School of Information Management and Systems

IMS5016, IMS3116 Information Access

Week 5, 4 April 2005:Well-structured databases; professional responsibilities.

Quiz of the century!!!!!

Question by students to lecturer: What is the origin of the tradition of having a rabbit deliver eggs at Easter time?

I was confused by this question, in that I had never encountered the tradition. So I asked for more information, which I received, as follows:

In America, the Easter Bunny is somewhat like Santa Claus. He delivers painted boiled eggs, chocolate eggs, other candy and sometimes toys or books to the children in a household on Easter morning. Each child leaves out an empty basket on Saturday night and it is full on Easter Sunday when he or she awakes (like Christmas stockings). The Bunny may also hide eggs in gardens or around the house, depending on the energy level of the parents involved. Here in Australia I've heard that the Easter Bunny pretty much only hides chocolate eggs for children outdoors. My 4-year-old daughter, Hannah, told me that the Easter Bunny came early to her school and hid chocolate eggs around the playground and the classroom. Hannah said that she did not actually see the Easter Bunny, but he left rabbit footprints (made out of white powder) throughout the classroom. In America, some people will actually dress up like the Easter Bunny to deliver eggs, but usually these are reps from the candy companies.

Fortunately on Easter Monday I listened to Canadian Public Radio (http://www.cbc.ca/programguide/radio/) on 28 March, and heard a librarian, Moira Smith, talking about Easter bunny traditions. She said that from centuries ago the Easter rabbit (as a fertility symbol) has been associated with eggs for people, but that in the USA from the mid-19th century, the rabbit actually brings the eggs to children. This gave me the clues that I needed.

Then, from http://www.easter-traditions.com/html/other_traditions.htmlI found that

the first documented use of the bunny as a symbol of Easter appears in Germany in the 1500s; although the actual matching of the holiday and the hare was probably a much earlier folk tradition. Not surprisingly, it was also the Germans who made the first edible Easter Bunnies in the 1800s.

The Pennsylvania Dutch brought the beneficent Easter Bunny to the United States in the 1700s. Children eagerly awaited the arrival of Oschter Haws and his gifts with a joy second only to that brought about by the winter visit of Kris Kringle. Pennsylvania Dutch children believed that if they were good, the Oschter Haws would lay a nest of brightly colored eggs.

[Another website claims it was German migrants, not Dutch: http://altreligion.about.com/cs/alchemy/a/mpreviss.htm].

The association of eggs with the Easter Bunny is actually a recent one. It seems to be the result of an ad campaign (believe it or not) by European candy makers who wanted to advertise their product. The egg, long a symbol of fertility, had long been a traditional staple of Easter celebrations. The pairing of the Easter Egg and the Easter Bunny at the end of the nineteenth century was not only a stroke of marketing genius, but also well-founded in the traditions of the past.

Easter began as a fertility festival associated with the European spring. In second century, the spring festival was a raucous Saxon fertility celebration in honor of the Saxon Goddess Eastre (Ostara), whose sacred animal was a hare.

This week’s question by Graeme to students: How do you make a Molotov cocktail?

Next week’s question from Graeme to students:Is it true that a microscopic fungus which grows on old paper in libraries

releases spores and induces hallucinations in readers?

Contents.

1.Readings.

2.OVID.2.1.Introduction to OVID.2.2.OVID Help File.2.3.Searching techniques in bibliographic databases: OVID.2.4.Some parting advice on standard search techniques.2.5.Recent survey of use of electronic databases in Monash Libraries.

3.Copyright.3.1.Complex case study.3.2.Relevance of copyright to information services.3.3.The idea of copyright.3.4.Original purposes.3.5.Interested parties in copyright.3.6.Definitions, mainly under the Copyright Act, 1968.3.7.Copyright rules for libraries in Australia.3.8.Collecting for a library.3.9.A library can be an ‘author’ in its own right.3.10.A few other legal points about publications.3.11.Grey areas? Internet and e-mail are new forums.3.12.Piracy and international conventions.

4.Professional duty of care.4.1.Duty of care, examples of negligent advice.4.2.Waiver of liability.4.3.Professional indemnity.

5.Information literacy.5.1.Different meanings.5.2.Information literacy and formulation of search strategy.

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5.3.Training in information literacy.5.4.Design of an actual program.

1.Readings.

‘Books, bytes and behaviour’, in: Borgman, Christine L. From Gutenberg to the global information infrastructure: access to information in the networked world. Chapter 4. Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press, 2000.

Bundy, Alan, ed. 2004, Australian and New Zealand information literacy framework; principles, standards and practice, Adelaide, Australian and New Zealand Institute for Information Literacy.

CAUL (Council of Australian University Librarians) Home Page: http://www.caul.edu.au/copyright/. Excellent selection of documents on copyright and intellectual property .

Copyright Law Review Committee. Simplification of the Copyright Act 1968. Part 1. Exceptions to the exclusive rights of copyright owners. Canberra. September 1998. Chapter 4 contains an excellent survey of fair dealing legislation in Australia, which by and large has not been superseded by the Digital Agenda amendments to the 1968 Copyright Act. Available at: http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/www/Clrhome.nsf/HeadingPagesDisplay/Latest+News?OpenDocument. A broad review of the law of copyright was due to be published by the CLRC on 4 March 2005, but has not yet appeared.

Dutton, W.H. 1999, Society on the Line; information politics in the digital age, Oxford University Press.

Ferguson, S and Hebels, R. (2003), ‘Information sources and services,’ ‘Ferguson, S and Hebels, R (2003), Computers for librarians: an introduction to the electronic library, (3rd ed), Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga. pp.41-79 [electronic resource].

Ginsparg, P. Creating a global knowledge network. Second Joint ICSU Press - UNESCO Expert Conference on Electronic Publishing in Science, Paris, 19-23 Feb 2001. Available at: http://arxiv.org/blurb/pg01unesco.html.

Kenney, A. R., O.Y. Rieger, eds. Moving theory into practice: digital imaging for libraries and archives. Mountain View, CA: Research Libraries Group, 2000.

La Marca, S., M. Manning, eds., 2004, Reality bytes; information literacy for independent learning, Carlton, School Library Association of Victoria.

Large, A., L.A.Tedd, R.J. Hartley, 2001, Information seeking in the online age: principles and practice, Munich, Saur.

Marchionini, G. (1995), ‘Electronic search strategies’ in Marchionini, G. (1995), Information seeking in electronic environments, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.76-99. [electronic resource].

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Monash Library’s online tutorials on How to use CD-ROMS and other databases, at: http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/edb/edbcon.htm, and then those relating to the Medline and PsycINFO databases, which Monash gets through OVID.

Norman, F. & Hibbott, Y. (1999), ‘The SuperJournal project: The value of electronic journals to biomedical users’, Health Libraries Review, 16, pp 256-276.

O’Donnell, G.C. A short note on anti-copyright, Milsons Point, N.S.W., C.A.L., 1985.

Ricketson, S. and Megan Richardson, Intellectual property: cases, materials and commentary. 3rd ed. Sydney: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2005.

Other urls cited throughout these notes.

2.OVID.

2.1.Introduction to OVID.

