TEACHING TEXTUAL C O H E S I O N T H R O U G H ANALYSES OF DEFOE'S MOLL FLANDERS

A N D SWIFT'S GULLIVER'S TRAVELS

Á N G E L F . S Á N C H E Z E S C O B A R Universidad de Sevilla

R E S U M E N

La coherencia y la legibi l idad de u n texto la crea, p o r u n lado, el escri­tor en su elección de los elementos léxicos, semánticos y sintácticos que lo c o m p o n e n y, por otro , el lector en su relación c o n el texto y en su integra­c ión de estos elementos en u n todo. Estas páginas representan u n intento de definir, en pr imer lugar, u n marco teórico - y u n instrumento de anál is is- rela­t ivo a la coherencia /cohesión de u n texto a nivel de párrafo y, en segundo lugar, u n e jemplo de la apl icación de este instrumento al análisis, compara­c ión y contraste de los estilos de Defoe en Moll Flanders y de Swift en Gulli­ver's Travels.

Este artículo intenta a la vez mostrar c ó m o textos literarios c o m o Moll Flanders y Gulliver's Travels pueden analizarse mediante el uso de patrones de cohesión. Y c o m o se verá, el lector es capaz de procesar la prosa de Swift con mucha más faci l idad que la de Defoe. Swift, en contraste c o n Defoe, pare­ce planear c o n sumo cuidado su prosa y es capaz de conseguir en ésta una gran coherencia /cohesión mediante la perfecta combinac ión de sus c o m p o ­nentes sintácticos, léxicos y semánticos.

PALABRAS CLAVE

Coherencia, cohesión, cohesión léxica, cohesión semántica, cohesión sin­táctica, coherencia léxica, coherencia semántica, nexos, estilo, legib i l idad, ora­c ión temática, retórica, modelos retóricos.

A B S T R A C T

The coherence and readabil i ty o f a text is created b y the writer, t h r o u g h semantic, lexical and syntactic choices, and b y the reader th rough his inter­action w i t h the text and the further integrat ion o f details into a w h o l e . The f o l l o w i n g pages w i l l offer, first, a theoretical f ramework - a n d an instrument o f

CAUCE, Revista de Filología y su Didáctica, n" 22-23, 1999-2000 /págs. 557-570

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analysis— for the definition of coherence/cohesion at the level of the para­graph and, second, an example of the application of this instrument to the analysis, through comparison and contrast of the styles of Defoe's Moll Flan­ders and Swift's Gulliver's Travels.

This paper also attempts to show the way literary texts such as Swift's Gulliver's Travels and Defoe's Moll Flanders can be analyzed using cohesive patterns. Such an analysis of these patterns reveals that the reader can process Swift's prose much more easily than Defoe's. Swift, unlike Defoe, planned his prose more carefully and thus achieves a greater coherence/cohesion by the perfect meshing of the semantic, lexical and syntactic structures within the texts.

K E Y WORDS

Coherence, cohesion, lexical cohesion, semantic cohesion, syntactic cohe­sion, lexical coherence, semantic coherence, markers, style, readability, topic sentence, rhetoric, rhetorical patterns.

0. INTRODUCTION

Cohesion provides the basic rule by which writers and speakers play the language game, from a simple exchange of utterances to the rich expression of a Petrarchan sonnet. Authors l ike Swift use it s k i l l ­ful ly to generate readable prose; others l ike Defoe seem to be unaware of it. Several literary critics concur with these conclusions by pin-point­ing the apparent internal inconsistencies and lack of coherence of Defoe's Moll Flanders (Watt 1971, p. 99) which contrasts with the plain, simple style of Swi f t 's Gulliver's Travels (Foot 1985, p. 7) .

The coherence and readability of a text i s created by the writer, through semantic, lexical and syntactic choices, and by the reader through his/her interaction with the text and the further integration of details into a whole. Analysis of two eighteenth century works reveals that Swift 's prose is much more easily processed by the reader than i s Defoe's. One might say, as does Wil l iams (1979, pp. 595-609), that from the reader's point of view, Swift 's style is simple while Defoe's is complex; however, from the writer's point of view, the opposite occurs. Achiev­ing clarity and simplicity of style is much more difficult for the writer than i s producing complexity.

The following pages w i l l offer, f irst, a theoretical framework for the definition of cohesion at the level of the paragraph and, second, an example of the application of this instrument to the analysis, through comparison and contrast, of the styles of Defoe's Moll Flanders and

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S w i f t ' s Gulliver's Travels. T h e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f a f e w k e y p a r a g r a p h s

h i g h l i g h t s a n d e p i t o m i z e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s e n t e n c e s w h i c h

t h e s e w r i t e r s d e v e l o p t o p r o d u c e c o h e s i o n o r t h e l a c k t h e r e o f . T h u s ,

b e s i d e s c o n s i d e r i n g s e m a n t i c a n d s y n t a c t i c c o h e s i o n , t h e a n a l y s i s w i l l

e x p l o r e r e l a t e d c o n c e p t s s u c h a s d i g r e s s i v e s e q u e n c e s 1 , l e v e l s o f g e n ­

e r a l i t y 2 , t o p i c s e n t e n c e s 3 a n d p a r a g r a p h l e n g t h 4 . F o r t h e p u r p o s e o f c l a r ­

i ty a n d b r e v i t y , I w i l l c o n s i d e r a s e n t e n c e a s a g r o u p o f w o r d s e n c l o s e d

b y t w o p e r i o d s o r b y a p e r i o d a n d a s e m i c o l o n . L o n g s e n t e n c e s c o n ­

s i s t i n g o f s e q u e n c e s o f s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s w i l l b e a n a l y z e d m a i n l y

f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e i r m a i n c l a u s e s ( i . e . e l e m e n t s o c c u p y i n g

t h e p o s i t i o n o f g r a m m a t i c a l s u b j e c t s ) . C o o r d i n a t e s e q u e n c e s ( i . e . r e p e a t ­

i n g a n a n a p h o r i c " a n d " ) w i l l b e a c c o u n t e d f o r w h e n t h e y c o n t a i n a n

i n d e p e n d e n t s u b j e c t a n d v e r b .

I . THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A u t h o r s d i s a g r e e o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c o h e r e n c e a n d c o h e ­

s i o n . S o m e a s s u m e c o h e r e n c e t o b e a f u n c t i o n o f c o h e s i o n ; t h a t i s ,

c o h e s i o n r e f e r s t o l o c a l c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t p r o d u c e a c o h e r e n t w h o l e .

O t h e r s s e e c o h e s i o n a s e m b r a c i n g b o t h c o h e r e n c e a n d l o c a l c o n n e c ­

t i o n s . A c t u a l l y b o t h g r o u p s d i f f e r o n l y i n t h e i r s e m a n t i c o r s y n t a c t i c

p o i n t s o f v i e w . T h e f o r m e r ( o r t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n ) v i e w s c o h e r e n c e

a s a s e m a n t i c p h e n o m e n o n a n d c o h e s i o n a s a s e t o f l e x i c a l t i e s t h a t

c a n o n l y c r e a t e a l o c a l c o h e r e n c e . T h e l a t t e r s e e s c o h e s i o n m a i n l y f r o m

a s y n t a c t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i n w h i c h t h e s y n t a c t i c e l e m e n t s a r e n o t s i m ­

p l e c o h e s i v e t i e s , b u t p a r a d i g m s e m b r a c i n g w h o l e p a r a g r a p h s . T h i s p a p e r

a p p r o a c h e s c o h e s i o n f r o m s e m a n t i c / l e x i c a l , s y n t a c t i c a n d r h e t o r i c a l p o i n t s

o f v i e w a n d a s e m b r a c i n g , m a i n l y f r o m a r e a d e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , a c o h e r ­

e n t w h o l e .

1 A sentence or group of sentences which bear little or no relationship with pre­ceding or following sentences.

2 A semantic term implying a movement from a leading or topic sentence. 3 A topic sentence generally indicates what the paragraph is about, what it will

describe or discuss. Betty Bomber believes that a clearly stated topic sentence as well as appropriate organizational patterns create coherence. Betty Bamber, "What Makes a Text Coherent", College Composition and Communication, 4, december 1983, p. 417.

4 For further explanation of these terms, see Ángel F. Sánchez Escobar, "La retóri­ca contrastiva del párrafo inglés y sus repercusiones en la enseñanza del inglés escrito", Gramática contrastiva inglés-español, Servicio de Publicaciones, Universidad de Huel-va, 1996.

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Hal l iday a n d H a s a n , in Cohesion in English, de f ine c o h e s i o n f rom a lexical p e r s p e c t i v e (1976) . T h e y identify t w o m a i n ca t egor i e s in lex­ical c o h e s i o n : re i te ra t ion a n d co l loca t ion o r p l a c e m e n t . In re i te ra t ion , t h e lexical i t ems refer b a c k to a n o t h e r t e r m to w h i c h t h e y a re r e l a t ed t h r o u g h a c o m m o n referent ( r epe t i t i on of s a m e w o r d , a s y n o n y m , a s u p e r o r d i n a t e w o r d , a g e n e r a l w o r d . ) In co l loca t ion , c o h e s i o n is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e c lose c o - o c c u r r e n c e of relat ively l o w f r e q u e n c y w o r d s tha t a p p e a r in similar con tex t s :

T y p e s a n d ca tegor i e s of lexical c o h e s i o n (Hal l iday a n d H a s a n ) .

/. Reiteration

A type o f cohesion in w h i c h one lexical element is related th rough a c o m m o n referent to a previous element as a: 1. Repetit ion (e.g., p o w e r / p o w e r )

2. Synonym or near-synonym (e.g., lack o f order /chaos)

3 . Superordinate w o r d (e.g., furn i ture /chai r )

4. General w o r d (e.g., p o w e r / this enti ty)

//. Collocation

A type of cohesion in w h i c h one lexical element is related to a previous one th rough frequent co-occurrence in similar contexts by:

1. Association w i t h a particular topic (e.g., Marx, class confl ict , social change)

2. O p p o s i t i o n or contrast (e.g., in f luence/counter inf luence)

3- Membership in ordered sets (June/July)

4. Membership i n unordered sets ( b l u e / y e l l o w )

For p e d a g o g i c a l p u r p o s e s , Stotsky r e o r d e r s Hal l iday ' s a n d H a s s a n ' s f r a m e w o r k b y c o n s i d e r i n g re i te ra t ion ma in ly as a se t of semant i ca l ly r e l a t ed w o r d s a n d b y a d d i n g t o it a fifth factor tha t c r ea t e s cohesion-, de r iva t ion o r r epe t i t ion of a de r iva t iona l e l e m e n t (1983 , p . 441) .

