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Sociology and Common Sense
As budding sociologists, there has to be a distinction between layman and expert
knowledge. Its interesting how many people think that sociology is just
commonsense! But what is different is the:
1) distinct sociological questions being asked
2) research to be conducted
3) and application or testing of sociological theories
Asking sociological questions
Questions such as Who, What, Where, When and Why all gather information, but
what sociologists ask contain more depth and they make the familiar strange. They
also are interested in how social order is maintained.
Doing research
Sociologists use many methods and undertake scientific studies to test variables. In
crime studies, sociologists might examine official rates using official statistics,
interview people who have committed crime, observe the police at work or even join
criminal gangs.
Applying sociological theories
Sociologists create general frameworks of ideas to explain how societies work and
change.
ACTIVITY
Read the following statements and judge whether they are true or false
1) Men are more naturally aggressive than women
2) Divorce among young couples is highlighting that marriage as an institution is
losing ground
3) A criminal is someone who has broken the law
Answers
1) It is socially accepted that men are aggressive than women but women haveexhibited aggressive tendencies as well. Men have also been given more freedom than
women to do as they please.
2) Divorced couples jump back into marriages soon after
3) a criminal is an individual who has been convicted of a crime. If society did not
recognise them as breaking the law then they are not criminal. Further, there are
people who are falsely accused and incarcerated.
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TOPIC 2
Origins of Sociology
- Time line:- 17th -18th centuries
Founder of the term Sociology:- Auguste Comte.
However there were earlier thinkers who postulated about society.
It was the French Revolution that led to sociological thinking which tried to explain
the chaos in society. Together with this was the Industrial Revolution which saw a
transition from agrarian society to industry, from autocracy to democracy and from
tradition to modernity.
This period was known as the ENLIGHTENMENT ; to eradicate the belief in myth
and adopt reason and progress to understand the social world.
The Catholic Church had heavy input is how society was organised.
WHY STUDY SOCIETY?
For obvious reasons.. of shaping human life.
When things go wrong such as crime, unemployment, school drop-outs, scientific
procedures need to be done.
For Sociology to exist, 3 sets of ideas are necessary. These are known as the pre-
conditions.
1) freedom of thought
2) awareness of a crisis
3) a belief that something could be done to remedy the crisis
TOPIC 3
Sociology and the other Social Sciences
The individual is a complex organism learning behaviour through a lifelong process
called Socialisation ( nurture, environment). Animals, on the other hand, are directed
and controlled by instincts (nature, hereditary)
Human behaviour has several dimensionsBiology:- study of the human body which looks at processes, dysfunctions and its
causes.
There is a link between biological processes and influence on behaviour. E.g Too
much testerone can lead to aggression.
Psychology:- study of human behaviour, but looks at internal factors. The mind is the
focus of attention.
History:- study of the past
Economics:- study of supply and demand of goodsAnthropology:- study of relatively small, non- industrial societies.
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TOPIC 4
Development of Sociology in the Caribbean
The Caribbean comprises of people from all parts of the world who brought with them
their own culture, traditions, language. In order to understand this diversity it wasindeed necessary to introduce the sociological aspect of this phenomenon. Migration
was key to the formation of groups of people in the Caribbean and sociology steps in
to explain slavery and indentureship and their impact on social life.
The Caribbean region is unique and it is with this notion that sociology tries to
understand this. Authors have tried to explain how religion works for the region, how
families were formed, and even how education was established. All these could not
have been established without the research of the past.
TOPIC 5
Sociology as a Science
Definition of sociology:- the scientific study of society.
What is a science?
It is the use of systematic methods and investigation and the logical analysis of
investigation in order to develop an understanding of a particular subject matter.
Characteristics of Sociology
1) Empirical:- based on facts
2) Theoretical :- set of ideas put together logically
3) Cumulative:- build on previous theories
4) Objective:- No personal opinions, not considered as accurate evidence
5) Value- free:- free from value judgements
Positivism vs Anti-positivism
Scientific inquiry behaviour cannot be measured objectively
Many of the early sociologists in the 19th century, such as Comte and Spencer
believed that by applying the principles and practises that had worked so well in thenatural sciences, sociology could discover the laws that explained how societies
worked and changed.
Comte discovered the law of three stages. Society passed through 3 stages:-
1) Theological:- events caused by the action of gods
2) Metaphysical :- events caused by abstract forces, natural rather than supernatural
3) Positivism:- events caused by scientific rationality.
Comte believed that there was a hierarchy of the scientific subjects with sociology at
the top of the hierarchy.
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POSITIVISM
Major tenets
a) Human beings are rational individuals who are governed by social laws; their
behaviour is learned through observation and governed by external causes that
produce the same results.
b) Research is a tool for studying social events and learning about them and theirinterconnections so that general causal laws can be discovered, explained and
documented
c) Human behaviour can be objectively measured just like matter
d) People react to external stimuli:- in other words, that something ( a cause) makes
something else ( an effect)
E.g
a-------------------------------------b----------------------------------c
ECONOMIC INCREASED INCREASEDRECESSION UNEMPLOYMENT CRIME
How an effect may become a cause
Durkheims study on Suicide(1897)
-Highly personal act which could be researched to show the link between individual
and society which would add value to the study, which is sociology.
