memory, and data protection cybersecurity: hardware, · •every file on your computer lives on...
TRANSCRIPT
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Cybersecurity: Hardware, Memory, and Data Protection
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Hardware• When you talk about your system's memory, what exactly does that mean?
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Hardware• When you talk about your system's memory, what exactly does that mean?
• How much memory does your computer have?
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Hardware• When you talk about your system's memory, what exactly does that mean?
• How much memory does your computer have?
• There's a complete hierarchy of memory, from RAM to cache memory, as well as hard disk drives and/or solid state drives, on your system.
• RAM > L3 cache > L2 cache > L1 cache > CPU memory
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Memory• Every file on your computer lives on your disk drive, be it a hard disk drive (HDD) or a solid-state drive (SSD).
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Memory• Every file on your computer lives on your disk drive, be it a hard disk drive (HDD) or a solid-state drive (SSD).
• Disk drives are just storage space; we can’t directly work there. Manipulation and use of data can only take place in RAM, so we have to move data there.
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Memory• Every file on your computer lives on your disk drive, be it a hard disk drive (HDD) or a solid-state drive (SSD).
• Disk drives are just storage space; we can’t directly work there. Manipulation and use of data can only take place in RAM, so we have to move data there.
• Memory is basically a huge array of 8-bit wide bytes.• 512 MB, 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB…
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Memory
Data Type Size (in bytes)int 4char 1float 4double 8long 8
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Memory• Back to this idea of memory as a big array of byte-sized cells.
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Memory• Back to this idea of memory as a big array of byte-sized cells.
• Arrays are useful for storage of information but also for so-called random access.
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Memory• Back to this idea of memory as a big array of byte-sized cells.
• Arrays are useful for storage of information but also for so-called random access.
• We can access individual elements of the array by indicating which index location we want.
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Memory• Back to this idea of memory as a big array of byte-sized cells.
• Arrays are useful for storage of information but also for so-called random access.
• We can access individual elements of the array by indicating which index location we want.
• Similarly, each location in memory has an address.
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Representation of Memory• If you've ever head the term "32-bit system" or "64-bit system," it's referring to memory.
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Representation of Memory• If you've ever head the term "32-bit system" or "64-bit system," it's referring to memory.
• A 32-bit system processor can understand and process memory addresses up to 32 bits in length.
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Representation of Memory• If you've ever head the term "32-bit system" or "64-bit system," it's referring to memory.
• A 32-bit system processor can understand and process memory addresses up to 32 bits in length.
• With each bit being a 0 (off, no power) or a 1 (on, powered), that means there are 232 possible memory addresses, or about 4 billion.
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Representation of Memory• Computers (and programmers!) often need a way to refer to specific addresses in memory, whether for random access or merely for reference purposes.
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Representation of Memory• Computers (and programmers!) often need a way to refer to specific addresses in memory, whether for random access or merely for reference purposes.
• Rather than specifying an address as 32 bits:00101001 11010110 00101110 01010111
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Representation of Memory• Computers (and programmers!) often need a way to refer to specific addresses in memory, whether for random access or merely for reference purposes.
• Rather than specifying an address as 32 bits:00101001 11010110 00101110 01010111
• Computer scientists often refer to such values using hexadecimal notation.
0x
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Representation of Memory• Computers (and programmers!) often need a way to refer to specific addresses in memory, whether for random access or merely for reference purposes.
• Rather than specifying an address as 32 bits:00101001 11010110 00101110 01010111
• Computer scientists often refer to such values using hexadecimal notation.
0x 29D62E57
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Adapted from an image at codewall.co.uk.
Breakpoint 1, 0x004005af in main ()
(gdb) i r
eax 0xb7fb9dbc -1208246852
ecx 0xbffff340 -1073745088
edx 0xbffff364 -1073745052
ebx 0x0 0
esp 0xbffff320 0xbffff320
ebp 0xbffff328 0xbffff328
...
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Adapted from an image at codewall.co.uk.
Breakpoint 1, 0x004005af in main ()
(gdb) i r
eax 0xb7fb9dbc -1208246852
ecx 0xbffff340 -1073745088
edx 0xbffff364 -1073745052
ebx 0x0 0
esp 0xbffff320 0xbffff320
ebp 0xbffff328 0xbffff328
...
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Adapted from an image at codewall.co.uk.
