-ization chart opposite):

The council shall work towards the promotion, revival development and encour-agement of literary, visual and performing arts of Nigeria by: (a) assisting andencouraging deserving Nigerian artists and craftsmen; (b) initiating and partici-pating in the revival, organization and conduct of cultural festivals, exhibitions,concerts and displays; (c) promoting and publicizing Nigerian arts in and outsideNigeria; (d) advising in the acquisition and preservation of art and cultural monu-ments; (e) fostering appreciation and pride in local tradition and culture by en-couraging the compilation of publications on local history and monuments, thegiving of lectures on local history and by education in the value of their artisticheritage; (f) encouraging the performance and exhibition of the forms of non-Nigerian cultural activities in Nigeria with a view to the development of indigen-ous arts by the impact of international culture.

The council quickly received government and public recognition, an annualsubvention of £5,000 being approved by Parliament in 1961. It was thefirst cultural organization in Nigeria to receive government financialand moral support. It soon co-opted distinguished artists and men ofculture.

In connexion with the independence celebrations in i960, the councilmounted an exhibition of ancient and contemporary Nigerian art works andorganized some cultural dances and manifestations. In 1961 its Lagosbranch established the gallery LABAC for the exhibition and sale ofNigerian art and crafts products. The council gradually became the mainagent for government cultural activities. It was reconstituted in 1964 so asto include representatives of all the regional governments.

In co-operation with the Federal Ministry of Information, it organizedNigerian participation in the 1965 British Commonwealth Festival of Artand the first Negro Festival of Art in Dakar; it was also responsible forarranging participation in other international events, including the 1968Olympic Games.

In 1968, the council was reorganized and its constitution reviewed toreflect new political changes and cultural development. Membership wasenlarged to accommodate representatives of the newly created twelve statesof the federation; in addition, all federal government officials concernedwith art and cultural duties were co-opted. The council also has represen-tatives from all five universities.

The Executive Committee of the council is made up of elected officers asfollows: president; three vice-presidents; secretary; treasurer; financialsecretary; publicity secretary; four co-opted members.

The Executive Committee meets once or twice a year to consider.-thereports and recommendations of the different committees which are alsoelected annually. . ••

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Permanent committees deal with the following matters: art and artgalleries; dance and drama; music; festivals; research.

The five or six members of each committee meet from time to time todiscuss matters concerning their assigned duties and make recommendations.

The council maintains a secretariat and a gallery, both located in thesame premises in Lagos. Its permanent officials include two organizing sec-retaries and a gallery curator. The day-to-day running of the council is leftto the Honorary Secretary, who is helped by a General Purposes Committee.

Among its other functions, the council organizes the annual nationalfestival.

The new constitution of the council provides for the creation of state artcouncils, i.e. each state has a branch of the Nigerian Arts Council which isresponsible for local cultural activities and their co-ordination.

The Nigerian Cultural Society was founded in Kaduna in the old NorthernRegion for the same purposes as the Nigerian Arts Council (which was orig-inally active mainly in the south). It was recognized and financed by thethen regional government, to plan and implement cultural programmes. Ithad a secretariat in Kaduna, and was responsible for the annual art festival.Members included professional artists, government officials and statesmen.It was also affected by the division of the region in 1968 into six new states.It operated under the Interim. Joint Common Service of the new states, andgot money from the states to organize a festival in 1963. The festival waselaborately planned and other states were invited. After consultations, thesociety agreed to merge with the Nigerian Arts Council, which took over itsresponsibilities. Its president became first vice-president of the council.

Artists' societies

Painters, musicians, writers and other artists group together to meet, planactivities and try to find solutions to their common problems. Some of theiractivities may get government subventions. Notable examples are theSociety of Nigerian Artists, the Union of Nigerian Musicians, the MusicalCultural Society, the Mbari Club. The Society of Nigerian Artists is re-quested each year to organize art exhibitions as part of the independencecelebration. The Mbari Club was very active during the early 1960s when itorganized many cultural activities in the then regional capitals.

Cultural groups

Cultural organizations exist in most towns and villages to promote theirown ethnic or tribal culture and traditions. Members subscribe for regularactivities, some of which commemorate events of local historical or cultural

40

Typical Nigerian traditional cultural centrein Northern Nigeria.

Typical Nigerian traditional cultural centrein Southern Nigeria.

Typical Northern Nigeria architecture.

Two Nigerian artists painting a mural commissioned bya commercial firm in Lagos, Nigeria.

Potters in Abuja at work.

Typical Northern Nigeriatraditional music makers.

A Nigerian musicianteaching his son the secretof his profession.

A traditional rulerat the Ojofa culturalfestival surrounded byhis Odis chiefs.

Photos:Federal Ministry

of Information,Nigeria.


significance. In cities and towns, people from clans or villages cometogether as cultural groups to continue the traditions from which they areotherwise cut off in their new place of residence; sometimes the purpose isto raise funds for educational and social development in their home villages.

Similar to the tribal groups are societies grounded in a commonreligious or educational institution. They too organize regular art andcultural programmes for members, and invite the public.

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The transmission of culture

Cultural centres

Cultural centres can be either specially designed, permanent structures, orexisting buildings adapted or adopted for cultural purposes. In the pre-colonial era, special cultural centres were few, for the single reason thatmost of the traditional activities and performances did not need them,taking place mainly in the open air at appropriate places in towns andvillages. Rites for ancestral worship, for the celebration of the new yam,the marriage ceremony, and initiation into cults, took place in towns, orsometimes in the bush. Some traditional performances like the Northerndurbars could be performed only in the open. The few cultural structuresthat existed were mostly religious: shrines (e.g. Ibo Mbari shrines) and theMoslem moscjues.

When new art forms were introduced and assimilated, it became necess-ary to provide more formally organized premises. These are of four mainkinds: (a) cultural centres staffed and equipped by the public authorities;(b) public buildings, available part-time (e.g. town halls, communitycentres, schools); (c) centres specially provided by art and artists' organ-izations; (d) centres provided by foreign embassies, mainly for inter-national cultural exchanges.