INVESTIGATION :-Suicide rates in different European countries
METHOD :- use of official statistics
RESULTS
a) Suicide rates varied between different countries, more prevalent in Protestant
countries than Catholic countries
b) The rate of different countries remained constant even if ratios rose or fell across
Europe.
c) The rise and fall appeared to be related to social factors
d) There were consistent variations in suicide rates between different groups within
the same country with Protestants, the unmarried and the childless having higher rates
than Catholics, the married and those with children.
Types of Suicide
INTEGRATION REGULATION
TOO STRONG ALTRUISTIC (a) FATALISTIC (b)
TOO WEAK EGOISTIC (c) ANOMIC (d)
(a) Altruistic:- out of duty. They take their own life. Eg Indian wives in the act of
satee.
(b) Fatalistic:- excessive regulation such as slaves
(c ) Egoistic:- An individual phenomenon
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(d) Anomic:- found in modern societies. Anomie means normlessness brought about
by unlimited desires and limited means. Individuals cannot attain what the need.
ANTI-POSITIVISMINTERPRETIVE SOCIOLOGY
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST THEORY
SOCIAL ACTION THEORY--- WEBER
Weber is regarded as the founding father of interpretive sociology which emphasises
the importance of taking into account the points of view of social actors, and the
meanings which they attribute to their own behaviour.
Weber introduced the term Verstenhen which means empathetic understanding to
explain how one should look at the social world. To imagine how the world would
have looked from the point of view of the actors whose actions one wishes tounderstand, even when such a point of view is quite alien to ones own.
Interpretive social science places emphasis on understanding human behaviour
Associated schools of thought
1) Symbolic Interactionism:- looks at the meaning behind the interaction
2) Phenomenology:- categorisation of elements to find meaning behind the
phenomenon.
3) Ethnomethodology:- Harold Garfinkel coined the term ethnomethodology to
designate the methods individuals use in daily life to construct their reality, primarily
through intimate exchanges of meanings in conversation.
ACTIVITY
Essays:
1) Within the social sciences, there is a debate about whether sociology is a science or
not. Evaluate the major positions in this debate (May 2004)
2) Sociology cannot be a science because the subject matter is too varied, abstract
and difficult to measure. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your
response by referring to the characteristics of the discipline of Sociology as well asthe nature of human social behaviour.(May 2007)
3) Sociology takes what everyone knows and puts into words that no-one
understands. Critically examine this statement focusing on:
(a) The difference between sociologically derived knowledge and common sense
knowledge
(b) Some of the problems encountered on the conception of sociology as a science.
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TOPIC 6
What is society and how does it work?
Society can mean a particular geographical area, a group of individuals with a distinctidentity or even a country having a common form of government.
Society comprises of groups, institutions and individuals who are socially controlled
by norms and values.
Norms (Normative/normal) are specific socially acceptable ways of behaviour that
are shared by groups of individuals in society. It is the dos and donts which involve
social interaction between individuals and which creates the social structure. EG ways
of dressing at particular events.
There are 3 types of norms :-
1) Folkways: traditional yet familiar such as a greeting or handshake at first meeting.
With folkways there is no clear penalty for not conforming.
2) Mores: norms that result in stronger penalties when individual does not conform
such as back chat.
3) Laws:- formal expression of what is acceptable, which when broken can have
severe punishments.
Values are general guidelines of behaviour. A belief that something is worthwhile and
important. EG value placed on money
HUMAN SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNED
We learn to be human through socialisation. This involves the process of learning the
culture (way of life, language, beliefs) of society. It takes place within social groups
such as the family, peers, the church, the school and even the media.
Primary socialisation occurs between the individual and those people in their life
with whom they have primary relationships. These include parents and or guardians.
Walking, talking, manners ( a suitable value system),gender roles, basic literacy andnumeracy are all carried out by this agent of socialisation(parent).
Secondary socialisation is the continued process where individuals learn behaviour
through other mediums such as school, organisations and the media.
Our behaviour is monitored by these informal controls as well as formal controls.
Formal Informal
Laws Promise
Sanctions Threat
Religious Teachings
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SANCTIONS
REWARDS PUNISHMENTS
Formal Informal Formal Informal
Trophy Applause Incarceration Glare
Individuals occupy a particular position in society which is referred to as a STATUS,
while a ROLE is the accompanying behaviour attached to that position. Roles and
statuses are significant components of the social structure. Individuals can occupy
several positions which can lead to role conflict. EG friend vs policeman.
There are 2 types of statuses.
Ascribed Achieved
Fixed at birth based on ones own merit
No mobility movement between classes
Caste ClassSex Gender
Race Ethnicity
All of these elements which make human social behaviour possible add to the concept
ofORDER(balance, equilibrium, stability) in society.
ACTIVITY
1)What is the difference between agents of socialisation and agencies of socialisation?
