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NATIONAL SANITATION POLICY
FOR JAMAICA
Ianthe Smith Environmental and Engineering Managers Ltd. September 2005
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NATIONAL SANITATION POLICY
Section Page # 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Definitions 3 3.0 Situational Analysis 4
3.1 Institutional Setting 4 3.2 Existing Policies and Programmes Related to Sanitation 6 3.3 National Sanitation Situation 8 3.4 Rural Water Supplies 9 3.5 Sanitation in Public Schools 10 3.6 Public Sanitary Conveniences 12 3.7 Solid Waste Management 12 3.8 Poverty and Sanitation 16 3.9 Health Status 17 3.10 Informal/Unplanned Settlements and Sanitation 23 3.11 The Impacts of Natural Disasters on Sanitation 23 3.12 Investment in Sanitation 24 3.13 Jamaica’s Progress within a Regional Setting 27
4.0 Vision Statement 30 5.0 Goals 30 6.0 Policy Objectives 30 7.0 Strategies 31
7.1 Health issues as key rationale 32 7.2 Institutional and Policy Framework 32 7.3 Waste minimisation, reuse and recycling 33 7.4 Promote Local Solutions 33 7.5 Encourage the Involvement of all Stakeholders 33 7.6 Regulation and Monitoring 34 7.7 Population targeting 34 7.8 Linkage between water supply and sanitation 34 7.9 Appropriate sanitation solutions for location 34 7.10 Recognition of dimensions of gender and poverty 35 7.11 Financial issues – Funding for infrastructure and cost recovery 35
8.0 Principles 35 9.0 Applicable Policies, Legislation & Guidelines 37
9.1 New Legislation 38 10.0 Monitoring and Evaluation 38 11.0 Policy Review 39 References 40 TABLES Table 1 – Roles and Responsibilities of Ministries & Agencies Related to Sanitation 4
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Table 2 – Source of Water Other than via Piped Water 1993 – 2003 (Percentages) 8 Table 3 - Sanitation Status in Public Schools by Parish 2003/4 10 Table 4 – Condition of Toilets and Water Supply in Public Schools 11 Table 5 – Status of Public Sanitary Conveniences Islandwide 12 Table 6 – Solid Waste Generation and Collection 12 Table 7 – Incidence of Gastroenteritis 2000 – 2004 19 Table 8 – Policies Related to Sanitation 32 FIGURES Figure 1 - A gully filled with waste plastic bottles 13 Figure 2 - Waste plastic and other garbage polluting the sea 14 Figure 3 - Dumping of garbage around a “No Dumping” sign 14 Figure 4 - A skip overflowing with garbage 15 Figure 5 - Uncontained Commercial Solid Waste 15 Figure 6 - Poorly contained domestic garbage 15 Figure 7 – Total Gastroenteritis Cases 2000-2005 20 Figure 8 – Gastroenteritis Cases Under and Over 5 Years Old 20 Figure 9 – Gastroenteritis Cases for the KMA Two Weeks Prior to & Post Hurricane Ivan 21 Figure 10 – KMA Gastroenteritis Cases 2002 Mapped against Access to Water Piped into Yard per 10,000 Households 22 Figure 11 - Annual investment in urban water supply in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000 24 Figure 12 - Annual investment in rural water supply in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000 25 Figure 13 - Annual investment in urban sanitation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000 25 Figure 14 - Annual investment in rural sanitation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000 25 Figure 15 - Total annual national and external investment in water supply and sanitation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000 26 Figure 16 - Total annual investment in water supply compared to total annual investment in sanitation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000 27 Figure 17 - Median total investment in water supply and sanitation as a percentage of overall government investment, 1990– 2000 28 Figure 18 - Coverage with improved drinking water sources in 2002 28 Figure 19 - Progress in drinking water coverage, 1990-2002 29 Figure 20 - Sanitation coverage in 2002 29 Figure 21 - Progress in sanitation, 1990 – 2002 29 APPENDICES Appendix 1 - Projects Being Implemented Under The National Poverty Eradication Programme Appendix 2 – Millennium Development Goals
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NATIONAL SANITATION POLICY
1.0 INTRODUCTION For many developing countries inadequate sanitation has presented and continues to present challenges based on its strong interrelationship with poverty. A vicious cycle exists as developing nations do not have the necessary infrastructure to provide adequate sanitation while it is recognised that appropriate levels of sanitation would place less stress on these fragile economies. In June 2005 WHO/UNICEF report is quoted as saying that “People's access to sanitation must reach 138 million people every year if the minimum global water and sanitation target is to be met by 2015. Access to clean water and sanitation would save thousands of young lives every day and would boost economies” Access to clean water and good sanitation is basic to life, and by extension significant to the protection of the fundamental right to life. Availability of water and sanitation is strongly related to other human rights such as health, education and work. Since sanitation is such a cross cutting issue related to housing, water supply, sewage disposal, solid waste management, maintenance of gullies and drains, healthcare, environmental management, poverty and education, its management poses challenges as no single Ministry or Agency has full responsibility. There are many players often not working in harmony towards common goals and objectives. There are currently a number of policies, guidelines and legislation that address different aspects of sanitation but their interrelationship is not well defined so there are gaps, overlaps and sometimes conflicts resulting in less than optimal utilisation of scarce resources and the long term beneficial impacts of some programmes are never realised. In order to improve the interrelationship among the players and utilize resources more efficiently this national policy will identify the stakeholders, define their roles and responsibilities and establish a common vision, goals and objectives. This is consistent with the recognition among policy and decision makers that “joined up Government” is the most effective way to address issues of poverty which has a direct relationship with sanitation. Broad strategies to achieve policy goals and objectives will be presented, however detailed strategies will have to be developed by stakeholder Ministries and Agencies. 2.0 DEFINITIONS Sanitation Sanitation is a term for the hygienic disposal or recycling of waste materials, particularly human excrement, domestic wastewater and solid waste. Sanitation is an important public health measure which is essential for the prevention of disease.
