limnology of desert ponds by steven ray...
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Limnology of desert ponds
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Authors Alcorn, Steven Ray, 1950-
Publisher The University of Arizona.
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LIMNOLOGY OF DESERT PONDS
by
Steven Ray Alcorn
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE WITH A MAJOR IN FISHERY BIOLOGY
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
19 7 4
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced, degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
SIGNED: 71 Jg/vwt? /3A
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
(BCu*. a .CHARLES D. ^tEBELL
Lecturer in Biological Sciences
G mkjL 3d /fpyf Date
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to Mr. Charles D. Ziebell and
Dr. Jerry C. Tash for their valuable help and guidance over several
years. My thanks also go to Dr. Boyd E. Kynard and Dr. Elisabeth A.
Stull for their constructive criticism of the manuscript. David
Kennedy, Lynn Otte, Kevin Curry, and William Fee assisted with field
collections and their help is very much appreciated. Dr. Charles T.
Mason kindly identified the aquatic plants collected. My wife, Gail,
has earned special thanks for her help, both moral and financial, in
this project.
Mona Wong, Remy De Jong, D. M. Martin, and Norman Kahn were all
very cooperative and helpful in allowing me to use their ponds as study sites.
This project was supported by the Arizona Cooperative Fishery
Unit which is cooperatively maintained by The University of Arizona,
Arizona Game and Fish Department, and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF T A B L E S ................................................. v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS........................................... vi
A B S T R A C T ........................................................ vii
INTRODUCTION ................................................... 1
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY PONDS ..................................... 3
METHODS AND MATERIALS........................................... 5
RESULTS .......................................................... 7
Surface Water Temperatures ................................. 7Temperature Profiles ....................................... 7Dissolved Oxygen ........................................... 10Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)............................. 11Summer Diel Water Quality............ 11Quarterly Well Water Analysis ............................... 13Photic Depths ............................................... 13Water Levels ................................................ 17
DISCUSSION...................................................... 19
Factors Affecting Water Temperatures ....................... 20Factors Affecting Oxygen Concentrations ..................... 22Effects of Pond U s e .......................... 24Role of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation ....................... 24Water Quality in Relation to Fisheries..................... 26Pond Design Recommendations ................................. 28
CONCLUSIONS.......... 31
APPENDIX A: TEMPERATURE AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN DATA FOR TOINLAKES, WONG'S POND, CHALK RESERVOIR, KAHN'S POND, AND MISSILE SITE POND ....................... 32
APPENDIX B: DIEL TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN DATA FOR TWINLAKES, WONG'S POND, CHALK RESERVOIR, ANDMISSILE SITE P O N D ................................. 38
LIST OF REFERENCES............................................. 43
Page
iv
LIST OF TABLES
1. Range of pond surface temperatures from October1972 to September 1973 9
2. Seasonal pH ranges from October 1972 to September1973 ......................... . ....................... 12
3. Diel pH readings of each pond taken in July 1973 . . . . 14
4. Well water chemical analysis ........................... 15
5. Monthly photic depths given as percent RelativeLight Intensity............................................16
6. Monthly maximum depths recorded in meters fromOctober 1972 to September 1973 18
Table Page
v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Monthly variation in surface water temperaturesfrom October 1972 to September 1973 ................ 8
2. Idealized cross section of the terraced pond bottom showing the recommended 2.5 meter levelsfor a pond supplied with runoff..................... 29
3. Idealized cross section of the pond bottom showing the recommended 2.5 meter depth for a pondsupplied by a p u m p ................................. 29
Figure Page
vi
ABSTRACT
The limnology of five types of ponds in Southern Arizona was
studied from October 1972 to September 1973 to provide information for
fisheries. Temperature, oxygen, pH, and photic zone measurements were
made monthly. Diel studies of temperature, oxygen, and pH were con
ducted in July.
Weather conditions caused thermal stratification to begin in
February and last through October in the deeper ponds. Complete
nightly summer circulation occurred in ponds less than 2.5 meters deep.
Shallow, turbid ponds experienced high surface temperatures and large
diel temperature fluctuations. Shaded ponds were no cooler than open
ponds.
Winter oxygen concentrations were above 5 mg/1 in all ponds.
Dissolved oxygen in ponds filled by wells was above 5 mg/1 year around.
Thermal stratification caused summer oxygen deficiencies below 2.5
meters in deep ponds supplied by runoff. Turbidity levels in one stock
tank reduced the photic zone and caused oxygen deficiencies below 0.5
meter.
Recommendations are that ponds filled with well water be con
structed 2.5 meters deep with sloping slides. Ponds supplied by runoff
should be constructed at least 5.0 meters deep with 2.5 meter terraces
and sloping sides.
