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DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

SPECIAL PUBLICATION

February 1991

Basic Music (Navy)

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DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Although the words he, him, andhis are used sparingly in this course toenhance communication, they are notintended to be gender driven or to affront ordiscriminate against anyone.

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PREFACE

Special Publications (SPs) are manuals or catalogs that provide information of general benefit and career

development. SPs have no associated assignments or tests.

Basic Music (Navy)provides a basic reference on media, form, and conducting as it relates to the Navy

musician.

Refer questions about this SP to:

COMMANDING OFFICER

SCHOOL OF MUSIC

ATTN TRAINING OFFICER1420 GATOR BLVD.

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Sailors Creed

I am a United States Sailor.

I will support and defend theConstitution of the United States of

America and I will obey the ordersof those appointed over me.

I represent the fighting spirit of theNavy and those who have gonebefore me to defend freedom anddemocracy around the world.

I proudly serve my countrys Navycombat team with honor, courageand commitment.

I am committed to excellence andthe fair treatment of all.

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C O N T E N T SAPPENDIX Page

D. Form in Music with List of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. AD-1E. Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .AE-1F. Conduct ing for Instrumenta list s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AF-1

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AP P E N D I X DF O R M I N M U S I C WI T H L I S T O F T E R M S

IN GENERALBeyond considera t ions of melody, rhythm, and harmony in music

is the concept of musica l form or st ructure. Form is the way inwhich a composer organizes what he has to say in a manner which willmake it possible for the listener to under stand the music, especia llyif the composit ion is longer than a minute or so.

Musica l form depends upon unity and var iety: unit y to impress thelistener tha t the music is organized, meaningful round ra ther thannonsense; and var iety, to sustain in terest , to relieve boredom, and top rovid e con t ra st .

Unity is achieved by repet it ion , either exact or modified, of amusical idea. Var iety comes about by using new mater ia l, or by usingthe orgina l musica l idea in such a t ransformed manner tha t thet ransformat ion it self gives cont rast .

Repet it ion is t wo-fold: (1) the repet it ion of a shor t mot iveused in such a way as to build phrases, and (2) r epet it ion of thephrases themselves, or of la rger par ts of the composit ion .The mot ive. As used by most significant composers, the mot ive is ashor t , meaningful melodic fragment which conta ins, in essence, themusica l idea of the whole composit ion .

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Qualit ies of a mot ive. The significant aspects or qua lit ies of themot ive, and the way in which these qua lit ies may be var ied include thefollowing:

1. The notes themselves. They may be var ied by changing theorder (a -b-c-d becomes b-a-c-d, b-a-d-c, etc.); by extension (a-b-c-dbecomes a-b-b-c-d, a -a-b-c-d-d, etc.); by cont ract ion (a -b-c-d becomesa-b-c, b-c-d, a -b-d, etc.); by extension and cont r act ion (a-b-c-dbecom es a -b-b-c, et c.)

2. The in terva ls. These include the melodic in terva ls making upthe mot ive, and in addit ion the in terva l from the lowest to the highestnote and the in terva l from the fir st to the last note. Th ese m ay bevar ied by changing the quality (c-g, a perfect fift h , becomes c-g fla t ,a diminished fifth ); by changing the size (c-f, a four th , becomes c-a , asixth); or by inver sion (c-e becomes e-c). If successive changes areused, systemat ica lly increasing or decreasing the in terval, but a lwaysin the same direct ion , one can speak of developing the in terva l.

3. The melodic curve. In genera l, a mot ive may go up, down, orzig-zag. The direct ion of the melodic curve may be changed by cont ra rymot ion (c-e-g-a becomes g-e-c-d) or by the use of ret rograde (rever se)

mot ion (c-e-g-a becomes a -g-e-c).

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Per iod. The per iod is made up of two phrases, the antecedent (fir st )phrase and the consequent phrase. Frequent ly the first phrase ends ina half cadence and the second in a perfect cadence, but th is fea turedepends on the musica l purpose. If the two phrases begin a like, theper iod is in para llel const ruct ion . St ructures of the same type, butla rger , such as the double per iod and the per iod of three phrases, a remet with occa siona lly.Cha in of phrases. Frequently a la rger par t is built up, not in per iodst ructure, but in a more or less loosely organized cha in of phrases,which may be separa ted by cadences, but which frequent ly show elisionof the cadence (the last chord of one phrase is used as the firstchord of the next ) or dissolu t ion of the cadence (the harmonicprogression is character ist ic of a cadence, but the rhythm is notin ter rupted; the cadent ia l measure is broken up in to notes of smallvalue). Phrase cha ins are frequent in the exposit ions of sonatas byHaydn and Moza r t .

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MUSICALFORMSThe combina t ion of the var ious elements of music in to understandable

and in terest ing st ructures const itu tes musical form. Much music fa llsin to types, or musica l forms, which resemble each other su fficien t ly tohave acquired names; and a knowledge of these names and of thest ructural pat terns they represent is essent ia l to well-roundedmusicianship.

However , it must be understood that these are forms and notformulas. While from the standpoint of theoret ica l ana lysis it wouldbe convenient if musica l composit ions were a ll in clear ly definedca tegor ies, with no over lapping, composers have never cooperated. Agenuine composer uses set forms on ly to the extent consisten t with hisown purposes, and has no hesita t ion in modifying exist ing forms orcr ea ting new ones.

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Small forms are built up of par ts, which are simple in st ructure(per iod, double-per iod, or phrase-chain .) These are ar ranged in twoways: the two-par t song form (A,B) and the three-par t song form (A,B,A.)The let ters a re applied to the par ts for ident ificat ion , so tha t atwo-part form consists of one idea which ends away from the tonic anda second, different par t which returns to the tonic and so achievesbalance. In three-par t form, the first par t (A) is followed by acontrast ing par t (B) with a return to the or igina l idea. Th e (A)part of a three-par t form either ends in the tonic, or leads, in itsrestatement , to a coda which establishes the or igna l key and br ings thecomposit ion to a close.

In the large forms, the individual part s a re themselves smallforms. Accordingly, the la rge form represents two levels oforganization. F or example, a r on do m ay h ave t he form A-B-A-C-A-D-A,in which A is three-par t form, a-b-a , and the other part s may besim ila r ly complex.