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Hygiene1 The science of preserving and promoting the health of both the individual and the community. It has many aspects: personal hygiene (proper living habits, cleanliness of body and clothing, healthful diet, a balanced regimen of rest and exercise); domestic hygiene (sanitary preparation of food, cleanliness, and ventilation of the home); public hygiene (supervision of water and food supply, containment of communicable disease, disposal of garbage and sewage, control of air and water pollution); industrial hygiene (measures that minimize occupational disease and accidents); and mental hygiene (recognition of mental and emotional factors in healthful living). Excrement The matter that is discharged from the bowel during defecation; faeces Reasonable access to water2 This is defined as water supply in the home or within 15 minutes walking distance. Actually a proper definition should be adopted taking the local conditions into account; in urban areas, a distance of not more than 200 metres from a house to a public stand post may be considered reasonable access. In rural areas, reasonable access implies that anyone does not have to spend a disproportionate part of the day fetching water for the family's needs. Convenient distance2 Convenient distance and access are distinct in a sense that there may be access to water but it is not necessarily convenient to fetch the water due to distance. The water should be within a reasonable distance from the home that is 200 metres. Public Health Field of medicine and hygiene dealing with the prevention of disease and the promotion of health by government agencies. The duties of carrying out the many services required to keep the population healthy and to prevent serious outbreaks of disease are divided among local and national government agencies. They provide health officers and nurses for schools and visiting nurses for homes. They oversee the water supply, the disposal of sewage, the production and distribution of milk, and the proper handling of food in restaurants. Public health agencies impose standards of public health on local communities when needed; they give financial and technical assistance to local communities in times of crisis, such as that caused by epidemics, hurricanes, and floods. Sanitation Facilities In this document sanitation facilities mean a source of potable water for drinking and hand washing as well as toilets for excreta disposal. 1 Columbia University Press 2 Definition from the UN CSD Methodology Sheet – Indicators o f SD
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3.0 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
3.1 Institutional Setting
Table 1 outlines the responsibilities of various Ministries and Agencies related directly or indirectly to sanitation. Table 1 – Roles and Responsibilities of Ministries & Agencies Related to Sanitation
MINISTRY/AGENCY ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Ministry of Land and Environment
• Develop and implement Environmental Management Policies • Develop and implement Land Management Policies to address informal and
unplanned settlements, particularly squatter management including prevention, eviction, relocation and regularization
• Provide and manage shelters with acceptable sanitary facilities National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA)
• Establish planning requirements and develop and enforce environmental management standards
• Establish and enforce legal standards for effluent disposal • Ensure through regulatory instruments or otherwise that housing developments
are not sited in vulnerable areas • Ensure that planning requirements for housing developments meet required
standards for density and sanitation facilities (water supply and sewage disposal) Ministry of Water and Housing
• Develop and implement policies for the management of water supplies, wastewater treatment/disposal systems and housing developments
• Implement programmes to provide potable water to all communities in Jamaica • Implement programmes to provide for the safe collection, conveyance, treatment
and disposal of sewage • Ensure that all housing developments meet required standards for sanitation
Ministry of Education, Youth & Culture
• Develop and implement policies and programmes for hygiene and sanitation education in schools
• Ensure that all schools (public and private) provide acceptable sanitary facilities for students
Ministry of Health
• Develop and implement health policies and legislation to promote appropriate sanitation practices
• Establish and monitor health indicators for sanitation • Enforce Public Health laws • Provide Public Education on sanitation and hygiene • Hygiene promotion
Ministry of Local Government, Community Development & Sport (and Local Authorities)
• Establish and implement policies to promote the provision of quality solid waste management services (collection, treatment and disposal)
The Local Authorities
• Provide adequate number of properly maintained public sanitary conveniences (especially in urban centres)
• Prohibit/penalize urination and defecation in areas that are not designated for that purpose
• Work as partners with communities to establish acceptable water supply and excreta disposal systems
National Solid Waste Management Authority
• Establish and enforce legal standards for solid waste storage, collection, transportation, treatment and disposal.
• Establish in collaboration with communities that do not receive curbside collection an acceptable means of solid waste treatment/disposal
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The existing institutional setting at the local and national levels is not structured to effectively address the most urgent problems associated with poor sanitation. Many of the rural areas and inner city communities that are most affected are still not getting the level of attention they need as there is often confusion among the local and national government institutions about roles and responsibilities pertaining to housing developments, gully and drain cleaning, solid waste management and town planning and development. Additionally there is still room for greater better collaboration among Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Community Based Organisations (CBOs), community members, local and national government institutions to identify the root causes of sanitation problems and come up with long lasting and effective solutions that best suit the communities. Some of the problems that occur due to a failure of all stakeholders working together include: • Siting low income housing with septic tanks and absorption pit systems in areas where
the water table is high or that are prone to flooding • Installing water supply systems in communities without any wastewater and excreta
disposal solutions • Siting housing developments in areas that will not be able to receive curbside garbage
collection services due to hilly terrain and other factors without an appropriate solid waste management plan for the community
• Failure curb the growing problem of squatting While these are just a few examples, that create new and/or exacerbate existing sanitation problems which waste precious/scarce resources and ultimately require corrective action at additional cost which the country cannot afford. With a sanitation policy providing a vision, goals and objectives the stakeholders through a collaborative approach can make more coordinated interventions that can yield greater and long lasting benefits. 3.2 Existing Policies and Programmes Related to Sanitation Some existing policies that address some aspects of sanitation include the Water Sector Policy, the National Solid Waste Management Policy and the Poverty Eradication Policy. The Water Sector Policy The revised draft Water Sector Policy, Strategy and Action Plan, 2004 has as its main objective to ensure that all households have access to water by 2010. In order to assist in achieving this objective, Cabinet has approved the formation of the Rural Water Supply Limited to concentrate on increasing coverage in rural areas through building relationships with community groups. The policy also recognises the need to provide “social water” for those who are unable to pay the full cost of the service based on health, sanitation and environmental considerations, but plans to achieve some level of cost recovery using a community development approach. It also indicates that demand side management and reduction of unaccounted for water are some of the strategies to be used to improve the coverage and reliability of water supply. For wastewater systems the policy outlines the following objectives:
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• sewer all major towns sewered by 2020 • rehabilitate existing non-compliant facilities to achieve compliance with national
environmental standards The National Solid Waste Management Policy The National Solid Waste Management Policy, 2000 has established the framework for a standard setting and regulatory agency, the National Solid Waste Management Authority which facilitates the private sector as the principal service provider. It also indicates that cost recovery for provision of a sustainable service is key. The policy speaks to the establishment of sanitary landfills, setting standards for the proper containerization of waste, regular and reliable collection of garbage and safe and efficient transportation to the destination of treatment and/or final disposal. The policy also promotes waste minimisation, reuse and recycling as essential components of solid waste management. Poverty Eradication Policy Jamaica’s Policy Towards Poverty Eradication is aimed at promoting integration and collaboration of government services/agencies; partnerships between government agencies, private sector, NGOs, CBOs, and donor/lending agencies; environmental sustainability and community empowerment. Two public sector agencies actively involved in implementing the policy objective are the Jamaica Social Investment Fund which provides communities with resources to improve physical, social and economic conditions and the Social Development Commission which implements the Integrated Community Development Programme focusing on building local institutions/groups’ capacity to develop and implement projects. The National Poverty Eradication Programme (NPEP) seeks to ensure the use of a community-based participatory approach to poverty eradication in which the community decides on its course of development. This is achieved through monitoring, coordinating and assessing the success of government's social programmes. The programme also develops and monitors strategic policies and programmes through an integrated approach involving relevant ministries, agencies, community groups and private entities. By the end of the 2004/2005 financial year, it is projected that approximately J$ 44.9 billion would have been spent on the NPEP programmes and projects since its inception in 1995. Of this amount approximately J$ 5.8 billion has been allocated for the 2004/2005 financial year. Some programmes directly related to sanitation that are being implemented under the National Poverty Eradication Programme are included at Appendix 1. Other policies that are still to be developed to address issues related to sanitation include: • Health Policy – Ministry of Health • Squatter Management Policy - Ministry of Land and Environment • Social Housing Policy - Ministry of Water and Housing
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3.3 National Sanitation Situation
The 2001 Population Census indicated that out of a total of 748,326 households about 50% had piped water in their dwelling (public and private sources), 16% had access to piped public water in their yard, 22.3% can access water via public standpipe, public and private catchments and the remaining 11.7% get water from springs, rivers or other unidentified sources. These statistics clearly indicate that there is still a lot of work to be done to ensure that households have access to safe sources of water in order to facilitate proper sanitary practices and by extension decrease the risk of exposure to diseases. Of the 748,326 households 2.5 % had no access to any toilet facilities, 20% had shared access to either water closets or pit latrines (50-50 split) and 74% had dedicated access to water closets (352,041) or pit latrines (199,713). The statistics show that only about 50% of the households had exclusive use of flush toilets. This is further supported by data in the Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2002 which indicated that since 1993 the Housing Quality Index has shown a steady increase in the amount of houses with “exclusive use of flush toilets” from 40.2% in 1992 to 50.5 % in 2002. It is apparent that the use of pit latrines is still significant in Jamaica, especially in rural areas. Some of this usage is based on environmental factors such as inappropriate soil conditions or close proximity to water sources prohibiting the use of flush toilets with septic tanks and absorption pits or no access to sewerage systems. However there is no data readily available that indicates the number of pit latrines that are in use due to these reasons. The data presented in the Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions, 2002 is based on the analysis of 6,976 responses to surveys conducted across the island. The responses indicated that there has been a general increase in houses with indoor taps and exclusive use of flush toilets over the ten year period from 1993 to 2002. Houses with indoor taps showed a steady increase from 38.6% in 1993 to 45% in 2002 with a small decline between 2001 and 2002 from 46.6% to 45%. For the same period the number of households with access to piped water generally fluctuated between a low of 62.3% (1993) to a high of 70.9% (2001) with the average over the 10 years period being 65.7%. At the same time the number of households with access to standpipes declined from 20% in 1993 to 12.1 % in 2002. The use of other sources of water such as wells, rainwater tanks and rivers/ springs remained fairly constant. See Table 2 below:
Table 2 – Source of Water Other than via Piped Water 1993 – 2003 (Percentages) TYPE OF FACILITY
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002* 2003
Piped Water 62.3 63 63.4 66.8 66.1 65.7 67.6 66.6 70.9 64.5 Public Standpipe 20 20 16.5 14.9 15.1 14.2 15.3 13.2 13.1 12.1 Untreated (river, spring, pond)
3.1 2.1 2.9 2.3 3.8 4.4 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.3
Rainwater (tank) 11.4 11.4 13.2 12.9 11.4 13.1 10.5 11.7 11.6 15.3 Well/Other 3.1 3.2 4.1 3.1 3.5 2.6 3.5 5.4 1.3 3.0 * In 2002 an additional 1.9% of water was trucked to residents
The survey indicates that all respondents to the survey in 2002 had access to some form of toilet facility including water closet, pit latrine or other. There were no responses for the
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category “none”. It is possible that the survey did not gather information from persons living in informal settlements that do not have any access to toilets and therefore use undesirable means for excreta disposal such as throwing bags with excreta into gullies and drains. There is also a problem of access to water highlighted in the 2002 Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions. The statistics indicate that: • Of 879 households surveyed in Jamaica, 89% were within 0- 199 yards (182 m) of a
public standpipe • Of the 18 households in KMA surveyed 94.8% were within 0- 199 yards of a public
standpipe, • Of the 121 households in Other Towns surveyed 89.3% were within 0- 199 yards of a
public standpipe, • Of the 740 households in Rural Areas surveyed 88.6% were within 0- 199 yards of a
public standpipe.
