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Sociology and Common Sense

As budding sociologists, there has to be a distinction between layman and expert

knowledge. Its interesting how many people think that sociology is just

commonsense! But what is different is the:

1) distinct sociological questions being asked

2) research to be conducted

3) and application or testing of sociological theories

Asking sociological questions

Questions such as Who, What, Where, When and Why all gather information, but

what sociologists ask contain more depth and they make the familiar strange. They

also are interested in how social order is maintained.

Doing research

Sociologists use many methods and undertake scientific studies to test variables. In

crime studies, sociologists might examine official rates using official statistics,

interview people who have committed crime, observe the police at work or even join

criminal gangs.

Applying sociological theories

Sociologists create general frameworks of ideas to explain how societies work and

change.

ACTIVITY

Read the following statements and judge whether they are true or false

1) Men are more naturally aggressive than women

2) Divorce among young couples is highlighting that marriage as an institution is

losing ground

3) A criminal is someone who has broken the law

Answers

1) It is socially accepted that men are aggressive than women but women haveexhibited aggressive tendencies as well. Men have also been given more freedom than

women to do as they please.

2) Divorced couples jump back into marriages soon after

3) a criminal is an individual who has been convicted of a crime. If society did not

recognise them as breaking the law then they are not criminal. Further, there are

people who are falsely accused and incarcerated.

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TOPIC 2

Origins of Sociology

- Time line:- 17th -18th centuries

Founder of the term Sociology:- Auguste Comte.

However there were earlier thinkers who postulated about society.

It was the French Revolution that led to sociological thinking which tried to explain

the chaos in society. Together with this was the Industrial Revolution which saw a

transition from agrarian society to industry, from autocracy to democracy and from

tradition to modernity.

This period was known as the ENLIGHTENMENT ; to eradicate the belief in myth

and adopt reason and progress to understand the social world.

The Catholic Church had heavy input is how society was organised.

WHY STUDY SOCIETY?

For obvious reasons.. of shaping human life.

When things go wrong such as crime, unemployment, school drop-outs, scientific

procedures need to be done.

For Sociology to exist, 3 sets of ideas are necessary. These are known as the pre-

conditions.

1) freedom of thought

2) awareness of a crisis

3) a belief that something could be done to remedy the crisis

TOPIC 3

Sociology and the other Social Sciences

The individual is a complex organism learning behaviour through a lifelong process

called Socialisation ( nurture, environment). Animals, on the other hand, are directed

and controlled by instincts (nature, hereditary)

Human behaviour has several dimensionsBiology:- study of the human body which looks at processes, dysfunctions and its

causes.

There is a link between biological processes and influence on behaviour. E.g Too

much testerone can lead to aggression.

Psychology:- study of human behaviour, but looks at internal factors. The mind is the

focus of attention.

History:- study of the past

Economics:- study of supply and demand of goodsAnthropology:- study of relatively small, non- industrial societies.

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TOPIC 4

Development of Sociology in the Caribbean

The Caribbean comprises of people from all parts of the world who brought with them

their own culture, traditions, language. In order to understand this diversity it wasindeed necessary to introduce the sociological aspect of this phenomenon. Migration

was key to the formation of groups of people in the Caribbean and sociology steps in

to explain slavery and indentureship and their impact on social life.

The Caribbean region is unique and it is with this notion that sociology tries to

understand this. Authors have tried to explain how religion works for the region, how

families were formed, and even how education was established. All these could not

have been established without the research of the past.

TOPIC 5

Sociology as a Science

Definition of sociology:- the scientific study of society.

What is a science?

It is the use of systematic methods and investigation and the logical analysis of

investigation in order to develop an understanding of a particular subject matter.

Characteristics of Sociology

1) Empirical:- based on facts

2) Theoretical :- set of ideas put together logically

3) Cumulative:- build on previous theories

4) Objective:- No personal opinions, not considered as accurate evidence

5) Value- free:- free from value judgements

Positivism vs Anti-positivism

Scientific inquiry behaviour cannot be measured objectively

Many of the early sociologists in the 19th century, such as Comte and Spencer

believed that by applying the principles and practises that had worked so well in thenatural sciences, sociology could discover the laws that explained how societies

worked and changed.

Comte discovered the law of three stages. Society passed through 3 stages:-

1) Theological:- events caused by the action of gods

2) Metaphysical :- events caused by abstract forces, natural rather than supernatural

3) Positivism:- events caused by scientific rationality.

Comte believed that there was a hierarchy of the scientific subjects with sociology at

the top of the hierarchy.

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POSITIVISM

Major tenets

a) Human beings are rational individuals who are governed by social laws; their

behaviour is learned through observation and governed by external causes that

produce the same results.

b) Research is a tool for studying social events and learning about them and theirinterconnections so that general causal laws can be discovered, explained and

documented

c) Human behaviour can be objectively measured just like matter

d) People react to external stimuli:- in other words, that something ( a cause) makes

something else ( an effect)

E.g

a-------------------------------------b----------------------------------c

ECONOMIC INCREASED INCREASEDRECESSION UNEMPLOYMENT CRIME

How an effect may become a cause

Durkheims study on Suicide(1897)

-Highly personal act which could be researched to show the link between individual

and society which would add value to the study, which is sociology.