In the last lecture you will remember that we described three types of search strategy: data retrieval, where the searcher knows that information exists already, and finds it easily; information retrieval, where the searcher needs to know a specific, straightforward fact, and multiple sources will provide it without a lot of trouble; and information retrieval, where the searcher needs to locate information about a complex subject, but is uncertain about how to describe the subject or its sources (A. Large, et al., 2001, Information seeking in the online age: principles and practice, Munich, Saur, pp 35-36).

This section is devoted exploration of the third sort, using one well-structured database (Medline) as presented by the online vendor OVID. We concentrate predominantly on analytical search strategies where most of your searching will be prepared in advance, using the features of the databases you use. OVID’s capabilities include most of the purposes of information retrieval systems which were covered in lecture 4.

Explore any other databases which are available through OVID when you have time either through Monash, or your own library.

RMIT Publishing’s Home Page gives details of the dozens of Australian content databases which it hosts. Visit the RMIT Publishing site to explore the range of databases available, most through Informit, which uses the WebSPIRS software. Also note the trend to full text resources from the more traditional bibliographic databases: http://www.rmitpublishing.com.au/.

2.2.OVID Help Information.

The Monash Library has tutorials on using a number of databases via OVID, for example Medline and PsycINFO. Sections which are particularly useful include:

Vocabulary Mapping.Truncation and wild cards.Query and set operators.Limiting.

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Truncation and wild cards should give you no particular difficulty. Just be sure not to truncate too close to the start of a word nor too far into it. For example, you may wish to truncate after ‘adolescent’ if you wish only to retrieve the singular and plural forms of the word; but you may wish to truncate after ‘adolescen’ if you also want adolescence.

It is important that you understand OVID’s Vocabulary Mapping abilities and the concepts of Explode, and Restrict to Focus.

Explode: The term explode refers to a subject heading and all of its narrower terms. Using one of last week’s concepts, ‘pets’ if exploded would retrieve ‘pets; dogs; cats; guinea pigs’, and whichever others were separately listed in the ‘thesaurus’.

Restrict to Focus:Remember from lecture 4 that depth indexing and addition of contents pages of books could sometimes lead to retrieval of documents of marginal relevance. OVID attempts to solve this problem by explicitly indexing at two different levels. It indexes at document level (summarising) and allows users to restrict their searches to those concepts that are the ‘focus’ of a document. It also indexes in depth, as do most indexing services and allows users to search for these concepts in the normal way. This should give the user a good deal of control over searching strategies.

Exercise: Connect to Medline (1996 – 2005) via OVID using your AuthCate username and password.

Look at the ‘Help’ information that is provided – for example: The subject coverage of the database. A list of the fields available and command line syntax for searching them. Limit fields and syntax for limiting a search by the available criteria.

2.3.Searching techniques in bibliographic databases: OVID.

The objectives of this section are: To explore the extent of some ‘aids to the user in selection of search terms’ by

the use of vocabulary mapping. To explore OVID’s ‘summarising’ or ‘restrict to focus’ features. To compare free text with controlled subject headings searching.

The difference between controlled headings and free text searching can be understood easily with the analogy of a shopping list. Your shopping list may contain the name of a specific product (e.g., ‘Ardmona apricot jam’) or it may just have ‘jam’ written on it. The first is more specific, controlled by the nominated brand and content, whereas the latter (free text) could be any brand or flavour of jam, leaving it to you as supermarket shopper to decide when you reach jam section.

Controlled vocabularies are very common in database searching. A controlled vocabulary is simply a predetermined list of acceptable terms that channels searches for every subject in the database. Examples of a controlled vocabulary include a list of used subject headings, a thesaurus of terms, an index in a book.

Be aware that OVID logs off after quite short periods of inactivity.

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Using Medline:

Free Text Searching: Ensure ‘map term to subject headings’ is turned off.

Type the phrase ‘cystic fibrosis research.’ Click ‘perform search’ button.Examine results.

Type the phrase ‘cystic fibrosis.’ Click ‘perform search’ button.

Type the phrase ‘research.’Click ‘perform search’ button.

Combine these two searches, via the ‘combine’ icon. Be sure to use the correct logic, ‘AND’. Refresh your memory by re-reading the help file under ‘Query’ and ‘Set Operators’ if you are not sure why to use ‘AND’.

Examine results.

Reflection: How is this ‘free text searching’ different from ‘Keyword’ searching on the Monash Library catalogue?

Controlled Vocabulary Searching:

Ensure ‘map term to subject headings’ is turned on.

Ovid ‘Help’ states that you can only map one concept at a time to subject headings. Is ‘cystic fibrosis research’ one concept or two?

We will see what happens.

Type the phrase ‘Cystic Fibrosis Research.’Click ‘perform search’ button. Ovid subject mapping can de-construct pre-coordinated concepts!

Examine the Mapping Display (there should be ten subject headings displayed, a few of which only seem more relevant).

Notice that you can still choose to search using your original phrase ‘cystic fibrosis research’.

Click on a number of the subject headings so as to examine their thesaurus displays.Take note of broader terms, narrower terms, and related terms.Return to the Mapping Display.

From the Mapping Display:Select the two subject headings for your concept – ‘Cystic fibrosis’ and ‘Research Design’.Change ‘combine selections with’ drop down box to ‘AND’.

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Click ‘continue’ button.Take note of results.

Explode subject headings.Repeat the above search, exploding your subject headings and note results.

Restrict to focus.Repeat the above search, restricting your subject headings to focus and note results.There will be an asterisk in front of any term which has been ‘restricted to focus.’

Explode and restrict to focus.Repeat the above search, both exploding and restricting your subject headings to focus.

Exercise:It is possible to construct two mutually exclusive sets, one of which has the chosen subject terms restricted to focus, and the second of which does not. How will you do this? Hint: Use the ‘NOT’ operator.

Examine some of the titles of records retrieved as a result of restricting to focus. Compare them with the tiles of records retrieved in the set not restricted to focus. Is there any difference? Read the abstracts of some of the records to help you to decide.

O’Connor’s description of the relationship between indexing and abstracting may be helpful here;

Indexing reduces search space. Abstracting reduces evaluation time. Together, indexing and abstracting reduce search time.(O’Connor p 4).

Do you agree?

In the exercises you have just been undertaking, you have been exploring OVID’s Mapping features with the Medline databases. It is possible to do more simple searches that are still useful, especially if you have not retrieved many relevant records. One way is to look for your term in the title or abstract field.

Enter the term ‘Cystic fibrosis’ in the search box – you will have results of over 8,500.Then click the Search Fields icon at the top.Enter ‘Cystic fibrosis.ti’ in the search box. Here you are looking for the term in the title.Now try Cystic ‘fibrosis.ti,ab’ to look for the term in both the title and abstract fields.

Exercise:How else could you have searched for the term in the abstract from the main search box? Hint: Look at what is available via ‘Limit to’.

2.4.Some parting advice on standard search techniques.

There are many other features of searching databases that you will explore in tutorials and in your own time. A good reference book to help you understand many aspects of searching online is: A.Large, L.A.Tedd, R.J. Hartley, 2001, Information

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seeking in the online age: principles and practice, Munich, Saur. You will find its chapter 10, ‘Search evaluation’ useful for your first assignment.