Most ponds were suitable for warm-water fish year around and
trout from November through April.
vii
INTRODUCTION
Most Americans enjoy a large amount of leisure time, and many
of these people are using this time to participate in outdoor activi
ties such as fishing, hunting, and hiking. In Arizona, fishermen have
to travel great distances to lakes and rivers that are often crowded.
Building more lakes to relieve crowded conditions takes time and is
expensive. An alternative, suggested by the Arizona Game and Fish De
partment, is to use small ponds for fishing. The Arizona landscape is
interspersed with many ponds used by ranchers as stock tanks and irri
gation reservoirs. These small ponds may have the potential for aqua
culture and sport fishing.
Unfortunately, little information is available on the suitabil
ity of these ponds for fish. Data are available on pond fisheries in
Alabama and Oklahoma, but it does not appear to be applicable to
Arizona because the limnological characteristics of Arizona's ponds are
markedly different.
Limnological information for small ponds is needed to utilize
them in a fisheries capacity. The broad objective of my research was
to evaluate the limnological characteristics of several different types
of ponds in Southern Arizona. Specific objectives include investiga
tions of the following:
1. Annual physio-chemical water quality patterns
2. Summer diel physio-chemical water quality patterns
1
3. Well water quality
4. Pond morphometry
This information will serve as a guideline for constructing new ponds
for fisheries and also for establishing a fishery in a previously con
structed pond.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY PONDS
Twin Lakes is located 7.5 km southwest of the junction of US
80/89 and State Route 77, longitude 110 531 latitude 32 301, at an ele
vation of 950 meters. The pond is used exclusively for recreation by
approximately 70 families from the real estate development north of the
pond. The surface area is 6.4 hectares, the largest pond studied. The
maximum depth is 2.0 meters and the mean depth is 1.0 meter. This pond
has a very gradual slope with shallow area less than 0.25 meter deep,
extending 10 to 15 meters from shore. Ihe predominant aquatic macro
phyte, Najas flexilis, is present from May to December at all depths.
The pond is supplied with water from a well 196 meters deep.
Chalk Reservoir is 9.7 km southwest of the junction of US 80/89
and State Route 77, longitude 110 57* latitude 32 31*, at an elevation
of 1000 meters. It is a stock tank dependent on rainfall and watershed
runoff for its water supply. The surface area ranged from 0.1 hectare
to 0.02 hectare, and the maximum depth ranged from 3.0 meters to 0.9
meter during the study. There were no aquatic macrophytes present.
Wong's Pond is located on the Wong Ranch, 1 km south of the
Avra Valley Road and Trico Road junction, longitude 111 18* latitudeo
32 23', at an elevation of 606 meters. It is used for recreation by
the owners and their guests. The surface area is 0.85 hectare, and
maximum depth ranges from 2.0 to 2.4 meters. The mean depth is 1.5
meters. The slope is very steep to one meter with a more gradual slope
3
4to 2.0 meters. The predominant aquatic macrophyte, Potamogeton pectin-
atus. is present from May through late November at all depths. The
water supply for this pond is a well 200 meters deep.
Missile Site Pond is in the foothills of the Santa Rita Moun
tains, 11.6 km south of the 1-10 and State Route 83 junction, longitude
110 451 latitude 31 55*, at an elevation of 1200 meters. It is a stock
tank dependent on rainfall and watershed runoff for its water supply.
The maximum depth ranged from 4.0 meters to 5.5 meters, and the mean
depth is 2.0 meters. It has a surface area of 0.76 hectare. The bot
tom slopes gradually to one meter except at the dam, where the bottom
slopes steeply to four meters. The predominant aquatic macrophyte,
Potamogeton pectinatus, is present from May to November at depths above
2.0 meters.
Kahn’s Pond is located near Tanque Verde Road approximately
10 km from the Speedway/Vilmot intersection in Tucson, at an elevation
of 870 meters. This pond is an old concrete lined swimming pool and
is now used as an irrigation storage pond. The maximum depth is 3.0
meters and the surface area is 0.03 hectare. This pond is surrounded
by cottonwood, salt cedar, and mesquite trees, some 10 meters tall.
The pond was added to the study in May 1973 and consequently was sampled only five months.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Sampling began on October 7, 1972, and was terminated September
16, 1973. All samples were collected at monthly intervals, except the
well water which was sampled on a quarterly basis. Five ponds were se
lected to represent the major types found in Southern Arizona. Samples
were collected between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. on successive days.
Water quality profiles were taken at the deepest part of each pond after
preliminary random sampling showed the water was essentially homogene
ous.
Temperature, oxygen, and pH data were collected at each meter
beginning 5 cm below the surface and descending to a level 5 cm above
the bottom. Temperature and oxygen data were collected with a YSI
model 54 portable meter, and pH measurements were made with a Beckman
model 1009 portable meter. Water samples for the pH measurements were
collected with a Kemmerer water sampler.
