Moral developmentMoral development Moral reasoning—the thinking process involved in Moral reasoning—the thinking process involved in

judgments about questions of right and wrong.judgments about questions of right and wrong. Distributive justice—beliefs about how to divide materials Distributive justice—beliefs about how to divide materials

or privileges among members of a group; follows a or privileges among members of a group; follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence.benevolence.

Moral realism—stage of development wherein children Moral realism—stage of development wherein children see rules as absolutesee rules as absolute

Morality of cooperation—stage of development wherein Morality of cooperation—stage of development wherein children realize that people make rules and people can children realize that people make rules and people can change them.change them.

Moral dilemmas—situations in which no choice is clearly Moral dilemmas—situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right.and indisputably right.

Piaget and Moral DevelopmentPiaget and Moral DevelopmentStage one: External Morality(moral realism):Children view rules as fixed and permanent and externally enforced by authority figures.

Rules & authority outside of the child, controlling the child.

Internalization

The personal source of control for children’s thoughts and actions

Stage two:Autonomous moralityChildren develop rational ideas of fairness and see justice as a reciprocal process of treating others as they would want to be treated.

Rules & authority come from within—self control.

Autonomous means independent; in this case, it means that a person has a sense of right and wrong internally and no longer needs an outside source to control him/her.

KohlbergKohlberg

Kohlberg’s work is founded on moral dilemmas: ambiguous situations that require a person to make a moral decision and justify that decision in terms of right and wrong.

At issue is NOT what people choose in a given situation but HOW they JUSTIFY their choice. There are six stages of moral reasoning.

KohlbergKohlbergLevel 1:PreconventionalFocus on self--egocentrism

Level 2:ConventionalFocus on others

Level 3: PostconventionalFocus on principles

Stage 1: Punishment-ObediencePeople make moral decisions based on their chances of getting caught and being punished.

Stage 2:Market Exchange: people feel that an act is morally justified if it results in an act of reciprocity on someone else’s part.

Stage 3:Interpersonal Harmony: people make decisions based on conventions, loyalty, and living up to the expectations of others.

Stage 4:Law and Order: people follow laws and rules for their own sake.

Stage 5:Social Contract: people make moral decisions based on socially agreed-upon rules.

Stage 6:Universal Principles: the individual’s moral reasoning is based on abstract and general principles that are independent of society’s laws and rules.

Childhood Adolescence

An example of a moral dilemmaAn example of a moral dilemma The Heinz DilemmaThe Heinz Dilemma A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist's A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist's

dilemma: Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe.dilemma: Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe. A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one

drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 19) the drug-for his wife. (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 19)

Should Heinz break into the laboratory to steal the drug for his Should Heinz break into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?wife? Why or why not? Answer this question before you Answer this question before you move to the next slide. What would you do? Why would you move to the next slide. What would you do? Why would you do it?do it?

From Wikipedia

Some responses to Heinz dilemmaSome responses to Heinz dilemma

Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine, Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine, because he will consequently be put in prison. because he will consequently be put in prison.

Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine, because Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine, because he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence. serve a prison sentence.

Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine, because Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine, because his wife expects it. his wife expects it.

Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine, Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine, because the law prohibits stealing. because the law prohibits stealing.

Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine, because Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine, because everyone has a right to live, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz should everyone has a right to live, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine, because the scientist has a right to fair not steal the medicine, because the scientist has a right to fair compensation. compensation.

Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine, Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should not steal the property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine, because that violates the golden rule of honesty and medicine, because that violates the golden rule of honesty and respect. respect.

From Wikipedia

Kohlberg in the ClassroomKohlberg in the Classroom

Student behavior and administrative rule Student behavior and administrative rule making can reflect the various stages of making can reflect the various stages of Kohlberg. As you read the next slides, Kohlberg. As you read the next slides, think about what level of moral think about what level of moral development you would like to encourage development you would like to encourage in your students and how your classroom in your students and how your classroom management practices might encourage management practices might encourage that level.that level.