From the point-of-view of the daily work of a reference professional, here is a set of 11 rules-of-thumb which form a summary which can be applied to most searches, whether they be online, or not:

1.review the information need. Check on what information precisely is the searcher asking for? E.g., the verbal question ‘Do you have things on oranges and peaches,’ has been known to mean: ‘Do you have The origin of species’ by Charles Darwin? E.g., ‘Tell me the chicken sexes of Rhode Islanders’ is not the same as ‘Tell me the chicken sexers of Rhode Island’. (For your edification, you will find ‘chicken sexers’ listed on p 2477 of the Melbourne Yellow Pages).

2.In context, determine what is the most effective way of finding the answer to a question. Normally there is more than one possible path to choose from.

3.Understand spellings and meanings in the context of the usage of words. E.g., ‘carrot’ and ‘carat’ have very different meanings, though pronounced the same.

4.With large searches, keep a record of your search pathways. This saves you accidentally repeating parts of the search later on, because you have forgotten where you have already been. Some answers might take days to find.

5.Itemise sub-problems. Where a question is very complex, break it down into parts or steps which can be managed more easily. Some parts only may be answerable in the end.

6.Search for the specific before the general topic. E.g., ‘cats’ before ‘animals’.

7.Ask yourself what the intended purposes of the publication of the source of information are, and use it according to its aims. E.g., do not watch a 2-hour movie about wave surfing (its aim being entertainment) if your searcher wants to know about the design of the tailfin of one type of surfboard (look for specific design diagrams).

8.Use synonyms and related terms. E.g., a search for ‘migration’ may also include: aliens, assimilation, asylum, brain drain, citizenship, colonies, cultural cringe, deportation, displaced persons, emigrants, emigration, emigrés, empire, ethnic cleansing, ethnic groups, ethnic minorities, evacuees, exiles, expatriates, forced migration, foreign populations, foreigners, guest workers, illegals, immigrant families, immigrant labour, immigration, incomers, loyalty, migrants, migration, migration paths, minorities, multiculturalism, nationalism, nationality, naturalisation, patriotism, political refugees, population displacement, population transfer, race, refugees, repatriation, residents, settlers, stateless persons, transients.

Exercise: try to truncate among the words above to see how many words you can eliminate as separate search terms. That is, by how much can you reduce the length of the whole list by using truncation?

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9.Most professionals have their favourite sources, and search techniques, the tried and the true, the ones that have worked well before for them. Make the most of prior knowledge. Realise also that the enquirer is often interested to know that a source is well-used and popular among other searchers, i.e., that it has helped others in the past.

10.Remember that there are words of similar or near-opposite meanings, even if they are not clear synonyms or antonyms. Use them if pressed for a suitable search term. E.g., ‘crustaceans’ and ‘shellfish’ are related. ‘Guru’ and ‘leader’ or ‘elder’ are related. E.g., ‘co-operation’ and ‘collaboration’ are similar, but ‘opposition’ is not quite an antonym.

11.Retrace, refine and review your answers for presentation. Make sure that you communicate the answers in the most logical, suitable way.

2.5.Recent survey of use of electronic databases in Monash Libraries

In 2002 Monash Libraries undertook a thorough study of access to its electronic databases, and updated many of its systems as a result. Some of the findings of the survey tell us much about online usage of information resources generally, and search methods. For the full report, see: Monash Library Database Usage Survey, Final Report, 17 December 2002 at: http://www.google.com/search?as_q=%3A+Monash+Library+Database+Usage+Survey%2C+Final+Report&num=10&hl=en&btnG=Google+Search&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&lr=&as_ft=i&as_filetype=&as_qdr=all&as_occt=any&as_dt=i&as_sitesearch=&safe=images.

Some valuable findings of this online survey are outlined. They would be of great benefit it you were involved in design of the systems. A total of 1,745 database users responded to the survey:

1. The OVID interface is the most heavily used of all the interfaces offered.

2. 39% of respondents selected library web pages and 36% selected the Monash Library catalogue in order to find out about electronic databases.

3. Monash staff indicated they were more likely to use web pages (60%) than students were (36%), although student use increases to 40% when they were off-campus.

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4. Trial and error forms the highest method of access to databases (51%). The databases page itself is very low in the responses (18%), along with the rather high number who use just the name of the database (38%) for access and nothing else.

5. The percentages of respondents who used colleagues (35%) or teaching staff (33%) to recommend what to use, rather than library resources themselves (staff, Monash Library catalogue, guides, Virtual Librarian) is high. The high level (28%) of responses relating to ‘asking a friend or colleague’ for help with database use is typical of other user studies.

6. It appears that most people are happy with the results they obtain: ‘all of the time’ (12%), and ‘most of the time’ (47%).

7. 74% of staff claim to find what they want all or most of the time, compared to 58% of students, while 7% of students rarely or never find what they want, compared to 3% of staff.

8. There was variation in faculties and success in searching: 68% of Medicine/Science/Pharmacy were successful in searching compared with 56% in Arts.

9. Approximately half of the respondents identified themselves as off-campus users. The report concludes that ‘the library needs to consider other methods of providing direct access to qualified staff for this significant group of users’.

10.Approximately 50% of respondents indicated that they had no problems with printing, saving and/or emailing from particular databases.

11.There is a markedly higher nomination of 'in person' rather than 'remote' help, which may indicate a preference for the former or may be indicative of convenience and ease of asking for help 'in person' rather than via telephone or email.

12.There are high levels of respondents who either do not require help or find none useful. This reflects faculty differences -– 27% of Engineering/Information Technology users did not require help, compared to 12% of Business & Economics users.

13.The high number of all users (40%) asking for a 24-hour general call centre was interesting. 54% of off-campus users were in favour of a 24-hour general call centre, and 26% of students were interested in a chat service. At the time of the survey, the library was only providing a telephone service (MULTELS) during normal working hours Monday to Friday (9am to 6pm). Since the survey, this has been extended to 9pm on weekday evenings and to 1-5pm on weekends. A 24/7 service has since been added, but its use is limited.

14.75% of the database users are not in the library when accessing databases.

3.Copyright

3.1.Complex case study.

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This case is taken from a report in The Age, Saturday, 28 June 28 2003, at: http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/06/27/1056683905727.html, in order to highlight some of the practical dilemmas about implementing copyright laws.This article reports on Aleida Guevara, the Cuban hero's daughter who is fighting to protect her dead father's image. The famous photo of her revolutionary father Che Guevara (below) has been copied and recopied millions of times. Aleida considers some of the places where his image is depicted in the Western world to be an affront to his dignity. You will find a copy of the original photo at: http://nextdada.hostit.be/travel/gif/cuban_6.jpg.

Commonly it is reproduced as it appears here and at:http://www.resistance.org.au/resrev/people01/che21.gif.

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The Age article continues:

Che Guevara, doctor, committed communist, former Cuban socialist government minister and guerilla warfare theorist died in a Bolivian jungle in 1967 after leading a failed uprising against Bolivia's government. His image has endured to become what Time magazine has referred to as the icon of the 20th century.