Breakpoint 1, 0x004005af in main ()
(gdb) i r
eax 0xb7fb9dbc -1208246852
ecx 0xbffff340 -1073745088
edx 0xbffff364 -1073745052
ebx 0x0 0
esp 0xbffff320 0xbffff320
ebp 0xbffff328 0xbffff328
...
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HexadecimalDecimal Binary Hex Decimal Binary Hex
0 0000 0x0 8 1000 0x8
1 0001 0x1 9 1001 0x9
2 0010 0x2 10 1010 0xA (a)
3 0011 0x3 11 1011 0xB (b)
4 0100 0x4 12 1100 0xC (c)
5 0101 0x5 13 1101 0xD (d)
6 0110 0x6 14 1110 0xE (e)
7 0111 0x7 15 1111 0xF (f)
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001010100010 1010
0x2A42
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001010100010 1010
0x2A42
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001010100010 1010
0x2A42
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100s 10s 1s1 2 3
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102 101 100
1 2 3
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162 161 160
0 2 A
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162 161 160
0 2 A
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001010100010 1010
0x2A42
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How Memory Works• With the exception of hard disk space, memory on your computer is volatile.
Image source: howstuffworks.com
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How Memory Works• With the exception of hard disk space, memory on your computer is volatile.
• Volatile memory requires power.
Image source: howstuffworks.com
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How Memory Works• With the exception of hard disk space, memory on your computer is volatile.
• Volatile memory requires power.
• After a limited amount of time with no power, the electrical charge dissipates, and "state" is lost.
Image source: howstuffworks.com
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How Memory Works• Processing of information can only happen, as you might expect, in the processor. A 32-bit processor can only process 32 bits (4 bytes) of information at a time.
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How Memory Works• Processing of information can only happen, as you might expect, in the processor. A 32-bit processor can only process 32 bits (4 bytes) of information at a time.
• This means that data needs to be moved pretty constantly around between different parts of memory, feeding new information to the processor.
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How Memory Works• Processing of information can only happen, as you might expect, in the processor. A 32-bit processor can only process 32 bits (4 bytes) of information at a time.
• This means that data needs to be moved pretty constantly around between different parts of memory, feeding new information to the processor.
• Despite being only able to process limited information at a time, most processors today are about 2-3 GHz.
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Image source: WikiMedia
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Image source: WikiMedia
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Image source: WikiMedia
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Image source: WikiMedia
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Image source: WikiMedia
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How Memory Works• CPU memory is the fastest, least amount of memory on your machine.
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How Memory Works• CPU memory is the fastest, least amount of memory on your machine.
• Caches (L1, L2, L3) are each successively slower, but each successively cheaper.
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How Memory Works• CPU memory is the fastest, least amount of memory on your machine.
• Caches (L1, L2, L3) are each successively slower, but each successively cheaper.
• RAM is slower, but cheaper.
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How Memory Works• CPU memory is the fastest, least amount of memory on your machine.
• Caches (L1, L2, L3) are each successively slower, but each successively cheaper.
• RAM is slower, but cheaper.
• Hard disk space is pure storage, but insanely cheap.
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How Memory Works• Hard disk space (whether HDD, SSD, or Flash/USB), by contrast, is non-volatile or persistent.
Image source: geek.com
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How Memory Works• Hard disk space (whether HDD, SSD, or Flash/USB), by contrast, is non-volatile or persistent.
• It explicitly does not require power to work. Rather, each "cell" of memory is written to by way of using magnets.
Image source: geek.com
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How Memory Works• Hard disk space (whether HDD, SSD, or Flash/USB), by contrast, is non-volatile or persistent.
• It explicitly does not require power to work. Rather, each "cell" of memory is written to by way of using magnets.
• Because the magnets do not need power, when the computer shuts off, the data remains.
Image source: geek.com
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How Memory Works• As we've seen though, hard disk space cannot be directly manipulated; it has to move to the processor.
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How Memory Works• As we've seen though, hard disk space cannot be directly manipulated; it has to move to the processor.
• This is done through a series of connections called buses that transfer data from one type of memory to another.
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How Memory Works• As we've seen though, hard disk space cannot be directly manipulated; it has to move to the processor.
• This is done through a series of connections called buses that transfer data from one type of memory to another.
• In general, when working on a program, the data for that program (including the code for the program itself) is moved into RAM, and it's manipulated and moved around from there until the program is finished.
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Hard Drive Failure• Because they have literal moving pieces, it's not uncommon for hard drives to fail after a period of time.