2) What is gender socialisation and give 2 examples of how this process is learned.
Answer; (1) agents include parents, teachers, priests, peers while agencies include
school, church, media or social club.
(2) process where boys and girls learn to behave in socially acceptable ways.
Through verbal appellation:- come here honey (girl), no good (boy)
Through toys and chores at home, they learn particular roles
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TOPIC 7
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
FUNCTIONALISM
(Function, effect and contribution)
Thinkers: Emile Durkheim( 1858-1917) and Talcott Parsons
Functionalism concerned with:-
- How societies hold together
- How is order maintained in any society
- What are the main sources of stability in any society
-Social order-Shared values through the socialisation process-Value consensus :- agreement between individuals on values in a society
These thinkers view society as a whole (system) where each institution work togetherfor the maintenance of social order. As a result this perspective is considered a
MACRO theory. It looks at the big picture of society to explain how it works rather
than on individual ideas, meanings and interpretations.
Emile Durkheim was a main proponent who viewed all parts of society working
interdependently(organismic analogy) to achieve ORDER. Every institution has
their part to play for stability and equilibrium in society. He introduced 2 elements:-
a. Social Solidarity - the feeling that we belong to a common society (that we
have certain basic values in common with people). Solidarity is based upon such
things as common culture, socialisation, basic values and norms, etc.
b. Collective Conscience - the "external expression" of the collective will of
people living in a society. This represents the social forces that help bind people
together (to integrate them into the collective behaviour that is society). It can be
likened to the "will" of society.These will create a conscious in the individual like an inner policeman to obey the law of
society.
Human behaviour needed to be controlled as individuals have unlimited desires with
limited means. These desires are to be morally regulated for societys success. He
introduced the concept of division of labour to explain that as societies modernised,moral regulation and social solidarity also changed. In simple, traditional societies
there was no ready need for social order and so this was achieved through mechanical
solidarity (sharing of common interests). However, with specialisation, mechanical
solidarity had to be replaced with organic solidarity( highly needed to maintain the
social unit)
We are born in a ready made world and so have to develop the skills necessary to live
in this world.
Disorder is recognised but too much would bring about the demise of society. In other
words it would be dysfunctional. Eg. Too much crime is detrimental to society but
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crime in right amounts can demonstrate to the citizens what not to do, create
employment and even provide for social change (change of laws).
Change is seen as a somewhat slow process but has to occur for society to grow.
(Evolutionary change)
In summation, this theory takes a holistic picture of society and emphasises on thewhole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Robert K. Merton another functionalist added to Durkheims work by demonstrating
that there exists 2 types of functions:- manifest and latent functions.
A manifest function is the conscious and deliberate effect of an action while the latent
function is the unconscious and unintended effect.
e.g. the manifest function of the police is to protect while the latent function is to
create a status quo to members in society that they cannot be touched.
Talcott Parsons(1902-1979) impressed the idea of the socialisation process and the
individuals need to learn the culture of society to promote this order.
Each institution faces problems which need to be addressed for the society to function
properly. These he called the functional prerequisites.
1) Adaptation:- This involves procuring the means to achieve valued goals. this may,
for example, involve the ability to create / provide the physical necessities of
institutional life.
2) Goal Attainment:- This involves the need to set goals for human behaviour and also
to determine the means through which they can be achieved (the means of keeping an
institution moving towards its allotted goals).
3) Integration :-People have to be made to feel a part of any institution. They need tobe made to feel that they belong and one way of achieving this is to give them
something that they can hold in common (values, beliefs, etc.). The ability of an
institution to integrate people successfully is vital for its continuation and internal
harmony.
4) Pattern maintenance or latency:- This involves the development of social control
mechanisms that serve to manage tensions, motivate people, resolve interpersonal
conflicts.
Criticisms
1) Too much emphasis placed on order and how it should be maintained. Views the
glass as half full rather than half empty- conservative bias
2) The socialisation process leaves less to be desired as everyone is taught differently.
3) There is no concept of free will, initiative or creativity as social beings are born in a
ready made world with everything preconceived already. Human behaviour is
deterministic.
ACTIVITY
Essay: Assess the claim made by some sociologists that human behaviour results fromsocialisation
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TOPIC 8
MARXISM
Main thinkers:- Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels
Marxist thinkers are concerned with how societies work and particularly in thefundamental aspects of production and human interaction.
Since time immemorial, humans have been involved in the production and
distribution of goods and services. Marx saw that societies were based on this
transaction for human existence. Without this human life would not be possible.
Like Functionalism, Marxism is a macro theory but Marx focuses on the economical
aspect of human relations.
Man needs certain assets to produce such as land, raw materials, capital, tools,
machinery, labour which he terms forces of production (material and non material)These have to be used by people and so have to enter into social relations- relations
to the means of production. These combined are the infrastructure. Everything
outside of the infrastructure would be the superstructure.