Level 1, Stage 1Level 1, Stage 1 Level 1: PreconventionalLevel 1: Preconventional Punishment-Obedience orientationPunishment-Obedience orientation Elementary school examplesElementary school examples A fourth grade girl refrains from running in the hallway to avoid the A fourth grade girl refrains from running in the hallway to avoid the

consequences involved in breaking that school's rule.consequences involved in breaking that school's rule. "Discussion rules" are placed on the blackboard in a combined 1"Discussion rules" are placed on the blackboard in a combined 1stst

and 2nd grade classroom, and whenever a student breaks one of and 2nd grade classroom, and whenever a student breaks one of those rules, he or she cannot participate in the classroom discussionthose rules, he or she cannot participate in the classroom discussion

High school examplesHigh school examples When a middle school student swears in the classroom, he or she When a middle school student swears in the classroom, he or she

has to complete a list of consequences developed by the teacher has to complete a list of consequences developed by the teacher earlier in the yearearlier in the year

One middle school teacher devised the most effective strategy for One middle school teacher devised the most effective strategy for getting students to class on time. He has latecomers do pushups--50 getting students to class on time. He has latecomers do pushups--50 of them--in front of the class of them--in front of the class

A high school English student is sent down to the office for forgetting A high school English student is sent down to the office for forgetting her homework the third day in a row.her homework the third day in a row.

The following slides on Kohlberg in the classroom are based on: http://facultyweb.cortland.edu/~ANDERSMD/KOHL/kolexm1a.HTML

Level 1, Stage 2Level 1, Stage 2 Level 1: PreconventionalLevel 1: Preconventional Personal Reward Orientation (Market Exchange)Personal Reward Orientation (Market Exchange) Elementary school examplesElementary school examples Two elementary school students were found arguing: Two elementary school students were found arguing: Student 1: "She called me a jerk!"Student 1: "She called me a jerk!" Student 2: "Well, he pulled my hair!"Student 2: "Well, he pulled my hair!" A student offers to be last in line when going to the cafeteria so she can be first in A student offers to be last in line when going to the cafeteria so she can be first in

line when going out for recess.line when going out for recess. High school examplesHigh school examples A middle school student refrains from arguing with her classmate so she is able to A middle school student refrains from arguing with her classmate so she is able to

participate in group work later in the period.participate in group work later in the period. A group of high school students involved in a cooperative learning activity get A group of high school students involved in a cooperative learning activity get

upset because one of their group members is repeatedly absent and did not do upset because one of their group members is repeatedly absent and did not do any work.any work.

A high school teacher has the rule: "Homework in late will receive five points off for A high school teacher has the rule: "Homework in late will receive five points off for each day it is received after the due date". One student hands in homework four each day it is received after the due date". One student hands in homework four days late with a story about how her boyfriend left her. The teacher takes 20 points days late with a story about how her boyfriend left her. The teacher takes 20 points off her paper. A second student misses several days of school due to an illness, off her paper. A second student misses several days of school due to an illness, and hands in the same homework four days late. The teacher gives him full credit. and hands in the same homework four days late. The teacher gives him full credit. The class protests, saying it is unfair for him to change the rules in the middle of The class protests, saying it is unfair for him to change the rules in the middle of the school yearthe school year

Level 2 Stage 3Level 2 Stage 3 Level 2: ConventionalLevel 2: Conventional Good Boy/ Nice Girl Orientation (Interpersonal Harmony)Good Boy/ Nice Girl Orientation (Interpersonal Harmony) Elementary school examplesElementary school examples A student stays after school to clean all the chalkboards for the A student stays after school to clean all the chalkboards for the

teacher. teacher. A fifth grade teacher asks her students to: "Please help me clean up A fifth grade teacher asks her students to: "Please help me clean up

the mess from our science experiment so we can all get to recess the mess from our science experiment so we can all get to recess on time!"on time!"

High school examplesHigh school examples A middle school student agrees to throw out the gum she is chewing A middle school student agrees to throw out the gum she is chewing

to please the teacher.to please the teacher. In an inner city high school student's journal, she wrote "I am going In an inner city high school student's journal, she wrote "I am going

to work harder in school so I won't let you down because if you think to work harder in school so I won't let you down because if you think I can make it then I can make it" (Johnson, 1992).I can make it then I can make it" (Johnson, 1992).

