myers’ exploring psychology (4th ed) chapter 3 the developing person james a. mccubbin, phd...
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Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (4th Ed)
Chapter 3
The Developing Person
James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University
Worth Publishers
The Developing Child
Developmental Psychology study of changes across the life span
Developmental Issues
Nature versus Nurture How much is human development influenced by
our heredity (nature) and how much by our experience (nurture)?
Continuity versus Stages Is development gradual and continuous or does it
proceed through a sequence of separate stages? Stability versus Change
Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?
Union of Egg and Sperm
Genetic InfluencesX- Chromosomes
sex chromosome found in both males and females
females have two, males have one an X-chromosome from each parent
produces a femaleY-Chromosomes
sex chromosome found only in males when paired with a X-chromosome from
the mother, it produces a male child
The Developing ChildTestosterone
most important of the male sex hormones both males and females have it additional testosterone in males
stimulates growth of male sex organs in the fetusstimulates development of male sex characteristics
during puberty
Gender characteristics, whether biologically or socially
influenced, by which people define male and female
Prenatal DevelopmentZygote
fertilized egg enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division develops into an embryo
Embryo developing human organism from 2 weeks
through 2nd monthFetus
developing human organism from 9 weeks to birth
Prenatal DevelopmentTeratogens
agents that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm chemical, e.g. alcohol, some medicines,
cocaine, nicotineviral, e.g. HIV, Rubella
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome physical and cognitive abnormalities in
children caused by drinking in pregnancy
The NewbornRooting Reflex
tendency to turn head, open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheek
Preferences human voices and
facesfacelike images-->
smell and sound of mother preferred
Infancy and ChildhoodMaturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior
relatively uninfluenced by experience
sets the course for development while experience adjusts itAt birth 3 months 15 months
Cortical Neurons
Infancy and Childhood
Rats reared in an environment enriched with playthings show increased development of the cerebral cortex
Impoverished environment
Enriched environment
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Typical Age Range
Description of Stage
Developmental Phenomena
Birth to nearly 2 years SensorimotorExperiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety
About 2 to 6 years
About 7 to 11 years
About 12 through adulthood
PreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development
Concrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
•Conservation •Mathematical transformations
Formal operationalAbstract reasoning
•Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning
Infancy and ChildhoodSchema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Cognition mental activities associated with thinking,
knowing, and rememberingSensorimotor Stage
stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impression and motor activities
Infancy and ChildhoodObject Permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
Preoperational Stage stage during which a child learns to use language but
does not yet comprehend mental operations of concrete logic
Conservation the principle that properties such as mass, volume,
and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
part of Piaget’s concrete operational reasoning
Cognitive DevelopmentBaby Mathematics
Shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer (Wynn, 1992)
1. Objects placed in case.
2. Screen comes up.
3. One object is removed.
4. Possible outcome: Screen drops, revealing one object.
4. Possible outcome: Screen drops, revealing two object.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Egocentrism the inability of the preoperational child to take
another’s point of view
Concrete Operational Stage stage during which children gain the mental
operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Formal Operational Stage stage during which people begin to think
logically about abstract concepts
Social Development
Stranger Anxiety fear of strangers that infants commonly
display beginning by about 8 months of age
Attachment an emotional tie with another person shown in young children by seeking
closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
Social Development
Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments Monkeys preferred
contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother
Social Development
Critical Period an optimal period shortly after birth when an
organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Imprinting the process by which certain animals form
attachments during a critical period very early in life
Temperament a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity
and intensity
Social Development
Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers
Social Development
Groups of infants who had and had not experienced day care were left by their mothers in a unfamiliar room
0
20
40
60
80
100
3.5 5.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 20 29
Percentage of infantswho criedwhen theirmothers left
Age in months
Day care
Home
Social Development
Basic Trust (Erik Erikson) a sense that the world is
predictable and trustworthy said to be formed during infancy by
appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Social Development
Percentage of children experiencing school problems in the previous year
Percentageof children
Live with both biological parents
Live with formerly married mother and no father
Repeated school grade
Expelled or
suspended
Treated forproblems in last year
0
15
10
5
20
Gender and Child-Rearing
Gender Identity one’s sense of being male or female
Gender-Typing the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Social Learning Theory we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by
being rewarded or punished
Gender Schema Theory children learn from their cultures a concept of what it
means to be male and female adjust behavior accordingly
Gender and Child-Rearing
Rewards and Punishments
Observation andImitation of
models
Gender-typedbehavior
Social learning theory Gender schema theory
Cultural learningof gender
Gender schema(looking at self andWorld through a gender “lens”)
Gender-organizedthinking
Gender-typed behavior
AdolescenceAdolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood
extending from puberty to independencePuberty
the period of sexual maturation when one first becomes capable of
reproduction
AdolescencePrimary Sex Characteristics
body structures that make sexual reproduction possibleovaries- femaletestes- maleexternal genitalia
Secondary Sex Characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics
female- enlarged breast, hipsmale- voice quality, body hair
Menarche (meh-NAR-key) first menstrual period
Adolescence
In the 1890’s the average interval between a woman’s menarche and marriage was about 7 years; now it is nearly 12 years.