Means of production refers to those things that are tangible and can be owned such as
the land, not labour, machinery, not knowledge. (material)
For Marx, there existed two classes in society, the haves and the have nots, the ruling
class and the subject class, the owners and the serfs, the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat. The ruling class owned and means of production while the subject class
owned only their labour for which they sold to the ruling class for their survival. This
relationship was one of exploitation and oppression with the bourgeoisie gaining at
the expense of the proletariat. As a result of this inequality, conflict is likely to exist
which always threatens the social order and allows for social change.
For Marx, societies are always transitory due to the conflict between classes and he
identified 4 modes of production:- primitive communism, slave society, feudalism and
capitalism.
The working class is kept in a false class consciousness where they think that the
world is fair and so remain in their position. This is kept in check by the ruling classideology:- a false picture of reality. This belief is supported in all aspects of society
through the socialisation process. Together with this notion is the fact that they are
alienated from what they are producing and see it as a continuous process, only
making profits for the bourgeoisie.
Class in itself is where individuals share the same relations to the means of
production while Class for itself is where they recognise the inequality and take steps
to change their position.
In summation, economic ownership produces economic power which in turn is
translated into political and ideological power.
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Criticisms
1) Too economically deterministic ;-over-exaggerate the importance of economic
relationships
2) Recognises ONLY two classes in society when there are generally more.
3) Ahistorical:- does not fit into reality of modern day societies.
Activity
1) Compare and contrast the Functionalist and Marxist theories.
(Use a table)
2) Describe how a Functionalist and a Marxist would explain:-
a) Viewing television
b) drinking coffee
c) prostitution
3) Evaluate the relevance of the Marxist model of class structure and class conflict to
an analysis of Caribbean society. (Spec 2002) 25 marks
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TOPIC 9
INTERACTIONISM
Whereas Functionalism and Marxism are considered as macro theories, the
Interactionist school of thought is a micro theory which looks at the small picture..
the individual and the meanings that are attached to action.
The main focus is on:-
1) how individuals act
2) how onlookers interpret the act and what meanings are attached
Activity
What meanings are attached to the following scenarios?
a) A couple in an intimate setting with candles
b) A person dressed like a mummy
c) Your friend breaking the red light
Main proponent was George Herbert Mead who identifies and I and the ME which
represents the self
The I represents the conscious action and the ME represents the awareness of how
other people expects us to behave.
Lets use an example.
Getting in an accident. The I aspect would be shaken up, maybe cry, even swear but
the ME aspect would evaluate the social conditions as to how it happened, who saw,
where it took place. For instance, one would assert that it was wet and the car skidded,
a male driver gave me a bad drive, the road was not well lit, this is the first time I got
in an accident (inexperienced).
Through this example it is clear to ascertain that human behaviour cannot be
objectively measured using the interactionist perspective as people react differently to
similar stimuli. As such we categorise people and experiences to make sense of the
world where we attach labels to people and access them when we create the situation.
Criticisms
1) there is little attempt to explain how social structures work and more emphasis on
the individual
2) there is discussion on power relations (who labels) but none on where this powercomes from (why some are more powerful than others)
3) human social relations are relative in nature and so would not be measured.
4) inadequate explanation of social order and social change.
Activity
Draw a table showing the differences between macro and micro theories.
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TOPIC 10
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
As was already discussed, sociology can be considered scientific in its procedures and
methods of gathering data.
What is research
Research is the systematic investigation of a problem. It is the process of forwarding
ideas to be tested in a systematic way, collecting raw data, converting this data to be
understood and presenting conclusions.
Research design is the planned way of carrying out the research. It starts with asking
questions and developing certain concepts based on the problem to be studied. It can
take 2 forms:-
1) Deductive approach:- this starts off with a theory and then uses observations to test
this theory2) Inductive approach:- from studied observations, a theory is drawn.
Methodology involves the principles of research, how we go about creating
knowledge.
Data is the raw facts and figures which when analysed is transformed into
information (processed data). There are two types of data:- quantitative and
qualitative.
a) Quantitative (scientific) data is data presented in numerical form such as official
statistics.
Advantages Disadvantages
1) used to study trends and test hypothesis Lack depth
2) reliable and representative Output of research has no meaning
3) easy to analyse and objective No focus on the individual
b) Qualitative (humanistic) data is presented in words which gives deeper meaning to
the investigation.
Advantages Disadvantages
1) Output of research is close to reality Subjective and unreliable
2) In-depth feelings and meanings Not scientific and measurable3) rich description Cannot generalise and easy to mis-interpret
Additionally, there are two sources of data:- primary and secondary
a) primary data sources are obtained by the researcher themselves ( first hand, up-to-
date and relevant) e.g. questionnaire.
b) secondary data sources are already in existence. The researcher does not have to
undertake research. E.g diaries, official statistics
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Primary research
Primary/ quantitative primary/ qualitative
Mailed/self completed questionnaire Participant observation
Structured Interviews Unstructured Interviews
Longitudinal studies
Experiments
Quantitative data Qualitative data
Secondary/Quantitative Secondary/ Qualitative
Official Statistics Personal Documents
Media material
Secondary research
Activity
To research triangulation and suggest why researchers would utilise this method.