INVESTIGATION :-Suicide rates in different European countries

METHOD :- use of official statistics

RESULTS

a) Suicide rates varied between different countries, more prevalent in Protestant

countries than Catholic countries

b) The rate of different countries remained constant even if ratios rose or fell across

Europe.

c) The rise and fall appeared to be related to social factors

d) There were consistent variations in suicide rates between different groups within

the same country with Protestants, the unmarried and the childless having higher rates

than Catholics, the married and those with children.

Types of Suicide

INTEGRATION REGULATION

TOO STRONG ALTRUISTIC (a) FATALISTIC (b)

TOO WEAK EGOISTIC (c) ANOMIC (d)

(a) Altruistic:- out of duty. They take their own life. Eg Indian wives in the act of

satee.

(b) Fatalistic:- excessive regulation such as slaves

(c ) Egoistic:- An individual phenomenon

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(d) Anomic:- found in modern societies. Anomie means normlessness brought about

by unlimited desires and limited means. Individuals cannot attain what the need.

ANTI-POSITIVISMINTERPRETIVE SOCIOLOGY

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST THEORY

SOCIAL ACTION THEORY--- WEBER

Weber is regarded as the founding father of interpretive sociology which emphasises

the importance of taking into account the points of view of social actors, and the

meanings which they attribute to their own behaviour.

Weber introduced the term Verstenhen which means empathetic understanding to

explain how one should look at the social world. To imagine how the world would

have looked from the point of view of the actors whose actions one wishes tounderstand, even when such a point of view is quite alien to ones own.

Interpretive social science places emphasis on understanding human behaviour

Associated schools of thought

1) Symbolic Interactionism:- looks at the meaning behind the interaction

2) Phenomenology:- categorisation of elements to find meaning behind the

phenomenon.

3) Ethnomethodology:- Harold Garfinkel coined the term ethnomethodology to

designate the methods individuals use in daily life to construct their reality, primarily

through intimate exchanges of meanings in conversation.

ACTIVITY

Essays:

1) Within the social sciences, there is a debate about whether sociology is a science or

not. Evaluate the major positions in this debate (May 2004)

2) Sociology cannot be a science because the subject matter is too varied, abstract

and difficult to measure. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your

response by referring to the characteristics of the discipline of Sociology as well asthe nature of human social behaviour.(May 2007)

3) Sociology takes what everyone knows and puts into words that no-one

understands. Critically examine this statement focusing on:

(a) The difference between sociologically derived knowledge and common sense

knowledge

(b) Some of the problems encountered on the conception of sociology as a science.

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TOPIC 6

What is society and how does it work?

Society can mean a particular geographical area, a group of individuals with a distinctidentity or even a country having a common form of government.

Society comprises of groups, institutions and individuals who are socially controlled

by norms and values.

Norms (Normative/normal) are specific socially acceptable ways of behaviour that

are shared by groups of individuals in society. It is the dos and donts which involve

social interaction between individuals and which creates the social structure. EG ways

of dressing at particular events.

There are 3 types of norms :-

1) Folkways: traditional yet familiar such as a greeting or handshake at first meeting.

With folkways there is no clear penalty for not conforming.

2) Mores: norms that result in stronger penalties when individual does not conform

such as back chat.

3) Laws:- formal expression of what is acceptable, which when broken can have

severe punishments.

Values are general guidelines of behaviour. A belief that something is worthwhile and

important. EG value placed on money

HUMAN SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNED

We learn to be human through socialisation. This involves the process of learning the

culture (way of life, language, beliefs) of society. It takes place within social groups

such as the family, peers, the church, the school and even the media.

Primary socialisation occurs between the individual and those people in their life

with whom they have primary relationships. These include parents and or guardians.

Walking, talking, manners ( a suitable value system),gender roles, basic literacy andnumeracy are all carried out by this agent of socialisation(parent).

Secondary socialisation is the continued process where individuals learn behaviour

through other mediums such as school, organisations and the media.

Our behaviour is monitored by these informal controls as well as formal controls.

Formal Informal

Laws Promise

Sanctions Threat

Religious Teachings

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SANCTIONS

REWARDS PUNISHMENTS

Formal Informal Formal Informal

Trophy Applause Incarceration Glare

Individuals occupy a particular position in society which is referred to as a STATUS,

while a ROLE is the accompanying behaviour attached to that position. Roles and

statuses are significant components of the social structure. Individuals can occupy

several positions which can lead to role conflict. EG friend vs policeman.

There are 2 types of statuses.

Ascribed Achieved

Fixed at birth based on ones own merit

No mobility movement between classes

Caste ClassSex Gender

Race Ethnicity

All of these elements which make human social behaviour possible add to the concept

ofORDER(balance, equilibrium, stability) in society.

ACTIVITY

1)What is the difference between agents of socialisation and agencies of socialisation?