Speaking in Melbourne yesterday, Aleida Guevara said: ‘We can in no way accept that my father should appear on women's underwear or men's underwear or that it should be on the back pocket of a pair of jeans or that they use it as a commercial image for a pair of glasses. We think that is lacking in respect and we won't accept that.’

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She said she found it hard to understand why someone could exploit his legacy for financial gain. She said all rights to her father's image lay with the Che Guevara Studies Centre, which had been set up in Cuba with her mother Aleida as a director. With the help of lawyers, the centre has been reclaiming Che's image around the world.

Ms Guevara said the first breakthrough had been achieved by photographer Alberto Korda, who took one of the most widely used photographs of Guevara. He had stopped the photo's use on a vodka bottle in Britain. Ms Guevara, 42, bears a remarkable likeness to her Argentinian-born father.

She last saw him when she was seven but didn't know it was him because he was in disguise, about to leave for Bolivia. As he held her after she had fallen over and knocked her head, she had a strong sense that ‘this man loves me’.

She has followed in her father's footsteps in many ways. Like him, she is a doctor, a pediatrician specialising in allergies. Like him, she has been involved in Latin America, practising as a doctor in Nicaragua and also in Angola.

Discussion:What control should the daughter have over an image of her dead father? Consider further complications that would arise where an Australian library may contain copies of the pirated photo in publications. Does Cuban copyright law apply here? The Age article included copies of the photo; is it infringing copyright by publishing them? Are some images so symbolic of values and beliefs that a society as a whole ‘owns’ them to some extent? (Think about The Madonna).

3.2.Relevance of copyright to information services

There are three main areas of information service where copyright must be an important professional concern:

1. in a situation where a searcher in person wants to copy resources by photocopy or digitally, and you are a custodian of the resources;

2. when a library service or information unit wants to digitise text for widespread remote access within a host institution (e.g., school, business, local government area); and

3. when an information service (e.g., a government department) has a publishing arm as one of its functions, whether print (e.g., publicity brochure) or electronic (e.g., website).

3.3.The idea of copyright

The main purpose of copyright is to balance the ownership and status of the creator of a publication against the other legal, financial and educational interests of the separate distributor, consumer, and copier of the publication, i.e., against broader social interests. Copyright aims to encourage access to and use of information and ideas, by allowing the owner a period of time (50 years in Australia) in which to make money out of his/her creation.

Only the form of a single expression of information and ideas is protected by copyright, not the information or ideas within the form itself. There is no copyright in an idea if it is nothing more than an idea. In Australia the emphasis of copyright law is

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on the expressed form, not the actual status or ‘natural rights’ of the author. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:

Everyone has a right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.

The Australian government has just decided to follow this moral rights convention; an author’s status and original intentions are protected now.

3.4.Original purposes

The first copyright act of 1709 aimed to limit the publication of seditious and blasphemous information, and control the publishers (= ‘stationers’). Authors’ ‘rights’ were not considered. The first law for trade marks (1449) was to encourage new inventions, in this case the grant by the king of a 24-year monopoly on manufacturing coloured glass for leadlight windows. Copyright is just one type of ‘intellectual property right’ (IPR), which also include patents and protection of trade marks and design, and other creations. With computer software and design today there is sometimes a need for an inventor to use both patent and copyright law together to ensure that all property is protected.

In Australia a patent is a government grant to an inventor for exclusive rights to make and sell a new invention for 16 years. In order for a new invention to exist, there must be rules of nature involved, a process of manufacture, some identifiable article or substance as a result of manufacture, and finally use or application of the article or substance. For example, a computer program may involve rules of nature (electronics), algorithms (mathematical rules) and a manufactured item (a disk) for sale and use.

It is not possible to patent an idea on its own, a system of doing (e.g., a business activity), a theory (e.g., scientific), a single function of a machine, a natural substance alone, or a law of nature on its own.

3.5.Interested parties in copyright

In Australia the law is co-ordinated by the Australian Copyright Council, which issues useful free information sheets, at: http://www.copyright.org.au/publications/infosheets.htm/view. Check them out. Looking at this site regularly enables you to keep up with changes to the rules, which have been frequent in the last 5 years.

Creators normally own exclusive rights to perform, publicise, broadcast, transmit, adapt, reproduce, publish, license, rent out, bequeath, expect that credit be given when their work is used, and to protect their work from distortion, mutilation, and denigration.

For a single item, there may be many interested

individuals with concern about ownership:the author, creator, publisher, distributor, collector, reader, user, viewer, systems designer, preserver, copier, and reproducer.

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groups, or organisations, national (Australian) and international interests,producers of different media, and multimedia, policy-makers on and administrators of merged technologies.

3.6.Definitions, mainly under the Copyright Act, 1968:

‘archives’ = archival information in the custody of governments; or, a collection of historical documents or texts of public significance in the custody of a preserving body not making a profit.

‘author’ = the person who originates the creation, including individuals and organisations. Where a creation is commissioned, usually the creator and commissioner share the copyright, but if varied this needs to be spelt out in contract. Where a stenographer, translator, screenwriter, or ghost writer has helped create the work in question, the courts will examine the degree of originality involved.

‘copy’ = a new version, e.g., an audiotape of a live interview. Closely imitating the plot, structure, characters and dialogue of a text is ‘copying’, even if the imitation is not exact. It does not have to involve selling. It is now clear that scanning a printed text onto computer is a ‘copy’. It is also now clear that printing a text from a database onto paper is a ‘copy’. It is not clear whether copying data from one database to another database is a ‘copy’ (e.g., as a file). It is not clear whether forwarding another's e-mail message is a ‘copy’, though it may be.

‘copyright’ = protection of the rights of an author to copy and to spread literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works.

‘fair dealing’ = using copyrighted texts for study or research (sections 40, 103C); for criticism or review (sections 41, 103A); for reporting news (sections 42, 103B); or for giving legal advice (section 104(b)). We return to this in the next section.

‘in the public domain’ = published information which has never been copyrighted or is no longer covered by copyright, and which can be freely used and copied by anyone.

‘intellectual property’ = rights relating to literary and artistic works, performances, broadcasts, invention of all sorts (patents, genetic engineering), industrial designs (original shapes, patterns, ornamentations), trade marks (which indicate the origin and connections of products), and commercial names and symbols.

‘library’ = a room(s) where books and other materials are kept, for profit or not; or, a collection of literary works kept for reference or borrowing. Copyright law has not caught up with the concept of the virtual library.

‘literary works’ = printed works, whether of ‘aesthetic’ or ‘cultural’ significance or not. Computer programs inside a given computer; compilations of words (e.g., crosswords), or figures (e.g., bingo numbers) or symbols (e.g., street directories) may not be copyrightable. ‘Other subject matter’, which is also protected by copyright, now includes films, videos, recorded sound, and broadcasts by radio or television.

‘… ordinary commercial price’ = not explained by the act or courts. ‘original’ = where the author has exercised independent skill and labour to

express, and has not simply copied. A translation of an existing text may be original; a new arrangement of old music may be original. The information and ideas in the given form of the expression need not be original, but the style and form must be. Is an advertisement copyrightable?

‘published’ = material copied and supplied (for sale or not) to the public. ‘published edition’ = typographical arrangement of a text (sections 49, 112).