MUSEUMS1

Notable among the centres provided by the public authorities are the sixmuseums, in different parts of the country, which mainly display Nigerianantiquities.

Jos Museum. Jos displays the Nofc terracottas, Ife and Benin bronzes,wood-carvings and other sculpture from different parts of the country,

1. Written in consultation with Efcpo Eyo, Director of Museums.

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unique Abuja pottery and books written by Northern scholars. Otheritems on display include masks, stone and iron implements of prehistoriccommunities.

Traditional craftsmanship is being revived as part of the museum'sactivities. There are two Buji blacksmiths, a woman potter from theJawara village, an Igala wood-carver and a brass-smith—all working withtraditional equipment in the museum grounds.

A zoo was started in the museum grounds in 1955. The animals includevarious types of monkeys and a 250-year-old tortoise.

Ife Museum. Opened in November 1954, the museum has on display theworld-famous Ife bronze heads which have been acclaimed by experts asamong the finest bronze casts in the world. There are also terracotta heads,Ife stone sculpture, finds excavated by the Department of Antiquities.

Benin Museum. Opened in 1960, this museum contains some of the earliestand finest Benin bronzes, some of which were dug up accidentally in con-structing the modern city of Benin. Benin has produced some of the finestbronze heads and statues ever made, and they are the most widely knownof all Nigerian arts in the outside world. Apart from the bronzes, there arealso on display carvings and brasswork, commemorating Obas and prin-cesses and the history of the Edo people.

Nigerian National Museum. This, the principal museum in Nigeria, wasopened to the public in 1957. It is situated near King George V MemorialPark, in Lagos. The museum has three main galleries.

The first contains ethnographic objects, some of which are exceedinglyrare specimens: wood-carvings which include ancestor figures from Oron(regarded as the oldest wood-carvings in Africa) and Yoruba carvings—divi-nation bowls and boards, figures representing dead twins, gelede masks,carved door panels and tools; water spirit masks from Ibo and Ibibio areas;carved heads covered with skin, made more impressive by the curling horns,beads and feathers fixed on to them (a unique art form not produced any-where else in West Africa); calabashes, and pottery.

The second, smaller, gallery on the ground floor contains the largestterracotta Nok head, from one of the specialized cultures that flourished inNigeria some 2,000 years ago; terracottas from Ife; some of the famous Ifebronze heads; a very fine one-metre-high Ogboni bronze figure; iron lampsfrom Yoruba land; brass bowls from Bida; and archaeological stone tools(scrapers, razors, grinding stones, axes and other implements of daily use).In the courtyard, stone age slabs reveal how stone figures were produced*

The third gallery, the Benin gallery on the first floor, contains someworld-famous works: bronze plaques from the walls of the Oba's palacedepicting events and life in the court of Benin, a unique queen-mother'sbronze head, beautiful bronze leopards, ancestral heads representing

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previous Obas, carved tusks and other ivory-carvings. A considerable num-ber of these objects were recovered from Europe where they had been takenafter the British expedition to Benin in 1897.

The objects are aesthetically arranged in such a way as to provide across-section of the Nigerian community and its individual traditions.

Other museums. There are small museums at Oron, Esie, Kano and Owo, andat Mbari houses at Ibadan, Benin and Oshogbo.

All museums are open, to the public daily from dawn to dusk. Nigerianmuseums and monuments enhance the world's knowledge of the people whohave inhabited Africa; they are helping to open the door to man's past andto increase the world's respect for the African people.

MONUMENTS 1

The scheduled monuments of Nigeria include sites of prehistoric rock paint-ings, ancient city walls, traditional buildings of architectural interest, tombsof historic Nigerians, monoliths, carved stone figures and talking drums.These are protected by law under the Antiquities Act of 1963. In some cases,the monuments are in towns, e.g. the old Iga Idunganran in Lagos which isof both architectural and historic interest. In many cases the tourist mayhave to travel out of town to view them.

The following are some of the outstanding monuments.

Rock paintings: Birnin Kudu and Geji. These rock paintings, in Kano andBauchi provinces respectively, are the most important so far found inNigeria. The Birnin Kudu cattle paintings and symbolic drawings have af-finities with some of the Sahara paintings. Both are accessible by motorroad.

Gobirau minaret: Katsina. This is a fifty-foot tower built of mud and palmtimber. It is the remains of the mosque constructed in Habe times, beforethe holy wars of Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio. Parts of the tower are thoughtto be 250 years old.

Carved monoliths: Ikom. The most accessible of these monoliths are in agrove by the roadside near Maghabe on the Enugu-Ogoja-Gboko road.There are many circles with stone-carvings representing human beings;some show affinities with wood-carvings of the Oran clan. The carvingsare sacred, and an annual festival is held here at the end of the dryseason.

1. Adapted from Paul Coremans, 'Preservation of the Cultural Heritage in TropicalAfrica', Museum (Paris, Unesco), Vol. XVIII, No. 3, 1965.

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Makama's House: Kano. This is one of the oldest remaining houses in Kano.It has been declared a monument and converted into a museum for antiqui-ties and the arts and crafts of the Hausa and Fulani of the Kano area.

Slit Drums: Ikot Ekpene. These drums are carved from hard wood and areabout nine feet long and three feet in diameter. These Ikuruk drums aretreasured possessions of many villages in the Oron, Afaha and Otoro clanareas of Uyo Province.

Jebba and Tada bronzes. These are nine extraordinary bronze figures associ-ated with Tsede, founder of the Nupe Kingdom in the fifteenth century.Six are the largest cast bronzes in Africa. They show affinities with early Ifeand Benin works.

Apart from their aesthetic appeal, each has a history. The monumentsare useful for educational purposes and also interest tourists. Their presenceis adequately sign-posted at convenient places on the road leading tothem.

The Department of Antiquities is responsible for protecting monumentsand keeping them in good condition.