Level 2, Stage 4Level 2, Stage 4 Level 2: ConventionalLevel 2: Conventional Law and Order OrientationLaw and Order Orientation Elementary school examplesElementary school examples "It is compulsory for all school-age students to attend school." This statement exemplifies a "It is compulsory for all school-age students to attend school." This statement exemplifies a

right available to students by the United States Constitution (Gathercoal, 1993).right available to students by the United States Constitution (Gathercoal, 1993). "Respect the property of others". This sign, when hung in a middle school, reinforced the "Respect the property of others". This sign, when hung in a middle school, reinforced the

student's right to private property.student's right to private property. "Keep your hands and feet to yourself." School officials have both the legal authority and the "Keep your hands and feet to yourself." School officials have both the legal authority and the

professional responsibility to deny student rights that seriously disrupt student learning activities professional responsibility to deny student rights that seriously disrupt student learning activities (Gathercoal, 1993).(Gathercoal, 1993).

High school examplesHigh school examples "Move carefully in the halls". This rule reinforces the fundamental purpose of government to "Move carefully in the halls". This rule reinforces the fundamental purpose of government to

protect the health and welfare of it's citizens (Gathercoal, 1993).protect the health and welfare of it's citizens (Gathercoal, 1993). "Gang activity must be off school premises." School officials have both the legal authority and "Gang activity must be off school premises." School officials have both the legal authority and

the professional responsibility to deny student rights that seriously disrupt student learning the professional responsibility to deny student rights that seriously disrupt student learning activities (Gathercoal, 1993).activities (Gathercoal, 1993).

"Wear appropriate shoes on the gym floor". Public property must be protected in the schools "Wear appropriate shoes on the gym floor". Public property must be protected in the schools (Gathercoal, 1993)(Gathercoal, 1993)

Readers interested in learning more about Forest Gathercoal's Judicious Discipline, a model of Readers interested in learning more about Forest Gathercoal's Judicious Discipline, a model of discipline based solely on the United States Constitution are referred to the following readings:discipline based solely on the United States Constitution are referred to the following readings:

Gathercoal, Forrest. (1993). Judicious Discipline, 3rd ed. San Francisco, CA: Caddo Gap Gathercoal, Forrest. (1993). Judicious Discipline, 3rd ed. San Francisco, CA: Caddo Gap Press.Press.

McEwan, Barbara. (1990). Judicious Discipline. McEwan, Barbara. (1990). Judicious Discipline. Democracy and EducationDemocracy and Education, 4(3): 37-40., 4(3): 37-40.

Level 3, Stage 5Level 3, Stage 5 Level 3: PostconventionalLevel 3: Postconventional Social Contract OrientationSocial Contract Orientation Elementary school examplesElementary school examples A combined first and second grade class makes its own rules during the first A combined first and second grade class makes its own rules during the first

month of the year according to a class meeting where students discuss what month of the year according to a class meeting where students discuss what is proper and improper behavior in the classroom and why a particular is proper and improper behavior in the classroom and why a particular behavior is inappropriate (ie., who is affected by your actions)behavior is inappropriate (ie., who is affected by your actions)

A second-grade teacher helped her students understand all aspects of a A second-grade teacher helped her students understand all aspects of a moral dilemma during a science project in which the class was incubating moral dilemma during a science project in which the class was incubating chicken eggs. The assignment was to open an egg each week to look at the chicken eggs. The assignment was to open an egg each week to look at the developing chicken at various stages. Later that day, one of her students developing chicken at various stages. Later that day, one of her students confided in her that he thought it cruel to open an egg and kill the chick confided in her that he thought it cruel to open an egg and kill the chick inside. She listened without comment and decided to hold a class meeting inside. She listened without comment and decided to hold a class meeting discussing the topic. The class discussed many aspects of the assignment, discussing the topic. The class discussed many aspects of the assignment, including whether it really was cruel to kill a chick each week and including whether it really was cruel to kill a chick each week and alternatives to the assignment. After discussing all the aspects, students alternatives to the assignment. After discussing all the aspects, students were encouraged to vote as to how to continue with the assignment were encouraged to vote as to how to continue with the assignment (Lickona, 1993).(Lickona, 1993).

Did you think that elementary students could reason at high levels of moral development? Apparently they can. What would happen if all teachers encouraged their students to reason at this level?