The most impor tan t small forms are these:Two-par t song form, A-BThree-pa rt song form, A-B-AMinuet or scherzo, A-B (or A-B-A); C-D (or C-D-C); A-B (or

A-B-A)

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The most important large forms are:var ia t ion form (A, A1, A2, etc., where A is complexRon dos: sm all r on do A-B-A

old (or secon d) r on do A-B-A-C-A-D-An ew (or t hir d) r on do A-B-A-C-A-B-A

Sona ta -allegro: exposition-development -recapitu lation.The sonata and the suite are forms made up of two or more

(typically four ) movements, each of which maybe a la rge form.All forms ment ioned above are discussed in greater deta il In the

list of terms to follow,Polyphonicorms. Counterpoint is the ar t of composing music by

combin ing melodies. The music which results is known as polyphonic(many-voiced) music. This technique of composit ion was used almostexclusively from the t ime of the ear liest music for more than onevoice (shor t ly before 1000 A.D.) to the middle of the 18th century.After a per iod of emphasis on harmonic techn ique in the la te 18th andthe ent ire 19th centur ies; counterpoint is again in the 20th cen turycharacter ist ic of the work of many impor tant composers.

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Cer ta in musical st ructures have emerged which are ca lled polyphonic,or con t ra pu nt a l, forms. These include the canon, the motet , themadr iga l, and the mass, as voca l forms, and the chora le prelude, thefugue,Bach's

and the suite (in the sense of the classica l set of dances oft ime) for inst ruments. Canons are also writ ten for inst ruments.

Occasiona lly a fugue is used as a movement in a sonata or a symphony,for example the fina le of Mozar t 's C major (J upiter ) Symphony. Each

of the forms listed in th is paragraph is discussed in some detail inthe list which

LIST OF TERMSThis list

follows.

conta ins a br iefof the terms used in connect ionin forma tion , st an da rd r efer en ce

dis cu ss ion or iden t ifica t ionwith musical form. For morewor ks sh ou ld be con su lt ed.

of manycomplete

Allemande: A classic dance in ~measure, modera tely fast , usua lly withan eight h-not e upbea t. See Suite (1). The name means German dance.Anthem: A piece of sacred chora l music used in the service ofProtestan t churches, sung by the choir , ra ther than by the congrega t ion .It is usua lly accompanied by the organ and may conta in solos by one ormore voices, and concer ted passages for solo voices (duets, t r ios, orquartets).

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Aria : A solo song, occu rr ing in an opera , ora tor io, or cantata , whichdevelops a dramat ic, lyr ics or emotional h igh poin t the work.Unlike the recita t ive, It does not usua lly advance the act ion of theplot . In the 18th century, the ar ia normally consisted of an orchest ra lin t roduct ion , a long sect ion for the accompanied solo voice, a sect ionin cont rast ing key and style, and a repr ise of the ent ire fir st sect ion .For th is reason , it was frequent ly ca lled the da capo aria . Somecomposers, including Gluck, Wagner , and Debussy, did not mainta in thedifference between the ar ia and the recita t ive, but used a mixedtechnique, par taking of both declamat ion and expressive song.Ar ioso: A style of solo song in opera or ora tor io, resembling boththe recita t ive and the ar ia . It main ta ins the carefu l t reatment ofthe text character ist ic of the recita t ive, but it is likely to bemelodious, and to preserve something of the symmetry and key unitycharacter ist ic of the ar ia . Wagner 's music dramas make wide use oft he a rioso.Baga telle: Literally, a t r ifle. The name was applied by Beethovenand others to shor t piano pieces, usually in song form.

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Ba lla d, ba lla de:(1) A simple song(2) A narra t ive poem, set to music, such as Schuber t s Er l-King.(3) A piano piece, orchest ra l work, or chora l work, wh ich is

pa t terned after the above defin it ion . Chopins four ba llades for thepiano a re examples.Basso ost inato: Literally, an obst inate bass. A var iat ion form inwhich a bass-line of 1, 2, or 4 bars is repea ted over and over , withchanging harmonies and melodies above. There are a few ent ire piecesof th is sor t , bu t frequent ly the basso ost inato occurs as one sect ionof a la rger work, for example in measures 118 th rough 128 of the lastmovement of the fir st symphony of Brahms.Cadence: An in ter rupt ion to the movement of music, usually at the endof a phrase. The in ter rupt ion is put in to effect by one or more of thefollowing devices :

(1) Dura t ion: The fina l chord of the cadence, or at least them elody not e, is com par at ively long.

(2) Melodic movemen t: The fina l melody note of the cadence is anina ct ive tone.

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(3) Met rica l posit ion :he final note of the cadence is usually Ina st rong metr ica l posit ion, frequen t ly on the fir st beat of the measure.However , a reverse may be true, in which case the cadence is calleda feminine ending.

(4) Chord Procession : The chord progression of the cadence issuch as to give the feeling of repose.Types of ca den ces: The harmonic element of the cadent ia l effect is soimportant that cadences are usually classified according to harmonicprogression:

(1) Per fect authen t ic cadence: V-I or V7-I, both chords in rootposit ion, with the root of 1 in the highest voice. This is the usualformula for ending a piece, and is often preceded by a I 6-4 chord.

(2) Perfect plagal cadence: IV-I, somet imes used independent ly,but most frequent as the Amen sung after the last verse of a hymn.

Per fect cadences are somet imes called full closes.(3) Imperfect cadence: A weak form of the per fect authent ic

cadence. The chord progression is V-I or V7-I, but one or the otherof the chords is inver ted, or the soprano note of the last chord isnot the root .

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(4) Half cadence: A cadence ending on V, or on III of minor keys.Half cadences may also end on other degrees, but not the tonic.

(5) Decept ive (or interrupted) cadence: A special kind ofhalf-cadence, in which the listeners ear is prepared for a perfectauthent ic cadence, but the final chord turns out to be some chordother than the tonic. (Examples: V-VI; V-IV).Canon: A composit ion for two or more voice-par t s, in which each ofthe par ts in turn presents the ident ica l melody (called the subject )in a way dicta ted by the first voice, and by the convent ions adoptedfor the canon. The canon is the st r ictest of the contrapunta l formsu sin g im it at ion .

Canons are descr ibed by the number of voices and the number ofsubjects. A canon 3 in 1 is a canon for three voices using one subject .A canon 4 in 2 is for four voices, using two subjects.

Canons may also be descr ibed by the interval of imita t ion and bythe distance (in t ime) between the en trance of the subject and thebeginning of the imita t ion. A canon may be writ ten at the octave(fifth , sixth , etc. ) after two measures (one beat , four measures,etc.)

A canon which returns to its star t ing poin t is a perpetual orinfin it e canon. A canon which has a definite close is a fin ite canon.