Stages of research1) proposal, recommend a hypothesis, a statement of the problem
2) literature review:- this concerns specific information on the hypothesis
3) data collection
4) analysis
5) presentation of data
6) conclusions and recommendations (theory development)
Reliability and validity are terms which refer to both quantitative and qualitative
designs. Reliability deals with repetition, consistency and stability. Given the same
circumstances, the results will be the same, time and time again. This is usually more
pronounced using quantitative data such as a questionnaire.
Validity in sociological essence, means that the research is designed in a way that it
tests what it set out to do in the first place. Qualitative data will therefore be high in
validity as for example using observation, the researcher would clearly outline what
they are testing.
Objectivity concerns the scientific way the information is obtained. Respondents are
not coerced into anyones opinions while representativeness depicts that the sample
selected would appear in numbers proportional to their size in the target population.
Value neutrality assumes that researchers cannot allow their personal feelings to
influence the interpretation of data even if it is contrary to their personal views.
How do researchers decide what topic to study?
The topic to be studied should have personal meaning to them as the research itself is
time consuming and costly. It should also try to explain certain dramatic changes in
society. (Why crime is rising). Funding for research can also impact on the topic.
Government grants and private financial support can encourage research in a
particular field of study.
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How do researchers decide what research method to use?
1) Theoretical assumptions:- as a researcher from a particular school of thought, they
would choose methods consistent with their perspectives. A positivist would use
questionnaires as opposed to an interpretive sociologists who would use observation.
Also how reliable and valid the data collection methods are and the values of theresearcher.
2) Practicality:- depending on the intention of the research and the target population,
this would guide the researcher to choose a particular method. Also the time and
money available to the researcher.
3) The topic itself :- this would actually dictate what method to use. Once the
hypothesis is established it should be clear as to what research method should be
feasible.
4) Chance and inspiration:- there are some researchers whose studies were notplanned but rather conducted by accident. E.g Malinowski in the Trobriand islands
and participant observation studies on the aborigines.
5) Moral and ethical issues:- methods should be translucent as possible with
respondents having knowledge on what the results will be used for. Researchers need
to maintain objectivity and integrity, respect the subjects right to privacy, preserve
confidentiality, seek informed consent and protect subjects from personal harm. In
some instances it might not be possible to accomplish all as data could be lost.
Four cornered relationship model
Choice of topic----------------------------------------------Theoretical Preference
Research Methods------------------------------------------Practical Preference
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RESEARCH METHODS
Survey research
QUESTIONNAIRE
This is a list of pre-set questions geared towards obtaining information on a particularissue. A questionnaire can contain open ended and close ended questions. Open ended
questions allow the respondents to answer in a particular way. E.g How do you feel
about crime in the community.
Close ended questions give the respondents options to choose from. E.g what is your
age. 10-14
15- 19
20- 24
There are many types of questionnaires.
a) mail/ postal:- this is a questionnaire sent via post to gather data from a wide cross
section of the population. It is typically used for market research
Advantages:-
1) Can gather data from a large number of people, practical
2) Targets individuals over a wide geographical area
3) Relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
1) Low return rate which can destroy the representativeness of the sample
2) Respondents can lie
b) Self- Completion:- this is given to the respondent to fill out
Advantages:-
1) Relatively inexpensive
2) Fast and efficient way of analysing data especially if close ended questions were
used
3) No interviewer bias :- when interviewers are present, respondents would tend to
answer in a way they think the examiner wants them to answer. It is a perceived
notion based on age, sex or topic, that the respondents will answer in a particular way
depending on these variables.
Disadvantges:-
1) The interpretation of the questions would be different for individual readers and so
answer questions differently thus producing data which cannot be compared.
2) Respondents might very well lie. To curb this, interviewers introduce a check
question.
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INTERVIEW
There are two types of interviews
1) Structured
2) Unstructured
A structured interview is basically a questionnaire given by the interviewer who isbounded by those questions.
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to analyse and quantify with fixed
choice questions
Limited, as researcher is bounded by set
questions
Less dishonesty in face-to-face
interaction
Uses a small sample and so cannot
generalise
High in reliability Costly and time consuming
Used to gather quantitative data Interviewer bias can step in
An unstructured interview is formulated as a free flowing conversation where there
are no set questions.
Advantages Disadvantages
Interviewee can explain and so researcher
can gather in depth information
Not easily quantifiable
Used to gather qualitative data (sensitive
groups)
Low in reliability
High in validity Might be difficult to record as in a
conversation
Information could be warped if
interviewer is not skilled
Questionnaire Participant observation
Structured--------------------------------------------------------------Unstructured
Questions lie within this continuum
Activity
1) Research the advantages and disadvantages of individual and group interviews.
2) What is mulitvocality?
The Interview Process
How do we go about an interview?