F a h n e s t o c k a g r e e s w i th Hal l iday a n d H a s a n o n the i r i dea s a b o u t lexical c o h e s i o n ; h o w e v e r , s h e p e r c e i v e s o n e m o r e level , t h e s e m a n t i c r e l a t ionsh ip . She further d i s t ingu i shes t w o t y p e s of s e m a n t i c re la t ions b e t w e e n c lauses : con t inua t ive a n d d i scon t inua t ive , w h i c h s h e d e s c r i b e s a l o n g wi th re la ted t rans i t ion w o r d s (1983 , p p . 400-406) [see d i a g r a m o n n e x t page ] :

Marke ls (1983 , p p . 450-464) s e e s c o h e s i o n as b o t h a s e m a n t i c a n d syntac t ic p h e n o m e n o n . A c c o r d i n g to her, s e m a n t i c t ies, gene ra l ly b a s e d o n i tem repe t i t ion , o b v i o u s l y c o n t r i b u t e t o c o h e s i o n . She lists t h e fol­l o w i n g cases :

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ÁNGEL F. SÁNCHEZ ESCOBAR

1. T h e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e c u r r e n c e o f a t e r m : " T h e b o y c l i m b e d t h e trees. T h e trees w e r e o a k s . "

2. S y n o n y m y : " T h e boy c l i m b e d t h e f e n c e . T h e youth i s a g a n g m e m b e r . "

3 . A m o r e c o m p l e x k i n d a s t h e c l a s s m e m b e r r e l a t i o n s h i p : "I w a n t ­e d s o m e a p p l e s . B u t they w e r e a l l s o l d o u t . "

M a r k e l s a g r e e s t h a t t h e r e a r e s e n t e n c e s t h a t c o n t a i n s o m e s e m a n ­t i c t i e s b u t y e t l a c k c o h e s i o n :

John likes oranges. Oranges g r o w in California and Florida. M y parents visited California last year.

T h u s , f o r M a r k e l s , a s e c o n d s t e p is t o d e s c r i b e h o w r e c u r r e n c e s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o s e n t e n c e s . T h i s c a n b e d o n e w i t h t h e k e r n e l S . V . O . ( s u b j e c t , v e r b , o b j e c t ) , w h i c h c o n t r o l s t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s e s e m a n t i c t i e s , g e n e r a t e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g i n t e r n a l l y c o h e s i v e p a r t s , a n d o f f e r s t h e b a s i s f o r a n o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f c o h e s i o n . S h e a d d s t h a t c o h e s i o n is a c h i e v e d w h e n a d o m i n a n t t e r m , e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t , c o n s i s t e n t l y a p p e a r s i n b o t h t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t s e m a n t i c a n d s y n t a c t i c p o s i t i o n . D o m i n a n c e is a c h i e v e d n o t s i m p l y b y t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f a t e r m b u t b y t h e r e c u r r e n t a p p e a r a n c e o f t h o s e r e p e a t e d e l e m e n t s i n t h e s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n . If t h e r e p e a t e d t e r m d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f g r a m m a t i c a l s u b j e c t , d o m i n a n c e is n o t a c h i e v e d , a n d t h e p a r a g r a p h l a c k s c o h e s i o n . H e n c e , c o h e s i o n r e q u i r e s t h e m e s h i n g o f b o t h s e m a n t i c a n d s y n t a c t i c i n f o r m a t i o n .

A n i n c r e a s i n g a m o u n t o f r e s e a r c h o n c o h e r e n c e a n d c o h e s i o n h a s a p p e a r e d r e c e n t l y , ( S e e H o e y , 1 9 9 1 ; M c C a r t h y , 1 9 9 1 ; o r N u n a n , 1 9 9 3 ) , b u t f u r t h e r c o m m e n t s o n t h i s t o p i c w o u l d g o b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s s t u d y . T h e d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o c o h e s i o n / c o h e r e n c e d e f i n e d a b o v e p l a y k e y r o l e s i n t h e a n a l y t i c a l f r a m e w o r k d e v e l o p e d f o r t h i s p a p e r . T h e l e x i c a l , s e m a n t i c , a n d s y n t a c t i c c o m p o n e n t s o f c o h e s i o n o f f e r a v e r y u s e f u l t o o l f o r t h e a n a l y s i s , c o m p a r i s o n a n d c o n t r a s t o f t e x t u r a l p a t t e r n s i n l i t e r a r y t e x t s s u c h a s D e f o e ' s Moll Flanders a n d S w i f t ' s Gul­liver's Travels.

I I . COHESION I N PRACTICE

T h e v a r i a t i o n i n p a r a g r a p h l e n g t h s t r i k e s t h e r e a d e r o f Swi f t a n d D e f o e i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a u s e p a r a g r a p h s i n Gulliver's Travels a r e g e n e r -

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a l l y l o n g e r t h a n t h o s e i n Moll Flanders5. F o r e x a m p l e , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f Gulliver's Travels a s i n g l e p a r a g r a p h c o n t a i n s 8 7 s e n t e n c e s . F u r t h e r ­m o r e , Swif t g e n e r a l l y p l a c e s a t o p i c s e n t e n c e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p a r a g r a p h c o n t a i n i n g a l l t h e i n c o m i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . D e f o e , o n t h e o t h ­e r h a n d , o f f e r s l e s s c l e a r o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e s i n h i s p a r a g r a p h s a n d t e n d s t o p l a c e a d i g r e s s i v e s e q u e n c e a t t h e e n d o f m a n y o f t h e m . T h u s , t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e t o p i c s e n t e n c e p r o v i d e s a v e r y v a l u a b l e i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t e x t u a l c o h e s i o n .