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‘reasonable portion’ = not a ‘substantial’ or ‘important’ part, i.e., 10% of the pages of an edition, or one chapter, or one article (sections 48, 10(2)).

‘research’ = systematic enquiry to discover facts or principles by organisations (e.g., universities) and individuals; possibly the research has to be not-for-immediate-profit, not for business purposes.

‘to study’ = an individual using the mind systematically to understand and know; study does not have to be done in ‘private’.

‘…within a reasonable time’ = not explained by the act or courts.

3.7.Copyright rules for libraries in Australia

A summary of the law in relation to libraries is as follows:

1. Copyright does not have to be registered; it is automatic. © can be used.2. In most cases, copyright lasts for 50 years from the date of creation, and up to

50 years after the death of the creator.3. Use of material for study and research exempts from strict copyright

adherence. Copying must only be allowed of a reasonable proportion of a work.

4. If a work is not commercially available within a reasonable time, i.e., it is out of print, then it may be copied in its entireity, for study and research.

5. Libraries can copy entire original works for preservation purposes, and for supplying a loan to another library.

6. Digital copies of copyright works are not allowed to be distributed outside the library.

7. The remedy for infringement of an author’s copyright is to sue for civil damages. Criminal penalties only apply to commercial infringements (e.g., deliberate large-scale piracy for illicit profit).

8. If a library has a copyright infringement notice beside photocopiers and on computer terminals about complying with copyright law, then the library and staff are not liable for possible infringements by users.

3.8.The fundamental concept of ‘fair dealing’, a copyright exception

Copyright exists to serve the public interest. It involves ‘a broad balancing of several competing goals’, as the Australian Copyright Law Review Committee has pointed out. These include, for example:

Rewarding creators of expressions of their mind and emotions. Ensuring that there will be continuing investment in intellectual property. Ensuring that copyright materials can be accessed to allow the free flow of

knowledge, ideas and information.

A fundamental feature of current copyright legislation is therefore the provision that certain actions which would otherwise be infringements, are permitted, because they facilitate the free exchange of ideas. These exceptions are known as the ‘fair use’ or ‘fair dealing’ provisions.

Note that ‘fair use’ is the terminology used in the U.S. legislation and its legal meaning is not equivalent to the term ‘fair dealing’ in the Australian Copyright Act. The concept of ‘fair use’ is derived from the United States Constitution, which guarantees freedom of expression. It is more open-ended than the concept of ‘fair dealing’ which relates to the Australian use of copyright materials for an exclusive set

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of purposes, viz.: criticism or review, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship or research. The Copyright Law Review Committee argued in its September 1998 report that fair dealing in the Australian legislation should be expanded to a more open-ended model. However, to date this recommendation has not been adopted in Australia.

3.8.Collecting for a library

A number of issues about copyright relate to collection management, and will be explored in more depth in the second part of semester. A pressing issue is that librarians need to be able to collect and distribute electronic documents to users by network. This poses a significant problem: delivery of services are more and more online, yet most of the world’s knowledge is copyrighted and still in print form. To copy from print to digital without permission infringes copyright. Obtaining permission is time-consuming and costly.

3.9.A library can be an ‘author’ in its own right

Often library staff will create a database in the course of their employment, and use pieces of copyrighted material to insert on the database. In this process of creation and re-creation the library staff are as liable as any user of others’ property rights, whether the pieces are classed as trade marks, copyright, or other form of intellectual property. The records on a library database may be compiled in an original way by the library staff, in which case the compilation itself will amount to copyrightable publication for the library as an organisation. Generally the creative work of an employee is ‘owned’ by the employing organization, especially where an employment contract specifies it.

3.10.A few other legal points about publications

Copyright Act establishes a Copyright Agency Limited, in Canberra, to administer the Act, and the Australian Copyright Council, in Canberra, to inform about the Act. Both have websites with up-to-date information.

Copyright law is not retrospective.Contract law is often used as a supplement, as are unofficial trade agreements.

‘Gentleman’s agreement’ often applies in business.The Public Lending Right compensates authors of publications in public libraries. An Educational Lending Right has been proposed, but never adopted in Australia.

3.11.Grey areas? Internet and e-mail are new forums

Where a copyright owner publishes on the Internet, and does not specify that the use of the text is limited, the user cannot assume that copyright does not exist. It may. Copying someone’s e-mail message to a third party is possibly an infringement of copyright. Is hypertext linking on the Internet an infringement? Current law does not show.

The law is more clear now on displaying actual publications online. A new right has been designed to be technology-neutral -- it covers broadcasting and cable-diffusion to email, intranets and web publishing. If a copyright work is included on a person's website, broadcast or email, without permission, that person may be infringing

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copyright. This most significant change was introduced in Australia by the Digital Agenda Act 2000.

The creation of this new right revolves around communication to the public. This gives copyright owners the right to control how their work is electronically transmitted to the public or made available online. It recognises that material, from computer programs to music, is increasingly being distributed by electronic communication and that copyright owners need the ability to control this communication if they are to be able to effectively exploit their material in the digital age. The law applies to the communication itself, not to use of the content of the material per se. Simply accessing protected material is not an offence, but ‘using’ it is. These new rules have not been tested in courts as yet. See: http://www.dcita.gov.au/ip/digital_rights_management,_and_digital_and_online_ip/copyright_reform_and_the_digital_agenda/digital_copyright_for_libraries,_archives,_galleries_-_fact_sheet.

3.12.Piracy, and international conventions

causes loss of $AUD220 million each year in lost sales of software in Australia (= c.32% of the legitimate market). See: http://www.bsaa.com.au/TF_5.html. India leads the world in software piracy, with 95% of the software that it uses being pirated software. In Korea and Brazil, 89% of software is pirated. China signed an international copyright convention in 1993. The USSR signed a convention in 1973, but since the disintegration of the Union it is not clear whether individual soviets still regard themselves as bound by the convention. (See http://www.wipo.int/enforcement/en/faq/counterfeiting/faq03.html). Patent attorneys are lawyers specialising in intellectual property.

The need for international agreement on the ownership and distribution of published expressions of knowledge is a pressing global problem. There have been agreements about print publications in the past (e.g., the 1886 Berne Convention is well known). New networks raise issues about the digital divide, new forms of economic imperialism, freedom of expression, the liability of ISPs, control of networks (whether the Internet or intranets in an organization), access to the deep semantic Web, and others. At the moment a debate is raging at the World Summit on the Information Society (http://www.itu.int/wsis/), sponsored by the U.N., about most of these problems. General agreement is far off unfortunately. (See: W.H.Dutton 1999, Society on the Line; information politics in the digital age, Oxford University Press, pp 315-317. Also J.J. King, ‘The dissolving fortress – notes on the future of WIPO’, in Mute, 29, Winter-Spring 2005, pp 116-118, available at: www.metamute.com).

Discussion:In relation to the spread of pirated material, should an Internet Service Provider be treated like a bookseller was in the past? That is, are they both infringing copyright by providing illegal copies? Do they both have the same responsibility to validate the origin and authenticity of a publication?

4.Professional duty of care, liability for providing advice

4.1.Duty of care, examples of negligent advice.