2) What is gender socialisation and give 2 examples of how this process is learned.

Answer; (1) agents include parents, teachers, priests, peers while agencies include

school, church, media or social club.

(2) process where boys and girls learn to behave in socially acceptable ways.

Through verbal appellation:- come here honey (girl), no good (boy)

Through toys and chores at home, they learn particular roles

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TOPIC 7

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

FUNCTIONALISM

(Function, effect and contribution)

Thinkers: Emile Durkheim( 1858-1917) and Talcott Parsons

Functionalism concerned with:-

- How societies hold together

- How is order maintained in any society

- What are the main sources of stability in any society

-Social order-Shared values through the socialisation process-Value consensus :- agreement between individuals on values in a society

These thinkers view society as a whole (system) where each institution work togetherfor the maintenance of social order. As a result this perspective is considered a

MACRO theory. It looks at the big picture of society to explain how it works rather

than on individual ideas, meanings and interpretations.

Emile Durkheim was a main proponent who viewed all parts of society working

interdependently(organismic analogy) to achieve ORDER. Every institution has

their part to play for stability and equilibrium in society. He introduced 2 elements:-

a. Social Solidarity - the feeling that we belong to a common society (that we

have certain basic values in common with people). Solidarity is based upon such

things as common culture, socialisation, basic values and norms, etc.

b. Collective Conscience - the "external expression" of the collective will of

people living in a society. This represents the social forces that help bind people

together (to integrate them into the collective behaviour that is society). It can be

likened to the "will" of society.These will create a conscious in the individual like an inner policeman to obey the law of

society.

Human behaviour needed to be controlled as individuals have unlimited desires with

limited means. These desires are to be morally regulated for societys success. He

introduced the concept of division of labour to explain that as societies modernised,moral regulation and social solidarity also changed. In simple, traditional societies

there was no ready need for social order and so this was achieved through mechanical

solidarity (sharing of common interests). However, with specialisation, mechanical

solidarity had to be replaced with organic solidarity( highly needed to maintain the

social unit)

We are born in a ready made world and so have to develop the skills necessary to live

in this world.

Disorder is recognised but too much would bring about the demise of society. In other

words it would be dysfunctional. Eg. Too much crime is detrimental to society but

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crime in right amounts can demonstrate to the citizens what not to do, create

employment and even provide for social change (change of laws).

Change is seen as a somewhat slow process but has to occur for society to grow.

(Evolutionary change)

In summation, this theory takes a holistic picture of society and emphasises on thewhole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Robert K. Merton another functionalist added to Durkheims work by demonstrating

that there exists 2 types of functions:- manifest and latent functions.

A manifest function is the conscious and deliberate effect of an action while the latent

function is the unconscious and unintended effect.

e.g. the manifest function of the police is to protect while the latent function is to

create a status quo to members in society that they cannot be touched.

Talcott Parsons(1902-1979) impressed the idea of the socialisation process and the

individuals need to learn the culture of society to promote this order.

Each institution faces problems which need to be addressed for the society to function

properly. These he called the functional prerequisites.

1) Adaptation:- This involves procuring the means to achieve valued goals. this may,

for example, involve the ability to create / provide the physical necessities of

institutional life.

2) Goal Attainment:- This involves the need to set goals for human behaviour and also

to determine the means through which they can be achieved (the means of keeping an

institution moving towards its allotted goals).

3) Integration :-People have to be made to feel a part of any institution. They need tobe made to feel that they belong and one way of achieving this is to give them

something that they can hold in common (values, beliefs, etc.). The ability of an

institution to integrate people successfully is vital for its continuation and internal

harmony.

4) Pattern maintenance or latency:- This involves the development of social control

mechanisms that serve to manage tensions, motivate people, resolve interpersonal

conflicts.

Criticisms

1) Too much emphasis placed on order and how it should be maintained. Views the

glass as half full rather than half empty- conservative bias

2) The socialisation process leaves less to be desired as everyone is taught differently.

3) There is no concept of free will, initiative or creativity as social beings are born in a

ready made world with everything preconceived already. Human behaviour is

deterministic.

ACTIVITY

Essay: Assess the claim made by some sociologists that human behaviour results fromsocialisation

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TOPIC 8

MARXISM

Main thinkers:- Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels

Marxist thinkers are concerned with how societies work and particularly in thefundamental aspects of production and human interaction.

Since time immemorial, humans have been involved in the production and

distribution of goods and services. Marx saw that societies were based on this

transaction for human existence. Without this human life would not be possible.

Like Functionalism, Marxism is a macro theory but Marx focuses on the economical

aspect of human relations.

Man needs certain assets to produce such as land, raw materials, capital, tools,

machinery, labour which he terms forces of production (material and non material)These have to be used by people and so have to enter into social relations- relations

to the means of production. These combined are the infrastructure. Everything

outside of the infrastructure would be the superstructure.