T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h f r o m Gulliver's Travels i l l u s t r a t e s S w i f t ' s t y p i c a l u s e o f a t o p i c s e n t e n c e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p a r a g r a p h . O n e n o t i c e s h o w c l e a r l y t h e first s e n t e n c e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h p r e ­p a r e s t h e r e a d e r f o r w h a t f o l l o w s :

(1) These people are most excellent mathematicians, and arrived to a great perfection in mechanics by the countenance and encouragement of the Emperor, who is a renowned patron of learning. (2) This pr ince hath several machines f ixed o n wheels for the carriage o f trees and o t h ­er great weights. (3) He often bu i lde th his largest men-of-war , w h e r e o f some are three or four foot long , in the w o o d s where the t imber grows, and has them carried o n these engines three or four h u n d r e d yards to the sea. (4) Five h u n d r e d carpenters and engineers were immediate ly set at w o r k to prepare the greatest engine they had. (5) It was a frame of w o o d raised three inches f r o m the g r o u n d , about seven foot l o n g and four w i d e , m o v i n g u p o n twen ty - two wheels. (6) The shout I heard was u p o n the arrival o f this engine, w h i c h seems set out in four hours after m y landing. (7) It was parallel to me as I lay. (8) But the p r inc i ­pal d i f f icul ty was to raise and place me in this vehicle. (9) Eighty poles, each of one foot h igh , were erected for that purpose, and very strong cords o f the bigness o f pack-thread were fastened b y hooks to many bandages, w h i c h the w o r k m e n had g i rd r o u n d m y neck, m y hands, m y body, and m y legs. (10) Nine hundred o f the strongest m e n were employed to d raw u p these cords b y many pulleys fastened o n the poles, and thus in less than three hours, I was raised and slung in to the engine, and there t ied fast. (11) A l l this I was to ld , for w h i l e the w h o l e opera­t ion was per fo rming , I lay in a p r o f o u n d sleep, b y the force o f that sopori ferous medic ine infused into m y l iquor. ( l 2 ) Fifteen h u n d r e d o f the Emperor's largest horses, each about four inches and a hal f h igh , were e m p l o y e d to draw me towards the metropol is w h i c h , as I said, was hal f a mi le distant, (p . 6 l )

5 All the passages quoted here are taken from Jonathan Swift, Gulliver's Travels (Penguin, 1985) and Daniel Defoe, Moll Flanders (Penguin, 1983).

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T h e p a r a g r a p h p r o c e e d s t o d e v e l o p t h e m a i n i d e a s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e t o p i c s e n t e n c e : " p e o p l e " ( a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " m a t h e m a t i c i a n s " ) , " m e c h a n ­i c s " a n d " E m p e r o r " . L e x i c a l r e i t e r a t i o n o f r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s b a s e d o n t h e s e t h r e e t e r m s c a n b e s e e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o l e p a r a g r a p h s " p e o ­p l e " i s e c h o e d i n " c a r p e n t e r s " , " e n g i n e e r s " , a n d " w o r k m e n " ; " m e c h a n ­i c s " i s e c h o e d i n " m a c h i n e s " , " e n g i n e s " , " e n g i n e " , "it" a n d " v e h i c l e " ; " E m p e r o r " is r e i t e r a t e d i n " p r i n c e " , " h e " a n d " E m p e r o r " . T h e f o l l o w i n g d i a g r a m r e p r e s e n t s t h i s p a t t e r n o f r e i t e r a t i o n :

1. p e o p l e m e c h a n i c s E m p e r o r

2. m a c h i n e s p r i n c e

3 . e n g i n e s h e

4. e n g i n e e r s / c a r p e n t e r s e n g i n e

5. it

6. e n g i n e

7. it

8. v e h i c l e

9 w o r k m e n

10. m e n e n g i n e

11 Al l

12. E m p e r o r

T h i s d i a g r a m s h o w s t h e p e r f e c t s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p a r a g r a p h r e g a r d ­i n g l e x i c a l t i e s . T h e r e p e a t e d u s e o f t h e t e r m s d e v e l o p e d f r o m " m e c h a n ­i c s " e m p h a s i z e s t h e c l e a r c o i n c i d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m e a n d f o c u s ; t h a t i s b e t w e e n t h e i m a g e t h e a u t h o r i s t r y i n g t o c o n v e y t o t h e r e a d e r ( G u l ­l i v e r ' s b e i n g c a r r i e d t o L i l l i p u t ) a n d t h e m e a n s u s e d t o a c h i e v e it ( i . e . t h r o u g h t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f l e x i c a l t i e s ) .

A n a l y s i s o f t h e p a r a g r a p h f r o m t h e s y n t a c t i c p o i n t o f v i e w r e v e a l s t h a t u p t o s e n t e n c e 6, o n e o f t h e t h r e e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d m a i n t e r m s a l w a y s o c c u p i e s t h e p o s i t i o n o f g r a m m a t i c a l s u b j e c t . I n s e n t e n c e 6, h o w e v e r , " t h e s h o u t " o c c u p i e s t h i s p o s i t i o n , t h e r e b y c r e a t i n g a d i g r e s ­s i v e s e n t e n c e ( i t m o v e s t o a h i g h e r l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y t h a n t h e t o p i c s e n t e n c e ) a n d a n e w s e q u e n c e o f t w o s e n t e n c e s ( t h o u g h I h a v e c o n ­s i d e r e d " W h i c h it s e e m s " a s a n a d j e c t i v e c l a u s e , a s a p a r t o f t h e p r e ­v i o u s s e n t e n c e ) :

(6) The shout I heard was u p o n the arrival o f this engine. W h i c h it seems set out in four hours after m y landing. (7) It was brought par­allel to me as a lay.