Level 3, Stage 5 continuedLevel 3, Stage 5 continued High school examplesHigh school examples A high school teacher uses the following handout on the first day of class A high school teacher uses the following handout on the first day of class (Lickona, 1991): "Please remember that this is your room and your class. (Lickona, 1991): "Please remember that this is your room and your class.

The behavior and participation of each person will shape the type of learning The behavior and participation of each person will shape the type of learning that will occur. Since one person's behavior affects everyone else, I request that will occur. Since one person's behavior affects everyone else, I request that everyone in the class be responsible for classroom management. To that everyone in the class be responsible for classroom management. To ensure that our rights are protected and upheld, the following laws have ensure that our rights are protected and upheld, the following laws have been established for this classroom..." been established for this classroom..."

A high school teacher was having many problems with aggression in her A high school teacher was having many problems with aggression in her classroom. One day she decided she could not take the constant fighting classroom. One day she decided she could not take the constant fighting anymore and had the students participate in a class discussion about why anymore and had the students participate in a class discussion about why fighting was wrong. The class developed a long list of reasons why fighting fighting was wrong. The class developed a long list of reasons why fighting is wrong. She then encouraged them to develop a list of alternatives to is wrong. She then encouraged them to develop a list of alternatives to fighting or consequences of fighting during class time. The students fighting or consequences of fighting during class time. The students developed a long list, and only the most agreed upon consequences were developed a long list, and only the most agreed upon consequences were used. For example, "a person caught fighting will have to lick the floor" was used. For example, "a person caught fighting will have to lick the floor" was deemed inappropriate by the class for hygiene reasons, while "a person who deemed inappropriate by the class for hygiene reasons, while "a person who feels the need to fight will quietly step out of the room to cool down for a few feels the need to fight will quietly step out of the room to cool down for a few minutes" was accepted by teacher and students (Faber and Mazlish,1987).minutes" was accepted by teacher and students (Faber and Mazlish,1987).

Level 3, Stage 6Level 3, Stage 6 Level 3: PostconventionalLevel 3: Postconventional Universal Ethical Principle OrientationUniversal Ethical Principle Orientation Elementary school examplesElementary school examples An elementary school class has little discipline problems with one simple classroom An elementary school class has little discipline problems with one simple classroom

rule: "Respect everyone in this room“ (Lickona, 1995).rule: "Respect everyone in this room“ (Lickona, 1995). A combined first and second grade class makes its own rules during the first month A combined first and second grade class makes its own rules during the first month

of the year according to a class meeting in which all students are asked to reflect on of the year according to a class meeting in which all students are asked to reflect on what is right and wrong and why things are right and wrong.what is right and wrong and why things are right and wrong.

A second grade teacher was facilitating an activity to make a model of the A second grade teacher was facilitating an activity to make a model of the classroom as they saw it using wood scraps. A couple of her students were found classroom as they saw it using wood scraps. A couple of her students were found discussing their ideas (Lickona, 1991):discussing their ideas (Lickona, 1991):

David: That is the dumbest chalkboard, Martha. You put it in a stupid place.David: That is the dumbest chalkboard, Martha. You put it in a stupid place. Teacher (to David): You think Martha should put the block in a different place. Teacher (to David): You think Martha should put the block in a different place.

Would you like to suggest to her where she might put it?Would you like to suggest to her where she might put it? David: Yeah, right there. The chalkboard is BEHIND the table.David: Yeah, right there. The chalkboard is BEHIND the table. Teacher (to Martha): If you accept David's suggestion, you may move your block. Teacher (to Martha): If you accept David's suggestion, you may move your block.

But if you like it where you put it, you may leave it right there.But if you like it where you put it, you may leave it right there. Teacher (to David): when you don't use the words "stupid" and "dumbest," people Teacher (to David): when you don't use the words "stupid" and "dumbest," people

like to listen to you. You had an interesting point to make about the chalkboard.like to listen to you. You had an interesting point to make about the chalkboard.

Level 3, Stage 6 continuedLevel 3, Stage 6 continued High school examplesHigh school examples High school teacher: "I have only one rule in this classroom and that rule is not High school teacher: "I have only one rule in this classroom and that rule is not

negotiable: Respect yourself and everyone else in this room. If you can't respect negotiable: Respect yourself and everyone else in this room. If you can't respect yourself, you can't respect other people. And if you don't have any self-respect, you yourself, you can't respect other people. And if you don't have any self-respect, you have a problem. We're going to fix that problem because every person has the right have a problem. We're going to fix that problem because every person has the right to his or her personal dignity."to his or her personal dignity."