The photic zone was determined with an O.R.E. model 504 sub
marine photometer. Measurements were recorded as percent Relative
Light Intensity (RLl).
Each pond, except Kahn’s Pond, was sampled over a 24-hour
period during the month of July. Temperature and oxygen data were
taken every two hours and pH data every four hours. Sampling began
just prior to sunset and terminated at sunset of the following day.
5
6
Water samples from wells at Twin Lakes, Wong's Pond, and Kahn's
Pond were collected in polyethylene bottles. All samples were refrig
erated, and analysis for total alkalinity and orthophosphate was con
ducted within 24 hours. Total alkalinity was determined using a
potentiometric method (American Public Health Association 1965) and a
Beckman pH meter. Orthophosphate was analyzed by the ammonium
molybdate-stannous chloride method (American Public Health Association
1965), with a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20 spectrophotometer, Hach re
agents, and a Hach Spectronic 20 phosphate curve.
Water levels were measured monthly in Chalk Reservoir and Mis
sile Site Pond with a sounding line. The water levels of Twin Lakes
and Wong's Pond were relatively constant because water was replenished
from wells.
RESULTS
Each study pond was limnologically different because of its lo
cation, elevation, and use. Therefore, to present thorough results,
water quality variables were illustrated with examples from all the
ponds.
Surface Water Temperatures
The annual surface water temperatures for the study ponds are
presented in Figure 1. All ponds exhibited a cooling period that be
gan in September and continued through December, when the lowest tem
peratures were recorded. The water temperatures slowly began to rise
in January and this trend continued through February. The temperature
rise accelerated from March through July, with maximums recorded in
July and August.
The range of surface temperatures is shown in Table 1. Over-o oall, surface temperatures ranged from 5 to 10 C in December and Jan-
o o ouary, 10 to 20 C from February to April, and were above 20 C from May
to October.
Temperature Profiles
Water temperatures were uniform throughout the water column
from November through January (Appendix A, Tables 7-11). By February
this homogeneity had disappeared. Surface temperatures had increasedoas much as 8 C, while at one meter and below, the increase was less
7
TEMPERATURE, °C
MISSILE SITE
N D J F , M A M U
• 32
TWIN LAKES
0 N A M J J
CHALK RESERVOIR
A M0 N
Figure 1. Monthly variation in surface water temperatures from October 1972 to September 1973.
oo
9
Table 1. Range of pond surface temperatures from October 1972 to September 1973.
Sept. - Dec. Jan. - March April - Aug.
Twin Lakes
Chalk Reservoir
Wong1s Pond
Missile Site
O O24 C - 7 C
o o25 C - 6 C
o o25 C - 9 C
o o23 C - 6 C
10°C - 13°C
8°C - 11°C
10°C - 13°C
7°C - 13°C
15°C - 29°C
20°C - 30°C
18°C - 28°C
16°C - 27°C
23°C - 27°CKahn1s Pond
10
than 4 C. A thermocline was evident in each pond. In March, surface
water temperatures declined and some mixing occurred. The thermoclines
in Twin Lakes and Chalk Reservoir disappeared, but they remained in
Wong's Pond and Missile Site Pond (Appendix A). Surface water tempera
tures increased in April, and the thermoclines were reestablished in
Twin Lakes and Chalk Reservoir. Water temperatures were uniformly warm
in all ponds during August with little temperature variation by depth.
The previously described thermal patterns were similar for all
ponds except Missile Site Pond. There, the thermocline was established
in February and remained through the end of the study. At various times
during the summer, this pond became truly stratified (Table 11, Appendix
A) with an epilimnion, metalimnion, and hypolimnion.
Dissolved Oxygen
Winter oxygen concentrations were above 7.0 mg/1 and very nearly
uniform throughout the water column of each pond. In February, oxygen
concentrations began to vary with depth and from March to July the
range was 0.0 mg/1 to 20+ mg/1. The range of oxygen concentrations dif
fered from pond to pond, but in general concentrations were above 4.5
mg/1 throughout the year (Tables 7-10).
The oxygen concentrations in Missile Site Pond differed from
the other study ponds (Table 11). The dissolved oxygen remained above
4.5 mg/1 from the surface to 4 meters until May, but was below 4.5 mg/1
near the bottom as early as February. Oxygen concentrations declined
steadily until finally in June, there was less than 1.0 mg/1 of oxygen
below 2.5 meters. In contrast, the June oxygen concentrations in Twin
11
Lakes increased from 10.6 mg/1 at the surface to 12.0 mg/1 near the
bottom.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)
The pH range for all ponds during the study was 6.7 to 10.1
(Table 2). The two ponds supplied with well water, Twin Lakes and
Wong’s Pond, had yearly ranges of 8.1 to 10.0. The ponds supplied by
runoff had ranges of 6.7 to 10.1.