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T h i s d i g r e s s i v e s e n t e n c e c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h : "I h e a r d a c o n f u s e d n o i s e a b o u t m e [. . . ]" ( p . 5 5 ) . M o r e o v e r , sen tences 8 a n d 11 start n e w s e q u e n c e s w h o s e subjec ts are " the p r i n c i p a l d i f f i c u l ­ty" a n d " I " . I n s p i t e o f these d i g r e s s i v e s e q u e n c e s , t h e l e x i c a l t ies c o n ­t i n u e a p p e a r i n g : " w o r k m e n " , " m e n " , " e n g i n e " , a n d " E m p e r o r " . I n a d d i ­t i o n , " A l l " i n s e n t e n c e 11 s u m m a r i z e s t h e p r e c e d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e s e l e x i c a l t ies c o n t r i b u t e t o m a k e Swi f t 's p a r a g r a p h a c o h e r e n t a n d l o g i ­ca l w h o l e .

T o p i c sentences are a lso f o u n d i n Moll Flanders, b u t u n l i k e t h o s e i n Gulliver's Travels, t h e y l a c k t h e c o h e s i v e p o w e r t o create c o h e r e n t p a r a g r a p h s . A n ana lys is o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h o f f e r s a p r i m e e x a m ­p l e o f D e f o e ' s t y p i c a l l y d i f f u s e t o p i c sentences:

(1) But I come n o w to m y o w n case, in w h i c h there was at this t ime n o litt le nicety. (2) The circumstances I was in made the offer o f a g o o d husband the most necessary th ing in the w o r l d for me, but I f o u n d soon that to be made cheap and easy was not the way. (3) It soon began to be f o u n d that the w i d o w had n o for tune, and to say this was to say all that was i l l for me, for I began to be d r o p p e d in all dis­courses o f matr imony. (4) Being we l l -b red , handsome, w i t ty , modest, and agreeable; (5) all w h i c h I had a l lowed to m y character - w h e t h e r justly or n o is not to the p u r p o s e - I say, all these w o u l d not d o w i t h ­out the dross, w h i c h was n o w become more valuable than vir tue itself. (6) I n short, the w i d o w , they said, had no money, (p . 91)

T h e l e a d s e n t e n c e , " B u t I c o m e t o m y o w n case, i n w h i c h t h e r e w a s at th is t i m e n o l i t t l e n i c e t y , " genera tes a v e r y b r o a d s e m a n t i c f i e l d tha t is u n a b l e t o o f f e r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o h e s i v e t ies. " M y o w n case" is t h e m a t i c a l l y r e i t e r a t e d i n " c i r c u m s t a n c e s " a n d " h u s b a n d " ( s e n t e n c e 2 ) . " H u s b a n d " recurs i n t h e t ex t w i t h " m a t r i m o n y " a n d is s o m e h o w e c h o e d i n " w i d o w " . T h e f o l l o w i n g sentences h a v e n o r e i t e r a t i o n o f t h e p r e v i ­o u s p r o m i n e n t l e x i c a l i t e m s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e a l m o s t l i t e ra l r e p ­e t i t i o n i n s e n t e n c e 5 o f a p a r t o f s e n t e n c e 3 : " the w i d o w , t h e y s a i d , h a d n o m o n e y . " T h e f o l l o w i n g d i a g r a m i l lust ra tes t h e p r o b l e m s w i t h D e f o e ' s l e x i c a l t ies, d e s c r i b e d a b o v e :

1 m y o w n case 2 c i r c u m s t a n c e s h u s b a n d c h e a p / e a s y 3 m a t r i m o n y [ w i d o w ] [ n o f o r t u n e ] 4 — n o n e — 5 — n o n e — 6 [ w i d o w ] [ n o m o n e y ]

ÁNGEL F. SÁNCHEZ ESCOBAR

T h i s p a r a g r a p h is e v e n l e s s c o h e s i v e d u e t o t h e e l e m e n t s o c c u p y ­i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f g r a m m a t i c a l s u b j e c t s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , i n c o n t r a s t w i t h S w i f t ' s p a r a g r a p h s , n o n e o f t h e e l e m e n t s r e i t e r a t e d , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f " w i d o w " , o c c u p i e s t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t s y n t a c t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e p a r a g r a p h . " I" i s t h e s u b j e c t i n s e n t e n c e s 1, 2 a n d 5; "it" i n s e n t e n c e 3. N o s u b j e c t a p p e a r s i n s e n t e n c e 4. T h i s v e r b l e s s s e n t e n c e b e g i n s a f t e r a p e r i o d a n d e n d s i n a s e m i c o l o n b e a r i n g s c a r c e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a n a l y z i n g t h e l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y a l l o w s u s t o d e s c r i b e d i f f e r e n t d i g r e s s i v e s e q u e n c e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g d i a ­g r a m s e t s u p a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s e n t e n c e s i n D e f o e ' s p a r a g r a p h 6 :

1 A ( l e a d s e n t e n c e )

2 A l

3 B ( d i g r e s s i v e )

4 C ( d i g r e s s i v e )

5 C I

6 B

T h i s d i a g r a m s h o w s t h a t t h e s t a r t i n g s e n t e n c e "A" g e n e r a t e s a s e n ­t e n c e " A l " . S e n t e n c e 3, h o w e v e r is d i g r e s s i v e s i n c e it m o v e s t o a h i g h ­e r l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y t h a n t h e l e a d s e n t e n c e . S e n t e n c e 4 a l s o m o v e s t o a h i g h e r l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y " C " a n d g e n e r a t e s a s e n t e n c e " C I " . S e n ­t e n c e 6 p a r a d o x i c a l l y s e e m s t o m o v e t o a h i g h e r l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y w i t h t h e u s e o f t h e a d v e r b i a l " in s h o r t " b u t i s a r e p e t i t i o n o f a f r a g ­m e n t o f s e n t e n c e 3 ( B ) .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n Swi f t ' s p a r a g r a p h a n d D e f o e ' s p a r a g r a p h s e e m p e r f e c t l y o b v i o u s b y n o w . C l e a r l y , Swi f t ' s p a r a g r a p h p r e s e n t s a p e r f e c t s t r u c t u r e a n d a l o g i c a l w h o l e . W h i l e D e f o e ' s l a c k s c o h e r e n c e . D e f o e ' s s h a r e s n o c o i n c i d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e m a n t i c a n d t h e s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s a n d l a c k s a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t o p i c a n d f o c u s . I t s e e m s t h a t t h e s e q u e n c e o f t h o u g h t i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h p r o c e e d s b y a s s o ­c i a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l w o r d s w i t h a b r o a d e r t h e m e r a t h e r t h a n b y a n y l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a d j a c e n t s e n t e n c e s .