PUBLIC HALLS AND COMMUNITY CENTRES

In most towns and big villages there are public halls and community centressuitable for day-to-day local cultural activities. They are built and main-tained by the local authority. Some are designed to accommodate moderntheatre, musical performances, dances, lectures, exhibitions and perhapsfilm shows. The staff are usually not artists, but look after bookings andarrangements. They vary in design and capacity, from the city hall withroom for a thousand to the local community centre holding less than ahundred. Organizations are allowed to bring in their own equipment forperformances. A hiring fee may or may not be charged.

Theatre or auditorium. Schools and colleges may have suitable halls designedand equipped to accommodate performances. However, they are not usuallyavailable for outside use except perhaps during school holidays.

Cinemas. In addition to normal film shows, cinemas may at times be avail-able for other shows and for music and drama rehearsals.

Clubs. A few organizations use rented houses or premises which they staifand equip themselves as cultural centres, mainly for members, e.g. the Mbarihouses established in different parts of the country in the early 1960s,which accommodate drama, music and dance performances, art exhibitions,seminars and lectures. The public is usually admitted on payment of anentry charge. The Mbari houses also publish journals and periodicals which

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may be offered for public sale. The Nigerian Arts Council has always had acentre (at secretariat headquarters) for cultural activities, including artexhibitions, lectures and seminars.

EMBASSY CULTURAL CENTRES

Some foreign embassies run centres as a means of promoting internationalcontacts and understanding, and regularly arrange art exhibitions, filmshows, concerts and plays. They sponsor exhibitions by local artists andbring works of foreign artists for show in Nigeria. Activities in the centres areusually filmed by the embassies and the films are sent to the home countries,and occasionally shown in Nigeria. The United States Information Service,the British Council and the German Cultural Institute all have centres bothin Lagos and in the former regional capitals.

Many new Western cultural forms and values have been assimilated, butlack structural facilities; in particular, there is a great need for more culturalcentres. A few organizations are doing their best, but the scale of facultiesneeded for national and international cultural festivals is definitely beyondthe reach of private organizations; only the government or the really bigcommercial firms could cope.

The positive step taken by the federal government in allocating£500,000 for the building of a national theatre in its four-year developmentprogramme is very encouraging. The money will probably be used to builda theatre in Lagos capable of accommodating the different festivals. It ishoped that each state government will build theatres in its capital and othercities. Meanwhile, existing halls should be equipped to accommodate filmshows, lectures, seminars and so on.

There is no reason why the states should not have their own museumsand museum services, collecting and displaying local objects of artistic andhistorical significance. This would increase the tourist attraction and allowmore people to experience art. As part of the museum, states could collectand snow contemporary art and crafts. However, it is important to avoidstate rivalries. Each could have its own museum, but works of art discoveredor produced locally should also be exhibited in other states and at thenational museums. As facilities for the training of museum personnel areinadequate, a centrally organized training service would provide a goodsolution.

The proposed extension of the National Museum, in Lagos should bedone qiiickly, and local facilities should be provided to allow Nigeria todisplay the richness of its artistic heritage to the world.

Galleries for contemporary works are also needed—the existing galleriesare usually over-booked; and a national museum of modern art should beestablished for the permanent display of outstanding contemporary works.

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Mass media

Radio and television. Radio and television have played very significant rolesin spreading art and culture and fostering contacts and awareness of musicand the arts. Television seems to have produced the more effective andlasting impact, mainly because of its visual quality (particularly important,obviously, in e.g. dances and acrobatic displays).

Radio broadcasting is mainly limited to music and drama. Some3.5 million radios have an estimated audience of 20-25 million listeners.Radio covers all parts of the country, and hence has a wider audience thantelevision. Regular features and talks, by professional artists, scholars andspecialists, have helped to promote a better understanding and appreciationof the arts. Editors also interview artists.

School units produce and relay educational and cultural programmes toschools and colleges, in co-operation with the ministries of education, andusually during school hours. Specialists in art, music and drama are com-missioned to prepare lessons suitable for the different categories of students.Programmes and visual aids are circulated in advance so that students canfollow the lessons or talks intelligently. Other school programmes includelive art, music, and drama broadcasts, model-making for teenagers andarts and crafts demonstrations.

Visual arts. Television interviews with local and foreign artists, often inconnexion with exhibitions, are a regular feature. Most Nigerian artists areformally trained in local and foreign universities and use media that are newto the Nigerian public. During such programmes, artists can explain their ma-terials, methods and techniques and their approach to creative work, whilethe general public has a chance to hear at first hand what the contemporaryartist has to say. Nigerian television, which is mainly black-and-white, hasbeen fairly effective in bringing the modern arts nearer to the people, therebyincreasing the hearing given to artists and making publicity for them (it isnot uncommon for artists to get a new commission after an appearance ontelevision). Exhibitions of foreign works allow the public to compare localand foreign talent, show local artists how their colleagues abroad solvesimilar problems and are also very helpful to art teachers and students.

Music. Music programmes are similarly educationally beneficial to thepublic, local musicians and musicologists, music students and teachers.

Drama. Drama programmes are very popular with viewers. They vary intypes and in manner of production. Some traditional plays are often per-formed by amateur actors in Nigerian languages; other plays are performedby professional actors in English. Some of the plays comment on or reflectlocal social, religious or political events.

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Dance. Traditional dances from different parts of the country make excitingtelevision and show not only the diversity but also the complexity of thetraditional dance systems. Apart from weekly programmes, foreign filmsand occasional documentaries, the big cultural occasions and festivals aretransmitted live.

Cinema. The film industry is comparatively new but the Federal Film Unithas produced some good documentary films and features. These howeverare rarely shown in the commercial cinemas, which prefer to show foreignfilms. No film of real cultural significance has so far been produced.

As stated above, a federal Films Censorship Board screens films beforethey are shown to the public. Cinemas in many towns and villages attractteenage and older spectators, most of whom have no other way of spendingtheir evenings. The films are mostly foreign, from America, India andBritain.

Foreign films display the subtleties of foreign cultures, but unfortunatelyalso their violent aspects. Their effects on society are not always healthy.There is now a growing tendency for people to stay at home and watchtelevision rather than go to the cinema.

