middle ages in britain.docx

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The Later Middle Ages: Danger and Opportunity

Subject: History I

Date: 06/06/2011

The 14th and 15th centuries represent the decline of the Middle Ages. The feudal system starts its

disintegration; the economic, political and social organization enters a period of ordeal and

instability. Turmoil and upheaval are the hallmarks of the period: plague, war, revolts and religious

crisis were tragedies which haunted the lives of those who witnessed this period.

It is widely known that the Chinese word for "crisis" consists of the characters for "danger" and

"opportunity." History is not linear, and as the developments that took place by that time can be

looked at from a broader perspective, we realize that, in fact, after adversities were overcome,

society entered a new period with new institutions, new economic relationships and a new view on

religion. The structure of the modern Parliament was established, the middle classes gained

importance, worker unions began to emerge, the concept of nation appeared, and the Church

entered a period of dramatic changes: the Modern Times had started to take shape.

In this paper, the main events which fostered this transition will be studied the Black Death, the

Hundred Years War, the Peasant Revolt of 1381 and the Great Schism of the Churchin order to

gain a better understanding of this period and its consequences.

Fear and death

By the turn of the 15thcentury, and after a period of prosperity, good crops and population growth,

Europe experienced a spell of severe weather conditions which brought about poor crops or even

the loss of many of them. The devastating effects of adverse weather were aggravated by the

enormous population growth that Europe had witnessed during the previous century: although the

exploitation of lands had been carried to the extreme, food was scarce. As a consequence of the

failed harvests and the decrease of herds and flocks, famine spread all around Europe. Starvation

entailed a reduction in population, but those who survived were not strong enough to resist the

tragedy which was to come next: this state of affairs along with the precarious sanitary conditions

and the overpopulation of the urban centers created the perfect environment for the devastating

spread of the bubonic plaguethe Black Deathwhich annihilated between a 25% to a 50% of the

European population. It is believed that the plague originated in Asia, and there is general

consensus about the fact that it broke out in Europe when Genoese ships brought it from the Middle

East to Sicilia in 1347 from where the disease spread in Europe following the commercial routes. In

1348, the plague spread over France, the Netherlands, Germany and a year later it arrived to

England. However, there were intermittent outbreaks during 1361- 1362 and 1369 and there were

recurrences each five or six years during the 14thand 15thcenturies.


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As Royner states in his Concise History of England, from the social and economic point of view,

due to population loss, in England The manorial system broke down, owing to the lack of men to

till the fields. During fifty years many villeins had induced their lords to excuse them from their

customary services in return for a money-rent. [] The lord spent his money-rent in hiring

labourers for so much a day The shortage of workforce implied a higher demand for labourwhich favored the peasants and the working class as they saw their wages rise. To thwart this

situation, some lords turned to the monarchy and an attempt was made to reduce salaries by means

of the English Statute of Laborers, but it failed.

The disaster also triggered extreme psychological reactions like, on the one hand, an extreme

asceticism: flagellants who whipped themselves to achieve the divine forgiveness that would bring

the plague to an end could be seen all around Europe. By the later 1350s, most flagellants

movements were dissolved after being condemned by Pope Clemente VI in 1350. On the other

hand, there were those who, considering the proximity of death, decided to live in the present and to

enjoy worldly pleasures. The Black Death brought along a virulent outbreak of anti-Semitism thatresulted in the persecution and massacre of Jews, who, accused of causing the plague, migrated to

Russia and Poland.

War and political instability

The war was another struggle Europe had to deal with during the 15th century. Of all the wars

fought during this period, The Hundred Years War between France and England was the most

famous and violent, and consisted of a long series of military campaigns with intervals of peace.

When Philip VI confiscated the duchy of Aquitaine, Edward realized that the only way to exercise

full sovereignty over his territory was by assuming the title of king of France, thus, he put a claim to

the throne. This was the immediate cause of the war, but the outbreak of the conflict and its length

can also be ascribed to internal disputes between French factions: French barons supported the

English king as a means of opposing the centralizing aspirations of Philip, and in Flanders, where

the wool trade was severely threatened by the war, the Flemish aristocracy took sides by the French

king, whereas the burgesses supported Edward III.

Although England succeeded until almost the end of the conflict, it was France that resultedvictorious. France owes its victory to a 17-year-old peasant, Joan of Arc. Brought up in a religious

household, the young girl claimed that she had heard the voices of Saint Michael, Saint Catherine

and Saint Margaret. The voices told her that the King Charles had to be crowned and the English

expelled from France. She was able to reach the uncrowned king and his court, and persuaded them

of letting her accompany the army on the siege of Orlans. Surprisingly, the English army withdrew

from the city, and ten days later Charles was crowned king. These two incidents marked a turning

point in the war. Step by step, the French regained control over its territory until Normandy was


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reconquered and the English expelled from Aquitaine. Joan of Arc was made prisoner by the

English , accused of heresy and burnt at Rouen in 1431. The French government did not intervene.