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Imita t ion may be direct , but may also be in inversion, (orcon trary mot ion), in augmenta t ion, in diminut ion , or ret rograde.

Canons are usually independent , but may be accompanied by oneor more voices which do not par t icipate in the imita t ion.Cantata : Originally, a piece of music for singing, as con trasted toa piece to be played on inst ruments (sonata .) Now the term usuallyrefer s to a sacred or secu lar work for soloists, chorus, and orchest ra ,someth ing like a shor t ora tor io or an opera not intended for act ion .Bach wrote more than 200 cantatas for performance in the Lutheranservice before the sermon.

Capr ice, capr iccio:fanciful and irregular sor t of composit ionwr it ten in free style, resembling the fantasia.Cassat ion: A name applied by Mozart and others to some serenades, orsuites, for var ious inst rumenta t ions, probably intended for outdoorperformance.

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Chaconne or pas sa caglia : A composit ion consist ing of a set ofvar ia t ions der ived from a ground bass 4 or 8 measures long, usuallyin t r iple meter . Or igina lly dances of Spanish or igin , the chaconneand passacaglia have become the framework of some of the finest musicof some of the grea test composers, for example: the Chaconne fromBach 's D minor par t ita for violin alone, the Passacaglia in C minor bythe same composer , Beethoven 's Thir ty-two Var ia t ions in C minor , Chopin 'sBerceuse, and the Finale of Brahms' Four th Symphony. Some theoristsmake var ious dist inct ions between the chaconne and passacaglia as forms,bu t analysis of the music fa ils to show any consisten t difference.Chorale: The German hymn developed by Mart in Luther . It is of greatmusica l impor tance because it became the basis of much German music upto the middle of the 18th cen tury, especia lly in the chorale prelude fororgan , and in the can ta ta . Bach harmonized about 400 of these t radit ionalmelodies, and based much of his church music on them.Chorale Prelude: An elaborat ion of a chora le melody for the organ ,used in the Lutheran service as a prelude to the singing of the chora leby t he con gr ega tion . Fine examples were composed by Bach and Brahms,among others . The form is also somet imes ca lled chora le elabora t ionor ch or ale figu ra tion .

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Concer to: A large work for soloist with orchest ra , in the form of asonata or symph ony. It ordinar ily consists of th ree movements, thefirst being in sonata-a llegro form with a double exposit ion (ar itornello for orchest ra and a second sta tement of the themes by thesolo inst rument ), a slow second movement , and a rapid and brilliantth ird movement , usually a rondo. Near ly always the fir st movement hasat the end of the recapitula t ion a six-four chord with a fermata , a twhich point the orchest ra stops and the soloist plays an extendedbr illiant passage called a cadenza elaborat ing on the themes of themovement . Cadenzas may also be int roduced at appropria te points in theot h er movemen ts . Or iginally, cadenzas were improvised by the soloist ,but Beethoven began the pract ice of wr it ing them out exact ly as hewant ed t hem p la yed. Today, the pract ice of improvising cadenzas hasalmost died out .

Concerto grosso:form or iginat ing in the la te 17th cen tury, in whicha small group of solo inst ruments (the concer t ino) is set against alarger body of accompanying inst ruments (the concer to grosso, somet imescalled the r ipieno). Handel, Torelli, Bach (par t icular ly in theBrandenburg Concer tos), and Locatelli were great masters of this form.There has been a revival of interest in the concer to grosso in the 20thcen tury in the work of Bloch and others.

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Etude: Basica lly, a piece writ ten for the pract ice of some par t iculart echn ica l d ifficu lt y. As such, the etude is likely to have a repeatedfigure which conta ins the technical difficu lty occur r ing throughout thecomposition. Some etudes are of sufficient musical value to haveat ta ined the sta ture of concer t pieces, for example the Etudes ofChopin and Liszt and the Symphonic Etudes for piano ofSchumann.Exposit ion : (1) In fugal works, the fir st sect ion of the work, inwhich the subject is stated by each of the voices in turn , eachsta tement after the first combined with the counter -subject or otherappropria te counterpoin t , and ending in an episode which leads to acadence in t roducing the development . The cadence is frequent lyweakened by elision or may be dissolved. (See cadence).

(2) The first large sect ion of a sonata-a llegro, in which themain theme and subordinate theme are presented in contrast with eachother . ending in a cadence in a rela ted key, which ushers in thedevelopment.Fantasia (fantasie, fancy): A name given to var ious kinds ofcomposit ion which agree in being free in style, not rest r icted toany definite form.

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The figure:hea short group ofit serves only a

figur e resembles the mot ive to the exten t that it isnotes. It differ s from the mot ive, however , in thatsubsidiar y pu rpose, as an accompa nimen t.

Fox trot : A term applied to a piece of music usua lly wr it ten in ~ or $meter played by a modern dance band for ballroom dancing.Fugato: A passage in fuga l style appear ing in a non-fuga l composit ion .For example, a single var ia t ion in a set of var ia t ions may be a fuga to;a concer t ed piece or a chorus in an

Fughet t a: Ahor t fugue.Fugue: Probably the most impor tan twr it ing. A fugue is a composit ion ,

opera or ora tor io may be a fugato.

of the techn iques of con trapunta lusua lly for a fixed number of voices,

either voca l or inst rumenta l, in which a melodic idea , or subject , ist r ea ted by imita t ion in all the voices, and in which the imita t ivesect ions a re separa ted by episodes.

Proper ly speaking, the fugue is not aa re alike in st ructure. The formal aspect

form, because no twoof any fugue depends

factors: (1) the character ist ics of the subject it self, whether

fugueson twoit is

suitable for st ret to, or for sta t ement in contra ry mot ion , or canimita t e it self in augmenta t ion or diminut ion , and other similarconsidera t ions, end (2) the skill and imagina t ion of the composer .However , some genera liza t ions can be made, which should be ver ifiedby the analysis of a number of fugues.

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The first sect ion of a fugue, or exposit ion , sta tes the subject byeach of the voices in tu rn , a lternat ing between sta tements in the ton icand in the dominant . The sta tements in the dominan t are ca lled answers.This procedure sets up a basic conflict which does much to produce thetension necessary to give dr ive and impetus to the work. As the secondand other following voices sta te the subject or answer , the voices which

have a lready entered proceed in counterpoint . If the counterpoin t(or con trapunta l a ssocia t e) is used consisten t ly, it is ca lled acounter-subject ; if it is used invar iably it is a second subject , andthe fugue is a double fugue (see double fugue).