Libraries. The role of the library in promoting cultural diffusion is steadilyincreasing as more and more libraries are opened in towns and villages.Unfortunately, most of their books (like films in the cinemas) are foreign,written and published abroad. While there are few Nigerian authors (andfewer still on cultural subjects), some of the novels and literature byNigerian writers succeed in reflecting Nigerian life and culture. The NationalLibrary and some of the bigger libraries periodically organize programmeswith films and slides. A few libraries also adorn their premises with Nigerianpaintings and sculpture.

Newspaper critics. There are very few trained art critics in Nigeria, butarticles on art or artists nevertheless appear in the different newspapers.Whatever their limitations, they play a useful role in publicizing artists,art exhibitions and other programmes. They report talks or lectures givenby art scholars and sometimes publish pictures of works of art and variouscultural activities.

Festivals of the arts

The origin of these festivals dates back to 1938 when Nigeria participatedin the British Empire Exhibition at Glasgow and art and crafts from Nigeriawere exhibited along with the works of artists of other countries. Nigeria'sparticipation was not very successful. After the exhibition a group ofexpatriate officials was invited to organize local festivals in preparation for

48


such international exhibitions. The government later provided some sub-ventions. However, these festivals differed greatly from the traditional localfestivals held in towns and villages today.

Festival administration first came under the Public Relations Office inLagos; it was later transferred to the Ministry of Natural Resources andSocial Welfare and finally to the Federal Ministry of Information.

For many years, the festivals were centrally organized from Lagos, butartists all over the country participated. The main events were traditionaland modern drama, instrumental and choral music, traditional folk-lore,dances, poetry writing and reading, and art and crafts. There were juniorcompetitions for schools and senior competitions open to all professionalartists.

Following the creation of the regions and later, of the states, changeswere made in the festival organization and administration. Each localcouncil is now responsible for the selection of groups and troupes to par-ticipate in the provincial or state festival. From the state festival the besttroupes are selected to participate in the National Festival of the Arts. Thepractical and financial organization is undertaken, first by the local councilsand later, by the states' arts councils. In the past ad hoc committeesorganized the National Festival, but this is now done by the Nigerian ArtsCouncil under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of Information. Thefederal government bears the main cost (a grant of over £30,000 was madeto the council to organize the 1970 festival).

The council intends to hold the National Festival successively inthe different state capitals, to encourage the spread of culture and pro-mote national unity. Firms and private organizations made contributionstowards the costs of the 1970 National Festival. Selected items from theNational Festival may also represent Nigeria in international or other fes-tivals—which, in recent years, have included the Commonwealth Festivalof Arts, the World Festival of Negro Arts, the All-African Cultural Festivalsponsored by the Organization of African Unity, Expo '67 in Canada, andExpo '70 in Japan.

-Premises are a major difficulty. There is at present not a single theatrein Nigeria that could cope with the National Festival. Those at presentavailable are inadequate. Nigeria urgently needs a proper national theatre.As indicated above, the government's four-year development programmeincludes provision to spend some £500,000 on one.

Finance is another problem. The expenditure on lodging, hotels andtransport is so heavy that it can only be met by the government. Unless itand the states contribute, it may be difficult to organize future festivals(especially in the states).

The competitive nature of the festivals poses another problem. Whatshould be judged in the traditional dances of a state or ethnic group andwho is qualified to make the judgement? And does the judgement presup-pose that some cultures are better than others?

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There is also potentially a shortage of personnel capable of handling theactual physical organization. When the National Festival moves to some ofthe newly created states it may be difficult to get enough hands to cope. InLagos there is a concentration of art experts, many of whom work in dif-ferent federal ministries and organizations. A possible solution would be togive enough funds to the Nigerian Arts Council to enable it to employ morepermanent staff" who could be posted temporarily to cover the festivals.

Art education and personnel training

FORMAL TEACHING

The introduction of formal teaching in cultural subjects in Nigerian schoolswas a fairly late development.

The first Nigerian to train as an artist was the late Chief Aina Onabolu,who studied art in London and Paris before returning in 1923 to teach artin schools in Lagos. He also continued to paint—mainly portraits of emi-nent citizens and administrators.

Chief Onabolu was credited with having convinced the government toinvite expatriate teachers to come to teach art.1 The first to accept theinvitation was K. C. Murray, an Englishman, who arrived in Nigeria in 1927and formally introduced the teaching of art at government colleges in Lagosand Umuahia.

However, there was still no government policy regarding the teaching ofart or other cultural subjects. The teachers were left to teach in any waythey liked and with any material they chose. Most of the European teachersused imported materials with which they were familiar and exhibited theresults from time to time for the inspectors who went round occasionally togive them encouragement. But their efforts did not induce the inspectors topress for more attention to creative subjects; these continued to be ratedlow and taught least in the schools and colleges.

Today the situation is not much better. None of the cultural and cre-ative subjects are compulsory in primary and secondary schools in Nigeria.Even at the teacher-training colleges, art and music are either optional ornot available. As a result, over 80 per cent of primary-school teachers havenot had any formal art training. Getting materials creates further problems.It is only in schools where there are trained or interested teachers and suf-ficient funds from the head of the school to buy materials that the subjectsare taught. Such schools constitute a very low percentage of the primaryschools.

The position is better in the secondary schools, where art and culturalsubjects have gradually been taking their rightful place in the curriculum.