The statistics presented clearly highlight that in the Rural Areas and Other Towns approximately 11% of households (in each case) have to travel further than 199 yards to access water.
3.4 Rural Water Supplies Many rural communities in Jamaica obtain their water from minor water supply systems which consist of rainwater catchments, wayside tanks filled by water trucks and entombed springs. Most of the entombed springs and rainwater catchments are many decades old, with some reportedly built by the British Army when Jamaica was still a colony of Britain. Apart from minor repairs they have generally not been upgraded to meet the growing needs of the communities they serve. Most of these water supply systems do not have distribution pipes, so residents in the communities must fetch water from a standpipe. Rather than fetching water, some persons bathe, wash cars and clothes at the standpipe leaving the area polluted with garbage. Chlorination is the primary method of disinfecting the water supplies and it is often ad hoc, meaning that chlorination is irregular, the quantity of chlorine applied and the method of application vary significantly between facilities. Some entombed springs have been condemned by Parish Councils as the water quality does not meet the required health standards however, this has not stopped residents from using these water sources as they are closest to where the residents live. The Ministry of Local Government Community Development and Sport is implementing a programme to rehabilitate minor water supplies across Jamaica to improve the quality and accessibility of potable water for rural residents. While improvement in water supplies is necessary and important there is no complementary programme in place to address safe and appropriate wastewater and excreta disposal.
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3.5 Sanitation in Public Schools
Recognising that children spend a significant amount of time at school and that they learn many social skills within the school environment, the availability of adequate sanitation is very important to the well being of children. Data obtained from the Ministry of Education for 2003-4 for public schools from Infant to Secondary level is presented in Tables 3 and 4. The data indicates that pit latrines are still in use throughout the country in fairly significant numbers, especially in the rural areas. There is no data to indicate if environmental conditions contribute to the decision to use pit latrines. At the high end, St. Catherine is the parish with the largest number of schools (120) and the largest number of schools (43) with pit latrines. St. Elizabeth and Westmoreland have 50% and 54% of the schools respectively with pit latrines. At the low end, there are no schools in Kingston with pit latrines and only 8 schools in St. Andrew (7% of total within the parish) with pit latrines.
Based on the data provided by the Ministry of Education, satisfactory water supply means that there is potable water running in the taps and satisfactory toilets means that the toilets are functional. An intermittent or non-existent water supply is regarded as unsatisfactory and unsatisfactory toilets mean they are not functional as a result of intermittent or non-existent water supply or defective hardware.
Table 3 - Sanitation Status in Public Schools by Parish 2003/43
Parish
# of schools with flush toilet
% of schools with flush toilet
# of schools with pit latrines
% of schools with pit latrines
# of schools with periodic flush toilet
% of schools with periodic flush toilet
Number of Schools
Kingston 31 67 0 15 33 46 St. Andrew 73 68 8 7 26 24 107 St. Thomas 22 46 21 44 5 10 48 Portland 32 62 17 33 3 6 52 St. Mary 38 54 31 44 2 3 71 St. Ann 37 47 30 38 11 14 79 Trelawny 15 41 14 38 7 19 37 St. James 32 63 13 25 6 12 51 Hanover 17 44 15 38 7 18 39 Westmoreland 20 31 35 54 9 14 65 St. Elizabeth 34 40 43 50 9 10 86 Manchester 54 75 14 19 4 6 72 Clarendon 51 49 37 36 14 13 104 St. Catherine 55 46 43 36 18 15 120 TOTAL 511 321 136 977
3 Data obtained from the Ministry of Education – Statistics Department
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Table 4 – Condition of Toilets and Water Supply in Public Schools
Parish
# of schools with toilets not OK
% schools with toilets not OK
# of schools with water supply not OK
% of schools with water supply not OK
Kingston 11 24 5 11 St. Andrew 33 31 29 27 St. Thomas 23 48 12 25 Portland 22 42 30 58 St. Mary 31 44 34 48 St. Ann 44 56 37 47 Trelawny 13 35 13 35 St. James 16 31 13 25 Hanover 12 31 18 46 Westmoreland 30 46 23 35 St. Elizabeth 35 41 32 37 Manchester 33 46 38 53 Clarendon 36 35 63 61 St. Catherine 47 39 51 43
While many schools are equipped with toilets and piped water, the infrastructure is often not in satisfactory condition. The data shows that in most parishes about 40% of the public schools do not have satisfactory toilet facilities and 40% do not have adequate or reliable water supply. 56% of the public schools in St. Ann had unsatisfactory toilets, while 48% of the public schools in Portland had unsatisfactory piped water. The range of problems plaguing the water supply includes:
• Irregular supply • Missing taps • Leaking pipes • No supply
The lack of functional sanitation infrastructure in schools is a combination of a number of factors: (a) The budget for maintaining schools is less than adequate (b) Schools are vandalized often by persons living in the same communities as schools,
toilets and taps are stolen for domestic use (c) Children are not appropriately trained in how to use toilet facilities and how to take care
of them so they sometimes destroy/vandalise the facilities Although no data is available for private schools, the data could be very similar. The overall conclusion is that sanitation in schools needs urgent attention.
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3.6 Public Sanitary Conveniences Data on the status of pubic sanitary conveniences in some parishes is presented below in Table 5. Information gathered indicates that the existing public sanitary conveniences in most parishes need upgrading and repair and the parishes also require additional facilities. Some Parish Councils have indicated that there are Corporate entities within their parish willing to assist with establishing new public sanitary conveniences in town centres but the constraint has been the availability of suitable locations. Table 5 – Status of Public Sanitary Conveniences Islandwide
PARISH SANITARY CONVENIENCES REMARKS St. Ann St Ann’s Bay – 1 No.