High school student: "That's bullshit!"High school student: "That's bullshit!" Teacher: It tells you everything...(for example)...Do you think it's respectful for you Teacher: It tells you everything...(for example)...Do you think it's respectful for you

to get up and walk around the room while I am talking?"to get up and walk around the room while I am talking?" Student: "No"Student: "No" Teacher: "Well, then, do you think it's respectful to say 'shit' in school?"Teacher: "Well, then, do you think it's respectful to say 'shit' in school?" Student: "No"Student: "No" Teacher: "then you tell me an example of something you could do in class and get Teacher: "then you tell me an example of something you could do in class and get

in trouble for that does not break my single rule" in trouble for that does not break my single rule" He offered several suggestions but his classmates loudly disqualified each He offered several suggestions but his classmates loudly disqualified each

example (Johnson, 1992).example (Johnson, 1992). This same teacher later added another rule to her list: "I will not tolerate any racial, This same teacher later added another rule to her list: "I will not tolerate any racial,

ethnic, or sexual slurs in this classroom. It is not fair to erase someone's face. In this ethnic, or sexual slurs in this classroom. It is not fair to erase someone's face. In this room, everyone is entitled to equal dignity as a human being. (Johnson, 1992)"room, everyone is entitled to equal dignity as a human being. (Johnson, 1992)"

At a high school for girls in Chicago, math classes studied demographic facts At a high school for girls in Chicago, math classes studied demographic facts related to hunger , and religion classes discussed the question of "What is our ethical related to hunger , and religion classes discussed the question of "What is our ethical and religious responsibility for the starving people of the world? (Lickona, 1991)and religious responsibility for the starving people of the world? (Lickona, 1991)

For further reading on the fostering of moral development in children, the reader For further reading on the fostering of moral development in children, the reader is directed to the work of Thomas Lickona.is directed to the work of Thomas Lickona.

Research on Kohlberg’s theoryResearch on Kohlberg’s theory Every person’s moral reasoning passes through the Every person’s moral reasoning passes through the

same stages in the same ordersame stages in the same order People pass through the stages at different ratesPeople pass through the stages at different rates Development is gradual and continuous, rather than Development is gradual and continuous, rather than

sudden and discretesudden and discrete Once a stage is attained, a person tends to reason at Once a stage is attained, a person tends to reason at

that stage rather than regressing to a lower stagethat stage rather than regressing to a lower stage Intervention usually advances a person only to the next Intervention usually advances a person only to the next

higher stage of moral reasoninghigher stage of moral reasoning Social conventions vs. morality: social conventions are Social conventions vs. morality: social conventions are

the rules and expectations of a group or society—such the rules and expectations of a group or society—such as what constitutes rudeness. Kohlberg’s work doesn’t as what constitutes rudeness. Kohlberg’s work doesn’t differentiate between social conventions and true differentiate between social conventions and true morality.morality.

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theoryCriticisms of Kohlberg’s theory

It is culturally specific to Western thinking. For example, It is culturally specific to Western thinking. For example, some cultures emphasize community over the individual, some cultures emphasize community over the individual, which is lower on the Kohlberg scale.which is lower on the Kohlberg scale.

Kohlberg’s work doesn’t differentiate between social Kohlberg’s work doesn’t differentiate between social conventions (the rules and expectations of a particular conventions (the rules and expectations of a particular group or society) and true moral issuesgroup or society) and true moral issues

Kohlberg’s work focuses on reasoning, not behavior. Kohlberg’s work focuses on reasoning, not behavior. Sometimes there is a difference.Sometimes there is a difference.

Carol Gilligan criticized the theory for being based on Carol Gilligan criticized the theory for being based on male moral development, suggesting that women tend to male moral development, suggesting that women tend to be more oriented toward communal well-being and be more oriented toward communal well-being and therefore score lower on Kohlberg’s scale.therefore score lower on Kohlberg’s scale.