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At this point we consider accidental or negligent harm by an information professional, rather than deliberate criminal intent. Information is powerful. A little knowledge can be a dangerous thing. Partial, incomplete advice can be also.

A duty of care in providing advice exists where:

1. Reasonable care should be taken by the adviser;2. The duty of care is breached;3. The recipient of the advice has suffered reasonably foreseeable and

proximate loss as a result of relying on the advice.

The Australian High Court has held that

Whenever a person gives information or advice to another upon a serious matter in circumstances where the speaker realises, or ought to realise, that he is being trusted to give the best information or advice, as a basis for action on the part of the other party, and it is reasonable in the circumstances for the other party to act on that information or advice, the speaker comes under a duty to exercise reasonable care in the provision of the information or advice he chooses to give (Shaddock & Associates Pty Ltd and another v Parramatta City Council, 1980-1, 150CLR225, at 250).

Here are three examples of negligent advice.

1.Paladin Press, Boulder, Colorado, discovered the consequences of breach of care when it published a book titled Hit man: a technical manual for independent contractors, advising readers on how to arrange perfect murders. It sold 10,000 copies before a murderer used it to kill three innocent people. The relatives of the victims brought an action against the publisher and won, the court holding that the publisher was partly responsible for the murders. Amazon.com sells this book still for $US25 (http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0873642767/102-0320512-0365713?v=glance). Is a bookseller also partly liable? Should a library stock this title? Would you advise readers to borrow it? (See ‘Murder book haunts US publisher’, in The Age, 25 May 1999, p 10).

2.More apparently-innocent advice may be misconstrued by the user of the advice. Who is responsible for the consequences of unlicensed investment advice on the Internet? In Australia on average a shareholder needs to own shares for 5 years in order to make a real profit, but in fact Australians sell all of their shares on average every two years. Sharebrokers are being displaced by direct online share purchase. Many Australian online share traders treat Internet trading as a bit like gambling. See, e.g.: http://www.fido.asic.gov.au/fido/fido.nsf/byheadline/04-366+ASIC+acts+to+shut+down+electronic+currency+trading+websites?openDocument. Also: Kingsford Smith, D. & Williamson, K. (2004), How do online investors seek information, and what does this mean for regulation? In press.

3.Another type of mistake in advice involves the changing nature of scientific and legal evidence, and ways of verifying it. An example is to be found in the recent media discussion about the ‘son’ whom Tony Abbott believed he had fathered 27 years ago. He had not. The ability to test genetic origins by DNA has led to many myths being exploded in the past decade. See: http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200503/s1328485.htm.

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Discussion 1:Any information dates, but the age and veracity of some types of information is affected more than others by ageing. Think about the ‘intelligence data’ about weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, and how ‘facts’ which were once paraded to the Security of the U.N. as immutable truth were later found to be totally erroneous. See: Firas Al-Atraqchi, ‘Powell report full of CIA inaccuracies’. Available at: http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/27A768C7-C41F-45B4-BF42-D6F13F36D10A.htm.

Discussion 2:What sorts of advice provided by an information professional might be more prone to serious consequences if it is wrong?Consider providing advice to a person with a septic finger about medical treatment?Consider suggesting that an evicted tenant look at the Landlord and Tenants Act 1958?

4.2. Waiver of liability.

The widespread danger of misuse of seemingly-innocent information is demonstrated by the wide range of legal waivers to be found in many contracts.

Thus the Melbourne White Pages exemption from liability, as follows, can be seen at this website: http://www.whitepages.com.au/wp/legal/disclaimer.html. Have any of you ever looked at it? Why would you bother?

Care has been taken in compiling this directory. However, as the directory iscompiled using information provided by customers, Sensis [company publishing the directory] does not warrant or represent that the directory is free from errors or omissions, that the qualifications claimed by an advertiser are valid or that the published address of any advertiser is the address at which a telephone call directed to the advertiser is answered. It would be appreciated, however, if any inaccuracies were brought to the attention of our OnLine Customer Service Centre at email@sensis.com.au.

However, Sensis does warrant to users that if the provision of this directory is a provision of a service pursuant to a contract with the user, then that service will be rendered with due care and skill. In such circumstances if the service is not so rendered, or if Sensis breaches any other condition or warranty implied by law into the relationship between Sensis and the user which cannot be excluded, Sensis’ liability is limited to the provision of the service again. Sensis’ liability will not be so limited where it is not fair or reasonable for Sensis to rely on such a limitation or where such a limitation is prohibited by law. Subject to the rights given to directory users pursuant to the previous paragraph, Sensis and its employees and agents shall have no liability (including liability by reason of negligence) to directory users for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person relying on any material published in this directory whether by reason of any error, omission or misrepresentation in the material published herein or arising from the suppression of an address in this directory’.

Discussion:What damage might be caused by errors in a phone directory, do you think?

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Monash University has an exemption from liability for its website, found at http://www.monash.edu.au/legals/disclaimer.html, as follows:

While the information contained herein was correct at the date of publication, Monash reserves the right to alter procedures, fees and regulations should the need arise. The publication on this system of details of a course in no way creates an obligation on the part of Monash to teach it in any given year, or to teach it in any manner described herein. Monash reserves the right to discontinue or vary courses at any time without notice. Students and prospective students should always check with the relevant faculty officers before applying for or planning courses. International students should also check relevant policies, fees and procedures with Monash International Pty. Ltd. Monash University is not responsible for the contents of any off-site information referenced.

Discussion:What information could the University curate that might harm you financially, physically, or emotionally?

Exercise:See if you can find libraries with other disclaimer notices.Where does this one originate? Why is it used?

Important Disclaimer

Access to this website is free. In consideration for free access to thiswebsite, you enter into the following contract with X Universityof Technology ('X University') on its own behalf and on behalf ofits officers, employees and agents.

In consideration for having free access to this website, you agree tothe following terms, conditions and understandings:

X University does not invite reliance upon, nor acceptresponsibility for, any material on this website. X University isnot responsible for the results of any actions taken or omissions madeon the basis of the information on or in or the contents of this website('the Information'), or for any error in or omission from theInformation. X University is not engaged in rendering anyprofessional or other advice or services. X University expresslydisclaims all and any liability and responsibility to any person inrespect of anything, and of the consequences of anything, done oromitted to be done by any such person in reliance, whether wholly orpartially, upon the whole or any part of, or any omission from, theInformation. Without limiting the generality of the above, XUniversity does not accept any responsibility for, or endorse thecontent of, any linked sites or off-site information referenced. Everyofficer, employee and agent of X University shall have theprotection of this disclaimer.

Does this sort of statement give a member of the general public a lot of faith in the reliability of university information? How many students actually read it? Does it have

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any effect in fact? Is it just a legal protection in case some adverse claim might be made?

4.3.Professional indemnity.

Evidence of the impact of concern about duty of care on professions can be seen not only in the proliferation of disclaimer notices, as above, but also in the many cases of increasing liability up to many years after the provision of a service, especially medical, and the enormous rises in the costs of professional indemnity insurance.