T h e r e p e t i t i o n o f c o h e s i v e t i e s a t b o t h t h e s e m a n t i c , l e x i c a l a n d s y n t a c t i c l e v e l s a l o n g w i t h a w e l l d e f i n e d t o p i c s e n t e n c e s e e m s t o b e t h e b a s i s f o r w h a t a r e a d e r p e r c e i v e s a s Swi f t ' s p l a i n o r s i m p l e s t y l e . T h i s is t r u e i n t h e f o u r p a r t s o f Gulliver's Travels. T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a ­g r a p h b y Swif t o f f e r s a f u r t h e r e x a m p l e o f h i s s i m p l e , c o h e s i v e s t y l e :

6 The left margin is not alined to show the disparity of the levels of generality.

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(1) U p o n what I said in relat ion to our Courts o f Justice, his Majesty desired to be satisfied in several points: and, this I was the better able to do , having been former ly almost ru ined by a l o n g suit in Chancery, w h i c h was decreed for me w i t h costs. (2) He asked, wha t t ime was usu­ally spent in determin ing between r ight and w r o n g , and what degree of expense. (3) Whether advocates and orators had l iberty to plead in causes manifestly k n o w n to be unjust, vexatious or oppressive. (4) Whether party in re l ig ion or polit ics were observed to be o f any we ight in the scale o f justices. (5) Whether those p leading orators were persons edu­cated in the general knowledge o f equity, or on ly in provinc ia l , nat ion­al, and other local customs. (6) Whether they or their Judges had any part in penn ing those laws w h i c h they assumed the l iberty o f inter­pret ing and glossing u p o n at their pleasure. (7) Whether they had ever at different times I p leaded for and against the same cause and ci ted precedents to prove contrary opin ions. (8) Whether they were a r ich or a p o o r corporat ion. (9) Whether they received any pecuniary reward for pleading or del iver ing their opin ions. (10) A n d part icularly whether they were ever admit ted as members in the lower senate, (p . 170)

I n t h i s p a r a g r a p h , a w e l l s t r u c t u r e d l e a d o r t o p i c s e n t e n c e a g a i n g e n e r a t e s t h e u n i f i e d w h o l e : " U p o n w h a t I s a i d i n r e l a t i o n t o o u r C o u r t s o f J u s t i c e , h i s M a j e s t y d e s i r e d t o b e s a t i s f i e d i n s e v e r a l p o i n t s [...]". T h i s u n i f i e d w h o l e is a l s o a c h i e v e d b y t h e a n a p h o r i c r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e c o n ­j u n c t i o n " w h e t h e r " . I n a d d i t i o n , " C o u r t s o f J u s t i c e " g e n e r a t e s a s e r i e s o f c o h e s i v e i t e m s , n a m e l y , " a d v o c a t e s " , " o r a t o r s " , " p o l i t i c s " , " J u d g e s " , e t c . F u r t h e r m o r e , " s e v e r a l p o i n t s " d e l i n e a t e s c l e a r l y fo r t h e r e a d e r t h e dif­f e r e n t i t e m s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p a r a g r a p h .

S w i f t a l s o a t t a i n s p e r f e c t s y m m e t r y a t t h e s y n t a c t i c l e v e l : " h i s M a j e s t y " ( s e n t e n c e 1 ) is e c h o e d i n t h e p r o n o u n " h e " ( s e n t e n c e 3 ) . T h e r e s t o f t h e p a r a g r a p h is a d m i r a b l y d e v e l o p e d b y a s e r i e s o f w h - c l a u s -e s d e p e n d e n t u p o n a n i n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n , " H e a s k e d " . T h e s y n t a c t i c t i e s a r e t i g h t e n e d t h r o u g h t h e r e i t e r a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t p r o n o u n " t h e y " , w h i c h r e f e r s t o " o r a t o r s " i n t h e l a s t s i x s e n t e n c e .

Moll Flanders a l s o o f f e r s c a s e s o f a n a p h o r i c r e p e t i t i o n :

A n d n o w I was indeed in the height o f what I might call m y pros­perity, and I w a n t e d n o t h i n g but to be a w i fe , w h i c h , however , c o u l d not be in this case, there was n o r o o m for it; and therefore i n all occa­sions I studied to save wha t I cou ld , as I have said above, against a t ime of scarcity, k n o w i n g w e l l enough that such things as these d o not always cont inue; that m e n that keep mistresses often change them, g r o w weary o f them, jealous o f them, or something or other happens to make them w i t h d r a w their bounty ; and sometimes the ladies that are thus w e l l used are not careful by a prudent conduct to preserve the steem of their

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persons, or the nice article o f their f idel i ty , and then they are justly cast o f f w i t h contempt, (p. 127)