Firstly, contact has to be established using gentle persuasion for the interviewee to
participate in the interview. This contact can be made by advanced telephone, letters
or even showing up at the respondents house. In any even, it must be clear the reason
for the interview and how the outcome of the research would be used. One very
important way of conducting interviews is the non-directive way which involves
refraining from offering opinions (reduce interviewer bias). This method would allow
the interviewee to be comfortable expressing themselves without the feeling of being
judged. Howard Becker(1971) disagreed with this type of interview as he believed
that interviewers should be more active and aggressive so that fuller, better
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information can be derived. The researcher would then be leading the respondent
into revealing private details. His study with Chicago school teachers proved that
using this type of interview he got more information then they would normally share
in a non directive manner such as their evaluation of students in terms of class and
ethnic background.
Observation and Participation observation
The emphasis here is on the overall nature of the study being non experimental and on
simply observing the naturally and freely occurring behaviour WITH or WITHOUT
their knowledge. This method is frequently used by qualitative researchers to obtain
information on groups of individuals (linked to Ethnography- study of the way of life
of a group of people). There are however certain circumstances where observations
are prohibited such as in politics, family or companies.
Being studied ( observed) presents some problems in certain situations. People wouldact differently knowing they are under scrutiny. Hargreaves( 1967) undertook a study
involving secondary schooling where teachers were observed and some (teachers)
stopped teaching altogether, while some continued as normal. He discovered that the
longer he stayed, the less attention was given to them and so they acted naturally
again.
Advantages Disadvantages
Flexible, non structured data gathering
system may produce greater richness of
information
Lack objectivity as it relies too much on
observers interpretation
Preserves validity in study Risk to life of researcher
This method strengthens knowledge as it
answers questions that would not be
asked in an interview setting
Studies cannot be replicated and only a
fraction of social life is recorded
Participants would tell truthful accounts.
There is no need to lie
Generalisations are not possible
Participant Observation is a very important technique as it allows the observer to get
directly involved with the group they are studying. It has been adopted by many
sociologists doing ethnographic studies. Some researchers follow the principle that, if
you cant observe them, join them, but join them how?
Overt Participant Observation allows the researcher to join the group where his
identity and intention is known by the members.
Advantages Disadvantages
Morally and practically the better way It will affect the behaviour of people in
the group- Hawthorne effect *
Avoid participating in illegal behaviour Research is time consuming, can take
years
Free to ask questions Researcher can be misled or misinformed
*Hawthorne effect :- the mere fact that research is being conducted will alter the
results. Research was conducted at Hawthorne works at the Western Electric
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Company in Chicago to ascertain whether there was relationship between productivity
and levels of heating, lighting and rest intervals. The results were rather strange as
productivity peeked even when heating was increased!
Covert Participant Observation involves the researcher entering the group in cognito,
without the group being aware. (undercover brother)
Advantages Disadvantages
Less likely to change peoples behaviour Time consuming
Might be the only way to study group e.g.
gang.
Cannot ask questions freely or ask for
help
Allows empathetic understanding Data collection would be based on
memory
Danger of getting too involved- going
native (Pryce) and losing objectivity.
Activity
1) To research these participant observation studies under the following headings:-
Name of researcher, year, title, locality, findings (descriptions), overt/covert
Studies:- E.Liebow, Whyte, K. Pryce, Ditton.
Name of
researcher
Year Title Locality Findings Overt/
Covert
Liebow
Whyte
Pryce
Ditton Covert
2) Question:- Outline the different ways that sociologists ask questions of the people
they are studying and assess the problems when doing this. [25 marks]
EXPERIMENTS
In sociology, laboratory experiments are very rarely carried out for the reason that
what they want to study cannot be conducted in this type of setting.
Disadvantages1) They are places of unnaturalness and so studying behaviour would be worthless in
a laboratory with respect to sociology.
2) It would not be possible to place a whole society (community) in a lab for the sake
of a study. Impractical in nature.
So sociologists came up with studies known as field experiments. As the name
suggests it is an experiment but it is carried out in a natural setting where variables
can be isolated.
Such experiments conducted include:-
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1) experiment with babies:- girls were dressed in blue, boys in pink. Results were that
the girls seen as boys and vice versa and their actions were recorded in relation to
gender. Girls were playful and boys were emotionally stressed.
2) Sissons (1970) conducted an experiment to test social class and interaction with
strangers. An actor was dressed as a business man and a labourer in separateoccasions asking directions and it was found that people were more helpful to the
business man.
3) Brown and Gay(1985) undertook an experiment where bogus applications were
made for a variety of jobs by letter and telephone. Applicants ensured that they were
from various ethnic groups. Results confirmed that minority groups got less positive
responses.
Disadvantages
1) It is not possible to control variables as with work done in a lab. Many factors
would be involved other than the factors you would want to test.
2) The Hawthorne effect will likely to occur
3) Individuals should be told of their involvement in an experiment but on most
occasions are not privy as it would change their behaviour. It is advised to tell them
immediately after the experiment.
Activity
1) Assess the strengths and limitations of the different kinds of qualitative research
techniques used in sociology. (June 2006) 25 marks
CASE STUDIES
It is an in-depth study of one individual or group usually qualitative in nature. Case
studies are valuable since it can highlight:
1) Outstanding cases:- Osgood et al for instance studied the rare but genuine
experiences of a person with 3 quite separate psychological identities.