Brown’s Town – 1 No. Ocho Rios – 1No. Claremont – No.
The Ocho Rios facility is not in use at this time due to the closure of the Courthouse where it was located
Clarendon May Pen - 2 No. More sanitary conveniences required; Juici Patties offered to build one but no land available
Hanover Lucea – 1No. The sanitary convenience needs to be upgraded Portland Port Antonio – 1No.
Hope Bay – 1No. Buff Bay – 1No.
All facilities are in need of repair
St. Mary Port Maria – 2 No. Freetown – 1No. Highgate – 1No. Richmond – 1No. Retreat – 1No. Oracabessa – 1No. Gayle – 1No.
All facilities are in need of repair
St. Elizabeth All facilities are in need of repair St. James Montego Bay – 2No.
Cambridge – 1No. All facilities are in need of repair
3.7 Solid Waste Management
It is estimated that approximately 2500 tonnes/day of waste is generated across the island. Of this amount about 72% is collected, that is, approximately 1800 tonnes/day. The estimated generation and collection rates in the wastesheds are indicated in Table 6. Table 6 – Solid Waste Generation and Collection
ESTIMATED COLLECTION WASTESHED ESTIMATED GENERATION (tonnes/yr) Percentage (%) Tonnes/yr
Riverton (St. Thomas, St Catherine, Kingston & St. Andrew)
526,403 72 381,106
Retirement (St. James, Trelawny, Hanover, Westmoreland)
166,951 69 115,815
Southern (Manchester, St. Elizabeth, Clarendon)
122,202 48 59,736
Northeastern (St. Ann, St. Mary, Portland)
129,940 56 73,535
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The collection service that currently exists is a hybrid system in which public and private service providers share in the collection of waste islandwide. Within some wastesheds the state is the sole provider of solid waste management services. The rural parishes, especially those in the Southern and Northeastern wastesheds have low collection coverage and this means that solid waste in inappropriately disposed of. The Riverton and Retirement wastesheds while having higher collection coverage have areas that receive irregular or no collection resulting in the same problem. Some of the main solid waste management problems which exist include: • Limited solid waste management programmes in areas which cannot receive curbside
collection by a garbage truck. This causes persons to dispose of waste inappropriately in gullies, rivers or to burn waste.
• Poor containerization of residential waste which causes waste to be vandalized and scattered which contributes to the proliferation of disease carrying vectors and rodents.
• Failure of many commercial entities to properly containerize their waste and to make private arrangements for the regular collection of their waste. Many commercial entities are not willing to pay the cost for this service and this leads to the pile up of garbage and the proliferation of disease carrying rodents and vectors.
• Lack of garbage receptacles in public places • Inadequate and inconsistent curbside garbage collection services due to inadequate
garbage collection trucks • A proliferation of plastic waste which is improperly disposed of or burned. Improper
disposal causes problems such as mosquito breeding and blocked gullies and drains which leads to flooding. Burning causes the release of toxic fumes which are harmful to health. There are no policies or programmes in place to minimise the use of plastics or to encourage recycling
• Failure to enforce laws prohibiting dumping and littering
Figure 1 - A gully filled with waste plastic bottles
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Figure 2 - Waste plastic and other garbage polluting the sea
Figure 3 - Dumping of garbage around a “No Dumping” sign
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Figure 4 - A skip overflowing with garbage
Figure 5 - Uncontained Commercial Solid Waste
Figure 6 - Poorly contained domestic garbage
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3.8 Poverty and Sanitation
Research has indicated that poverty is caused by the complex interplay of a myriad of socio-economic factors each of which in turn is the product of several other factors. Among the causes or correlates of poverty which have been put forward at one time or another are the absence of economic growth, poor social and physical infrastructure, culture, the absence of natural resources to exploit, lack of education, increases in inflation rates and unemployment. In addition it has been found that poverty is not equally distributed among societies but tend to have its greatest impact on the aged and infirmed, and specifically, women and children. Poverty is described in the Jamaica Human Development Report, 2000 by PIOJ and UNDP, as a state of:
• dilapidated housing – no sanitary conveniences • inability to care for children • hunger, inability to buy shoes • no job or steady income
The effect that poverty has on sanitation is far reaching. Some of the ways that poverty affects sanitation are as follows:
• Many poor people are illiterate or semi-literate so they are not able to obtain and/or utilize information which can assist them in improving their situation
• Poverty implies that income is low or non-existent which means that housing is poor; there may be no electricity or water
• Nutrition is poor and therefore they are not as healthy making them more susceptible to contracting diseases
The incidence of poverty in Jamaica based on statistics from the Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions 2003, published by the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) declined slightly from 19.7 % in 2002 to 19.1% in 2003. The overall incidence of poverty in Jamaica has declined between 1993 and 2004 by about 5%. The highest level of poverty is reported to be in Rural Areas at 24.2 % while Other Towns had the second highest level of poverty at 15.8% followed by the KMA4 with 9.5%. The data on the incidence of poverty by region presented above must be interpreted with great caution. The significance of poverty in the urban areas of Jamaica must not be minimised because upon examination of the absolute numbers and density of concentration, it is apparent that urban poverty is a very serious problem. Using standards established by the Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) and the Statistical Institute of Jamaica (STATIN), poverty is gauged by a person's position relative to the national poverty line, which is based on annual consumption. Consumption is used as a proxy for income, because of the difficulties associated with obtaining reliable income data. The poverty line is computed for a reference family of five, which includes one adult male,
4 KMA – Kingston Metropolitan Area
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one adult female, an infant, a teenager and a pre-teen child. Using nutritional requirements established by the World Health Organization (WHO), Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and the Ministry of Health, a low-cost food basket is designed for this reference family. To account for non-food needs, the reciprocal of the average food share for the lowest income quintile is multiplied by the cost of the minimum food basket; the result is the estimate of the poverty line for the family of five. The poverty line for an individual in 2003 was $53,725.70 per annum and for a reference family of five it was $203,054.22. One must note the disparity in the statistics for those persons described as being poor at 19% and those persons not having access to satisfactory sanitation (access to piped water and flush toilets in their homes) at about 50%. If inadequate sanitation was a consideration in establishing the level of poverty in Jamaica, the incidence of poverty would be greater than 19%. Poverty, Sanitation and Gender Gender is recognized globally as an extremely important aspect of poverty. Globally, women face an array of social, economic, cultural and religious discrimination which limit their access to economic resources and political participation. In Jamaica, as in most cultures, women have the primary responsibility for water, sanitation and hygiene at the household level and they play a crucial role in influencing the hygiene behaviours of young children. Lack of access to environmental sanitation and hygiene tends to affect women in poor households to a greater extent as they must spend a major part of the day fetching water for the numerous household activities. The time spent having to fetch water also prevents them from securing steady employment which could bring in additional income to support the family. There are privacy issues for women where no bathrooms are available. This often places them at risk for abuse and violence. Where there is limited or no access to sanitation facilities, mothers and their young children face a higher risk of contracting diseases related to poor sanitation placing undue strain on the immediate family and by extension the country. There is no empirical data for Jamaica that correlates poverty according to gender with access to water supply and sanitation. 3.9 Health Status
A common health indicator for sanitation and access to healthcare services is the number of gastroenteritis cases. Data obtained from the Ministry of Health aggregated in Table 7 provides a breakdown of the gastroenteritis cases by parish for the period 2000 to 2004. The significant increase in cases in 2004 is partially attributable to the effects of Hurricane Ivan which disrupted water supply and garbage collection services. Figures 7 and 8 provide a graphical representation of the data. The data suggests an overall increase in the incidence of gastroenteritis over the
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5 year period which could be attributable to a combination of more cases being reported as well as an increasing problem with sanitation. Figure 9 is based on GIS data from the Ministry of Health for the KMA and it provides a pictorial representation of gastroenteritis cases two weeks prior to and two weeks after Hurricane Ivan. Of significance is that most of the gastroenteritis cases in the KMA occur in the inner city or poor communities in the southern part of Kingston. This supports the interrelationship between poverty, poor housing, poor sanitation and poor health. Figure 10 is based on GIS data from the Ministry of Health for the KMA and it provides a pictorial representation of gastroenteritis cases based on access to piped water. The data indicates that more cases of gastroenteritis occur where more households rely on water in the yard or from standpipes rather than within the household.