Means of production refers to those things that are tangible and can be owned such as

the land, not labour, machinery, not knowledge. (material)

For Marx, there existed two classes in society, the haves and the have nots, the ruling

class and the subject class, the owners and the serfs, the bourgeoisie and the

proletariat. The ruling class owned and means of production while the subject class

owned only their labour for which they sold to the ruling class for their survival. This

relationship was one of exploitation and oppression with the bourgeoisie gaining at

the expense of the proletariat. As a result of this inequality, conflict is likely to exist

which always threatens the social order and allows for social change.

For Marx, societies are always transitory due to the conflict between classes and he

identified 4 modes of production:- primitive communism, slave society, feudalism and

capitalism.

The working class is kept in a false class consciousness where they think that the

world is fair and so remain in their position. This is kept in check by the ruling classideology:- a false picture of reality. This belief is supported in all aspects of society

through the socialisation process. Together with this notion is the fact that they are

alienated from what they are producing and see it as a continuous process, only

making profits for the bourgeoisie.

Class in itself is where individuals share the same relations to the means of

production while Class for itself is where they recognise the inequality and take steps

to change their position.

In summation, economic ownership produces economic power which in turn is

translated into political and ideological power.

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Criticisms

1) Too economically deterministic ;-over-exaggerate the importance of economic

relationships

2) Recognises ONLY two classes in society when there are generally more.

3) Ahistorical:- does not fit into reality of modern day societies.

Activity

1) Compare and contrast the Functionalist and Marxist theories.

(Use a table)

2) Describe how a Functionalist and a Marxist would explain:-

a) Viewing television

b) drinking coffee

c) prostitution

3) Evaluate the relevance of the Marxist model of class structure and class conflict to

an analysis of Caribbean society. (Spec 2002) 25 marks

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TOPIC 9

INTERACTIONISM

Whereas Functionalism and Marxism are considered as macro theories, the

Interactionist school of thought is a micro theory which looks at the small picture..

the individual and the meanings that are attached to action.

The main focus is on:-

1) how individuals act

2) how onlookers interpret the act and what meanings are attached

Activity

What meanings are attached to the following scenarios?

a) A couple in an intimate setting with candles

b) A person dressed like a mummy

c) Your friend breaking the red light

Main proponent was George Herbert Mead who identifies and I and the ME which

represents the self

The I represents the conscious action and the ME represents the awareness of how

other people expects us to behave.

Lets use an example.

Getting in an accident. The I aspect would be shaken up, maybe cry, even swear but

the ME aspect would evaluate the social conditions as to how it happened, who saw,

where it took place. For instance, one would assert that it was wet and the car skidded,

a male driver gave me a bad drive, the road was not well lit, this is the first time I got

in an accident (inexperienced).

Through this example it is clear to ascertain that human behaviour cannot be

objectively measured using the interactionist perspective as people react differently to

similar stimuli. As such we categorise people and experiences to make sense of the

world where we attach labels to people and access them when we create the situation.

Criticisms

1) there is little attempt to explain how social structures work and more emphasis on

the individual

2) there is discussion on power relations (who labels) but none on where this powercomes from (why some are more powerful than others)

3) human social relations are relative in nature and so would not be measured.

4) inadequate explanation of social order and social change.

Activity

Draw a table showing the differences between macro and micro theories.

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TOPIC 10

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

As was already discussed, sociology can be considered scientific in its procedures and

methods of gathering data.

What is research

Research is the systematic investigation of a problem. It is the process of forwarding

ideas to be tested in a systematic way, collecting raw data, converting this data to be

understood and presenting conclusions.

Research design is the planned way of carrying out the research. It starts with asking

questions and developing certain concepts based on the problem to be studied. It can

take 2 forms:-

1) Deductive approach:- this starts off with a theory and then uses observations to test

this theory2) Inductive approach:- from studied observations, a theory is drawn.

Methodology involves the principles of research, how we go about creating

knowledge.

Data is the raw facts and figures which when analysed is transformed into

information (processed data). There are two types of data:- quantitative and

qualitative.

a) Quantitative (scientific) data is data presented in numerical form such as official

statistics.

Advantages Disadvantages

1) used to study trends and test hypothesis Lack depth

2) reliable and representative Output of research has no meaning

3) easy to analyse and objective No focus on the individual

b) Qualitative (humanistic) data is presented in words which gives deeper meaning to

the investigation.


1) Output of research is close to reality Subjective and unreliable

2) In-depth feelings and meanings Not scientific and measurable3) rich description Cannot generalise and easy to mis-interpret

Additionally, there are two sources of data:- primary and secondary

a) primary data sources are obtained by the researcher themselves ( first hand, up-to-

date and relevant) e.g. questionnaire.

b) secondary data sources are already in existence. The researcher does not have to

undertake research. E.g diaries, official statistics

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Primary research

Primary/ quantitative primary/ qualitative

Mailed/self completed questionnaire Participant observation

Structured Interviews Unstructured Interviews

Longitudinal studies

Experiments

Quantitative data Qualitative data

Secondary/Quantitative Secondary/ Qualitative

Official Statistics Personal Documents

Media material

Secondary research

Activity

To research triangulation and suggest why researchers would utilise this method.