2) It can contradict a theory:- a single instance can seriously damage a theory.
Advantages Disadvantages
Provide new insights on previous
knowledge
Generalisations cannot be made
Can be used as a preamble to a larger
study- pilot study *
Limited in design and unrepresentative
*pilot study( feasibility study, pre test) is a small scale study conducted before the
main study to ascertain any errors or collect preliminary data.
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Life histories are a subdivision of case studies where only one person is studied. This
takes the form of unstructured questions. Studies conducted include the life of a
Polish peasant by Thomas and Znaniecki as well as an aging woman by Allport. The
use of qualitative data presents a wealth of knowledge for the researcher as he can
view the world from the actors point of view. This method of research is similar to
case studies in the way of falsifications of theories. A collection of life histories canbe used to make generalisations.
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
Study of a group over a period of time, where data collection is done in intervals. First
used to measure changes in public attitudes- more reliable since same people would
be used, the changes would not result from composition of sample. It is a form of
research where quantitative data is collected in social surveys.
Advantages DisadvantagesAttitudinal change can be readily seen Time consuming
Valid data is obtained
Large number of variables can be
collected over the time span and
pinpointed at a later date
Impractical to locate sample over a period
due to death, migration, refusal to
participate- sample attrition *
Behaviour will be altered over time
*Sample attrition:- depletion of original sample size, loss of members of the sample.
Activity
1) Research any Caribbean or otherwise longitudinal study conducted and its findings.
2) Assess the extent to which a longitudinal approach is useful for the study of either
HIV/AIDS or teenage pregnancy in the Caribbean. (June 2009) 25 marks
OFFICIAL STATISTICS
These are numerical data produced by both governmental and non-governmental
agencies. Every 10 years the government conducts a census where data is collected on
the population concerning households, expenditure and income. Statistics also include
births, deaths, marriages, divorces, crime, unemployment, road fatalities. The externalbodies also conducts research which they analyse and present to the public such as
opinion polls, market research, NGOs research.
Advantages Disadvantages
Saves time and money as it is already
collected
Access to information may be restricted
Collected by credible sources Can become obsolete
Large amounts of quantitative data which
is easy to analyse
Lack of depth in the investigation
Comparisons can be easily made Can be manipulated to suit a particular set
of interests
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Activity
Review Durkheims study
DOCUMENTS
Use of this secondary form of data is concerned with analysis of autobiographies,letters, diaries and even the media (papers). It can be classified into 2 categories:-
1) Content analysis
2) thematic amalysis/semiology
Content analysis:- quantitative in nature, objective and systematic where the
frequency of words is analysed and where the amount of time and space devoted to a
particular theme is noted.
E.g. During the time of mass kidnapping in Trinidad, many dramas on television
showed how and why kidnapping occurred. There were many programmes on this
topic.
Thematic Analysis:- qualitative method which uses signs and symbols to
explain/obtain meaning for the underlying ideas. E.g. a dove means more than a bird,
it also symbolises peace.
Activity
Explain the assumptions of the Positivist and Interpretivist methods in sociological
research. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of EACH method. (Spec 2002)
SAMPLING
A sample is a small proportion of an entire population. A population is the group
from which the researcher will choose the sample. The sampling frame is the list of
members of the population to be studied while the sampling unit is the member of
the population to be studied.
Activity
Draw a diagram to depict how each of the above terms are linked.
A representative sample is a cross section of the population with the same proportion
of males, females, young, old etc. In this way the sample will represent the whole
group.
Why choose a sample?
1) It is costly to use an entire population
2) It is time consuming on the researcher
3) It might not be possible to use the entire population
4) Since only a small number within the group is used it is then possible to make
generalisations of the population once a representative sample is chosen.
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Types of sampling designs:- probability vs non-probability
Probability
1) Random:-this is where each and every member of the population has an equal and
fair chance of being selected. E.g Play Whe, Picking from a hat
2) Systematic:- this is where every nth term is used from a list of items from the
population. E.g. choosing every 3rd person from the roll to form the sample.
3) Stratified:- this is where the population is divided into different layers(age, sex,
religion, race) and then the sample is taken. This would be a more representative
sample as the same proportion chosen from the group would be reflected in the
sample group.
Non- probablitity
4) Quota:- it is considered stratified sampling but the selection within the strata arenon random. This method is popular among market research companies and opinion
polls where the researcher once meeting the criteria, will choose the number needed to
fulfil the sample. E.g. a pharmaceutical company conducing research on 50 people
who are over the age of 50 and strictly women will choose the first 50 women above
the age of 50 and no more. This example shows the non-randomness of the research.
5) Snowball/network and volunteer :- the sample is formed based on contact to one
individual who will in turn direct/ introduce to other members of the sample. Just like
a snowball going downhill, it collects members thus increasing the sample size.
Obviously this method will be non- random and hence unrepresentative. E.g. Rapists,
burglars, heroin users, collectors of Ancient Greek coins.
Volunteer:- this method uses leaflets, advertisements, posters and media
broadcasts to announce the research and request volunteers for the sample. One
example is studies conducted on prostitutes in the USA.