The pH values within each pond were relatively uniform during
the winter months. In the summer, the pH at both Missile Site and
Chalk Reservoir changed as deoxygenation occurred. The surface water
pH remained at 9.0 while the pH in the bottom waters declined to 6.7.
Summer Diel Water Quality
Maximum surface temperatures were recorded between 4 p.m. and
6 p.m. and minimum surface temperatures were recorded shortly after
sunrise at 6 a.m. (see Appendix B, Tables 12-15). Mixing occurred
nightly in each pond. Vertical thermal diversity disappeared by mid
night, but reformed before noon of the following day.
Missile Site Pond turnover was limited to the top meter (Table
15). The first meter was mixed by midnight and the thermocline was reformed by early afternoon.
The greatest range of oxygen concentrations recorded occurred
at Chalk Reservoir (Table 14). At 6 a.m., the surface oxygen concen
tration was 0.8 mg/1 and, at noon, it was in excess of 20 mg/1. In
comparison, the 24 hour variation of oxygen concentrations of the other ponds was less than 5 mg/1 at any depth.
12
Table 2. Seasonal pH ranges from October 1972 to September 1973.
Oct. - Jan. Feb. - May June - Sept.
Twin Lakes 8.3 - 8.5 8.1 - 9.3 9.4 - 9.6
Chalk Reservoir 6.7 - 8.4 7.0 - 9.1 7.7 - 10.1
Wong's Pond 8.4 - 10.0 8.1 — 8.5 8.1 - 9.0
Missile Site Pond 6.9 - 9.2 7.2 - 9.6 6.7 - 9.0
Kahn1s Pond 7.2 - 8.6
13
The diel pH values of all ponds ranged from 7.0 to 10.2 (Table
3). At Twin Lakes and Wong's Pond, the pH values ranged from 8.3 to
10.2. At Chalk Reservoir and Missile Site Pond, the range was 7.0 to
10.1. Generally, pH values declined during the night and increased
during the day.
Quarterly Well Water Analysis
The lowest orthophosphate concentrations from each well were
recorded in the fall and winter, while the highest levels were recorded
in the summer (Table 4). The concentrations in the well water at Twin
Lakes ranged from 0.04 ppm to 0.11 ppm. The range at Wong'e Pond was
0.11 ppm to 0.19 ppm. At Kahn's Pond, the concentration of orthophos
phate ranged from 0.06 ppm to 0.16 ppm.
The total alkalinity concentrations were generally greater than
100 ppm during the study (Table 4). The largest single change was a
reduction of 24 ppm in Wong's Pond from August to November. The high
est concentration was also at Wong's Pond, with a range of 116 ppm to
150 ppm.
Photic Depths
Photic depths were variable at different seasons and different
ponds (Table 5). The deepest photic depth was recorded at Twin Lakes
in April, where a reading of 60% Relative Light Intensity (RLl) was re
corded at the bottom (2.0 meters). Chalk Reservoir was the most turbid
of the ponds, where the greatest photic depth recorded was 1% RLI at
0.5 meters in March.
14
Table 3. Dial pH readings of each pond taken in July 1973.
TwinLakes
ChalkReservoir
Wong *s Pond
Missile Site Pond
Depthfm't u 1 2 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 4
8 p.m. 9.9 9.8 9.8 10.1 8.6 8.5 8.6 8.5 9.1 9.1 8.0 7.6 6.9
12 p.m. 9.8 9.7 9.7 9.2 9.0 8.6 8.7 8.6 9.1 9.1 8.4 7.2 6.8
4 a.m. 9.8 9.8 9.8 8.5 8.8 8.6 9.0 9.0 9.0 8.3 7.2
6 a.m. 8.8 8.8
8 a.m. 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.7 8.9 8.8 7.3 7.0
10 a.m. 9.3 9.4 9.2
12 a.m. 9.8 8.5 8.3 8.4 8.5 9.0 9.0 8.6 7.5 7.1
2 p.m. 10.2 10.1 9.7
4 p.m. 8.7 8.8 8.6
6 p.m. 10.2 10.2 9.8 9.0 9.0 7.9 7.7 7.0
8 p.m. 9.9 8.6 8.5 8.5 8.5
15
Table 4. Well water chemical analysis.