I n t h i s p a r a g r a p h D e f o e u s e s " a n d " a s s e n t e n c e c o n n e c t o r s 5 t i m e s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i t e r a t i o n o f t h i s c o n j u n c t i o n is n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o d u c e a l o g i c w h o l e a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h b y Swif t . I n t h e b e g i n n i n g s e n t e n c e , t h e c o n j u n c t i o n " A n d " , w h i c h w e a k l y c o n n e c t s t h i s p a r a g r a p h w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e , s t a r t s w h a t c a n b e s e e n a s a l e a d s e n t e n c e : " A n d n o w I w a s i n d e e d i n t h e h e i g h t o f w h a t I m i g h t c a l l m y p r o s p e r i t y ; " b u t t h e m a i n t e r m i n t h i s l e a d s e n t e n c e i n o n l y p a r t i a l l y e c h o e d i n " t o s a v e " a n d " t i m e o f s c a r c i t y " ( a n a n t o n y m ) . A l s o , " w i f e " , t h e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o " p r o s p e r i t y " "is o n l y w e a k l y r e f e r r e d t o i n " m i s t r e s s " a n d " l a d i e s " . O t h e r l e x i c a l e l e m e n t s s e e m t o b e d e v e l o p e d b y a s s o c i a t i o n , n a m e l y " j e a l o u s " , " s t e e m " , " f ide l i t y " a n d " c o n t e m p t " .

I n c o n t r a s t w i t h Swi f t ' s p a r a g r a p h , D e f o e ' s l a c k o f c o h e s i v e t i e s p a r ­a l l e l s h i s i n c o h e r e n c e s y n t a c t i c a l l y . A f t e r t h e c o n j u n c t i o n " a n d " , t h e s u b ­j e c t p r o n o u n " I" i s r e p e a t e d i n t h e first t h r e e s e n t e n c e s . T h e s u b j e c t o f t h e l a s t t w o s e n t e n c e s i s , h o w e v e r , " l a d i e s " a n d " t h e y " . T h e l a s t t w o s e n t e n c e s p r o c e e d t o a h i g h e r l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i t y t h a n t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e s , e p i t o m i z i n g D e f o e ' s t e n d e n c y t o d i g r e s s i o n a t t h e e n d o f t h e p a r a ­g r a p h .

T h i s p a r a g r a p h ' s t r a n s i t i o n w o r d s ( " h o w e v e r " , " t h e r e f o r e " , "o r " , " t h u s " a n d " t h e n " ) , h a v e o n l y w e a k c o h e s i v e p o w e r . T h e s e d o n o t c r e a t e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t i n u a t i v e o r d i s c o n t i n u a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h g i v e s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f D e f o e ' s u s e o f t r a n s i t i o n w o r d s :

I dismissed my o l d man here, and stayed incogni to for three or four days i n Colchester, and then took a passage in a w a g o n , because I c o u l d not venture be ing seen in the Harw ich coaches. But I need not have used so m u c h caut ion, for there was n o b o d y in Harw ich but the w o m a n of the house cou ld have k n o w n me; nor was it rational to th ink that she, considering the hurry she was i n , and that she never saw me but once, and that by candle-l ight, shou ld have ever discovered me. (p . 253)

H e r e , t h e m a r k e r s d o n o t p r o v i d e a l o g i c a l w h o l e , b e c a u s e D e f o e s e e m s t o u s e c o n t i n u a t i v e a n d d i s c o n t i n u a t i v e m a r k e r s i n d i c r i m i n a t e l y .

Swi f t ' s u s e o f t r a n s i t i o n w o r d s d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y f r o m t h a t o f D e f o e ' s . A n a l y z i n g t h e i r u s e i n a p a r a g r a p h o f s i m i l a r l e n g t h r e v e a l s j u s t h o w d i f f e r e n t t h e s e w r i t e r s s t r u c t u r e t h e i r p a r a g r a p h s :

I k n o w not whether it may be w o r t h observing, that the H o u y -hnhnms have n o w o r d in their language to express anyth ing that is "evil", except wha t they b o r r o w f r o m the deformit ies or i l l qualit ies o f

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TEACHING TEXTUAL COHESION T H R O U G H ANALYSES O F DEFOE'S MOLL FLANDERS.

the Yahoos. Thus they denote the fo l ly o f a servant, an omission o f a ch i ld , a stone that cuts their feet, a cont inuance o f fou l or unseason­able whether, and the l ike , by adding to each the epithet o f yahoo. For instance, h h n m yahoo, w i h n a h o l m yahoo, y n l h m n a w i h l yahoo, and an i l l -contr ived house, y n h o l m h n n r o h l n w yahoo, (p . 323)

T h e e x a c t u s e o f t w o c o n t i n u a t i v e m a r k e r s s u c h a s " t h u s " a n d " for i n s t a n c e " e s t a b l i s h e s a p e r f e c t s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g t h e t h r e e s e n t e n c e s . T h e s e m a r k e r s , a l o n g w i t h t h e u s e o f a p p r o p r i a t e l e x i c a l a n d s y n t a c t i c t i e s , c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c o h e s i o n o f t h e p a r a g r a p h . O n c e a g a i n , a s i n t h e p a r a g r a p h s b y Swif t p r e v i o u s l y a n a l y z e d , t h e w r i t e r a c h i e v e s a p e r f e c t c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t o p i c a n d f o c u s , b e t w e e n t h e i n t e n d e d d e e p s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e .