Stages of research1) proposal, recommend a hypothesis, a statement of the problem

2) literature review:- this concerns specific information on the hypothesis

3) data collection

4) analysis

5) presentation of data

6) conclusions and recommendations (theory development)

Reliability and validity are terms which refer to both quantitative and qualitative

designs. Reliability deals with repetition, consistency and stability. Given the same

circumstances, the results will be the same, time and time again. This is usually more

pronounced using quantitative data such as a questionnaire.

Validity in sociological essence, means that the research is designed in a way that it

tests what it set out to do in the first place. Qualitative data will therefore be high in

validity as for example using observation, the researcher would clearly outline what

they are testing.

Objectivity concerns the scientific way the information is obtained. Respondents are

not coerced into anyones opinions while representativeness depicts that the sample

selected would appear in numbers proportional to their size in the target population.

Value neutrality assumes that researchers cannot allow their personal feelings to

influence the interpretation of data even if it is contrary to their personal views.

How do researchers decide what topic to study?

The topic to be studied should have personal meaning to them as the research itself is

time consuming and costly. It should also try to explain certain dramatic changes in

society. (Why crime is rising). Funding for research can also impact on the topic.

Government grants and private financial support can encourage research in a

particular field of study.

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How do researchers decide what research method to use?

1) Theoretical assumptions:- as a researcher from a particular school of thought, they

would choose methods consistent with their perspectives. A positivist would use

questionnaires as opposed to an interpretive sociologists who would use observation.

Also how reliable and valid the data collection methods are and the values of theresearcher.

2) Practicality:- depending on the intention of the research and the target population,

this would guide the researcher to choose a particular method. Also the time and

money available to the researcher.

3) The topic itself :- this would actually dictate what method to use. Once the

hypothesis is established it should be clear as to what research method should be

feasible.

4) Chance and inspiration:- there are some researchers whose studies were notplanned but rather conducted by accident. E.g Malinowski in the Trobriand islands

and participant observation studies on the aborigines.

5) Moral and ethical issues:- methods should be translucent as possible with

respondents having knowledge on what the results will be used for. Researchers need

to maintain objectivity and integrity, respect the subjects right to privacy, preserve

confidentiality, seek informed consent and protect subjects from personal harm. In

some instances it might not be possible to accomplish all as data could be lost.

Four cornered relationship model

Choice of topic----------------------------------------------Theoretical Preference

Research Methods------------------------------------------Practical Preference

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RESEARCH METHODS

Survey research

QUESTIONNAIRE

This is a list of pre-set questions geared towards obtaining information on a particularissue. A questionnaire can contain open ended and close ended questions. Open ended

questions allow the respondents to answer in a particular way. E.g How do you feel

about crime in the community.

Close ended questions give the respondents options to choose from. E.g what is your

age. 10-14

15- 19

20- 24

There are many types of questionnaires.

a) mail/ postal:- this is a questionnaire sent via post to gather data from a wide cross

section of the population. It is typically used for market research

Advantages:-

1) Can gather data from a large number of people, practical

2) Targets individuals over a wide geographical area

3) Relatively inexpensive

Disadvantages

1) Low return rate which can destroy the representativeness of the sample

2) Respondents can lie

b) Self- Completion:- this is given to the respondent to fill out

Advantages:-

1) Relatively inexpensive

2) Fast and efficient way of analysing data especially if close ended questions were

used

3) No interviewer bias :- when interviewers are present, respondents would tend to

answer in a way they think the examiner wants them to answer. It is a perceived

notion based on age, sex or topic, that the respondents will answer in a particular way

depending on these variables.

Disadvantges:-

1) The interpretation of the questions would be different for individual readers and so

answer questions differently thus producing data which cannot be compared.

2) Respondents might very well lie. To curb this, interviewers introduce a check

question.

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INTERVIEW

There are two types of interviews

1) Structured

2) Unstructured

A structured interview is basically a questionnaire given by the interviewer who isbounded by those questions.


Easy to analyse and quantify with fixed

choice questions

Limited, as researcher is bounded by set

questions

Less dishonesty in face-to-face

interaction

Uses a small sample and so cannot

generalise

High in reliability Costly and time consuming

Used to gather quantitative data Interviewer bias can step in

An unstructured interview is formulated as a free flowing conversation where there

are no set questions.


Interviewee can explain and so researcher

can gather in depth information

Not easily quantifiable

Used to gather qualitative data (sensitive

groups)

Low in reliability

High in validity Might be difficult to record as in a

conversation

Information could be warped if

interviewer is not skilled

Questionnaire Participant observation

Structured--------------------------------------------------------------Unstructured

Questions lie within this continuum

Activity

1) Research the advantages and disadvantages of individual and group interviews.

2) What is mulitvocality?

The Interview Process

How do we go about an interview?