1. Nigeria Magazine (Lagos), 79.

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Art teachers are graduating every year, with a corresponding increase inthe number of secondary schools that can offer art teaching. The subject'spopularity has been greatly enhanced by the success of students in local artexaminations and international exhibitions. Music has also been formallyintroduced into many schools, especially those directly administered by thefederal or state ministries of education. But as compared with othercountries, the position still needs to be improved. A former Chief ArtExaminer, R. Carline, said in a recent survey of art education in Nigeria:

It is perhaps relevant to observe that in Great Britain, with a population com-parable to that of Nigeria, it would be hard to find any school that does notinclude art in its curriculum. Even so, the schools are under constant pressure togive the subject yet more attention. Meanwhile, the number of candidates in artat Ordinary Level in Great Britain must be nearly one hundred times as great asin Nigeria. Comparison with countries in an equivalent stage of development maybe relevant. In Uganda, for example, 80 per cent of its fifty-two schools listed forSchool Certificate enter candidates in art, and the number (1,300) far exceeds thatof Nigeria, although Uganda's population is so infinitely smaller. The same is true,but to a slightly lesser extent, in the other East African countries (Kenya,Tanzania, Zambia). Mauritius enters as many candidates in art as Nigeria, andMalaysia enters thirty times as many. In both these two countries, nearly all thesecondary schools—those which teach up to the School Certificate level—includethe teaching of art.1

As far as art training in higher education institutions is concerned, coveringvisual arts, music, drama, architecture, etc., the different courses given bythe principal universities and colleges are as follows.

Ahmadu Bella University, Zaria. This was the first university to start afour-year diploma and graduate course in art. Specializations include paint-ing, sculpture, design, textiles, ceramics, with subsidiary courses in printing,photography, history of art. Following a recent reorganization, the univer-sity now runs the following courses, differing in duration, entry qualifi-cations and academic level:B.A. (Art) (three years). Entry qualification: General Certificate of Edu-

cation, Advanced level (GCE 'A' level) in art and one other subject.M.A./Ph.D. Two- or three-year M.A. or Ph.D. courses in fine art are open

to B.A. graduates in art.Diploma course (four years). Entry qualification: GCE Ordinary level, or

the Nigerian Grade Two Teacher Certificate.Proficiency course (one year). A specialization course for practising and

professional artists.Art teachers' course. A post-graduate one-year course run jointly by the

faculties of education and of fine art provides opportunities for artists

1. R. Carline, Art Education Survey, Lagos, 1967.

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wishing to teach, enables them to learn the principles, materials andmethods of art teaching.

As far as architecture is concerned, a four-year B.A. (Arch.) course is opento students who hold the GCE 'A' level in relevant subjects. Subsequentprofessional examinations are arranged by the Nigerian Institute of Archi-tecture in co-operation with the university.

University of Nsukka. This university also offers a B.A. (Art) course.Specializations include painting, sculpture and design, with archaeology,printing, photography and journalism as subsidiary subjects. There is alsoa three-year diploma (non-graduate) course for vocational teachers.

The university's Showande College of Music offers a four-year B.A.course and a three-year diploma course in music.

University of Ife. A newly created Art Department under the Faculty ofEducation offers a three-year B.Ed. (Art) course, primarily intended to trainart teachers and educationists; students attend education courses and ob-tain teaching practice.

The Music Department of the university is still part of the Institute ofAfrican Studies. Students can take music as a supplementary subject fortheir degrees. Talented students from other departments have also attendedpractical courses with very good results.

Yaba College of Technology. A two-year programme for personnel needed ingovernment departments, commercial firms and the private sector offerscourses in general art, printing, commercial design, sculpture, pottery andfashion design. A four-year Higher Diploma course, expected to start soon,will give more advanced training. The college also runs part-time eveningcourses.

Training of art teachers. Apart from university courses, courses at some sixadvanced teacher-training colleges include art as a subject for the NigerianCertificate of Education.

University of Ibadan. The School of Drama runs a course in drama andallied subjects. The school has a travelling theatre which brings plays to allparts of the country.

In addition to the Schools of Arts already mentioned, all the univer-sities have institutes of African studies where courses are available inAfrican literature, languages, anthropology, archaeology, African historyand sociology.

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INFORMAL TRAINING

Not all practising artists and craftsmen in Nigeria have received formaltraining or would even want to. The academic and financial demands are tooheavy for some, and these mostly learn through an apprenticeship system.During the early part of his training, the apprentice is maintained by hismaster for whom he does all sorts of odd jobs. After some time (dependingon his ability), the apprentice may be able, at a modest price, to sell some ofwhat he produces. When he has gained skill enough he sets up on his ownand apprentices come to him in turn for training. The system may be lessstrict but it has produced many outstanding craftsmen.

The duration of training depends on the type of craft. Carving, weaving,casting and ironwork take about three years; calabash decoration, tyingand dyeing, and embroidery, take about two. Other new crafts in whichNigerians train informally include printing, photography and sign-writing.

Co-operative craft industries. Informal apprenticeship training and theministries of trade and industry encourage craftsmen to come together andset up a co-operative crafts workshop. These get government subventionsand many local industries have prospered in consequence in towns andvillages where suitable local materials are available. The workshops are notdirectly controlled by the ministry, which does however arrange for displaysand publicity, especially at national and international trade fairs. Someexamples of local crafts industries: carving (Benin); pottery (Ado-Ekiti);weaving (Iseyin and Okenne); calabash workshop (Oyo); leather (Kanoand Kaduna); weaving (Akwete); dyeing (Ilorin and Abeokuta); pottery(Abujah); ceramics (Ikorodu).

Other workshops. Besides the regular co-operative industries, periodic artworkshops are organized by art societies for the people who could not studyat established institutions. The Mbari Club ran a series of art, drama andmusic workshops before the civil war. Participants included illiterate free-lance artists, and schoolteachers wanting to learn new art techniques.Courses included painting in different media, wood printing, etching andtraditional terracotta.

The Ori-Olokun Art Centre of the University of Ife now runs similarcourses, and products from it are regularly exhibited in Ibadan and Lagos.

Arts and crafts trade centres. Post-primary trade centres have recentlybeen established in some Northern states. Subjects at the centres includepainting and decoration and traditional crafts (leather, weaving, pottery,calabash decoration). The main course lasts for about three years, afterwhich the students go out to establish or work in industries where theirskills are needed. The training is organized under specialist and trainedinstructors; unlike the co-operative workshops, the trade centres admitstudents between the ages of 12 and 18 years only.

There is a federal government trade centre in Lagos; the training pro-vided is more technical than creative, and concludes with examinations.

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The transmission, of culture

PROBLEMS OF ART EDUCATION

Primary and secondary. The major problems are the lack of qualifiedteachers, of art rooms and art materials, and of visual aids and textbooks.