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Table 7 – Incidence of Gastroenteritis 2000 - 2004 Parish 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 <5 yrs old >5 yrs old <5 yrs old >5 yrs old <5 yrs old >5 yrs old <5 yrs old >5 yrs old <5 yrs old >5 yrs old KSA 5538 1112 4989 1016 5515 1679 6387 7047 8682 1957 St. Thomas 228 182 180 151 169 177 236 184 208 148 Portland 550 274 341 337 455 499 539 494 861 796 St. Mary 679 400 387 365 725 708 1079 1026 1865 1579 St. Ann 1970 1772 620 870 954 982 1785 1916 1904 2121 Trelawny 556 385 381 298 414 329 421 289 389 247 St. James 1666 951 961 787 1361 1056 1513 1289 2540 1465 Hanover 567 192 266 105 342 131 296 141 608 357 Westmoreland 976 520 583 504 544 577 766 714 1745 1388 St. Elizabeth 248 131 424 220 608 388 894 625 1329 701 Manchester 2320 1315 1501 936 1467 1255 2282 1707 2556 1633 Clarendon 661 412 429 351 421 342 711 601 1097 812 St. Catherine 1241 1102 458 735 404 728 523 601 1498 978 17200 8748 11520 6675 13379 8851 17432 16634 25282 14182 TOTAL (all ages) 25948 18195 22230 34066 39464
20
Figure 7
Total Gastroenteritis Cases 2000 - 2005
05000
1000015000200002500030000350004000045000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Year
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f cas
es
Figure 8
Gastroenteritis Cases under and over 5 years old
05000
1000015000200002500030000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
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f Cas
es
<5 yrs old> or = 5 yrs old
21
Figure 9
22
Figure 10
2 0 2 4 6 K i lo m e t e r s
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A c c e s s t o W a te r P i p e d i n t o Y a r d p e r 1 0 , 0 0 0 h o u s e h o l d s0 - 6 4 6 . 26 4 6 . 2 - 1 6 3 1 . 4 61 6 3 1 .4 6 - 2 9 8 4 . 0 52 9 8 4 .0 5 - 4 9 2 9 . 94 9 2 9 .9 - 8 0 4 6 . 8 8
# G a s t r o e n t e r it i s C a s e s 2 0 0 2
H e a l t h G I S ,H e a l t h P r o m o t io n & P r o t e c t io n D iv is io n ,M in is t ry o f H e a l t h , J a m a ic a .
L E G E N D
K M A G A S T R O E N T E R I T I S C A S E S 2 0 0 2 M A P P E D A G A I N S T A C C E S S T O W A T E R P I P E D I N T O Y A R D
P E R 1 0 , O O O H O U S E H O L DN
EW
S
1
23
3.10 Informal/Unplanned Settlements and Sanitation
Unplanned settlements generally occur on marginal lands, near to gullies and rivers and sometimes near to waste disposal facilities. Informal settlements use nearby open lots, rivers and gullies for solid waste, wastewater and excreta disposal creating an unhealthy and unsanitary environment. Persons without sanitary facilities use the river as both as source of water for domestic purposes (drinking, cooking, bathing and washing) and as a sink for wastes. Industries also discharge wastes into rivers, therefore persons relying on rivers as a source of domestic water are at high risk of contracting waterborne diseases. Unplanned settlements due to their dense configuration and lack of proper roads, do not receive curbside garbage collection services. Waste is indiscriminately disposed of leading to the breeding of flies, mosquitoes, rats and cockroaches. It is very difficult for the Government to upgrade many of the informal and unplanned settlements as they are situated in vulnerable areas or the layout does not facilitate upgrading. The lack of affordable housing, unemployment and crime are some of the key issues that drive persons to “squat” or inhabit lands not suited or designated for housing or to “capture” lands owned by other persons. Also the Government has failed to adequately enforce laws against squatting or capturing of lands. To date the Ministry of Land and Environment has identified 595 squatter settlements throughout Jamaica but further studies are to be conducted to ascertain the number of households and occupants in each household within these settlements. Crude estimates indicate that approximately 10% of the population live in squatter settlements and that the number is growing. The Ministry of Land and Environment with assistance from the World Bank plans to conduct a sample survey of squatter settlements in the near future to obtain further details on the extent of the situation in Jamaica. 3.11 The Impacts of Natural Disasters on Sanitation
Jamaica is vulnerable to natural disasters such as drought, floods, hurricanes and earthquakes. Natural disasters threaten advances made in the coverage and quality of water supply and sanitation services. The services most severely affected by natural phenomena are water supply, drainage and sewerage systems. Despite progress in natural disaster prevention, mitigation and response, there is still a long way to go. The climate trends indicate an increase in the number and severity of hurricanes in years to come. This means that there will be increased sanitation problems in the aftermath of these events. After a hurricane, regular water supply is disrupted, houses are flooded, rivers carry higher levels of coliform bacteria and electricity supply is disrupted so food cannot be safely stored. Figure 9 which provides detailed data on gastroenteritis cases with in the KMA indicates that the areas most severely affected under normal conditions are the inner city areas many of which are located in the southern section of Kingston. After Hurricane Ivan the same areas experienced a significant increase in the incidence of gastroenteritis cases.
24
While the same information was not available for rural areas, it is expected that a similar trend occurs. It is also clear from this information as well as past experience that natural disasters exacerbate and generally increase sanitation problems. Shelters for those persons dislocated as a result of natural disasters can also be the source of sanitation problems if they are not equipped with the necessary facilities. Schools and community centres are usually used as shelters. They are often overcrowded and may not have sufficient piped water, toilets and facilities for the preparation and storage of food and garbage. Usually the very young and very old occupy shelters and due to their age they are at a higher risk of contracting illnesses due to poor sanitation under these conditions. 3.12 Investment in Sanitation
Information obtained from the WHO Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report, Investment in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean indicates that over the ten year period, 1990 to 2000 significant investments have been made in water supply and sanitation for Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Figures 11 – 14 provide data on the source and amount of these investments. Two sources of investment are shown: investment from government agencies (national) and investment from external support agencies. Investments were averaged over the years 1990–2000 for each country that provided information. A total investment was then determined for all the countries that provided data and extrapolated for the whole region.
Investments made directly by householders that were independent of government aid (for example, for the construction of a private latrine), are unlikely to have been included in the country figures reported. It is also possible that the national investment figures provided by some of the countries might have included loans from international development banks.
Figure 11 - Annual investment in urban water supply in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000
25
Figure 12 - Annual investment in rural water supply in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000
Figure 13 - Annual investment in urban sanitation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000
Figure 14 - Annual investment in rural sanitation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000
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Figure 11 provides information on investment in urban water supply. The corresponding investment in rural water supply is shown in Figure 12. It is clear that the level of investment in rural water supply in Latin America and the Caribbean is far lower than the corresponding investments in Asia and Africa. This can be explained by the fact that the rural population of Latin America and the Caribbean is much smaller than the rural populations of Africa and Asia. Furthermore, the investment in rural water supply is less than that in urban water supply for every region, despite the huge gaps in rural coverage; and the total investment in rural water supply is roughly half that in urban water supply, whether from local or external sources. Investment in urban sanitation is shown in Figure 13. In all of the regions shown, the figures indicate investment in sanitation is less than it is for urban or rural water supply. Latin America and the Caribbean have a substantially higher level of local investment in sanitation when compared to external support and the region also successfully attracted more external contributions than other regions. With regard to rural sanitation, Figure 14 shows that investment is very small when compared with levels of investment in rural water supply or urban sanitation. Again, the level of investment in Latin America and the Caribbean compares favourably with practically all other regions, bearing in mind the small rural population.