Firstly, contact has to be established using gentle persuasion for the interviewee to

participate in the interview. This contact can be made by advanced telephone, letters

or even showing up at the respondents house. In any even, it must be clear the reason

for the interview and how the outcome of the research would be used. One very

important way of conducting interviews is the non-directive way which involves

refraining from offering opinions (reduce interviewer bias). This method would allow

the interviewee to be comfortable expressing themselves without the feeling of being

judged. Howard Becker(1971) disagreed with this type of interview as he believed

that interviewers should be more active and aggressive so that fuller, better

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information can be derived. The researcher would then be leading the respondent

into revealing private details. His study with Chicago school teachers proved that

using this type of interview he got more information then they would normally share

in a non directive manner such as their evaluation of students in terms of class and

ethnic background.

Observation and Participation observation

The emphasis here is on the overall nature of the study being non experimental and on

simply observing the naturally and freely occurring behaviour WITH or WITHOUT

their knowledge. This method is frequently used by qualitative researchers to obtain

information on groups of individuals (linked to Ethnography- study of the way of life

of a group of people). There are however certain circumstances where observations

are prohibited such as in politics, family or companies.

Being studied ( observed) presents some problems in certain situations. People wouldact differently knowing they are under scrutiny. Hargreaves( 1967) undertook a study

involving secondary schooling where teachers were observed and some (teachers)

stopped teaching altogether, while some continued as normal. He discovered that the

longer he stayed, the less attention was given to them and so they acted naturally

again.


Flexible, non structured data gathering

system may produce greater richness of

information

Lack objectivity as it relies too much on

observers interpretation

Preserves validity in study Risk to life of researcher

This method strengthens knowledge as it

answers questions that would not be

asked in an interview setting

Studies cannot be replicated and only a

fraction of social life is recorded

Participants would tell truthful accounts.

There is no need to lie

Generalisations are not possible

Participant Observation is a very important technique as it allows the observer to get

directly involved with the group they are studying. It has been adopted by many

sociologists doing ethnographic studies. Some researchers follow the principle that, if

you cant observe them, join them, but join them how?

Overt Participant Observation allows the researcher to join the group where his

identity and intention is known by the members.


Morally and practically the better way It will affect the behaviour of people in

the group- Hawthorne effect *

Avoid participating in illegal behaviour Research is time consuming, can take

years

Free to ask questions Researcher can be misled or misinformed

*Hawthorne effect :- the mere fact that research is being conducted will alter the

results. Research was conducted at Hawthorne works at the Western Electric

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Company in Chicago to ascertain whether there was relationship between productivity

and levels of heating, lighting and rest intervals. The results were rather strange as

productivity peeked even when heating was increased!

Covert Participant Observation involves the researcher entering the group in cognito,

without the group being aware. (undercover brother)


Less likely to change peoples behaviour Time consuming

Might be the only way to study group e.g.

gang.

Cannot ask questions freely or ask for

help

Allows empathetic understanding Data collection would be based on

memory

Danger of getting too involved- going

native (Pryce) and losing objectivity.

Activity

1) To research these participant observation studies under the following headings:-

Name of researcher, year, title, locality, findings (descriptions), overt/covert

Studies:- E.Liebow, Whyte, K. Pryce, Ditton.

Name of

researcher

Year Title Locality Findings Overt/

Covert

Liebow

Whyte

Pryce

Ditton Covert

2) Question:- Outline the different ways that sociologists ask questions of the people

they are studying and assess the problems when doing this. [25 marks]

EXPERIMENTS

In sociology, laboratory experiments are very rarely carried out for the reason that

what they want to study cannot be conducted in this type of setting.

Disadvantages1) They are places of unnaturalness and so studying behaviour would be worthless in

a laboratory with respect to sociology.

2) It would not be possible to place a whole society (community) in a lab for the sake

of a study. Impractical in nature.

So sociologists came up with studies known as field experiments. As the name

suggests it is an experiment but it is carried out in a natural setting where variables

can be isolated.

Such experiments conducted include:-

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1) experiment with babies:- girls were dressed in blue, boys in pink. Results were that

the girls seen as boys and vice versa and their actions were recorded in relation to

gender. Girls were playful and boys were emotionally stressed.

2) Sissons (1970) conducted an experiment to test social class and interaction with

strangers. An actor was dressed as a business man and a labourer in separateoccasions asking directions and it was found that people were more helpful to the

business man.

3) Brown and Gay(1985) undertook an experiment where bogus applications were

made for a variety of jobs by letter and telephone. Applicants ensured that they were

from various ethnic groups. Results confirmed that minority groups got less positive

responses.

Disadvantages

1) It is not possible to control variables as with work done in a lab. Many factors

would be involved other than the factors you would want to test.

2) The Hawthorne effect will likely to occur

3) Individuals should be told of their involvement in an experiment but on most

occasions are not privy as it would change their behaviour. It is advised to tell them

immediately after the experiment.

Activity

1) Assess the strengths and limitations of the different kinds of qualitative research

techniques used in sociology. (June 2006) 25 marks

CASE STUDIES

It is an in-depth study of one individual or group usually qualitative in nature. Case

studies are valuable since it can highlight:

1) Outstanding cases:- Osgood et al for instance studied the rare but genuine

experiences of a person with 3 quite separate psychological identities.