When all the voices a re in , an episode, usually der ived from thesubject , leads to a cadende in a rela ted key. This cadence closes theexposit ion, and in t roduces the development , which exploits thecapabilit ies of the subject and it s combinat ion with itself and withother mater ia l of the exposit ion in whatever ways the composer th inksappropria te. There may be more than one development sect ion , eachexploit ing a par t icu lar t echn ique.

The final sect ion of the fugue is the recapitula t ion , which mayresta t e the subject in on ly one out side voice in the ton ic, bu t whichmay in t roduce the subject in each of the voices in tu rn , in st ret to, iffeasible, to heigh ten the excitement , bu t usually in repercussion (tha tis, the sta tement of the subject by all voices in a differen t order ofappea rance from that of the exposit ion .)

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Galop: A lively dance in ~ measure. Example: Galop from Orpheus in theUnderwor ld , by Offenba ch .Gavot tes: A dance consist ing of two lively st ra ins in time, ususallywith an upbeatm uset te, wh ichGigue (g iga ):second par t usua lly begins with the inversion of the main theme. SeeSuit e (1).Impromptu : A piece in free style, as though improvised. Actually,an impromptu is likely to be a song form or a small rondo in spite of

of two qua rt er -n ot es . It somet imes a lternates with ais a gavot t e over a drone bass, an imita t ion of bagpipes.A classic dance in ~ or ~ measure, in rapid tempo. The

its name.In ter mezzo: An In ter lu de;acts of an opera .Inven t ion : A name used bypieces in two part s, wr it ten for the t ra in ing of

a piece of inst rumenta l music between the

Bach to descr ibe a set of fifteen keyboard

as well as in per formance. They resemble fuguesimita t ive, but differ in the comparat ive freedomfact tha t imita t ion is normally in the octave intheir sma ller size. Many other cont rapunta l works by Bach and others,ca lled preludes, duets, and other names,inven t ions. The three-par t inven t ionswith the two-par t Invent ions were called

h is sons in composit ionin tha t they areof their style, in thethe inven t ions, and in

can be considered to befr equ en tly pu blish ed t oget hersym ph on ies (sin fon ien ) by Ba ch .

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Latin Americanance forms: Lat in Amer ican dance music is character izedby the use of a host of unusual percussion inst ruments each of whichhas it s par t icu la r assigned par t . Rhythm is therefore the outst andingfeature with harmony and melody in the background.

Rhumba: The rhumba or iginated in Cuba. The fundamenta lr hyt hmic pat t ern isp layed by the p iano, ba ss , and ba ss d rum.

Another va r iety of rhumba is the Guaracha in which the four th beat ofthe bar receives two eigh th note accents.

Bolero: Th e Cu ban or bole ro isen t ire ly d iffe ren t from theor igina l Span ish or ~ bolero. The bolero of today as danced in themodern ballroom is the Cuban var iety.

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Samba: A character ist ic Brazilian dance form with rolling rhythmand a st rong feeling of two to the bar .

Tango: A widely popular dance from Argen tina . Main char acter ist icis the heavy accent on the four th beat or after -beat of four .

Mambo: Arecentddit ion to the Lat inAn outstanding character is t ics the st rong

a two-bar pat tern.

Amer ica n dance gr oup.accent on two and four in

Addit ional Lat in Amer ican dance forms in common use are theConga , Son , Ca lypso, and numerous va r ian ts of t he p rincipal forms.

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Lied: In the nar row sense, a German art -song, as writ ten by Schuber t ,S chumann , Brahms,olf, and others. It is character ized by effect ive

union of the music with the words, not on ly with respect to thenatura l accen ts and speech tune of the language, but also with themood of the poem. A dist inct ion is made between the st rophic lied,which used the same music for each stanza of the poem, and thethrough-composed (durchkomponier t ) lied, in which each verse is setdifferent ly, a device par t icu lar ly suited to a poem in which the mooddevelops or changes from stanza to stanza.Madrigal: Although the word appears as ear ly as the la te 13thcentury applied to vocal composit ions in two or three par ts, it r efersch iefly to a type of secular polyphonic vocal composit ion whichflour ished in It aly and England during the last par t of the 16thcentury and well in to the 17th century. Although designed as a sor tof vocal chamber music in the home, with one singer to a par t , madr igalsar e commonly su ng by choruses today. The fact that inst ruments wereused to supply missing par ts or to rein force weak singers st imula tedthe use of inst rumenta l music and the eventual development of musicfor inst ruments only.

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Mass: The observance of the Euchar ist in cer ta in churches. Musically,it consists of the proper , in toned by the pr iest , and varying inconten t from day to day throughout the chu rch calendar , and the ordina ry,or invar iable por t ion,whieh may be sung by the choir . When a "mass"by a composer is spoken of, the ordinary is meant . This consist s ofsix par ts:

(1) Kyr ie eleison (Lord, have mercy upon us)(2) Glor ia (Glory to God in the Highest )(3) Credo (I believe)(4) Sanctus (Holy, holy ar t Thou , Lord God)(5) Benedictus (Blessed is He that cometh)(6) Agnus Dei (Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the wor ld)

Mazurka: A lively Polish dance in ~ or ~ meter , with emphasis on thesecond or th ird beat of the measure.Minuet : A dance popula r in Europe from about 1650 to the beginn ingof the 19th cen tury, pa r t icu la r ly valued as it was considered to be thebest t ra in ing in genteel depor tment . It was in ~ meter , in moderatetempo. Ser ious composers used it as an opt ional dance in the suite(see Suite 1) and la ter in the symphony, in which use it was displacedeven tually by the scherzo. It is normally wr it ten as a three-par tsong fore, but may be in two parts. Frequent ly it has a t r io, withda capo to the fir st minuet .

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Overture:cantata.

(2) A

(1) The orchest ra l in t roduct ion to an

piece of keyboardover tu re in the first sense,

Th e over tu re or igin at ed

or orchest ra l music

opera , ora tor io, or

pa t terned after thebu t int ended for independent perform an ce.as a device to get the a t ten t ion of the

crowd assembled to hear the opera . Inin three movement s, arose: the Ita lian(slow, fast , slow).

the 17th cen tury, two forms, each(fast , slow, fast ) and the French

In Bach 's t ime over tu re oft en meant a su it e which began with a slowmovement fill of dot ted rhythms, like that of the French over tu re, butwhich had addit ional movement s in the form of dances.