Winter Spring Summer Fall
TwinLakes
Totalalkalinity
Orthophosphate
80 ppm 104 ppm 106 ppm 98 ppm
.04 ppm .11 ppm .07 ppm .04 ppm
Wong * s Pond
Totalalkalinity
Orthophosphate
150 ppm 150 ppm 140 ppm 116 ppm
.11 ppm .19 ppm .19 ppm .14 ppm
Kahn *s Pond
Totalalkalinity
Ortho
140 ppm 134 ppm
phosphate .16 ppm .06 ppm
.Table 5. Monthly photic depths given as percent Relative Light Intensity
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb
Twin % RLI 5 1 1 5 14Lakes depth
(m) 0.7 1.6 1.5 0.6 2.0
Chalk 7. RLI 5 1 1 1 1Reservoir depth
(m) 0.1 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.3
Wong * s 7. RLI 5 2 10 2Pond depth
(m) 0.4 2.4 2.4 1.4
Missile 7. RLI 5 1 1 1 2Site depth
(m) 0.3 1.3 1.5 1.0 0.9
Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept
30 60 34 20 1 4 8
2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.0 2.0
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0.15 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
2 1 1 1 6 14 3
0.9 0.6 1.5 1.75 2.5 2.0 2.0
2 1 1 1 1 1
1.3 2.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.0
Kahn * s Pond
7. RLIdepth(m)
30 1
3.0 1.7
34 1
2.0 1.7
17Water Levels
The water levels of the study ponds were variable, dependent on
the water source at each pond. Twin Lakes and Wong's Pond, both sup
plied with well water, had water level fluctuations of less than 0.5
meter over a 12-month period (Table 6). The runoff supplied ponds were
very different. Chalk Reservoir gradually lost over 2.0 meters of
water during the study, and Missile Site Pond lost 0.3 meter in the
winter; then in the spring the depth increased to 1.5 meters.
• Table 6. Monthly maximum depths recorded in meters from October 1972 to September 1973* • \
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept
Twin Lakes 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.8
Chalk Reservoir 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Wong’s Pond 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0
Missile Site 4.3 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.8 5.5 5.5 5.0 4.0 4.5 4.0 4.0
Kahn's Pond 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
DISCUSSION
The climatological conditions of Southern Arizona have a marked
effect on the limnology of ponds. Intense solar radiation is the major
source of heat and there are few cloudy days to reduce the incoming
solar radiation. The University of Arizona averages 18 cloudless, 24-
hour periods each month (Green and Sellers 1964) and receives as many
as 16 hours of sunlight during a summer day. These conditions result
in intense surface heating and high diel air temperatures (U.S. Depart
ment of Commerce, Weather Bureau 1972). Monthly surface water tempera
tures follow monthly mean air temperatures (McCombie 1959) and more
importantly, surface water temperatures closely follow diel air temper
atures (Cole 1968). This heating causes thermal stratification to
begin as early as February and last until November. It also causes
water temperatures to rise above 30 C. Temperatures this high are
lethal to trout (Borell and Scheffer 1961, Dendy 1963) and are approach
ing the lethal limit for some warm-rwater fish (Huet 1965; Emig 1966a,b).
Lack of precipitation during most of the year limits the water
supply of a pond filled by runoff and the evaporation rate reduces the
pond volume by approximately 2.3 meters per year (Green and Sellers
1964). This decrease affects the water temperature because less energy
is required to heat the pond as the volume decreases (Cole 1968).
These climatological factors, primarily the solar radiation in
put, influence the thermal patterns of the ponds to the extent that the
19
20
limnological classifications of lakes by Hutchinson (1957) are not ap
plicable to any of the ponds except Missile Site Pond which closely re
sembled a warm monomictic lake. Cole (1968) reported that in the
southwestern United States, monomictic lakes often result from the dam
ming of narrow canyons. Missile Site Pond is situated at the junction
of two narrow canyons.
There are many variables present which influence the limnology
of the ponds. Several of these factors are interrelated and must be
recognized to assess the pond limnologically.
Factors Affecting Water Temperatures
Weather conditions primarily affected circulation and caused
thermal stratification. Warm, sunny weather in February caused a ther-
mocline to develop in each pond (Tables 7-9), but cooler weather in
March reduced surface temperatures and the ponds were mixed again.
Thermoclines reformed in April.
Depth was instrumental in maintaining stratification in Missile
Site Pond which was three meters deeper than the other ponds. This
pond stratified in February but did not mix in March even though air
temperatures declined (Table 11). This suggested that the greater
depth prevented complete circulation.
Diel studies also indicated that depth had a major influence
on the thermal patterns of the ponds. Each of the three shallow ponds
developed a thermocline by mid-afternoon, but by early morning of the
following day, the thermoclines had disappeared and the ponds were com
pletely mixed (Tables 12-14). The decline in water temperature was due
21to two factors: 1) back radiation at night, and 2) heat exchange with
the sediments. These two factors plus the shallow depths of the ponds
were responsible for the temporary nature of the thermoclines. The
deeper waters of Missile Site Pond reduced the effects of back radia
tion and heat exchange with the sediments so that mixing was confined
to the first meter (Table 15).