By 1453, the war came to the end. In 1456 her name was rehabilitated and finally, in 1920 Joan of

Arc was canonized.

The war was fought almost entirely in French territory, and, for France, this implied the loss of rich

arable land, a new reduction in population due to the thousands of soldiers that were killed and

disruption of trade and international commerce. On the other hand, English territories resulted

almost unharmedonly the ports in the South coast were severely damaged- , but its economy was

seriously affected: the government finances relied heavily in the tax collected from wool exports,

and this industry fell dramatically during the conflict. To make matters worse, the money collected

through the war was far from enough for covering the cost of the conflict.

The monarchy was urged by financial problems, thus, whenever Edward attempted to generate

income sources by means of taxes, he had to turn to parliament: the king s need for money

compelled him to frequently summon representative assemblies, and this fact strengthenedparliamentary power. Knights and burgesses created the House of Commons, achieving the kings

commitment to not fixing new taxes without parliament consent. The Great Council became the

House of Lords, a body composed by the main abbots and bishops and the nobility. During Edward

IIIs reign, English Parliament developed its structure and basic functions and grew in importance.

Another important consequence of the war to take into account, is that it helped both countries to

develop a new feeling of national sentiment which later on would allow the foundation of the

modern nation as it is known nowadays.

Social unrest

In 1358, in the North of France, the economic crises provoked by the Black Death and the Hundred

Years War started a peasants revolt, known as the Jaquerie. Although the Jacquerie was the

product of a desperate peasantry, they were joined by artisans, small merchants and parish priests,

who blamed the nobility for the defeat in war, the miserable life they were leading and the heavy

taxes imposed on them. This movement arrived at the city, and after several weeks of extreme

violence, the uprising was suffocated through ruthless repression by the nobility.

This was the first of a series of uprisings which would take place in Europe during the period. TheEnglish Peasants revolt of 1381 is the most well-known of them, due to its size and violence.

During the previous century, the manorial system had started to decline, and labor services were

beginning to be paid in cash. As a result of the Black Death, both workers from the cities and

peasants had accomplished some improvement in their wages. The upper class --noble landowners

or wealthy burgesses-- wanted to retain their privileges, and denied workers and peasants their

recent conquests. This, along with the destructive French raids in the South of England and the

violence exerted by the aristocracy over the peasantry generated an atmosphere of general social


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unrest. Revolt burst when a tax on all adult male was imposed. During the previous year, such taxes

had been resisted, but this last one was confronted by the uprising of the peasantry which began in

the East of England, but became a general revolt, when city artisans and journeymen -dissatisfied

because the highest positions in the guilds were closed for them - joined the peasants.

Despite its initial success, the revolt was brutally suffocated by King Richard II who, aided by the

aristocracy, betrayed the rebels to whom he had promised the end of servility in exchange for their

returning home.

Crisis of faith

After years of struggle for power with the church and Pope Boniface VIIs death, Philip IV pressed

the papacy and, in 1305, a French Pope, Clement V, was elected. The new Pope lived in Avignon,

and so did his successors during the following 75 years. With the papacy in Avignon, King Philip

was in a position that allowed him to control the church and its policies.

In times of crises, social unrest and financial upheaval, people were, more than ever, in need for

consolation through faith and religion. But with the papacy in Avignon, the church became more a

source of suspicion and criticism than a place where to look for consolation. Criticism arouse from

the fact that the papacy was concerned more with bureaucratic matters than with spiritual questions,

the life of luxury and extravagance they led, and the belief that Avignon Popes were prisoners of the

French monarchy. Besides, it was inconceivable that the Pope resided outside Rome, and

In England, Edward III aimed to limit the power of the Pope over the English church, and this

incident gave him another reason for doing it: when the Hundred Years War began, it was

peculiarly annoying to the English that they should have to pay tribute to an enemy prelate and beunder his spiritual authority(Royner, op cit) But the English Church itself had entered a process

of corruption: There was the general feeling that the Church was becoming less and less worthy

of her wealth and privileges(Royner, op cit). John Wyclif was the clergyman who would

channel this restlessness; he thought that the Church would do well to give up her wealth, and

that the clergy ought to return to thesimple life of poverty and devotion... He also questioned the

traditional ceremonies and forms and affirmed that Gods message to mankind was contained in

the Bible, which must, therefore, be translated, so that it might be understood by all (Royner, op

cit). His ideas were received enthusiastically at first, but he was condemned for heresy later on. His

followers, who were known asLollards,continued to preach his teachings secretly.