10 20
7.2 Year Interval
10 20
11.8 Year Interval
Age
Age
1890, Women
1988, Women
Adolescence
Throughout childhood, boys and girls are similar in height. At puberty, girls surge ahead briefly, but then boys overtake them at about age 14.
Height in centimeters
190
170
150
130
110
90
70
50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18Age in years
Boys Girls
Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder
Postconventional level(may develop fromadolescence on)
Morality of abstractprinciples: to affirm
agreed-upon rights andpersonal ethical principles
Conventional level(develops during late childhood
and early adolescence)Morality of law and social laws:
to gain approval or avoid disapproval
Preconventional level(develops during early childhood)
Morality of self-interest:to avoid punishment or gain
concrete rewards
As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the self to the wider social world
Social Development
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximate Age Stage Description of Task
Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic (1st year) trust.
Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, (2nd year) or they doubt their abilities.
Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or (3-5nd year) they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Elementary school Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, (6nd years to puberty) inferiority or they feel inferior.
Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles (teen years into 20s) confusion and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they
become confused about who they are.
Young adulthood Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain (teen years into 20s) isolation the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated.
Middle adulthood Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the (teen years into 20s) stagnation world, usually through family and work or they may feel a lack
of purpose.
Late adulthood Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a (teen years into 20s) confusion sense of satisfaction or failure.
Social DevelopmentIdentity
one’s sense of self the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of
self by testing and integrating various rolesIntimacy
the ability to form close, loving relationships a primary developmental task in late
adolescence and early adulthood
Social Development
The percentage of babies born to unmarried British, Canadian and American women (1/3 of whom were teens) has more than quintupled since 1960.
Percentage of births to unwed mothers
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
Japan
Britain
United States
Canada
Adulthood- Physical Changes
The slow decline of the body’s physical capacities during adulthood (adapted from Insel & Roth, 1976).90
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
30 40 50 60 70 80
Age in years
Percentage of function remaining
Lung volume
Maximum energyexpenditure
Resting energyexpenditure
Heart capacity
Adulthood- Physical Changes
Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation also refers to the biological changes a woman
experiences as her ability to reproduce declinesAlzheimer’s Disease
a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration of
memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning
Adulthood- Physical ChangesThe Aging Senses
10 30 50 70 900
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
Proportion of normal (20/20) vision when identifying letters on an eye chart
Age in years
Adulthood- Physical ChangesThe Aging Senses
10 30 50 70 9050
70
90
Percent correct whenIdentifying smells
Age in years
Adulthood- Physical ChangesThe Aging Senses
10 30 50 70 9050
70
90
Percent correct whenidentifying spokenwords
Age in years
Adulthood- Physical Changes
Slowing reactions contribute to increased accident risks among those 75 and older.
12
10
8
6
4
2
016 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 and
over
Fatal accident rate
Age
Fatal accidentsper 10,000 drivers
Fatal accidentsper 100 million miles
Adulthood- Cognitive Changes
Recalling new names introduced once, twice or three times is easier for younger adults than for older ones (Crook & West, 1990).
18 40 50 60 70
Age group
Percentof namesrecalled
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
After oneintroductions
After twointroductions
Older age groups have poorer performance
After three introductions
Adulthood- Cognitive Changes
In a study by Schonfield & Robertson (1966), the ability to recall new information declined during early and middle adulthood, but the ability to recognize new information did not.
NumberOf wordsremembered
20 30 40 50 60 700
4
8
12
16
20
24
Age in years
Number of wordsrecalled declineswith age
Number of wordsrecognized is stable with age
Adulthood- Cognitive Changes
Cross-Sectional method suggests decline
Longitudinal method suggests more stability
25 32 39 46 53 60 7467 8135
40
45
50
55
60
Age in years
Reasoningabilityscore
Cross-sectional method
Longitudinal method
Cross-sectional methodsuggests decline
Longitudinal methodsuggests more stability
AdulthoodCrystallized Intelligence
one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills tends to increase with age
Fluid Intelligence ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly tends to decrease during late adulthood
Social Clock the culturally preferred timing of social events
such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Adulthood
Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbal intelligence scores decline (adapted from Kaufman & others, 1989).
20 35 55 7025 45 6575
80
85
90
95
100
105
Intelligence(IQ) score
Age group
Nonverbal scoresdecline with age
Verbal scores arestable with age
Verbal scoresNonverbal scores
Adulthood
Multinational surveys show that age differences in life satisfaction are trivial (Inglehart, 1990).0
20
40
60
80
15 25 35 45 55 65+
Percentage “satisfied”with lifeas a whole
Age group