2) It can contradict a theory:- a single instance can seriously damage a theory.


Provide new insights on previous

knowledge

Generalisations cannot be made

Can be used as a preamble to a larger

study- pilot study *

Limited in design and unrepresentative

*pilot study( feasibility study, pre test) is a small scale study conducted before the

main study to ascertain any errors or collect preliminary data.

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Life histories are a subdivision of case studies where only one person is studied. This

takes the form of unstructured questions. Studies conducted include the life of a

Polish peasant by Thomas and Znaniecki as well as an aging woman by Allport. The

use of qualitative data presents a wealth of knowledge for the researcher as he can

view the world from the actors point of view. This method of research is similar to

case studies in the way of falsifications of theories. A collection of life histories canbe used to make generalisations.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

Study of a group over a period of time, where data collection is done in intervals. First

used to measure changes in public attitudes- more reliable since same people would

be used, the changes would not result from composition of sample. It is a form of

research where quantitative data is collected in social surveys.

Advantages DisadvantagesAttitudinal change can be readily seen Time consuming

Valid data is obtained

Large number of variables can be

collected over the time span and

pinpointed at a later date

Impractical to locate sample over a period

due to death, migration, refusal to

participate- sample attrition *

Behaviour will be altered over time

*Sample attrition:- depletion of original sample size, loss of members of the sample.

Activity

1) Research any Caribbean or otherwise longitudinal study conducted and its findings.

2) Assess the extent to which a longitudinal approach is useful for the study of either

HIV/AIDS or teenage pregnancy in the Caribbean. (June 2009) 25 marks

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

These are numerical data produced by both governmental and non-governmental

agencies. Every 10 years the government conducts a census where data is collected on

the population concerning households, expenditure and income. Statistics also include

births, deaths, marriages, divorces, crime, unemployment, road fatalities. The externalbodies also conducts research which they analyse and present to the public such as

opinion polls, market research, NGOs research.


Saves time and money as it is already

collected

Access to information may be restricted

Collected by credible sources Can become obsolete

Large amounts of quantitative data which

is easy to analyse

Lack of depth in the investigation

Comparisons can be easily made Can be manipulated to suit a particular set

of interests

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Activity

Review Durkheims study

DOCUMENTS

Use of this secondary form of data is concerned with analysis of autobiographies,letters, diaries and even the media (papers). It can be classified into 2 categories:-

1) Content analysis

2) thematic amalysis/semiology

Content analysis:- quantitative in nature, objective and systematic where the

frequency of words is analysed and where the amount of time and space devoted to a

particular theme is noted.

E.g. During the time of mass kidnapping in Trinidad, many dramas on television

showed how and why kidnapping occurred. There were many programmes on this

topic.

Thematic Analysis:- qualitative method which uses signs and symbols to

explain/obtain meaning for the underlying ideas. E.g. a dove means more than a bird,

it also symbolises peace.

Activity

Explain the assumptions of the Positivist and Interpretivist methods in sociological

research. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of EACH method. (Spec 2002)

SAMPLING

A sample is a small proportion of an entire population. A population is the group

from which the researcher will choose the sample. The sampling frame is the list of

members of the population to be studied while the sampling unit is the member of

the population to be studied.

Activity

Draw a diagram to depict how each of the above terms are linked.

A representative sample is a cross section of the population with the same proportion

of males, females, young, old etc. In this way the sample will represent the whole

group.

Why choose a sample?

1) It is costly to use an entire population

2) It is time consuming on the researcher

3) It might not be possible to use the entire population

4) Since only a small number within the group is used it is then possible to make

generalisations of the population once a representative sample is chosen.

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Types of sampling designs:- probability vs non-probability

Probability

1) Random:-this is where each and every member of the population has an equal and

fair chance of being selected. E.g Play Whe, Picking from a hat

2) Systematic:- this is where every nth term is used from a list of items from the

population. E.g. choosing every 3rd person from the roll to form the sample.

3) Stratified:- this is where the population is divided into different layers(age, sex,

religion, race) and then the sample is taken. This would be a more representative

sample as the same proportion chosen from the group would be reflected in the

sample group.

Non- probablitity

4) Quota:- it is considered stratified sampling but the selection within the strata arenon random. This method is popular among market research companies and opinion

polls where the researcher once meeting the criteria, will choose the number needed to

fulfil the sample. E.g. a pharmaceutical company conducing research on 50 people

who are over the age of 50 and strictly women will choose the first 50 women above

the age of 50 and no more. This example shows the non-randomness of the research.

5) Snowball/network and volunteer :- the sample is formed based on contact to one

individual who will in turn direct/ introduce to other members of the sample. Just like

a snowball going downhill, it collects members thus increasing the sample size.

Obviously this method will be non- random and hence unrepresentative. E.g. Rapists,

burglars, heroin users, collectors of Ancient Greek coins.

Volunteer:- this method uses leaflets, advertisements, posters and media

broadcasts to announce the research and request volunteers for the sample. One

example is studies conducted on prostitutes in the USA.