The form of the modern over tu re is likely to be tha t of thesonata -a llegro, bu t there are many overtu res which are on ly medleys orpotpour r is of tunes. Some of these are associa ted with ligh t operas.Par t it a : Another name for su ite (1), bu t usua lly r efer r ing to a ra therelabora te su it e, int roduced by a movement not in dance rhythm, such asa prelude, over tu re, sin fonia , toccata , fantasie, or preambulum,in t roducing extra movement s, such as gavot tes, minuets, bour rees, a ir s,or polonaises, and frequen t ly having doubles for one or more of themovements. The best -known part itas are a set of six by J . S. Bach .Passacaglia : See chaconne.

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Passage: When a mot ive is used sequent ia lly in a flor id manner , ordissolves in to a scale or apreggio figure for the sake of br illiance, itis known as a passage.Passepied: A rapid dance, th ree beats to the measure, with an upbeatof one beat . It was occasiona lly used as an opt iona l movement in asuite.Passion : A piece of sacred music, resembling an orator io, based on thelast event s in the life of Christ , and der ived from the custom in somechurches of devot ing four days of Holy Week to the reading of the storyof Christ 's life from the var ious gospels. Tradit ionally, in a musica l.passion, the story is ca r r ied forward by a tenor , "the Evangelist" whoacts as na rra tor and who sings most ly in recit a t ive. The par t of Chr istis given to a bass, accompanied by st r ings. Oth er par ts somet imes appearfor Peter , P ila t e, J udas, and var ious other characters. The chorus isused for heigh tened moments of feeling, and for reflect ive passages. Thegrea test passions were writ t en by Bach and Schlt z.Polka: A lively Bohemian or Polish dance in 2 meter , with the fir st4t hree eigh th-n ot es accent ed , and the four th unaccen ted. Anot her formsimilar to the Polka is the Schot t ische.

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Polonaise: A sta tely Polish dance in s meter , with each of the beats4normally divided in to two eighth-notes, bu t with the last ha lf of thefir st beat divided in to two sixteen th notes. There is an impor tan tsecondary st ress on the second beat .Prelude: (1) A piece played as an in t roduct ion to another , as apr elu de an d fu gu e.

(2) Any shor t piece in ra ther free style is likely to be ca lled aprelude by its composer , for example the preludes of Chopin andRachmaninoff.Recapitulation: (1) In fugues, the sect ion which prepa res for theclose of the work. The recapitu la t ion may be elabora te enough toconta in a sta tement of the fugue subject in the main key by each of thevoices; or it may be limited to a single sta tement , in the bass or soprano.In any case, the recapitula t ion is usually followed by an extension, whichis ca lled a coda , leading to the fina l cadence.

(2) In the sonata form, the sect ion which follows the developmentand br ings the movement to a close. It stands in the main key, andpresen ts both the main theme and the subordinate theme. It differsfrom the exposit ion, in that the two themes are almost a lways in thesame k ey. Aest het ica lly, th is procedure serves the purpose of

reconci ling thewo t hemes, a fter bu ilding most of the movement on theconflict between them. The recapitula t ion is preceded by a ret ransit ion,and usua lly followed by a coda.

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Recita t ive: In the opera , ora tor io, and other extended dramat ic worksa style of writ ing which imita tes the effects of spoken language,without much regard to melody or to rhythmic regu lar ity. It is usedfor nar ra t ive, dia logue, or for situa t ions unsuited to lyr ic expression .(See ar ia .) In light opera , recit a t ive is supplanted, for the mostpar t , by spoken dia logue.Retransit ion: A transit ion, br idge passage, or extension which occursas the final even t in a development sect ion. Its purpose is to preparefor the reent ry of the main theme in the pr incipal key. In classicworks, this is frequent ly accomplished by dwelling on the dominant ofthe key.Rigaudon: An old dance in duple meter or igina t ing in southern Franceand occasionally used in the suite, or as an independent number .Rondo: A large form made by the contrast of a main theme with one ormor e con trast ing subordinate themes. The theme (A) is likely to be asmall song-form, or at least a chain of phrases or double per iod.Th ree types a re dist in gu ish ed:

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The small rondo (fir st rondo) in which there is only one digression .The digression may be a lyr ic theme, but is more likely to be a shift ing,passage-like development of some fragment of the main theme. This isfollowed by a return to the or igina l theme, th is t ime, however , inmore elabora te t reatment and followed by a coda . The tempo of thesmall rondo is near ly always slow: andante or adagio. Th e s lowmovement of many sonatas and symphonies are in th ish is form.

The old (or second) rondo, which is a rapid piece, in which thereare two or more different digressions, last of wh ich is likely to bein a somewhat r emote key.

The new (or th ird) rondo, a lso rapid in tempo. It differs fromthe second rondo in ha t ing a return to the first digression . (A-B-A-C-A-B-A)This pract ice makes for grea ter unity.

Second and th ird rondos are often found as independent pieces,and are also quite frequen t as the fina l movements of sonatas, synmhonies,and simila r works.Sarabande: A classic dance of Spanish or igin in slow ~ or ~ measure,with the second beat accented or lengthened. See Suite (1).

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Scherzo: The word is the Ita lian word for joke, and th is is typicalof many specimens of the musical scherzo. Ordinar ily, a scherzo isa movem en t in son atas, symphonies, qua r tets, and the like, whichreplaces the minuet . Like the minuet , it is in t r ipleis faster . Haydn appears to be the fir st to have made

meter , bu t itt h e subs tit u t ion ,

bu t Beethoven was the first toa lso applied to separa te worksthat of the minuet ) but having

use it ra ther consisten t ly. The n ame is

simila r in form (which is iden t ica l tot ragic or dramat ic implica t ions, such as

the scherzi ofSerenade: See

Chopin and Br ahms for pian o.ca ss at ion , d iver t imen t o.

Sonata-a llegro: A la rge formsymphonies, quar t ets, and the

areTh eone

The form depends for it sfir st stated in contrast ,

used as the fir st movement of sonatas,like, and separa tely as the over tu re.in terest on the use of two themes whichthen developed, then fina lly reconciled.

main theme and subordinate theme are likely to be differen t in style.heroic, the other lyr ic or elega ic; they a re in cont rast ing keys

or regions (ton ic - dominan t , or minor ton ic - r ela tive m ajor ).St ructura lly, they may be extended per iods, or phrase-chains. Thereis usually a br idge passage leading from the main theme to the subordinatetheme, and another from the subordinate theme to the cadence which endst he expos it ion .

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The development sect ion uses all sor ts of techniques to explore orwork out the two themes or fragments of them, separa tely and in rela t ionto each ot her . (See development .)