The first problem is gradually being solved by the number of art teachersgraduating yearly from institutions of higher learning and by the concertedgovernment efforts to train more teachers under a crash programme. Unfor-tunately, such teachers tend to work only in the secondary schools, wherethey have enhanced status; the problem of the primary schools remains.Only a very few teacher-training colleges have made an effort to includeart in the curriculum. Serving teachers in primary schools have no oppor-tunity of learning the subjects, as no in-service training in art is available,and this will continue unless drastic government measures are taken toimprove it. The state ministries of education could run part-time eveningcourses in art and crafts for such teachers, or refresher courses during theholidays. They could also make art and music compulsory in the teacher-training colleges.

Most headmasters or school authorities still regard art and music as'luxury' subjects for which no funds can be provided to purchase materialsand equipment. Few schools have art rooms, space having been allocatedlong before art and music were included in the curricula. With no rooms ormaterials, the art teacher finds it extremely difficult to work. Even whenfunds are available, the materials may not be, as they are mostly imported.Examinations demand the use of more imported than local materials—outof the six sections of the School Certificate Art examination, only one(crafts) can be done with local materials. A government embargo on theimport of certain materials also adversely affected teaching in textile print-ing and embroidery.

Very few books on art, visual aids or reproduction are available; slides arefewer still. In view of the present financial situation in the schools, onlyministries and school authorities can provide the funds for such aids andprovide regular refresher courses for both primary and secondary teachers.Most of the latter have to work in isolation in towns and villages, usuallyseveral miles apart, with none of the regular contacts or exchanges thatrefresher courses could provide.

Universities. Although the educational system was inherited from theUnited Kingdom, there are no independent art schools. Art departmentsare part of the universities and are controlled by them. Many educationaladministrators have very little understanding of the arts and little time forcultural subjects; they may superficially agree that these subjects should

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be encouraged along with the others, but in practice find it difficult toequate them to other disciplines.

Opinions vary. Some doubt whether art can be academically equatedwith science and other subjects—if so, must not art students present thesame entry academic qualifications, irrespective of their talents in the arts?But then, should students who only have their outstanding ability in thearts be excluded from the university? What roles are art graduates expectedto play in society? Should they be treated as people with special talents, oras other graduates in administrative or executive appointments? Will artgraduates be capable of holding administrative or other responsible posts iftheir training is artistic only?

Content. The question of content raises other problems for art educationplanners. In view of Nigeria's reputation in the arts, it is often heldthat art education should be unequivocally based on traditional forms.Others feel it should develop along the same lines as in other countries.And some favour a compromise between the two. If a compromise isthe solution, what are to be the proportions of foreign and traditionalart?

Again, what jobs are graduate artists likely to find? At present, over90 per cent are engaged in teaching. They have few openings in the civilservice, industry or commerce. As still more art teachers are needed inschools, it has been suggested that the art course shoiild include courses ineducation. This may be one of the reasons for the University of Ife B.Ed,course in art and for the introduction of education as a subsidiary subjectfor art students in Ahmadu Bello (Zaria) and Nsukka. On the other hand,the time taken by education may adversely affect the art course and distractthe art student. At present, the only feasible solution is to train on theassumption of a future teaching career. Perhaps growth in industry andadvertising will provide a better market for free-lance artists, and justifya change of direction in art courses.

Finances. Apart from materials, equipment may also be essential, i.e. light-ing and costumes for a play or concert. College authorities are usually slowto appreciate the need to spend so much money on art departments forresults which are not tangibly or economically evident, and the resultingscarcity or lack of funds means hardship for both art students and teachers.Departments have to cancel or postpone studies, teach without essentialvisual aids (e.g. reproductions, slides), and without suitable references ortextbooks.

Staffing. From the time the first art department was set up in Nigeria,expatriates dominated the staffing, as few Nigerians were qualified, andthey introduced the systems and kind of education with which they werefamiliar. The results have been ably desciibed by Demas Nwoko, a lecturer

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in drama in one of the Nigerian universities, in a paper read at an Africansymposium:

Many of our students are now employed in radio and television, and many moreare teaching in grammar schools, but I regret to say that it seems we have notmade African artists out of them. As I said earlier, by the very system we use,which is an amalgamation of the European and American university systems,added to the situation where available teaching materials were almost entirely onWestern theatre forms, they stepped out of our school as if they had trained inany drama school in London. There is very little one can do to change the orien-tation of the school since our university is international in character and our stafffrom all over.

This also reflects the situation in other art subjects and steps must be takento improve it. One way would be to recruit more qualified and experiencedNigerians into the departments teaching art and cultural subjects, peoplewho know and feel Nigerian cultural values and can gradually help themto permeate our cultural education; this would transform the presentsystem and enable it really to reflect the traditions and aspirations of thepeople.

TRAINING OF PERSONNEL

There are few directors of theatres, curators of museums and galleries, andother such administrators, for the simple reason that Nigeria has few suchinstitutions. Those which do exist have staff who are trained locally andsend a small number abroad for more advanced training.

Museum personnel. In addition to departmental and overseas training,an international bilingual centre in Jos, run with Unesco aid and experts,provides training for museum technicians from Nigeria and other tropicalcountries. The principal and the instructors are bilingual. Courses last aboutnine months. Entry qualification is the GCE '0' level. Practical trainingincludes conservation techniques, display design, moulding of replicas, pro-duction of audio-visual aids.

Museum education services. The Department of Antiquities in Lagos hasstarted a schools and colleges programme. Experts have been invited fromabroad to run short courses and seminars for officials and schoolteachers.Regular workshops are helping to revive traditional arts and crafts, andpopularize them in schools.

Television staff training. NBC-TV, the Nigerian Broadcasting Corpor-ation, has a staff training school and also arranges for advanced trainingand attachments overseas.

Local authority training. Western State and a few others run in-servicetraining courses for local government officials, including those in charge ofcommunity centres and local libraries. The training seldom covers artsadministration, but certainly enhances ability and confidence.