Figure 15 - Total annual national and external investment in water supply and sanitation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000
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Figure 16 - Total annual investment in water supply compared to total annual investment in sanitation in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990– 2000
Figure 15 shows the total annual national and external investment in water supply and sanitation. In terms of total investment, Africa received the most external investment for the water supply and sanitation sector, but also invested fewer local resources than any other region. Sanitation is not normally considered a priority in development projects and a comparison of the total investment in water supply with the total investment in sanitation makes the relative neglect of sanitation abundantly clear (Figure 16).
The current low level of sanitation coverage (only 60% of the global population has access to any sort of improved sanitation) appears to be explained in part by the low level of investment in sanitation when compared with the investment in water supply. Of the total annual investment in the sector, approximately US$ 16 billion, only one-fifth seems to be directed to sanitation. Despite that relatively low level of investment the progress over the decade, measured in terms of additional people served with sanitation facilities, has been huge. The reason for this progress might be that investment has been made not only by governments and external support agencies, but also directly by householders through low-cost technologies. Such investment, however, is not likely to appear in the statistics. Figure 17 shows governmental investment in water supply and sanitation as a proportion of overall governmental investment. Among the three regions, the proportion invested in water supply and sanitation is highest in Latin America and the Caribbean, and is more than double that invested in Asia.
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Figure 17 - Median total investment in water supply and sanitation as a percentage of overall government investment, 1990– 2000
3.13 Jamaica’s Progress within a Regional Setting
Based on data from WHO, Figure 18 indicates that the percentage of the population using improved drinking water in Jamaica in 2002 was greater than 91% and the percentage of the population using improved sanitation in 2002 was between 76% and 90%. Figures 19 and 21 show that Jamaica is on track with its water supply and sanitation programmes to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets for 2015. Refer to Appendix 2 for the Millennium Development Goals.
Figure 18 - Coverage with improved drinking water sources in 2002
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Figure 19 - Progress in drinking water coverage, 1990-2002
Figure 20 - Sanitation coverage in 2002
Figure 21 - Progress in sanitation, 1990 - 2002
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp04_3.pdf
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4.0 VISION STATEMENT Every Jamaican understands what proper sanitation and hygiene means and has the means to be able to practice proper sanitation. 5.0 GOALS Goal #1 Acceptable water supply and sewage and excreta disposal systems available in homes, schools and public places (based on established national standards) Goal #2 Sustained education on sanitation and hygiene for the following target groups:
• general public • new parents (ante natal) • early childhood, primary and secondary students
Goal #3 Sanitation facilities mandatory:
• where food is prepared and sold • public entertainment venues/functions
Goal #4 All communities with a suitable, safe and reliable solid waste management system 6.0 POLICY OBJECTIVES
1. Acceptable water supply and sewage and excreta disposal systems available in homes, schools and public places
• Safe sources of potable water are available • Annual targets are set and achieved regarding the provision of piped water to
communities that do not currently receive service and in keeping with growth in demand
• Every water supply system has a complementary and appropriate sewage or excreta treatment and disposal system
• National standards established for: o Minimum acceptable distance between toilet and tap water o Minimum acceptable distance between household and nearest accessible
source of potable water • Sewerage systems in urban centres and where water resources are threatened • All entities within 90 metres of the sewer line are connected within one year of the
system being commissioned • Appropriate management and cost recovery mechanisms for both water supply and
sewerage systems to enable the provision of a sustainable service • Effective monitoring of sanitary facilities particularly in schools and public places
2. Sustained education on sanitation, hygiene and solid waste management for the general public, new parents and early childhood, primary and secondary students:
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• Hygiene promotion, sanitation and solid waste management a formal specialised part of school curricula (from basic school through to secondary school) including washing hands before eating and after using toilet, use and care of toilet facilities
• Pre and post natal care offered by healthcare facilities to include training of parents in hygiene, sanitation, solid waste management and “potty” training of children
• Public education programmes through public service announcements, advertisements, bill boards, posters etc.
• Identification and training of community water and sanitation promoters
3. Sanitation facilities mandatory where food is prepared and sold and at public entertainment venues/functions
• Sanitation facilities accessible and available to persons preparing food for human consumption (free or for sale)
• Sanitation facilities accessible and available to persons consuming food prepared by others (free or for sale)
• Sanitation facilities accessible and available to persons patronizing public entertainment events
• Adequate number of properly maintained public sanitary conveniences (especially in urban and peri-urban centres)
• Urination and defecation in areas that are not designated for that purpose prohibited and penalized
4. All communities with a safe and reliable solid waste management system in place
• Proper containerization of solid waste to prevent the breeding of disease carrying vectors, vermin and rodents
• All commercial, industrial and institutional entities have arrangements for the collection of their waste on a frequency that prevents the pile up and overflow of solid waste
• An acceptable frequency of solid waste collection for those who receive curbside garbage collection to prevent pile up and overflow of solid waste and to discourage generators from finding an unsatisfactory means of disposing of their solid waste
• Promotion and implementation of community based solid waste management systems
• An acceptable means of solid waste treatment and disposal for communities that do not receive curbside collection
• Promotion of waste minimisation, reuse and recycling • Plastics waste policy with incentives to reduce the use of plastic and encourage
recycling • Enforcement of laws prohibiting dumping and littering
7.0 STRATEGIES Strategies to improve environmental sanitation and wastewater disposal depend upon local political, institutional and economic conditions. There is no single strategy that is likely to yield success, instead it will be a complex mix of many strategies that will be required involving different stakeholders and interest groups. A number of strategies are described in the following sections to achieve the desired vision, goals and objectives.
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7.1 Health issues as key rationale
The health impacts of sanitation and the associated economic implications for national and household economies are primary reasons for developing a sanitation policy. Although decisions associated with improving water supply and sanitation may be made on the basis of service levels, convenience, costs or regulatory factors, the health consequences of inadequate water supply and sanitation is the key rationale for formulation of this policy.
• The principal public health education strategy that will be employed using the media and
school curricula is hygiene promotion focused on behaviour change particularly hand washing with soap after stool disposal and before preparing food; safe disposal of faeces and use of latrines/toilets; and safe weaning food preparation, water handling and storage
• Hygiene promotion will be an integral part of all water and sanitation projects and programmes
• Health indicators will be used as measures for determining the status of sanitation • Health and hygiene messages in schools will be reinforced by ensuring that all schools have
clean water and sanitation facilities 7.2 Streamlining the Institutional and Policy Framework • The roles and responsibilities of Ministries and Agencies as it relates to sanitation will be
reviewed and restructured as required to remove overlaps and gaps and to clearly define their scope of work and interrelation with each other.
• Policies related or linked to sanitation, some of which already exist, will be one of the mechanisms used to articulate the roles and responsibilities of Ministries and Agencies thereby establishing a basis for developing strategies and action plans to achieve goals and objectives.
• Under the supervision and guidance of a designated committee of Cabinet, stakeholder Ministries and Agencies will focus on specific sanitation related matters under their portfolio and use a collaborative approach to achieve the desired objectives. A comprehensive Integrated Sanitation Action Plan will be developed addressing the following areas most of which are already assigned to specific Ministries and Agencies.