In Australia the High Court has held that anyone who distributes information has a duty of care to the recipient. If the information professional omits to mention a fact which harms the recipient, financially, physically or emotionally, then the adviser is liable to be sued for damages for any resulting injury or loss. See: Shaddock & Associates Pty Ltd and another v Parramatta City Council, High Court, 10 September 1980 - 28 October 1981. The facts of this case are outlined at: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1981/59.html.

Note in this case that a fact was omitted to be provided in the advice from the Council to the new landowner. So it is not just the actual advice which is given that is accountable; there is an assumption that the advice will be complete. If a professional realizes that the recipient will rely on advice, then the professional has to exercise reasonable care in providing the advice. See Australian Government Solicitor, Legal Practice Briefing no 6, 1 September 1993, ‘Negligent Advice’, at http://www.law.gov.au/publications/lpb/06 neglig.htm.

As a result of all of the above discussions, legal and professional, ‘reasonable care’ in providing advice is said to include the following. This applies to information professionals as it does to all other professionals, to:

1. ensure that all relevant facts are known and understood by the recipient;2. ensure that relevant liability law is understood; and3. express advice in clear and accurate terms.

These principles are also enshrined in various codes of ethics. For example, the ALIA recommends that librarians

Provide impartially, all library materials and information in whatever form, free of any charges and without restrictions on use, and

Abide by state and federal legislation and co-operate with government departments regarding freedom of information, copyright and censorship.

Discussion:If detectives called at your information unit and demanded to see all the traffic logs of one particular patron, would you allow it? If they asked a public librarian for one patron’s loan records, would you show them?

5.Information literacy

5.1.Different meanings of the phrase

The phrase ‘information literacy’ is used in too many different contexts; it is confusing. In a broad sense, it means

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Use of textual, oral and other data and shared knowledge, to function in society, to achieve one’s personal goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential. By extrapolation, team, group, organisational and social goals can be added. The tools, devices, mechanisms, and strategies, to assist in achieving these goals, include information technologies.

(See: ‘Critical Literacy and New Technologies’, Colin Lankshear and Michele Knobel, paper presented at the American Education Research Association,San Diego, 1998, at: http://www.geocities.com/c.lankshear/critlitnewtechs.html).

Taking this broad usage, ALIA adopts a statement which would be widely accepted, that points out (http://www.alia.org.au/policies/information.literacy.html) that information literacy contributes to:

participative citizenship; social inclusion; acquisition of skills; innovation and enterprise; the creation of new knowledge; personal, vocational, corporate and organisational empowerment; and learning for life.

These are national aspirations that most Western democracies endorse.

We are more concerned about individual information literacy, about how people acquire the skills to assimilate knowledge systematically. This use of the term is narrower:

In the education sector, Information Literacy has been generally defined as an understanding and set of abilities enabling individuals to recognise when information is needed and have the capacity to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information. (Alan Bundy, ed. 2004, Australian and New Zealand information literacy framework; principles, standards and practice, Adelaide, Australian and New Zealand Institute for Information Literacy, pp 4-5. Available at: http://www.caul.edu.au/info-literacy/).

5.2.Information literacy and the formulation of search strategy

You will recall that in weeks 3 and 4 we referred to uncertainty in people’s minds when they try to formulate what they need to know, so that they can express it to an information professional or another, to seek help, or in order to formulate the gap in their knowledge to themselves, in a way that facilitates the interrogation of a knowledge base under their own steam. You will also remember that people are naturally shy to express their ignorance about what they need to know.

At this point we aim evaluate how we can design service and systems to assist in the exploratory stages of their search, and to encourage them to complete it successfully. The design of learning processes is also a goal. In learning, some people need more assistance than others; some prefer less assistance than others. The international expert on instruction for international literacy is Professor Carol Kuhlthau, Chair of the Library and Information Science Department, Rutgers

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University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S.A. She has written extensively; see, e.g., 2004, Seeking meaning: a process approach to library and information services, Libraries Unlimited, which is partly digitised for this subject; 1996, The virtual school library: gateway to the information superhighway, editors, Carol Kuhlthau, M. E. Goodin and M.J. McNally, Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited; and 1994, Teaching the library research process, Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. Kuhlthau began her career as a librarian in a school. She observed how students used information to learn. Her interest has grown stronger; by now she has researched IL in many different situations. She asserts that the problems of information seeking are compounded by online searching:

Advances in information technology that open access to a vast assortment of information has not helped the user's dilemma and in many cases has intensified the sense of confusion and uncertainty. New information systems may deepen the problem by overwhelming the user with ‘everything’ when a few well-chosen introductory pieces might be more appropriate for initial orientation.

She develops a ‘model’ of the Information Search Process (ISP) with 6 components, as follows. The names of the stages represent the primary task ateach point in the process. The sequence of tasks in the ISP, although somewhat recursive rather than strictly linear, are to initiate, to select, to explore, to formulate, to collect, and to present. Remember that we debunked the myth of the information life cycle in week two:

1.Initiation.

At Initiation, when a person first becomes aware of a lack of knowledge or understanding to accomplish an assignment, or task, feelings of uncertainty and apprehension are common. At this point, the task of the information professional is merely to recognize a need for information. Thoughts are vague and ambiguous centring on the general problem or area of uncertainty.

2.Selection

is the second stage when the task is to identify and select the general area or topic to be investigated. Feelings of uncertainty often give way to a brief sense of optimism after selection has been made and there is a readiness to begin the search. Thoughts centre on weighing prospective topics against the criteria of personal interest, assignment requirements, information available and time allotted. The outcome of each possible choice is predicted and the topic judgedto have the greatest potential for success is selected. When, for whatever reason, selection is delayed or postponed, feelings of anxiety are likely to intensify until a choice is made. Actions often involve seeking background information in the general area of concern.

3.Exploration.

The next stage is Exploration, which is often the most difficult stage for users and the most misunderstood by intermediaries. Feelings of confusion, uncertainty and doubt frequently increase during this time. The task is to investigate information on the general topic in order to extend personal understanding. Thoughts centre on becoming oriented and sufficiently informed about the topic to form a focus or a

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personal point of view. At this stage an inability to express precisely what information is needed makes communication awkward between the user and thesystem. Actions involve locating information relevant to the general topic, reading to become informed and relating new information to what is already known.

4.Formulation.

The fourth stage, Formulation, is the turning point of the process when feelings of uncertainty diminish and confidence begins to increase. The task is to form a focus from the information encountered in exploration. Thoughts become more clearly defined as a focused perspective of the topic is formed.

5.Collection.

The fifth stage is Collection when interaction between the user and the system functions most effectively and efficiently. At this point, the task is to gather information pertinent to the focused topic. Users have a clearer sense of direction and can specify the need for particular information. Confidence continues to increase as uncertainty subsides with interest in the project deepening.

6.Presentation.

The sixth stage is Presentation when the task is to complete the search and to accomplish the assignment. A sense of relief is common, with satisfaction if the search has gone well, or disappointment if it has not. Thoughts centre on culminating the search with a personalized understanding of selected aspects of the topic under study.

Discussion:Do you think that Kuhlthau has created too many categories for what is a familiar process for most learners? Has she left anything out?

What are the benefits of creating this model?