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Citizenship and leadership training. The federal government has sponsoredcourses in different parts of the country to train people capable of takingleading roles in local social, sporting and cultural activities. More formaland specifically designed training will be necessary for staff of the proposednational theatre, the Museum of Modern Art and other developments likelyto take place within the next few years.

INTENSIFIED CULTURAL AWARENESS

Cultural education has a very vital role to play in bridging the gaps betweenthe illiterate majority and the educated minority. It transmits and per-petuates in addition to serving as an instrument of unity, development andchange. Formally or informally, a good system of cultural education shouldreach everyone, irrespective of age, sex, religion, ethnic origin or language;through it, the culture of a people can be effectively transmitted; with itshelp, the spiritual challenges posed by the modern world can be confidentlyfaced. The Nigerian educational system must give more attention to cul-tural subjects—this will definitely promote inter-tribal understanding andnational unity.

Cultural education can be made more effective by more youth exchanges,through festivals, exhibitions and literary and cultural seminars. These inturn suppose having cultural and sports centres throughout the country,and the formation of art clubs and cultural societies. Prizes and study grantsshould be awarded to those having outstanding artistic or creative abilities.

Papers for children should help to counteract the perhaps excessiveinfluence of foreign newspapers and magazines and enough publications onNigerian art, music, folk-lore and traditional poetry should be made avail-able to occupy a gieat portion of their reading time.

Efforts should also be made to introduce the major Nigerian languagesinto the school curricula, which in turn should give greater weight to things,envisaging comparative local studies to eradicate prejudice and promotecultural harmony. It is when cultural education has inculcated the idea ofnational unity that a national policy becomes really practicable; culturaleducation is a potential instrument of peace that has never been adequatelyused and, at this present time of national reconstruction and reconciliation,it should not be neglected. It should be used to reduce antagonisms betweentribal, religious, social and political groups, to promote the inter-tribalunderstanding that can lead to active cultural co-operation in a new aware-ness of a common cultural heritage.

Art patronage and the artist's problems

As a result of the new patronage and new social functions of the arts, certaintraditional forms of aid have largely disappeared. New forms of financial

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aid and other encouragement are being given by those who are now in aposition to patronize the arts: public authorities, firms, foundations andlocal art organizations.

Government aid. Government grants are limited, and usually come as sub-ventions for the making or purchases of specially needed works. Thus, thefederal government has commissioned certain items to commemorate his-torical occasions in Nigeria or for presentation to other countries or worldorganizations in similar circumstances (e.g. at the time of Independence,the bronze statue of the Queen of England which now stands in front ofthe Parliament). Regional and state governments have also commissionedstatues and paintings to mark special occasions or to honour heroes orstatesmen.

The Federal Ministry of Education makes an annual subvention for thecollection of art works for the proposed Museum of Modern Art (a total ofover £30,000 during the past six years). This has allowed the purchase ofover a hundred items from leading Nigerian artists. The Federal Ministryof Information also subsidizes the purchase of art works for embassiesabroad, or government offices and public buildings in Lagos.

Government honours for artists. Artists have not been left out in honourawards. The late Chief Aina Onabolu, who could be regarded the father ofNigerian modern art, was also the first artist to receive a national honour,the colonial government awarding him the Order of the British Empire. Twoother artists (one a musician) received the Member of the British Empireorder before British honours were renounced shortly after independence. ANigerian architect and a woman potter were later awarded the Order of theNiger. The Federal Cultural Adviser has received an honorary doctor ofletters degree from a Nigerian university. These awards carry no financialbenefits, but are valued and appreciated by artists so rewarded and en-courage others who can likewise aspire to them.

Firms. Commercial firms, including banks and hotels, have constituted themain patrons, commissioning or purchasing murals, paintings and sculptureto decorate offices and residences. Almost all the big hotels and bankspossess murals or art works by Nigerian artists and many free-lance artistsdepend on their patronage. A few firms give annual prizes or scholarships toart and architecture students in Nigerian universities.

Art associations. The Nigerian Arts Council makes annual cash awards fordifferent competitive events in the National Festival. The Society ofNigerian Artists awards cash prizes to outstanding art students in schoolsand colleges. Some private patrons (mostly European collectors) pro-vide financial or other help for artists, but it is difficult to say howmuch.

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Tlie transmission of culture

The artist's problems. The artist has problems in relation both to his art andto society. Nigeria has two main categories of artists: traditional and'modern'.

The traditional artists are mainly illiterate. They lack formal educationbut have inherited a family tradition. Found mostly in towns and villages,the most successful among them live in the cities. They simply continuetraditional techniques and have very few problems. After an apprentice-ship, they settle down to reproduce in quantity what they have learnt tomake and sell easily to tourists and foreign collectors.

The others, formally trained locally or abroad, assimilate foreign tech-niques and attitudes. Some settle down to permanent jobs, mainly inteaching. Modem in outlook, their art is understood and appreciated onlyby foreigners and some more sophisticated Nigerians. Very often neithertheir own families nor the public understand. Their work, similar to whatis produced in Europe (or produced in Nigeria by Europeans), does not finda ready market. Tourists and foreign collectors are seldom interested in akind of art they can easily collect anywhere in Europe or America.

In their efforts to find a market, some of the artists fall back on copyingtraditional forms, or working local materials with western techniques. Un-fortunately, many lack conviction in using their newly acquired techniquesand remain undecided about their proper line of development. Some havewithdrawn altogether, and packed away their easels and chisels. This prob-lem is not confined to the visual artists: musicians and playwrights areequally affected.

The academic artist can hardly survive on a free-lance basis because thedemand for his works is so limited. There are few openings for him in thecivil service or in commercial firms. Some are therefore forced to take upteaching jobs in small towns and villages, doing their art work only in theirspare time. For lack of facilities, publicity and patronage, such artists areusually less favoured than their counterparts in the cities. Even in some bigtowns the acquiring of art materials can present difficulties. But in thesmall towns and villages, the artist receives little or no public attention, asthe press is mainly concerned with the cities. His work is rarely seen ontelevision. Anything he sells, he has to sell cheap. The local people will havelittle appreciation of 'modern' or academic works. He therefore can onlyhope for the occasional visits of foreign collectors.