Table 8 – Policies Related to Sanitation
POLICY AREA SCOPE AS IT RELATES TO SANITATION Environmental policy • to guide development by establishing standards for waste and wastewater
disposal and land use • to establish requirements for environmental monitoring, impact assessment
and public participation Economic policy • to use cost recovery mechanisms to offset the capital cost of water and
sanitation projects and to provide revenue to maintain and upgrade the services
• to establish mechanisms to address instances where the recipient of the service cannot pay the full economic cost
• to provide incentives to encourage and facilitate local and private investment Social policy • to reduce poverty and promote gender equality Health policy • to establish national objectives for sanitation-related health improvements
• to provide guidelines on excreta and wastewater treatment and disposal • to indicate strategies to be employed to promote and provide public education
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POLICY AREA SCOPE AS IT RELATES TO SANITATION Housing policy • to promote and provide affordable housing with suitable sanitation facilities
for low income groups Waste Management policy • to present strategies for safe storage, reliable collection, transportation,
adequate treatment and disposal of waste • to promote waste minimisation, reuse and recycling
Education Policy
• to ensure that school curricula include hygiene and sanitation as formal subjects
Water Sector Policy • to address the provision of safe sources of water for domestic and agricultural use, demand side management and safety of water resources
• to address the provision of sewerage systems for urban centres and promote the use of appropriate technology in rural areas
Code of Consultation • to guide the process of consultation among communities, policy and decision makers
7.3 Waste minimisation, reuse and recycling
• Demand side management techniques for water will be encouraged to reduce the quantity of
wastewater generated • Waste minimisation, reuse and recycling techniques for solid waste and wastewater will be
encouraged to reduce pollution of the environment
7.4 Promote Local Solutions • Waste management solutions that are, as far as is possible, locally based at the household or
neighbourhood levels will be promoted rather than transferring waste outside of the community for treatment and disposal. This way waste generators take greater interest in ensuring that their waste is managed appropriately
• The implementation of decentralized rather than centralized water, sanitation and solid waste management systems will be promoted in areas best suited for this approach and the benefits will be communicated to stakeholders
7.5 Encourage the Involvement of all Stakeholders • Institutional arrangements, mechanisms and incentives that stress the participation of users
and encourage the involvement of both the formal and the informal private sectors will be encouraged
• Participatory processes involving Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Community Based Organisations (CBOs) who better understand consumer-centred approaches, are more closely in touch with civil society and can bring in the important lessons to be learned from community-based initiatives will be encouraged
• Community meetings and other participatory processes will be utilised to involve stakeholders in decision making for water supply, wastewater disposal, solid waste management systems and housing developments for their communities. Senior community members can often bring a useful historical perspective to environmental issues within their communities.
• In communities where constituents will not be able to pay the full economic cost of the service, a community based approach to project implementation will be employed. NGOs and CBOs will be encouraged to play a mediating role between communities the Government and Private Sector developer/investors.
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• Partnerships with the private sector will be encouraged to assist communities in achieving their sanitation goals and objectives
7.6 Regulation and Monitoring • Baseline conditions will be measured and indicators identified prior to implementing
sanitation solutions so that improvements in sanitation can be monitored • Service standards for both public and private sector agencies will be established and
enforced to promote effective regulation of water, sanitation and solid waste management systems
• Legislation will be developed (where they do not already exist) and enforced which: • supports and promotes appropriate sanitation and hygiene practices • is aimed at pollution prevention and control
7.7 Population targeting
The most vulnerable groups will be identified and prioritised for programmes to address inadequate sanitation. Vulnerable groups include: • the urban poor in large cities (especially in the poor and peri-urban areas of large cities
including informal and unplanned settlements) • residents of small towns • most of the rural population
7.8 Linkage between water supply and sanitation
• For every water supply system implemented there will be a complementary and appropriate
wastewater treatment and disposal system. • Projects and programmes will be designed and implemented to prevent pollution of water
resources
7.9 Appropriate sanitation solutions for location
• The appropriate sanitation solution will be selected for the specific location taking into consideration:
o the availability of water - as a transporting agent, a cleaning agent, or a personal hygiene agent,
o convenience, o status (in terms of attractiveness and modernity) and perceptions of health impacts, o costs, o the economic status of communities and households, and o the willingness of users to pay for or otherwise contribute to the installation
• Environmental considerations such as proximity to surface and underground water resources, soil type and availability of land and adjacent land use will be assessed by conducting Environmental Impact Assessments and through community consultation
• Where cost is a significant factor, especially for on-site systems, sanitation solutions that allow persons to start with modest (but safe) facilities and improve as their financial capacity grows will be encouraged
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7.10 Recognition of dimensions of gender and poverty
• In selecting appropriate sanitation solutions and managing sanitation programmes women and men of different social and economic groups will be equitably represented and involved
• Appropriately suited approaches to hygiene and sanitation education for men and women will be utilized recognizing that their needs and perspectives are different
7.11 Financial issues – Funding for infrastructure and cost recovery
• Economic and financial analysis and planning of investments that include the consequences of sub-optimal development will be done for all types of water and sanitation projects
• Mechanisms for cost recovery will be developed to ensure that the provision of water or sanitation service can be sustained
• Incentives will be used to attract local and overseas investment in water supply and sanitation projects
• Incentives to promote acceptable sanitation practices will be provided to achieve stated policy objectives
• Access to grants or low interest loans for those persons who require/qualify for that type of assistance for sanitation projects will be facilitated through public/private partnerships
8.0 PRINCIPLES
The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro was held in June 1992 twenty years after the first global environment conference. Resulting from the conference a number of principles were agreed on. Those related to sanitation are presented below:
Principle 1
Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
Principle 3 The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.
Principle 4 In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
Principle 5 All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world.
Principle 9 States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-building for sustainable development by improving scientific understanding through exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the development, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies, including new and innovative technologies.
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Principle 10 (“Right To Know” Principle)
Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided.
Principle 11
States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental and developmental context to which they apply. Standards applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular developing countries.
Principle 16 (Polluter Pays Principle)
National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment.
Principle 17
Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority.
Principle 20
Women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development.
Principle 22
Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests and enable their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development.
The Johannesburg Summit 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development was held from 26th August – 4th September 2002. It is also referred to as the Rio+10 Conference. Outcomes of the conference related directly and indirectly to sanitation include: Key Outcomes of the Summit (related to sanitation)
• The Summit reaffirmed sustainable development as a central element of the international agenda and gave new impetus to global action to fight poverty and protect the environment.
• The understanding of sustainable development was broadened and strengthened as a result of the Summit, particularly the important linkages between poverty, the environment and the use of natural resources
• Energy and sanitation issues were critical elements of the negotiations and outcomes to a greater degree than in previous international meetings on sustainable development.
• Support for the establishment of a world solidarity fund for the eradication of poverty was a positive step forward.
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Key Commitments, Targets and Timetables from the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation5 Poverty Eradication
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whose income is less than $1 a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger (reaffirmation of Millennium Development Goals).
By 2020, achieve a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers, as proposed in the “Cities without slums” initiative (reaffirmation of Millennium Development Goal).
Establish a world solidarity fund to eradicate poverty and to promote social and human development in the developing countries.
Water and Sanitation
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water (reaffirmation of Millennium Development Goal).
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people who do not have access to basic sanitation.
Health
Enhance health education with the objective of achieving improved health literacy on a global basis by 2010.
Reduce, by 2015, mortality rates for infants and children under 5 by two thirds, and maternal mortality rates by three quarters, of the prevailing rate in 2000 (reaffirmation of Millennium Development Goal).
Means of implementation
Ensure that, by 2015, all children will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling and that girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education relevant to national needs (reaffirmation of Millennium Development Goal).
Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 (reaffirmation of Dakar Framework for Action on Education for All).
Recommend to the UN General Assembly that it consider adopting a decade of education for sustainable development, starting in 2005.