Moral judgments, social Moral judgments, social conventions, and personal choicesconventions, and personal choices

Some rules are social conventions: agreed-Some rules are social conventions: agreed-upon rules and ways of doing things in a upon rules and ways of doing things in a particular situation.particular situation.

Americans eat with their fork in their right hand, Americans eat with their fork in their right hand, generally, and then switch the fork to the left generally, and then switch the fork to the left hand and knife in right hand when they need to hand and knife in right hand when they need to cut their food. Brits eat with the fork in the left cut their food. Brits eat with the fork in the left hand and knife in right hand and they cut their hand and knife in right hand and they cut their food as they go. There’s no moral right or wrong food as they go. There’s no moral right or wrong here, just how people tend to do things here, just how people tend to do things differently in different places.differently in different places.

Morality in the classroomMorality in the classroom

Your responses to a problem should relate Your responses to a problem should relate to the domain of the problem: social or to the domain of the problem: social or moral.moral.

Moral issues: emphasize harm, Moral issues: emphasize harm, encourage perspective-takingencourage perspective-taking

Social conventions: restate the rules, give Social conventions: restate the rules, give a command.a command.

Diversity in reasoningDiversity in reasoning

What is moral and what is a social convention What is moral and what is a social convention may be different for different people.may be different for different people.

Being a vegetarian may be a social convention Being a vegetarian may be a social convention for some but may be a moral issue for others for some but may be a moral issue for others (e.g., religious reasons or involvement in animal (e.g., religious reasons or involvement in animal rights).rights).

This may be the case for your students, as well. This may be the case for your students, as well. Wearing a head covering seems like a Wearing a head covering seems like a convention to those who don’t but it is a moral convention to those who don’t but it is a moral issue for those who do.issue for those who do.

Moral behaviorMoral behavior The relationship between moral reasoning and The relationship between moral reasoning and

moral behavior is not strong.moral behavior is not strong. In other words, it’s easy to “talk the talk” but In other words, it’s easy to “talk the talk” but

much more difficult to “walk the walk.”much more difficult to “walk the walk.” Three influences on moral behavior: modeling, Three influences on moral behavior: modeling,

internalization (process whereby children adopt internalization (process whereby children adopt external standards as their own), and self-external standards as their own), and self-concept.concept.

Children need to be exposed to people who Children need to be exposed to people who model moral behavior. They will be more likely model moral behavior. They will be more likely to internalize moral standards if they are given to internalize moral standards if they are given reasons they understand for them. Eventually, reasons they understand for them. Eventually, one’s morality becomes part of one’s identity.one’s morality becomes part of one’s identity.

CheatingCheating

Cheating is often situational (lots of Cheating is often situational (lots of pressure and little chance of being caught pressure and little chance of being caught are the characteristics of situations that are the characteristics of situations that lead to cheating).lead to cheating).

Some individuals are more likely to cheat: Some individuals are more likely to cheat: males, low achievers, those who are males, low achievers, those who are focused on grades rather than learningfocused on grades rather than learning

Diversity and Convergences in Diversity and Convergences in Personal/social DevelopmentPersonal/social Development

Different people mature physically at Different people mature physically at different times.different times.

Teacher caring is interpreted differently by Teacher caring is interpreted differently by different people. At-risk students tend to different people. At-risk students tend to prefer personal caring while high-prefer personal caring while high-achieving middle class students prefer achieving middle class students prefer help with academic tasks.help with academic tasks.

Self-concept is different across different Self-concept is different across different groups of people.groups of people.

ConvergencesConvergences

Children of divorce need teachers who are Children of divorce need teachers who are authoritative—warm and clear about authoritative—warm and clear about requirements and limits.requirements and limits.

Self-concepts are increasingly differentiated over Self-concepts are increasingly differentiated over time, depending on subject.time, depending on subject.

A major challenge for all students is developing A major challenge for all students is developing a sense of identity.a sense of identity.

Peer rejection is harmful for everyone.Peer rejection is harmful for everyone. High pressure situations can lead to cheating.High pressure situations can lead to cheating.

VocabularyVocabulary

External morality

Internalization

Inter-personal harmony

stage

Law and order stage

Market exchange

stage

Moral dilemma

Punish-ment-

obedience stage

Social conventions

Social contract

stage

Universal principles

stage

Morality of cooperation

Moral realism

Moral reasoning