Even in his school, the village artist is usually isolated. The school headand other teachers attach less importance to his subject and anything hemay produce. He is misunderstood, especially if he puts himself forward asan artist; and this hostile environment can hardly be called encouraging.

Writers have a special problem—that of language. English has becomethe official language and the accepted language in which to communicateideas. But Nigeria has over ten languages and some 200 dialects. To theplaywright or poet, this language problem raises obstacles of communi-cation. In any local language his writing may fail to attract the attention of

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foreign publishers, for whom a first condition is a language they can under-stand, and for which type-faces are available. The writer therefore haseither to write in English or take a chance on finding a local publisher. Aslocal publishing, and hence, locally published books tend to be more ex-pensive, the local reader tends to prefer cheaper foreign books.

When the writer uses English, he is naturally handicapped by having totranslate local concepts and ideas into a foreign idiom. But if he does getpublished, he will also be widely publicized and reviewed by local critics,and may quickly go on to national fame. Outstanding writers in locallanguages will thus be less known than mediocre writers who use the Englishlanguage, because circulation is usually limited to the areas in which thelanguage used is understood.

Musicians face a similar kind of problem. Their academic training isbased on foreign instruments, and few will have explored the possibility oflocal instruments which, in any case, are not suited for use in compositionsintended, more often than not, for a foreign audience. Nigerian musicianswho have achieved international fame are little known or appreciated athome where, again, their admirers are limited to trained connoisseurs.

These are problems facing artists and writers in Nigeria. Some can besolved only by the artists themselves, others through a new kind of culturaleducation that will link artists better with their environment and traditions.

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The future

Nigeria has had no specific written government cultural policy since itattained independence. The colonial government did not bother to formu-late a policy. Towards the end of the colonial period, Nigerian politicianswho were in control of the administrative and financial machinery concen-trated all their efforts and attention on political and economic programmes.This is understandable in a newly independent country still struggling againstthe strains of poverty and underdevelopment.

Indifference was also caused by the erroneous belief that, culture beinginterwoven with Nigerian social life, it needed no special developmentmeasures. However, with more political and economic stability, the govern-ment and people are increasingly aware that culture is the essence of civi-lization and the federal and state governments are getting more and moreinvolved not only in promotion but also in cultural education and inpreserving the national heritage.

The federal government inherited and continued the colonial adminis-tration policy on antiquities. Annual subventions are made to museums allover the country, and arrangements to develop them and to build a nationaltheatre are well in hand.

There have been growing demands by artists, writers, educationists andmen of culture in different walks of life for a government policy on culture,and the creation of a unified ministry or department of culture as opposedto the present system of leaving cultural matters to a series of differentministries. Officials dealing with art and culture have also been trying toco-ordinate their efforts and have unanimously recommended the creationof a federal government cultural council as a prelude to the creation of adepartment of culture.

Six senior officials in different ministries could provide the nucleus ofsuch a department: (a) the Federal Cultural Adviser in the Ministry ofInformation; (b) the Federal Art Adviser in the Ministry of Education;(c) the Director of Museums (Ministry of Education); (d) the Controller of

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The future

Archives (Ministry of Education); (e) the Head of the Cultural Division,Ministry of External Affairs; (f) the officer in charge of trade affairs in theMinistry of Trade and Industry.

They could be brought together under the Federal Cultural Adviser and,with some administrative assistance, could form a Ministry of Culture.Cultural education, promotion and preservation could then be directedcentrally and organized more effectively. After due consultations the officialscould formulate a cultural policy for submission to the government.

In formulating a national cultural policy, however, the complex geo-graphical, social and cultural patterns of the country must be taken intoconsideration. A national policy should avoid the over-centralization ofprogrammes. The present constitutional position in regard to culture issatisfactory. The state governments and the local authorities should beconsulted, to ensure that the federal cultural policy adopted makes sensealso to people in towns and villages and is not made only for a privilegedand already cultured elite in the cities. It must respect cherished customsand traditions, and aim at enhancing life for everyone, irrespective of theirsex, age, or religion.

Admitting this need for participation, there is at the same time a greatneed for a central policy-making and co-ordinating body. It could help toforge a common national identity and cultural image; promote inter-Statecultural co-operation and understanding; plan national festivals and otherprogrammes that enhance national cultural awareness; and arrange Nigerianparticipation in international festivals and other cultural activities.

Many people believe that the present Nigerian Arts Council should bereconstituted and given the same terms of reference in regard to culturalmatters as the Nigerian Sports Council has in sport, i.e. that of a subsidizedand semi-autonomous agency acting for the government but with a mini-mum of State interference. The council is at present greatly handicapped bythe smalbiess of its subvention, the delay in actually getting it and a lackof recognized authority.

The federal government is expected to take a definite step towardsdefining both a national and an international cultural policy. Cultural plansshould be integrated with political and economic programmes in the four-year development programmes. This would, inter alia, avoid the confusionthat often arises at the time of international festivals.

The above are some of the proposals that are in the air. The governmenthas taken no decision on them yet. However, commissioners and governorshave publicly stressed the need for a ministry of culture or similarlynational body.

The present mood of national reconstruction and reconciliation offers agood opportunity for government-concerted cultural development. In amulti-tribal society such as exists in Nigeria, cultural programmes could bevery effective in bringing about mutual understanding and national unity,as cultural programmes and exchanges do foster a better understanding and

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The future

appreciation of other people's way of life. The more people know of oneanother, the less grounds do they have for irrational suspicions.

A country is not judged by its political and economic developmentalone—its arts, literature, and music also count. Nigeria has rich culturalpotentialities which, if developed and properly organized, should enhanceher role in Africa. Countries relatively less favoured have been concernedfor their arts, and earned world-wide attention. The performances ofNigeria in international festivals still leaves a lot to be desired; and improve-ment implies better organization. Only through a coherent governmentpolicy can Nigeria's cultural potentialities be fully developed.

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