III . SOME CONCLUSIONS

T h i s a n a l y s i s h a s n o t a t t e m p t e d t o b e e x h a u s t i v e b u t h a s t r i e d t o s h o w t h e w a y l i t e r a r y t e x t s s u c h a s Swi f t ' s Gulliver's Travels a n d D e f o e ' s Moll Flanders c a n b e a n a l y z e d , c o m p a r e d , a n d c o n t r a s t e d u s i n g c o h e ­s i v e p a t t e r n s . T h i s a n a l y s i s h a s s h o w n t h a t Swif t , i n c o n t r a s t w i t h D e f o e , s t r u c t u r e d h i s p r o s e v e r y c a r e f u l l y a n d a c h i e v e s c o h e s i o n b y t h e p e r ­f e c t m e s h i n g o f t h e s e m a n t i c - l e x i c a l a n d s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e s 7 . It h a s a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t w h a t a r e a d e r p e r c e i v e s a s a p l a i n o r s i m p l e s t y l e s u c h a s S w i f t ' s , r e q u i r e s g r e a t e f fo r t i n s t r u c t u r i n g a n d w o r d c h o i c e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e w r i t e r . C o n v e r s e l y , a c o m p l e x s t y l e s u c h a s D e f o e ' s , c o n ­t a i n i n g m a n y d i f f e r e n t i d e a s e x p r e s s e d i n l o n g s u b o r d i n a t e a n d c o o r ­d i n a t e s e q u e n c e s , i s h a r d l y r e a d a b l e p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it s e e m s t o l a c k r e v i s i o n s o r c a r e f u l o r g a n i z a t i o n .

T w o f u r t h e r p o i n t s m e r i t a t t e n t i o n . I n c o n s i d e r i n g D e f o e ' s c o m p l i ­c a t e d s t y l e , w e m a y a s k w h e t h e r D e f o e is s i m p l y i m i t a t i n g t h e v o i c e o f a n u n e d u c a t e d w o m a n o r j u s t b e i n g c a r e l e s s a b o u t h i s w r i t i n g . I a m i n c l i n e d t o a c c u s e h i m o f t h e l a t t e r s i n c e h i s b o o k d o e s c o n t a i n p a s ­s a g e s o f v e r y w e l l w r i t t e n p r o s e . S e c o n d l y , t h i s m e t h o d o f a n a l y s i s , t h o u g h l i m i t e d t o t h e p a r a g r a p h i n t h i s s t u d y , o f f e r s p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a ­t i o n s t o a b r o a d e r c o n t e x t , a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e w h o l e b o o k . T h e t e n ­d e n c y t o d i g r e s s i o n a n d l a c k o f c o h e s i o n i n s i n g l e p a r a g r a p h s o f Moll Flanders w h i c h w e h a v e a n a l y z e d f i n d s i ts e c h o i n a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f b l u r r e d a c t i o n s a n d c h a r a c t e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e t e x t . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e c a r e -

7 Swift's use of punctuation and transition words is more exact and coherent than Defoe's.

569

ÁNGEL F. SÁNCHEZ ESCOBAR

fu l , c o h e s i v e s t r u c t u r e e v i d e n t i n s i n g l e p a r a g r a p h s o f Gulliver's Trav­

els i s r e p e a t e d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f Swi f t ' s e n t i r e w o r k t h r o u g h l i n e a r

s e q u e n c e s b u i l t a r o u n d w e l l d e f i n e d a c t i o n s a n d c h a r a c t e r s a n d r e i n ­

f o r c e d b y t h e u s e o f p r e c i s e h e a d i n g s .

T h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d i n a n a l y z i n g s i n g l e p a r a g r a p h s f r o m t h e s e t w o

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w o r k s c a n b e a p p l i e d t o a n y p r o s e p a s s a g e f r o m

a n y h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d . M o r e r e s e a r c h r e m a i n s t o b e d o n e o n t e x t u a l

c o h e s i o n a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e s e n t e n c e , p a r a g r a p h , a n d e v e n e n t i r e l i t­

e r a r y w o r k s . C o h e s i o n c a n o p e n f r o n t i e r s i n t h e a n a l y s i s , c o m p a r i s o n

a n d c o n t r a s t o f l i t e r a r y s t y l e s .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BAMBER, B. (1983), "What Makes a Text Coherent", College Composition and Communication, 4, december, Urbana, I l l inois, N.C.T.E., p p . 417-429.

DEFOE, D . (1983), Moll Flanders, ed. b y Juliet Mi tchel l , Middlesex, England, Penguin.

FAHNESTOCK, J. (1983), "Semantic and Lexical Coherence", College Composition and Communication, 4, december, Urbana, I l l inois, N.C.T.E., p p . 400-415.

HOLIDAY, M. A. K. and HASAN RUQAIYA (1976), Cohesion in English, L o n d o n , Long­man.

HOEY , M. (1991), Patterns of Lexis in Text, O x f o r d University Press. MARKELS, R. B. (1983), "Cohesion Paradigms in English", College English, 5, S e p ­

tember, Urbana, I l l inois, N.C.T.E., p p . 450-464. MCCARTHY, M. (1991), Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers, Cambridge

University Press. NUNAN, D . (1993), Introducing Discourse Analysis, Middlesex, England, Pen­

gu in . SÁNCHEZ ESCOBAR, A. F. (1996), "La retórica contrastiva del párrafo Inglés y sus

repercusiones en la enseñanza del inglés escrito", Gramática contrastiva inglés-español, Servicio Publicaciones, Universidad de Huelva.

STOTSKY, S. (1983), "Types of Lexical Coherence in Expository Writing", College Composition and Communication, 4, december, Urbana, I l l inois, N.C.T.E., p p . 430-446.

SWIFT, J. (1985), Gulliver's Travels, in t rod . by Michael Foot, Middlesex, England, Penguin.

WATT, I. (1971), The Rise of the Novel, Berkeley, California, University o f Cali­fornia Press.

WILLIAMS, J . M. (1979), "Defining complexity", College English, 40, february, Urbana, I l l inois, N.C.T.E., pp . 595-609.

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