6) Convenience/opportunity sampling:-involves the sample being drawn from that

part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected

because it is readily available and convenient.

PILOT STUDIES

This refers to mini versions of a full scale study as well as the pre-testing of a

particular research instrument such as a questionnaire.

Pilot studies or feasibility studies are important to a good study design. It has many

purposes such as:-

Train the researcher in many elements of the research process, convince funding

bodies that the main study is feasible and worth funding, identify problems which

might occur with the prescribed methods and determine what resources are needed for

the planned study.

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Hints ON ESSAY WRITING

1) Reading the question:- this should be done thoroughly before attempting to write.

Study the title of the essay carefully.

2) Ensure that you are relevant to the topic. Answer what the question asks.

3) Content and analysis are indeed important.

4) Planning the essay:- encapsulates brain storming

5) Introductions must arrest the readers attention

6) Length of the exam should determine how much you should write.

7) Refrain from colloquial English and blurry words and phrases

8) Conclusions should include an important statement. Make it as effective as it will

be the last words the examiner will view.

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Research

Section one

(i) Introduction:

Statement of the problem

This section will allow the student to identify the specific area of study and the

reasons behind the study. It should be a topic which is of interest to the student and so

the student should offer a brief background.

The statement of the problem does not necessarily have to be a problem. It can be a

current issue facing a group (teens, alcoholics) in society or an investigation into a

new phenomenon in the community. It can be in the form of a question or a

statement.

Egs. To what extent does extra curricular activities assist in the students development

at Princes Town West Secondary School?What factors are responsible for the homophobic action among parents in the

community of Angel Avenue?

To investigate whether race affects social interaction among the form five

students of St. Josephs Convent, San Fernando.

(ii) Aims and Objectives

This section should outline the purpose of the study. The researcher is trying to

gather information on a particular for what purpose? How would the results be used,

what relationships are you trying to discover? The researcher is also trying to

recommend/ propose solutions and investigate possible alternatives to the study.

(iii) Literature Review

It is literally a review of the literature. Literature in this context will mean knowledge

that has already been discovered on the topic. There will be citations from

sociologists, medical practitioners, psychologists etc, all concerned with presenting

the information from different standpoints.

There should be at least 3-4 different research sources. Ensure that proper reference

format is used. Information can also be obtained from the World Wide Web.

Section Two

(i) Research Design

This section requires the research to have a sound knowledge on research techniques

and the reason for choice. The method chosen should be justified by outlining the

advantages and uses.

It is advised to also describe what type of data is necessary and how the data will be

deciphered. Will a sample be chosen? How? The time frame and how the research

tool(s) will be delivered to the sample. You can also include why a pilot study couldnot be conducted. If one was, then you could give reasons for it.

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Format: (1) Research tool(s) was designed. Give brief description with advantages

(2) Sample was chosen and briefly describe the method(s)

(3) Type of data preferred described further with advantages together with the

advantages of primary vs secondary sources (which ever you choose)

(4) Time frame eg. 2 weeks, time of day, with reasons.

(5) Mention of pilot study, if any

(ii) Sample Selection

What is a sample? Why choose a sample? Identify the population and indicate

numbers. How was the sample selected through age, sex, social status- target

population? Describe the method in greater detail.

(iii) Data Collection Instrument

This will include a brief description of the tool(s) used in terms of definition,

advantages and a copy of research technique(s) used. If a questionnaire is used then itshould include 15- 20 well modelled questions.

Section Three

(i) Presentation of Data

The researcher uses a variety of diagrams to represent the data collected. It is advised

to that up to 6 different diagrams be used including pie charts, bar graphs, histogram,

scales, line graphs, tables, maps, doughnut graphs etc.

The title would be the question asked in the questionnaire

Ensure that the diagram is properly annotated and the percentages add up to 100%.

Have key/ scale where necessary

The footer would include the description of the diagram. Do not assume that the

examiner can read your graph!

(ii) Analysis of Data

This section would include actual data transformed into knowledge about the research

conducted. The researcher should be able to find relationships between variables used

and make some general comments. It was discovered that 12%.... it can be seen from

diagram 3 that according to figure 4, 10 %.........

(iii) Findings, Discussion of findings, Conclusions

Findings:-The researcher can outline some findings obtained at the end of the study.

Discussion of Findings:-There should also be some effort to link the literature review

to what was found and concur/ disagree with the analysis. This section brings the

previous sections together:- the statement of the problem, objectives, literature review

and even the presentation of data. Here also you can discuss any challenges faced

when conducting the study.

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In the conclusion, one can suggest that further work needs to be conducted, and offer

some recommendations to solve the problem. Give an overall appearance of the

study.

(iv) Bibliography

A very important item of the research design that students do not pay attention to. Itincludes the resources used while conducting the research. This is the required way.

Author, Title, Year Published, Publisher

e.g. Mustapha, Nasser. Sociology for Caribbean Students, 2007, Publisher.

Websites also need to be listed together with title of journal entries, articles, date.

Proper citations are necessary.