9.0 APPLICABLE POLICIES, LEGISLATION & GUIDELINES
The existing policies and legislation that directly relate to sanitation include:
• The Natural Resources Conservation Act, 1991 • The Natural Resources (Prescribed Areas) (Prohibition of Categories of Enterprise,
Construction and Development) Order, 1996 5 Note: this list is not exhaustive but provides information on the key commitments set out in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. For the full text, including the exact terms in which these commitments were made, visit the official website: www.johannesburgsummit.org
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• The Natural Resources Conservation (Permits and Licences) Regulations, 1996 • National Solid Waste Management Act 2001 and associated regulations • The Public Health Act, 1985 • The Public Health (Nuisance) Regulations, 1995 • Housing Act • Parish Council Act • Town Planning Act • Water Supply and Sewage Services Act (draft)
The relevant policies are:
• The Water Sector Policy • The Solid Waste Management Policy, 2000 • Poverty Eradication
Relevant Guidelines • Guidelines for dealing with Squatters including prevention, eviction, relocation and
regularization, Ministry of Land and Environment, October 2004 • Guidelines for Septage and BioSoilds Management in Jamaica, June 2005
9.1 New Legislation
Based on the roles and responsibilities of stakeholder Ministries and Agencies, the policies defining their scope of responsibilities will determine the need for and scope of legislation to be enacted. All Ministry polices bearing some relation to sanitation must be in sync with the vision, and one or more of the goals and objectives of this Sanitation Policy. Each Ministry should have relevant policies in place by 2006 with action plans for implementation. Action plans will include as required the development of necessary legislation, guidelines and Codes of Practices to enable achievement of the goals and objectives of the policies.
10.0 MONITORING AND EVALUATION The effectiveness of the implementation of the policy goals and objectives will be monitored by the National Sanitation Task Force. The following Ministries will be responsible for monitoring the implementation of specific aspects of the policy:
• Ministry of Land and Environment/NEPA – Unplanned/squatter settlements, environmental permits/licences, planning approvals
• Ministry of Water and Housing – Water supply sewerage services; adequate low income Housing
• Ministry of Local Government and Local Authorities/NSWMA – Planning and development, solid waste management
• Ministry of Education – sanitation in schools; hygiene education • Ministry of Health –Sanitation facilities in schools and public places, health indicators to assess
the effectiveness the sanitation policy; public education focused on hygiene promotion • Ministry of Finance – an enabling economic environment for private sector investment in
sanitation; greater allocation in the national budget to sanitation
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Each Ministry will develop policies where these do not exist and the associated agencies will be required to develop rolling 5 year Implementation Plans with realistic and measurable indicators to achieve the policy objectives and goals with annual updates and half year reports on the status of its implementation to the National Sanitation Task Force. One of the first actions is to collect baseline data so that progress can be measured from a particular point in time. Without this information it will be impossible to monitor the effectiveness of the implementation of the policy. When the actions are completed and targets are met, then the policy objectives and ultimately the goals will be achieved. 11.0 POLICY REVIEW Unless otherwise mandated by the Cabinet, the policy will be reviewed by the National Sanitation Task Force every 4 years to ensure its relevance. Additions to and/or deletions from the policy will only occur after consultation with the stakeholders.
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REFERENCES
1. Draft Health Facilities Infection Control – Policies and Procedures Manual, Jamaica, Ministry of Health, 2004
2. Guidelines for the Internal Management of Solid Wastes at Health care Centers, Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences, PAHO, WHO, OPS/CEPIS/PUB/97.29
3. Non-Incineration Medical Waste Treatment Technologies, A Resource for Hospital Administrators, Facility Managers, Health Care Professionals, Environmental Advocates, and Community Members, August 2001
4. Safe management of wastes from healthcare activities, Edited by A. Prüss, E. Giroult and P. Rushbrook, WHO 1999
5. Waste Disposal Management Technical Assistance HIV/Aids Prevention And Control, Project Loan No. 7112JM, Clinical Waste Management in Jamaica, Assessment of Current Practice and Technical Capability, Scott Crossett MBE, BSc, Waste Management Consultant, Crown Agents, London, 2003
6. Ministry of Health - Gifts And Donations Policy And Procedures, as of 1998 November 12 7. Health Guidance Note, Safe disposal of clinical waste whole hospital policy guidance, NHS
Estates, London : HMSO, 1995 8. Hazardous Waste and Health in Latin America and the Caribbean, Pan American Health
Organisation, Environmental Series No. 14, Washington DC, 1994 9. Policy Framework for the Management of Medical Waste, Ministry of Local Government
Community Development and Sport, September 2003 10. Codes of Practice and Guidelines for Medical Waste, Prepared for the Natural Resources
Conservation Authority by Environmental Solutions Ltd., May 1997 11. Report Of The United Nations Conference On Environment And Development, Rio de Janeiro,
3-14 June 1992, Annex I, Rio Declaration On Environment And Development 12. The National Poverty Eradication Programme, Annual Report 2004/2005
(http://www.npep.org.jm/Reports/_Report/_report.html)
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APPENDIX 1
PROJECTS BEING IMPLEMENTED UNDER THE NATIONAL POVERTY ERADICATION PROGRAMME
MINISTRY PROGRAMME DESCRIPTION Ministry of Water & Housing
Catchment Tank Rehabilitation Programme
Rehabilitates and/or update over 290 rain water catchment tanks in rural Jamaica
Land Titling Delivers overdue land titles to homeowners Operation PRIDE Facilitates the construction of housing solutions on
government owned lands Local Improvement
Community Amenities (LICA) Act
To regularize settlements on properties acquired by government for this purpose and to provide infrastructural support to these settlements where possible
Urban Renewal and Improvement Programme
To improve the infrastructural support in the inner city communities (including the removal of zinc fences and the launching of clean up campaigns) in an effort to improve and increase housing in these areas
Lucea-Negril Water Supply
The aim of this project is to construct a pipeline along with water treatment plant to better service select communities in the parishes of Westmoreland and Hanover
Rapid Response Programme This provides communities across the island with potable water in order to meet short to medium term need through the trucking of water and the erection of tanks.
Rural Area Sewage System Improvement Project
This project aims to regularize the maintenance of 15 sewage systems currently being used
Office of the Prime Minister
The Special Indigent Housing Project
An ad hoc project that ended in 2002. It involved the construction, repair or rebuilding of the domicile or sanitary conveniences for indigent persons or institutions which house the indigent
Ministry of Health Environmental Health This programme seeks to promote health and prevent disease occurrence by monitoring environmental factors in order to ensure a safe and balanced environment. The areas given special attention are sanitation, food safety, water monitoring, and disease surveillance and vector control.
Ministry of Local Government, Community Development & Sport
Minor Water Supplies Under this programme, maintenance work is carried out on rainwater catchment tanks, wayside tanks, entombment of springs and gravity fed systems with standpipes. The is programmes aims to provide water in a safe and effective manner for persons who do not have access to piped water or who cannot afford to pay for it.
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APPENDIX 2 MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS By the year 2015 all United Nation Members States have pledged to achieve these goals 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
• Reduce by half the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day • Reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
• Ensure that all boys and girls complete a full course of primary schooling 3. Promote gender equality and empower women
• Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015
4. Reduce child mortality
• Reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five 5. Improve maternal health
• Reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
• Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS • Halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
• Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes; reverse loss of environmental resources
• Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water • Achieve significant improvement in lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers, by 2020
8. Develop a global partnership for development
• Develop further an open trading and financial system that is rule-based, predictable and non-discriminatory. Includes a commitment to good governance, development and poverty reduction—nationally and internationally
• Address the least developed countries’ special needs. This includes tariff- and quota-free access for their exports; enhanced debt relief for heavily indebted poor countries; cancellation of official bilateral debt; and more generous official development assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction
• Address the special needs of landlocked and small island developing States • Deal comprehensively with developing countries’ debt problems through national and
international measures to make debt sustainable in the long term • In cooperation with the developing countries, develop decent and productive work for youth • In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs
in developing countries • In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies—
especially information and communications technologies