Water depth also exerted control over the diel temperature
range of a pond. Chalk Reservoir was only 1.0 meter deep and shallowerOthan the other ponds. The 12 C fluctuation of the surface temperature
in a 24-hour period was greater than at any other pond (Table 14). The
energy required to heat this volume of water was much less than at any
other pond.
The extreme turbidity present in Chalk Reservoir increased the
heat absorption capacity of the surface waters. The surface tempera
tures were warmer than the other ponds and became warm earlier. The
turbidity level was also partially responsible for the very large tern-Operature gradient recorded, a 10 C change from the surface to one meter
(Table 14).
Hutchinson (1957) reported that shading may reduce the daily
period of insolation, thus causing a reduction of solar heat income. Kahn's Pond was surrounded by tall trees, some more than 10 meters
tall. After correcting for altitude, the water temperatures at Kahn's
Pond were no cooler than the other ponds. Apparently, the solar radi
ation received by this pond was sufficient to cause heating similar to
that of open ponds.
22Altitude has a strong influence on the thermal pattern of a
pond. An increase in altitude is the same as an increase in latitude
(Hutchinson 1957). In Arizona, the thermal lapse rate is 2.2 C per
305 meters elevation (Lowe 1964). Prior to pond construction it is
possible to mathematically determine the range of water temperatures
expected by using data from this study and correcting for the altitude
of the prospective pond site. This information is important in deter
mining the type of fish to stock.
Factors Affecting Oxygen Concentration
The oxygen concentrations in the ponds are influenced by a com
bination of factors: 1) rooted aquatic plants and phytoplankton pro
duce oxygen by photosynthesis, 2) circulation mixes saturated surface
waters throughout the pond and 3) oxygen is reduced during plant res
piration and bacterial decomposition of organic material.
Oxygen concentrations were above 5 mg/1 throughout the water
column in all ponds during the winter months primarily because of mix
ing caused by cooling air temperatures (Cole 1968) and decreased oxygen
demand. Oxygen demand was low because most rooted aquatic plants had
already been decomposed.
In the ponds filled by wells, Twin Lakes and Wong's Pond, only
one monthly oxygen sample was below 4.5 mg/1. The thermoclines in
these ponds were not permanent. In ponds as shallow as these wind
could continually mix the entire water mass (Hutchinson 1957). These
ponds also had deep photic zones, usually reaching the bottom of each
pond. This allowed oxygen production by submerged plants throughout
23the water column. The organic decomposition in these ponds was minimal
because they were not used by cattle and did not receive much othervorganic material.
Deoxygenation of the bottom waters at Missile Site Pond and
- Chalk Reservoir began with the establishment of the thermocline.
Stratification and deoxygenation were permanent in Missile Site Pond
after February because the thermocline prevented circulation below two
meters. The photic zone at Missile Site Pond was never more than 2.5
meters, which was only half the depth of the pond. Chalk Reservoir was
even more extreme with a photic zone never deeper than 0.5 meter. Lit
tle oxygen was produced near the bottom of these ponds because aquatic
plants were absent.
Cattle influenced the shallow photic zone in Chalk Reservoir.
They waded in the pond, stirred up the bottom, and made the water tur
bid. This also released nutrients which helped cause algal blooms.
Cattle contributed fecal material to the pond which increased the oxy
gen demand.
Missile Site Pond received organic material through flooding.
McConnell (1963, 1968) reported that Pena Blanca Lake received 350
metric tons of leaf litter and other organic material when flash floods
swept through normally dry washes emptying into the lake. Missile Site
Pond is located at the convergence of two washes. The material washed
into the pond decomposed and exerted an oxygen demand.
Oxygen concentrations in well water supplied ponds with deep
photic zones were above 5 mg/1 at all depths throughout the year.
24
Turbid, shallow ponds had oxygen concentrations above 5 mg/1 in surface
waters, but deoxygenation occurred below the photic zone primarily be
cause aquatic plants were lacking. Deep stock tanks were oxygen defi
cient below 2.5 meters because the permanent thermocline limited circu
lation.
Effects of Pond Use
The limnology of a pond is directly affected by the way it is
used. Many ponds in Southern Arizona are used as stock tanks which,
like Chalk Reservoir, are characterized by extreme turbidity (Cole
1968). The effects of turbidity have been discussed previously.
Irrigation storage is another pond use common to this area.
The water in these ponds is held until needed, so water levels fluctu
ate widely depending on the season. Kahn's Pond is 3.0 meters deep and
its water level fluctuates over a 1.5 meter range. Continually chang
ing water levels of this magnitude could cause serious problems when
fish spawn. Spawning areas which had been submerged could be exposed
to the atmosphere, destroying any embryos present.