Primarily it acts as a diagnostic tool for the searcher and information provider, to tease out what works well, and what can go wrong. There are five main findings of major importance to information providers who are working with students with complex assignments, or tasks, who encounter the need for good information literacy first hand:

1. Information seeking is a process over time rather than a single event. 2. Information seeking is a holistic process of seeking meaning rather than a

simple single question-answering activity. 3. Information seeking often initially increases rather than decreases uncertainty.4. Library services that formerly concentrated on the physical attributes of

information seeking, such as locating and checking out materials, are attending to the more cognitive and affective attributes of using information for solving problems, for learning, and for seeking meaning. Librarians now ‘listen’ for an indication of the stage in the process of the user and particularly note when someone is ‘in the dip’ and needs some extra help to formulate a research focus. They are especially careful not to give too much too soon and to assist in pacing the use of resources.

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5. Librarians planning instructional sessions describe being more cautious about offering one- shot sessions where students are expected to learn everything at once. Instead they are accommodating the user's constructive process by giving a series of instructional sessions spread over a period of time aimed at different tasks in the stages of the ISP.

Has the model worked?

Kuhlthau claims that it has. Furthermore, the four basic enablers identified in libraries reporting successful implementation of a process approach were:

1. more team-work in library services, 2. a mutually-held constructive view of information seeking, assisting and

counselling people for building confidence, 3. a shared commitment to instructing and guiding in skills for life-long learning,

and 4. greater competence in designing process strategies.

She points out that design of good process involves 3 principles: charting, conversing and composing.

1. Charting enables the person to visualize the total search process from initiation to closure and to anticipate what to expect in each stage of the process. Timelines and flowcharts are useful techniques for charting the ISP. Charting is also used to map emerging ideas and constructs.

2. Conversing enables the user to articulate thoughts, identify gaps, and clarify inconsistencies in the process of a search. Conversation is a strategy that encourages an ongoing dialogue for the duration of the process. This is quite different from a reference interview that is expected to occur in one brief informational encounter. Conversation gives the librarian an opportunity to listen to the user and to recommend appropriate strategies for working through each stage in the process as the user progresses.

3. Composing provides a means of exploring and formulating emerging ideas during the process, as well as documenting and organizing for presentation and application at the close of the process. Composing, usually thought of as the culminating activity of the search process, is a powerful tool for developing ideas along the way. Keeping a journal for composing throughout the ISP is a strategy widely applied in the process approach. Users may be counselled to use the four basic abilities of constructive thinking: recalling, summarizing, paraphrasing, and extending.

Kuhlthau’s ideas are primarily abstract, not converted into practical actions. In the next section we describe how her broad ideas are applied in practice.

5.3.Training in information literacy.

The best program to promote information literacy will be tailored to suit the needs of a proscribed group. The general coverage and delivery of such a program can be described briefly in outline. Such a description can be found at a site that promotes a commercial product titled Big6™: http://www.big6.com/showarticle.php?id=415. The blurb is as follows:

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Big6 is an information literacy model. Some people call it a metacognitive scaffold, or an information problem-solving strategy. When you apply these stages, you have an essential framework to approach any information-based question.

The six stages are not especially original. They synthesise a lot of prior research and experience, and package it attractively:

1. Task Definition.1.1 Define the information problem, the knowledge gap.1.2 Identify information needed to fill the gap.

2. Information Seeking Strategies.2.1 Determine all possible sources of answer.2.2 Select the best sources by predetermined criteria.

3. Location and Access.3.1 Locate useful sources (intellectually and physically).3.2 Find information within sources, using tried-and-true principles.

4. Use of Information.4.1 Engage (e.g., read, hear, view, touch) with the information.4.2 Extract relevant information using available methods (notes, photocopies, e-copy).

5. Synthesis.5.1 Organize from multiple sources to focus the knowledge.5.2 Present the information in a suitable form.

6. Evaluation.6.1 Judge the output (effectiveness).6.2 Judge the process (efficiency).

People go through these Big6 stages — consciously or not — when they seek or apply information to solve a problem or make a decision. It’s not necessary to complete these stages in a linear order, and a given stage doesn’t have to take a lot of time. To see how the authors of Big6 apply technology, see:http://www.big6.com/showarticle.php?id=144. To see how Big6 is applied to different learning contexts, see: http://www.big6.com/showcategory.php?cid=19. The stages are commonly applied in the workplace and home without much forethought.

Exercise:If you work in a library, or teaching situation, you could try to apply the 6 stages, drawing on the examples given at the above websites.

5.4.Design of an actual program

A thorough recent study of information literacy and school libraries in Australia can be found at: http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:b4Ujf4u4WJIJ:www.acer.edu.au/research/documents/schoollibraries.pdf+jan+murray+Big6+site:au&hl=en.

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You can see it applied at the ‘Cybrary’ of the University of Queensland at: http://www.library.uq.edu.au/training/info_literacy.html.

If academic libraries require a program designed to make good use of information literacy skills, then that provided by the U.S. Association of College and Research Libraries is a helpful starting point. See: http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/guidelinesinstruction.htm.It recommends that

The systematic delivery of instructional programs and services should be planned in concert with overall strategic library planning, including the library’s budgeting process. Such planning may also involve strategizing with other campus units to deliver collaboratively designed programming.

These are some basic steps which the ACRL considers desirable in design of a program. Consider how many of these steps you have experienced yourself in different contexts:

1. The instructional program must also be organised – in an open policy document -- with the co-operation of the academic community in order to be well-integrated into all tertiary learning.

2. The library should have a clearly articulated set of learning outcomes. The institution-wide set of learning goals should be congruent with the Information literacy competency standards for Australian higher education.

3. Modes of delivery may include:

advice to individuals during the reference interview process; in-depth research consultations and appointments; individualized instruction; electronic or print instruction aids; group instruction in traditional or electronic classrooms; web tutorials and web-based instruction; asynchronous modes of instruction (e-mail, bulletin boards); synchronous modes of instruction (chat software, video-conferencing); course management software; and hybrid or distributed learning or distance learning, employing combinations of

the previous methods.

4. Instruction should employ active learning strategies and techniques that require learners to develop critical thinking skills and active learning strategies. An instruction program should draw on the expertise of a wide variety of personnel, depending on local needs and available staff. Examples of available expertise may include:

instructional design/teaching methods: teaching/learning centres; technology integration: technology support centres; assessment, surveys: teaching/learning centres; and student demographics/characteristics: institutional research, campus/student

life offices.

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5. A successful comprehensive program will include a clearly articulated structure, described in readily available documents, a progression of information literacy learning outcomes matched to increasingly complex learning outcomes, throughout a student’s academic career.

6. Different levels of programmay be developed for different group needs, including:

first-year seminars, writing-across-the-curriculum programs; general education core requirements; research methods courses in disciplinary majors; capstone courses, learning communities and cohorts; undergraduate research experiences/internships; linked credit courses; and experiential learning/service learning courses.

7. Evaluation and assessmentare systematic ongoing processes that should gather data to inform decision-making regarding the continuing instruction program. Data gathered should give an indication that the instruction program supports the goals set out in its mission statement.

© Graeme Johanson 4 April 2005.

I am grateful to Anna Davis and June Anderson for assistance with the content of this lecture.

Johanson: IMS5016, IMS3616, Information access, lecture 5, 4 April 2005: 29