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Hard Drive Failure• Because they have literal moving pieces, it's not uncommon for hard drives to fail after a period of time.
• Normally, this means that the read/write arm has jammed, or has "bumped" into the spinning platters, which destroys the mechanisms.
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Hard Drive Failure• Because they have literal moving pieces, it's not uncommon for hard drives to fail after a period of time.
• Normally, this means that the read/write arm has jammed, or has "bumped" into the spinning platters, which destroys the mechanisms.
• But a hard drive failure doesn't necessarily mean the data is unrecoverable.
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File Deletion• What happens when we delete files on our machines?
Image source: knowtechie.com
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File Deletion• What happens when we delete files on our machines?
• Overwriting hard disk space is an expensive and time-consuming operation for the machine.
Image source: knowtechie.com
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File Deletion• What happens when we delete files on our machines?
• Overwriting hard disk space is an expensive and time-consuming operation for the machine.
• Instead, the system just conveniently "forgets" where that data lived, meaning at some point in the future, it may be eventually overwritten.
Image source: knowtechie.com
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File Deletion• What happens when we delete files on our machines?
• Overwriting hard disk space is an expensive and time-consuming operation for the machine.
• Instead, the system just conveniently "forgets" where that data lived, meaning at some point in the future, it may be eventually overwritten.
Image source: microsoft.com
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Digital Forensics• So when a hard drive is damaged or files are "deleted," how is it possible to recover information from it?
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Digital Forensics• So when a hard drive is damaged or files are "deleted," how is it possible to recover information from it?
• There are specialized tools out there that can be used to incredibly systematically (and incredibly slowly) read off of "damaged" hard drives bit-by-bit.
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Digital Forensics• So when a hard drive is damaged or files are "deleted," how is it possible to recover information from it?
• There are specialized tools out there that can be used to incredibly systematically (and incredibly slowly) read off of "damaged" hard drives bit-by-bit.
• In both cases, a forensic image (essentially, a huge file) that replicates the bit-by-bit content of the hard drive can be created and put onto a functional machine.
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Digital Forensics• Most files have some sort of an identifying "signature" associated with them, also known as a magic number.
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Digital Forensics• Most files have some sort of an identifying "signature" associated with them, also known as a magic number.
• Odds are, if this specific sequence appears (it's usually 4-8 bytes), it's the beginning of a file of that type, and it can be read.
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Digital Forensics• Most files have some sort of an identifying "signature" associated with them, also known as a magic number.
• Odds are, if this specific sequence appears (it's usually 4-8 bytes), it's the beginning of a file of that type, and it can be read.
%PDF00100101 01010000 01000100 01000110
0x25 0x50 0x44 0x46
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Digital Forensics• Most files have some sort of an identifying "signature" associated with them, also known as a magic number.
• Odds are, if this specific sequence appears (it's usually 4-8 bytes), it's the beginning of a file of that type, and it can be read.
%PDF00100101 01010000 01000100 01000110
0x25 0x50 0x44 0x46
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Deleting Files
Image source: dr-fone.com
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Deleting Files• If ordinarily files are not deleted from a hard drive, what can we do to actually really go out of our way to delete data?
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Deleting Files• If ordinarily files are not deleted from a hard drive, what can we do to actually really go out of our way to delete data?
• Physical destruction of the hard drive
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Deleting Files• If ordinarily files are not deleted from a hard drive, what can we do to actually really go out of our way to delete data?
• Physical destruction of the hard drive• Use a degausser
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Deleting Files
Image source: dr-fone.com
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Deleting Files• If ordinarily files are not deleted from a hard drive, what can we do to actually really go out of our way to delete data?
• Physical destruction of the hard drive• Use a degausser• Overwrite with random bits (but not all 0s and not all 1s)
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Protecting Client Data• Odds are, in a large firm environment or as part of an in-house counsel team, this will not all fall to you, but it's very important (and indeed an ABA Model Rule!) to take active steps early on to protect client data.
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Protecting Client Data• Odds are, in a large firm environment or as part of an in-house counsel team, this will not all fall to you, but it's very important (and indeed an ABA Model Rule!) to take active steps early on to protect client data.
• Here are a variety of ways that you as a practitioner can begin instituting best practices for data security.
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Protecting Client Data• Encrypt your hard drive
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Protecting Client Data• Encrypt your hard drive
• Most operating systems provide you with built-in ways to do this now, no reason not to do it!