6) Convenience/opportunity sampling:-involves the sample being drawn from that
part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected
because it is readily available and convenient.
PILOT STUDIES
This refers to mini versions of a full scale study as well as the pre-testing of a
particular research instrument such as a questionnaire.
Pilot studies or feasibility studies are important to a good study design. It has many
purposes such as:-
Train the researcher in many elements of the research process, convince funding
bodies that the main study is feasible and worth funding, identify problems which
might occur with the prescribed methods and determine what resources are needed for
the planned study.
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Hints ON ESSAY WRITING
1) Reading the question:- this should be done thoroughly before attempting to write.
Study the title of the essay carefully.
2) Ensure that you are relevant to the topic. Answer what the question asks.
3) Content and analysis are indeed important.
4) Planning the essay:- encapsulates brain storming
5) Introductions must arrest the readers attention
6) Length of the exam should determine how much you should write.
7) Refrain from colloquial English and blurry words and phrases
8) Conclusions should include an important statement. Make it as effective as it will
be the last words the examiner will view.
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Research
Section one
(i) Introduction:
Statement of the problem
This section will allow the student to identify the specific area of study and the
reasons behind the study. It should be a topic which is of interest to the student and so
the student should offer a brief background.
The statement of the problem does not necessarily have to be a problem. It can be a
current issue facing a group (teens, alcoholics) in society or an investigation into a
new phenomenon in the community. It can be in the form of a question or a
statement.
Egs. To what extent does extra curricular activities assist in the students development
at Princes Town West Secondary School?What factors are responsible for the homophobic action among parents in the
community of Angel Avenue?
To investigate whether race affects social interaction among the form five
students of St. Josephs Convent, San Fernando.
(ii) Aims and Objectives
This section should outline the purpose of the study. The researcher is trying to
gather information on a particular for what purpose? How would the results be used,
what relationships are you trying to discover? The researcher is also trying to
recommend/ propose solutions and investigate possible alternatives to the study.
(iii) Literature Review
It is literally a review of the literature. Literature in this context will mean knowledge
that has already been discovered on the topic. There will be citations from
sociologists, medical practitioners, psychologists etc, all concerned with presenting
the information from different standpoints.
There should be at least 3-4 different research sources. Ensure that proper reference
format is used. Information can also be obtained from the World Wide Web.
Section Two
(i) Research Design
This section requires the research to have a sound knowledge on research techniques
and the reason for choice. The method chosen should be justified by outlining the
advantages and uses.
It is advised to also describe what type of data is necessary and how the data will be
deciphered. Will a sample be chosen? How? The time frame and how the research
tool(s) will be delivered to the sample. You can also include why a pilot study couldnot be conducted. If one was, then you could give reasons for it.
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Format: (1) Research tool(s) was designed. Give brief description with advantages
(2) Sample was chosen and briefly describe the method(s)
(3) Type of data preferred described further with advantages together with the
advantages of primary vs secondary sources (which ever you choose)
(4) Time frame eg. 2 weeks, time of day, with reasons.
(5) Mention of pilot study, if any
(ii) Sample Selection
What is a sample? Why choose a sample? Identify the population and indicate
numbers. How was the sample selected through age, sex, social status- target
population? Describe the method in greater detail.
(iii) Data Collection Instrument
This will include a brief description of the tool(s) used in terms of definition,
advantages and a copy of research technique(s) used. If a questionnaire is used then itshould include 15- 20 well modelled questions.
Section Three
(i) Presentation of Data
The researcher uses a variety of diagrams to represent the data collected. It is advised
to that up to 6 different diagrams be used including pie charts, bar graphs, histogram,
scales, line graphs, tables, maps, doughnut graphs etc.
The title would be the question asked in the questionnaire
Ensure that the diagram is properly annotated and the percentages add up to 100%.
Have key/ scale where necessary
The footer would include the description of the diagram. Do not assume that the
examiner can read your graph!
(ii) Analysis of Data
This section would include actual data transformed into knowledge about the research
conducted. The researcher should be able to find relationships between variables used
and make some general comments. It was discovered that 12%.... it can be seen from
diagram 3 that according to figure 4, 10 %.........
(iii) Findings, Discussion of findings, Conclusions
Findings:-The researcher can outline some findings obtained at the end of the study.
Discussion of Findings:-There should also be some effort to link the literature review
to what was found and concur/ disagree with the analysis. This section brings the
previous sections together:- the statement of the problem, objectives, literature review
and even the presentation of data. Here also you can discuss any challenges faced
when conducting the study.
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In the conclusion, one can suggest that further work needs to be conducted, and offer
some recommendations to solve the problem. Give an overall appearance of the
study.
(iv) Bibliography
A very important item of the research design that students do not pay attention to. Itincludes the resources used while conducting the research. This is the required way.
Author, Title, Year Published, Publisher
e.g. Mustapha, Nasser. Sociology for Caribbean Students, 2007, Publisher.
Websites also need to be listed together with title of journal entries, articles, date.
Proper citations are necessary.