Role of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Submerged aquatic vegetation can be beneficial to ponds in sev
eral ways. It was extremely important for oxygen production in Twin
Lakes and Wong's Pond. Both ponds had deep photic zones (indicating a
lack of phytoplankton) and the bulk of oxygen was produced by the sub
merged aquatic macrophytes. Shapiro (1970) reported that the net flow
of phosphorous is into the sediments where there are already large
amounts of the nutrient (Miller and Tash 1967; Armstrong, Harris, and
Syers 1971). Rooted aquatics remove phosphorous and other nutrients
from the mud and, through decay, recycle them (Boyd 1971).
Submerged aquatic vegetation provides protective cover for
juvenile fish (Weaver 1971, Saiki 1973, Singer 1973). It is important
to the total food web by providing support and shelter for microorgan
isms and contributing to the organic detritus pool (Cole 1968, xBoyd
1971).
Conversely, overabundant submerged vegetation could become a
problem. Plant respiration following intense photosynthesis utilizes
oxygen, possibly reducing the concentration to levels lethal to fish.
This may require very dense growths of vegetation, as there was no
detrimental respiration effect observed in any of the study ponds. A
dense growth of vegetation in combination with a planktonic bloom will
also lead to low oxygen levels through respiration (Roach and Wickliff
1934).
Aquatic macrophytes remove nutrients from the water, making
them unavailable to the phytoplankton (Bennett 1962, Dendy 1963, Boyd
1971). Some of these plants are able to store nutrients that are in
limited supply (Wilson 1972). The nutrients that are stored are not
recycled quickly because of the longer life span of the aquatic macro
phytes (Boyd 1971). Lack of nutrients ultimately affects the well
being of a fish population by limiting phytoplankton, a basic food for
zooplankton. Thus, the zooplankton do not flourish and fish are de
prived of an important food source.
25
26
Dense aquatic vegetation may be harmful to a fish population by
providing too much protective cover for small fish, eliminating them
from the pressure of predation (Dendy 1963). This will interfere with
the carnivorous food chain (Swingle 1952) which may result in over
population and stunting of the small fish. A fine line exists between
the beneficial and harmful aspects of submerged aquatic plants for
fish.
Submerged vegetation can also interfere with man’s use of the
pond by making swimming, boating, and fishing difficult.
Water Quality in Relation to Fisheries
Ponds in this area are best suited for warm-water fisheries.
The range of water temperatures (5 to 32 C) are tolerable year around
with a possible 10 to 12 month growing season (Hallock 1969, Weaver
1971).
Oxygen concentrations are generally above the minimum of 5 mg/1
recommended for warm-water fish by Doudoroff and Shumway (1967). Oxy
gen will become limiting in the deeper ponds with the onset of the
thermocline in the spring. Depths below three meters will be devoid of
oxygen during the summer, forcing most species into shallow water.
During the summer months, the most critical period of the year, waters
which are not circulated will be uninhabitable for fish.
The low, early morning oxygen concentrations (0.8 mg/1) re
corded in July in Chalk Reservoir, the shallow, turbid pond, are lethal
to most species of sport fish (McKee and Wolf 1963). Although oxygen
concentrations are sufficient to support fish life during most of a
24-hour period, the brief period of oxygen deficiency can cause fish
mortality. A pond with conditions similar to Chalk Reservoir is not
suitable for fish.
The pH range of pond waters (6.7 to 10.1) is within tolerable /
limits recommended by Bennett (1962) and Swingle (1961) and will not be
a limiting factor. The well waters are fairly well buffered as indi
cated by alkalinity levels (80 ppm to 150 ppm) which helps to keep pH
ranges tolerable for fish.
Cold-water fish, such as trout, could be used to supplement
winter fishing. They could be stocked after the water cools in Novem
ber, but they will only thrive through April because water temperatures
of the entire water column are greater than 20°C from May through
November, which is too high for trout (Bendy 1963, Borell and Scheffer
1961). Due to the short growing season, catchable sized fish will have
to be stocked. These trout will not reproduce (Dendy 1963) and will
have to be restocked for continued fishing.
Sunlight and nutrients are readily available to these ponds for
primary production. The well waters are adequately buffered and will
not limit productivity as Moyle (1946) indicated alkalinity levels above
40 ppm were sufficient.
Phosphorus must be in the orthophosphate form to be utilized
by plant cells (Armstrong et al. 1971; Brown, Porcella, and Toerien
1972). The range of orthophosphate concentrations in well water (0.04
to 0.19 ppm) is within the limits recommended by Moyle (1946). If the
orthophosphate level in the water is in short supply, there usually are
27
28large amounts present in the sediments (Armstrong et al. 1971). Once
in the sediments, reduction conditions favor release of phosphorus
back into the water (Brown et al. 1972).
Pond Design Recommendations
The bottom of a pond is important biologically. It is a feed
ing area for many species, is used for spawning, and bottom ooze hold
nutrients vital to the needs of aquatic vegetation. All of these uses
may be lost if the circulation pattern does not include the bottom.