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Protecting Client Data• Encrypt your hard drive
• Most operating systems provide you with built-in ways to do this now, no reason not to do it!
• Require a password immediately after turning your computer on, before it boots and loads the OS.
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Protecting Client Data• Encrypt your hard drive
• Most operating systems provide you with built-in ways to do this now, no reason not to do it!
• Require a password immediately after turning your computer on, before it boots and loads the OS.
• Some of these systems actually initiate a multi-pass hard drive wipe after n incorrect password entries, so don't forget!
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Protecting Client Data• Avoid insecure wireless networks
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Protecting Client Data• Avoid insecure wireless networks
• Though uncommon, unsecured networks provide opportunities for data to be "plucked" out of the air.
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Protecting Client Data
Image source: linuxjournal.com
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Protecting Client Data• Avoid insecure wireless networks
• Though uncommon, unsecured networks provide opportunities for data to be "plucked" out of the air.
• Whenever in an unfamiliar location, rely on private or work-provided VPN services.
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Protecting Client Data• Use password managers
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Protecting Client Data• Use password managers
• LastPass, 1Password, and others are great services that make it quite easy to more generally secure your access to anything that requires a login.
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Protecting Client Data• Use password managers
• LastPass, 1Password, and others are great services that make it quite easy to more generally secure your access to anything that requires a login.
• Most of these tools also support two-factor authentication.
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Protecting Client Data• Use password managers
• LastPass, 1Password, and others are great services that make it quite easy to more generally secure your access to anything that requires a login.
• Most of these tools also support two-factor authentication.
• Though they sound great, be skeptical. What's one potential problem with tools like this?
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Protecting Client Data• Use complex passwords
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Protecting Client Data• Use complex passwords
• If you would prefer not to use a password manager, at least be certain to use complex passwords.
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Protecting Client Data• Use complex passwords
• If you would prefer not to use a password manager, at least be certain to use complex passwords.
• Passwords with <= 8 characters, you should consider effectively broken already, especially if they only contain letters and numbers.
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Protecting Client Data• Change your passwords
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Protecting Client Data• Change your passwords
• Easier said than done in most cases without a password manager, but rotating through new passwords every 90 days is a good defense.
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Protecting Client Data• Create backups
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Protecting Client Data• Create backups
• Periodically backing up client data preserves your work and their data in the event of a catastrophic hardware failure or "ransom" hack.
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Protecting Client Data• Create backups
• Periodically backing up client data preserves your work and their data in the event of a catastrophic hardware failure or "ransom" hack.
• Back data up to non-network connected machines or to flash drives or disks. (Or to paper files!)
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Protecting Client Data• Have an archival/deletion plan for data
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Protecting Client Data• Have an archival/deletion plan for data
• We tend to think these days that data exists in digital form permanently, but that's not entirely true.
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Protecting Client Data• Have an archival/deletion plan for data
• We tend to think these days that data exists in digital form permanently, but that's not entirely true.
• Develop a consistent plan for deleting and archiving data after a period of time (e.g., 5 years)
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Protecting Client Data• Make talking about data security a priority
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Protecting Client Data• Make talking about data security a priority
• Many people are not as educated about technology as they should be. You don't have to be an expert to have a meaningful discussion about technology in the legal field.
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Protecting Client Data• Make talking about data security a priority
• Many people are not as educated about technology as they should be. You don't have to be an expert to have a meaningful discussion about technology in the legal field.
• Share your knowledge with those around you, and with your clients.
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Protecting Client Data• Establish compliance protocols
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Protecting Client Data• Establish compliance protocols
• It's not all that hard to set up most of this stuff early on, it gets a bit harder to do it regularly on top of everything else you do.
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Protecting Client Data• Establish compliance protocols
• It's not all that hard to set up most of this stuff early on, it gets a bit harder to do it regularly on top of everything else you do.
• Set regular intervals for "checkups" to ensure this data is protected to the best of your ability.
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Protecting Client Data• Establish compliance protocols
• It's not all that hard to set up most of this stuff early on, it gets a bit harder to do it regularly on top of everything else you do.
• Set regular intervals for "checkups" to ensure this data is protected to the best of your ability.
• Volunteer to work with the compliance team if at a bigger firm.
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ABA Formal Opinion No. 477RMay 2017
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ABA Formal Opinion No. 483October 2018
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Cybersecurity: Hardware, Memory, and Data Protection