The situation of the papacy in Avignon reached a climax and the Pope went back to Rome in 1377.

However, Gregory XI died in 1378 and when the papal conclave met in Rome, a mob pressured on

the assembly to elect an Italian Pope. Urbano VI (1378 1389), archbishop of Bari was elected.

Urbano was determined to put an end to corruption within the church, but his harsh manners and

lack of diplomacy only brought disaster. Back in France, the cardinals issued a document where

they declared Urbanos election invalid, and chose their own pope - Clement VII- who went back

to Avignon. Therefore, there were two Popes now and the Schism of the Church began. The


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European monarchies were divided: France, Spain, Scotland, and the south of Italy supported

Clement, while England, Germany, Scandinavia and the major part of Italy supported Urbano. The

need for political support caused that both Popes submitted to the policies of those states. The

Schism lasted 40 years and fostered the financial abuses that had already developed during the

papacy of Avignon, and undermined the faith of Christian believers.

Finally, cardinals from both sides met at the Concilium of Pisa in 1409 , both Popes were dismissed

and a new one elected: Alexandre V. Nevertheless, both Popes refused to abdicate, so there were

three popes now. Segismundo, emperor of the Sacre Roman Empire appointed the Concilium of

Constanza (14141418), where Martin V was elected Pope (1417 1431). The other three Popes

abdicated or were deposed, and the Great Schism came to an end.

In England, Edward III aimed to limit the power of the Pope over the English church, and this

incident gave him another reason for doing it: when the Hundred Years War began, it was

peculiarly annoying to the English that they should have to pay tribute to an enemy prelate and be

under his spiritual authority(Royner, op cit) But the English Church itself had entered a processof corruption: There was the general feeling that the Church was becoming less and less worthy

of her wealth and privileges(Royner, op cit). John Wyclif was the clergyman who would

channel this restlessness; he thought that the Church would do well to give up her wealth, and

that the clergy ought to return to the simple life of poverty and devotion... He also questioned the

traditional ceremonies and forms and affirmed that Gods message to mankind was contained in

the Bible, which must, therefore, be translated, so that it might be understood by all (Royner, op

cit). His ideas were received enthusiastically at first, but he was condemned for heresy later on. His

followers, who were known asLollards,continued to preach his teachings secretly.

Conclusion

In his work, Ao 1000, Ao 2000 La Huella de Nuestros Miedos,the French historian Georges

Duby compares the Middle Ages and the current times, as a means to reflect about and face the

challenges the 21th century poses, based on the information we now have about life during the first

century.

Duby refers to the loneliness of the poor who suffer the injustices by those in power, in a society

where the weak starve to death. In contrast, the medieval society found in solidarity a means to

endure poverty. Today, we live in a wealthier society, but it does not guarantee the satisfaction ofbasic needs to everyone.

Migratory movements from the country to the cities is another parallel phenomenon. Today,

poverty expels thousands of people from their birth places to the urban centres. And once in the

city, they find exclusion and xenophobia. Fear of the other seems to be a defining characteristic of

humanity in all times.


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AIDS is the modern plague that haunts peoples lives, but, far from being a natural plague, it is a

creation of men. In fact, plagues which originate in bad living conditions, like cholera, outbreak

from time to time in emergent countries. Today, we have the means to cure, but they seem useless

in many cases.

According to Duby, fear and anxiety for the future existed in the Middle Ages as it exists nowadays.

Improvements in technology and science trigger speculations about tragic endings for the world.

Superstition, which had such a strong presence during the 11 thcentury, is still present in the mind of

men. It is clear from Dubys work, that although hundreds of years elapsed, we can find common

roots between the conflicts of the medieval and the contemporary man.

Bibliography

McKay, Hill & Buckler.A History of Western Society,Chapter 12 The Crisis of the Later

Middle Ages, Hougaton-Mifflin, 1995.

Rayner, R. (1956). Chapter XIV, Edward III in Peace enA Concise History of Britain..

Duby, G. (1995),Ao 1000, Ao 2000. La huella de nuestros miedos, Andres Bello,

Santiago, Chile.

Griffiths, R.A. The Oxford History of Britain, Chapter 4 The Later Middle Ages, Oxford

University Press, 2001

Kreis, S. The History Guide , Lectures on Ancient and Medieval European History,

Lectures 29 and 30. http://www.historyguide.org/index.html

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