The recapitula t ion finally resta tes the themes but now in the samekey. The movement , at least in the larger examples, is likely to havean extension at the end called a coda.Sonata: A large form in severa l movements, each of which is a lso likelyto be a large form. The same form is used for duos, t r ios, quar tets,and other chamber music works; for symphonies which are essent ia lly sonatasfor orchest ra ; and for concer t i, which are sonatas for solo inst rumentwit h or ches tr a .

The typical large sonata is in four movements, the first asonata-a llegro, the second a small rondo or other slow movement in arela ted key, the th ird aand the final movement aWorks in t hree movements

minuet or scherzo in st ill another rela ted key,rondo or another sonata-a llegro in the main key.usually omit the minuet . A theme with

var ia t ions may be subst ituted for any of the four movements.Sonatina: A small sonata , with less elabora te t rea tment of themat icmater ia l than in the sonata .

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Song: In it s broadest sense, vocal music, un it ing words with melody.A dist inct ion is made between folk-song, which is the work of unschooledcomposers, handed down and modified by t radit ion , and ar t -song, whichis music composed essent ia lly for per formance by skilled singers.(See Lied. )Stretto: A type of imita t ion, frequen t in fugues, in which thefollower begins the imita t ion while the first st a tement is in progress.St ret to serves to produce increased tension or excitment .Suite: (1) A set of dances, basica lly consist ing of Allemande,Couran te, Sarabande, and Gigue, but frequen t ly having an int roductorymovement , and in terpola t ing other dances, such as Gavot t e, Minuet , orPassepied, and even pieces called "Air". This was the su ite as wr it tenby Bach, Handel, and their predecessors and contemporar ies.

(2) A set of pieces for open-air per formance. (See Serenade,Diver t imen to, Causa t ion ).

(3) A set of pieces made up of thea t r ica l music, such as Bizet is"Ar lesienne Suit es", or of music a round a cen tra l theme, such as Gr ieg's"From Holberg's Time", or of assor ted pieces, more or less rela tedby occasion , key, or theme.

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Symphonicoem (Tone Poem, Tondichtung): A romant ic var ian t of thesymphon y, brea king down th e sepa ra t ion in to movement s, and in corpora tin gelements of descr ipt ive music (imita t ing actual ext ra -musica l sounds)or program music (music which seeks to tell a story). Good examples,besides those of Liszt , are symphonic poems by Richard Strauss andSmetana.

Symphony:S used today, the name refers to an extended sonata forfu ll or ch est ra . It or iginated in the middle of the 18th cen tury withSammar t ini, Stamitz, and Monn; was developed and more or lesscrysta llized into classic form by Haydn , Mozar t , and Beethoven and hasbeen the subject of exper imenta t ion and development by almost everysign ifican t r oma nt ic an d moder n com poser . A grea t par t of the programsof symphony orchest ra s is made up of symphonies, symphonic poems,con cer ts, a nd over tu res, a ll of which are closely rela ted, and a ll ofwhich are discussed separa tely in the presen t list .Ta ra nt ella , t ar an tella : A rapid Ita lian dance in $meter , so ca lledeither because it or igina ted in the region of Taranto, or because thedance was long rega rded as a specific remedy for the bite of thetarantula .

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Toccata : Usually, a piece wr it ten to display rapidity of execu t ion ona k eyboa rd in st rumen t. It is wr it t en in rhapsodic style, and resemblesthe fantasia . The harpsichord toccatas of Bach, however , a re extendedpieces alternat ing sect ions of br illian t passage-work with slow lyr ica lsect ions and with elabora te fugues.

Tone Poem: See Symphonic Poem.Tr io: (1) A sonata for th ree inst ruments, such as a st r ing t r io forviolin , viola , and cello; a piano t r io, for piano, violin , and cello;or a woodwind t r io, for oboe, clar inet , and bassoon. The possibil it iesof combin at ion ar e almost limit less.

(2) The second la rge division of a minuet , scherzo, or march,a fter which the fir st par t is repeated. It is ca lled a t r io because,as in t roduced by Lully in the 17th cen tury th is par t was set for th reeinst ruments, two oboes and a bassoon, by way of contrast to the fu llorchest ra used in the fir st par t .Va ria tion forms : Varia t ion forms (sets of va r ia t ions, theme andvar ia t ions, etc.) are pieces of music const ructed by present ing thesame musical idea in severa l successive t rea tments, preserving theout lines of the or igina l idea . Two main types may be observed:

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(1) The ground-bass var ia t ions, in which the unifying element isa repeated bass line. This type is exemplified by the basso ost inato,th e ch acon ne, and th e passaca glia .

(2) The theme with var ia t ions, in which amelody is presen ted inmany transformat ions. Some of these maybe cast in other forma, suchas a minuet , a cannon , a waltz, or a march . A common device is the"division var ia t ions" in which the theme is broken up fir st in toeigh th-notes, then into t r iplets, then into sixteen ths, and so on .There may be var ia t ions in the minor , slow varia t ions, and so on,limit ed only by the inven t iveness of the composer .

Var ia t ion forms have been the veh icle of some of the noblestmusical communicat ion, as witnessed by the Goldberg Var ia t ions of Bach ,the Eroica and Diabelli var ia t ions of Beethoven , and the var ia t ions of

S chumann andB r ahms. Als o,ar ia t ions have produced some infer ior music.

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Waltz: A dance In t r iple meter which developed from a German peasan tdance, the Lndler . It arose in the last yea rs of the 18th cen tury, andin the fir st ha lf of the 19th cen tury a specia lized type, the "Viennese"waltz, in the hands of J osef Lamer and the Strauss family, reached at remendous vogue. It is character ized by one chord (and one real pu lse)in the bar , which appears as a bass note with chord groups on thesecond and th ird quar t er notes. The second quar t er note of theaccompaniment is ant icipa ted a t r ifle in per formance.

The waltz is st ill popular as a dance, a lthough the steps havechanged, and for modern dancing the waltz is played in more moderatetempo.

The form of the Viennese waltz consists of a slow int roduct ion ,perhaps an t icipat ing the dance tunes to follow, then a ser ies of fouror five separa te waltzes, each of two st ra ins , with t r io, and a da capo,and finally concluding in an extended coda which recapitula tes the setof waltzes and ends with a whir lwind fin ish of some sort .

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AP P E N D I X EM E D I A

One considera t ion of grea t impor tance in the study of music is theknowledge of the media of performance; tha t is, the means ava ilable andcustomary for the t ransla t ion of the in ten t of composers in to sound.

It is conjectu red tha t the ear liest music was performed with noresources other than those of the human body. The voice cou ld givefor th melody, and the rhythm of either melody or the dance could bereinforced by clapping the hands, stamping the feet , or making ou tcr ies.

Today, we have a grea t var iety of musica l inst ruments, which in asense extend the possibilit ies of the singing voice in making musicalsound. Some can produce sounds which are louder , wider in range, and ofdifferen t tone color . Others can make rhythmic sounds that a re moreforecefu l than handclaps or stamping of the feet . These can be combinedin a var iety of ways, either with other inst ruments, or with the humanvoice, wh ich remains one of the most impor tan t media for producing music.

Three factors a re essent ia l to a musica l exper ience: a composit iont o be per formed, a medium of performance, and a listener . Th is a ppen dixlists a number of the most common examples of the second factor , themed ium of per formance .

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VOCALMEDIAThe solo voice. The single unaccompanied individual voice is used fora number of musica l Purposes. Rarely, a professiona l singer may includea song without accompaniment on a recit a l; but much more frequen texamples are the in tonat ion of litu rgica l chan ts by the pr iest , orthe in formal singing of familia r songs.

The accompanied solooice. Most frequen t ly, the solo voice isaccompanied by a single keyboard inst rument , the piano, the organ , ort he ha rps ichord. Plect rum inst ruments, such as the guitar , the ban jo,and the lu te, are a lso oft en used for accompanying singing by individuals.

Many songs a re also sung to the accompaniment of orchest ra ,ranging from the popular singer who sings the la test song hit with acombo or dance band, to per formance with symphony orchest ra or thesinging of a r ias in opera or ora tor io.Ensembles. Much voca l music in par ts is per formed by small groups,one or two singers to each par t . Examples of th is pract ice includethe barber-shop quar tet , t he madrigal group, and concer ted numbersin operas and similar works, such as the sextet from Lucia di Lamrermoor .Voca l ensembles ar e som et imes accompan ied, somet im es n ot .

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Choruses and choir s. Much music is performed by la rge groups of singers,organized into sect ions according to the range of the voices. Adist inct ion is made between the choir , which normally per forms religiousmusic, and chorus, which sings secu lar music, a lthough this is adifference In reper toire ra ther than in medium. A choir which singswithout accompaniment is ca lled an "a cappella" choir (a choir whichsings in the style of the chapel.)

A fur ther dist inct ion is made among mixed groups, using both womenand men, or boys and men, which are organized into sopranos, altos,tenors, and basses, with fur ther subdivision of each voice par t possible;men's choruses or choirs, which conta in only tenors and basses, usuallysubdivided; women's choruses or choirs, which conta in only sopranos andaltos, usually subdivided; and choirs and choruses of unchanged voices,or children 's voices.

The choir or chorus may sing unaccompanied, or may be accompaniedby organ, piano, or orchest ra .

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(3) Solo In st rumen t wit h or ch est ra a ccompa nim en t. Th emostim por ta nt examples in th is ca tegor y a re con cer ti for va riou s in st rumen ts.The solo inst ruments most frequent ly employed are piano, violin , cello.flu te, viola , organ , clar inet , horn , oboe, bassoon, saxophone, andtrumpet in about that order of frequency. There are even concer t ifor dou bleba ss, tu ba, an d t ympan i. Besides con cer ti, ma ny sh or terpieces have been wr it ten to display the t echn ical agility andmu sicia nsh ip of solo per former s.

(4) Solo in st r umen t s wit h band accompan imen t .litera tu re ofmusic for wind inst ruments with bandmuch of it in the nature of empty display pieces.

There is a la rgeaccompaniment,However , band

arrangements of some concer to accompaniments have been made, and are quiteeffect ive. It is to be hoped that composers will come to recognize theImpor tance of wr it ing music for this medium.Ensembles. An inst rumenta l ensemble is a small group of inst rumentswith one player to a par t . There is a wide var iety of such ensembles,some of the more important of which are discussed here.

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(1)The str ing quar tet .t he per forma nce of cla ssica lconsist ing of two violins, a

By far the most impor tan t ensemble forchamber music is the st r ing quar tet ,viola , and a violoncello. The advantages

are: wide range, grea t flexibility and agility, and hmogeneity ofsound. This music is not in tended for publicis often presented quite effect ively in mallquar tet s of Haydn, Beethoven, Mozar t , Brahms,finest musical composit ions for any medium.

(2)listed.

Other classica l ensembles. The most

per forma nce, a lt hou gh ithalls. The St r ingand others are among the

impor tan t a re simply

a. The duo: two like inst ruments; violin and cello; viola andcello; flu te and cello; oboe and bassoon. Ot her com binat ions a lso occu r.

b. The t r io: two violins and cello; violin , viola , and cello;piano, violin , and cello (the piano t r io); piano, cla r inet , and cello;piano, violin , and horn; etc.

c. The piano quar tet : piano, violin , t iola , and cello; pianoa nd a ny t hree inst rument s.

d. Quin tet s: st r ing quar tet with one addit iona l viola or cello(st r ing quin tet s); st r ing quar tet with piano, cla r inet , horn , flu te, oboe,etc. (piano quin tet , cla r inet quin tet , etc.); other combina t ions of fiveinstruments.

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e. Larger ensembles: sextets, septets, octets, and the like,employing a var iety of inst rumenta t ions; the chamber orchest ra , whichamounts to a small symphony orchest ra of limited inst rumenta t ion.Orchest ra . The standard orchest ra of today is the symphony orchest ra ,an aggrega t ion of from 60 to 100 players divided into choirs or sect ionsby types of inst rument , as st r ings, woodwinds, brasses, and percussion.The number actually playing depends upon the work being played. Thenumber of per formers is substan t ia lly reduced for symphonies by Mozartand Haydn, for example, and the number of wind and percussion playersused depends on the requ irements of the composer . It is standardpract ice not to main ta in regu la r chair s in the orchest ra for inst rumentsseldom used . When works requ ir ing such inst ruments are programmed,players a re hired for the occasion only. Other types of orchest ra sexist ing for specia l purposes include:

(1) The theater orchest ra . A smaller orchest ra , in which the absenceof cer ta in inst rument s is compensated for by cross-cueing so the missingpar ts can be played by other inst rument s. Specia l types of theaterorchest ra include the opera orchest ra , the studio orchest ra (for radioor t elevision broadcast , or to supply background music for mot ionpictures), and the sa lon orchest ra , which specia lizes in ligh t musicfor formal dinners, large sca le en ter ta inment s, and so on .

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(2) The st r ing orchest ra . Anfor st r ings on ly, or for one solo

orchest ra which specia lizes In musicin st rumen t wit h st rin gs.

Band. (1) Or igina lly, a group of musicians per forming together ,in clu din g even voca list s.

(2) A dame orchest ra .(3) In genera l present usage, a band is an organiza t ion of

inst rumenta lists for the per formance ofmusic, excluding st r inginst rument s. Severa l sor ts are dist ingu ished:

a . Milit a ry band. A band offor milit ary purposes, for example, toto officia t e a t honors and ceremonies,m ilit ar y fu nct ion s.

compa ra tively sm all. size useda ccompa ny t he m ar ch in g of t roops,and to provide enter t a inment a t

b. Brass band. A type of band very popula r England madeup only of brass inst ruments and percussion .

c. Symphonic or Concer t Band. A la rge band, emphasizingwoodwind inst ruments and st r ing in per formance for standards ofmusicianship comparable to those of symphony orchest ra s. Unfor tunately,the reper toire is not yet comparable, consist ing for the presen t ch ieflyof a rrangements and of or igina l works composers who are as yet unfamilia rwith the capabilit ies of the band as a musical medium.

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Dance orchestras and combos.he dance orchest ra may be either funct iona l,(for dancing), or of the concer t type. It may be of any size ranging fromjust three instruments to a la rge orchest ra , the only permanent part beinga r hyt hm sect ion . A rhythm sect ion usua lly contains a piano and/or aguita r , a st r ing bass, and drums. Usua lly when the dance orchest ra is smalland does not possess sect ions it is r efer red to as a combo. A combomay contain just rhythm inst ruments or in addit ion , var ious combinat ionsof win d in st rumen ts.

The inst rument at ion of commonly used da nce orchest ra s follows:(1) The full dance orchest ra: five saxophones, two altos, two

tenors, one bar itone, each doubling on clar inet or other woodwindinstrument ; six or eight brass inst ruments divided evenly betweent rumpets and t rombones; the fou r man rhythm sect ion .

(2) The stock dance orchestra : three or four saxophones; threeor four brass inst ruments; the four man rhythm sect ion.

(3) The small tenor band: three tenor saxophones; one t rumpet ;piano, st r ing bass, and drums.

(4) The "Dixieland Band": one t rumpet ; one cla r inet ; one trombone;one tenor saxophone (optiona l); rhythm.

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OTHERMEDIATo conclude, a few specia lized types of per formance groups a re

included for the sake of completeness.Consort. An old English name (16th and 17th cen tur ies) for a group ofin st rumen ts pla yin g t oget her . If a ll inst rument s were of one kind(viols or recorders, for example) the group known as a "wholeconsort". If st r ing and wind inst rument s were both represented, thegr ou p wa s broken consor t . The consor t represen ts an ear ly stage inthe development of the orchest ra and of chamber music.Fanfare. (1) A short , lively, loud piece for t rumpets, somet imes withket t ledrums or parade drums; or a similar piece involving other brassinstruments. Fanfares a re used to direct a t tent ion to the en trance ofa n impor ta nt per son age, or to a display, show, or the like.

(2) In French usage , the word refer s to a brass band. A bandusing woodwinds and brasses is called a "harmonie."Fife, Drum, and Bugle Corps. An organ iza t ion for the per formance offield music, tha t is, marches, fanfares, and the kind of milit arymusic which was once developed and used for signaling purposes and forthe evolut ions of t roops. It survives pr incipally in display organ izat ions.

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AP P E N D I X FC O ND UC T IN G F O R I NS T R U ME N T AL I ST S

There are many t ies between the conductor and the inst rumenta list .The degree to which these t ies a re felt determines the quality ofperformance.

The dynamic level and the style or character of the music to beperformed will determine the mot ions of the conductor , but the beatplacement (t ime-bea t ing) will remain basica lly the same.

The area normally usedthe top about eye levelequ idistan t to the leftsquare will be somewhat

The down beat is agoing from the upper to

andand

for t ime bea t ing is an imaginary square withthe bot tom about even with the waist andright. If a baton is used the size of the

larger.ver tica l m ovem en tthe lower par t of

direct ly in fron t of the bodythe square then reversing

direct ion to form the ictus. The ictus is the exact place ofexecution.

The down beat is basica lly the same for any type of measure. Thismovement from top to bot tom will be refer red to as the cen ter line oft he squ are. (F ig. 1)

The upbea t, or last beat of the measure, is made by moving fromthe upper r igh tabout one th irdupward to where

por t ion of the square down a sligh t slant to a spotof the way down the cen ter line, then changing direct ionth e m ovemen t for t he downbeat begin s.

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The change of direct ion will again provide the ictus for the beat . (F ig. 2)Now adjust the direct ion taken after making the ictus for the

downbeat to t ravel to where the upbeat began. This forms the two-beatmea sur e. (F ig. 3 )

The fir st beat lasts from the ictus of one to the ictus of two. Thesecond beat lasts from the ictus of two to the ictus of one. Thedist ance the hand t ravels between beats should be approximately thesame to facilit a t e keeping a steady tempo.

The beat to the r igh t is used for the second beat in and theth ird beat in . To make the beat to the r igh t star t a lit t le to theleft of cen ter and move downward a lmost to the lower r igh t corner of thesquare, reversing direct ion there to make the ictus and proceeding to wherewe began to form the up beat . (F ig. 4)

Adjust the direct ion of the down beat , a fter the ictus, to join tothe beginn ing of the beat to the r igh t . Add the up beat and the threebeat measure is formed. (Fig. 5)

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The five beat measure consists of the fourbeat to the r igh t or an added beat to the left ,t he m usic. (F ig. 11) For a fast tempo combinebea t m ea su res. (F ig. 12)

beat measure with an addedaccording to the pulse ofthe two types of one

When i t becomes necessary to subdivide a beat simply add another beatin the same direct ion as the beat to be subdivided. (Figs. 13, 14, and 15)

The prepara tory beat is used primar ily to give the per former an ideaof the tempo to follow. It isan d begin s a ppr oxim ately wh er e(Figs. 17, 18, 19, and 20)

made at the same speed as the next . beatthe ictus of a preceding beat would be.

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The hold orThe release

pause is made with an inward curving mot ion. (Fig. 21)or cutoff is made with an outward curving mot ion. (Fig. 22)

The left hand is used as follows:a .b.c.d.e.f.

To reenforce the r igh t hand when making prepara tory beats.Ch an ges in t empo.Holds or cuts.Changes in dynam ics.Style or char acter .Cueing performers.

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