Ponds filled by runoff need to have sufficient depth and retain
ample water to compensate for high evaporation rates and droughts. The
bottoms of deep ponds, however, are not fully utilized because of lack
of circulation and oxygen depletion below 2.5 meters during the summer
The pond should be constructed to expose the bottom surface area to
circulation. This way oxygen concentrations on the bottom would be
adequate for plants, food organisms, and fish. One method would be to
terrace the pond with sloping sides as shown in Figure 2. Each level
would be 2.5 meters below the next, coinciding with the maximum depth
of daily summer circulation. This design allows for a total evapora
tion loss of 2.5 meters, yet would maintain most of the bottom area ex
posed to circulation. The deepest area can be a refuge for fish during
extreme drought. Thus, ponds filled by runoff should have a minimum
depth of 5.0 meters. If more depth is required, any number of terraces can be contructed.
29
2.5 m
Figure 2. Idealized cross section of the terraced pond bottom showing the recommended 2.5 meter levels for a pond supplied with runoff.
Figure 3. Idealized cross section of the pond bottom showing the recommended 2.5 meter depth for a pond supplied by a pump.
30Ponds filled with well water can be shallow because water lost
through evaporation can be replaced. Therefore, these ponds should be
a maximum of 2.5 meters deep with sloping sides (Figure 3) to keep the
bottom exposed to circulation year around. Sloping sides provide many
advantages over steep sides by furnishing spawning areas, feeding areas,
and resting areas for fish.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The limnological characteristics of ponds in the Tucson
Valley vary depending on the elevation, depth, turbidity, and water
source.
2. Water temperatures were within acceptable ranges for warm-
water fish year around and for trout between November and April.
3. Winter oxygen concentrations were above 5 mg/1 in all types
of ponds. Summer oxygen deficiencies occurred in the turbid pond and
below 2.5 meters in the clear ponds.
4. The pH levels were always within a tolerable range for
fish.
5. Ponds with extreme turbidity had reduced photic zones, high
surface water temperatures, and during summer, substandard oxygen con
centrations.
6. Ponds less than 2.5 meters deep that are filled from wells
have the best potential for fisheries. Ponds dependent on intermittent
runoff have limited fishery potential.
31
APPENDIX A
TEMPERATURE AND DISSOLVED OXYGEN DATA FOR TWIN LAKES,
WONG'S POND, CHALK RESERVOIR, KAHN'S POND,
AND MISSILE SITE POND
32
33
Table 7. Temperature and dissolved oxygen data for Twin Lakes fromOctober 1972 to September 1973.
Depth (m)Temperature (°C)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
October 21.0 20.1 20.0 6.2 6.7 6.4
November 12.1 12.0 12.0 9.0 9.0 8.5
December • 7.2 7.0 6.8 8.8 8.6 7.5
January 9.9 9.0 9.5 10.1 9.3 9.6
February 13.0 11.1 10.5 7.8 7.6 7.5
March 11.1 11.0 11.0 8.4 8.3 8.5
April 15.5 15.0 13.8 12.0 10.9 1 12.0
May 22.5 22.0 20.0 7.8 7.0 7.8
June 25.6 25.0 23.9 10.6 11.0 12.0
July 29.0 28.0 27.8 7.8 11.0 8.6
August 28.5 28.9 27.0 8.8 8.4 7.7
September 24.1 24.0 23.5 23.1 8.3 7.9 6.4 4.0
34
Table 8. Temperature and dissolved oxygen data for Wong's Pond fromOctober 1972 to September 1973.
Dissolved______ Temperature (°C)_____ ______oxygen Cmg/l)
Depth (m) 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
7.5 6.9 4.8 4.2
7.6 7.6 7.6 5.7
October 25.0 21.9 21.2
November 13.8 13.8 13.7December 8.8 7.8 7.1January 10.1 10.1 10.5February 18.5 13.0 12.0March 14.0 12.5 12.5
April 18.0 15.0 14.5May 26.1 22.5 18.0
June 25.0 24.0 21.0
July 28.1 27.5 27.0
August 28.0 28.0 27.9
September 25.1 25.0 24.9
10.7 10.6 10.6 10.2
11.1 11.1 11.19.4 9.4 9.2
9.3 8.7 7.0
12.4 11.8 8.3
15.6 8.3 8.6 9.1 4.7
19.1 11.9 11.0 6.7 0.9
27.0 8.6 8.1 7.8 6.5
8.7 8.0 7.9
8.7 8.0 7.6
35
Table 9. Temperature and dissolved oxygen data for Chalk Reservoirfrom October 1972 to September 1973.
Depth (m)Temperature (°C)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
October 25.0 19.5 19.0 18.9 10.3 4.2 1.8 0.2
November 9.0 8.1 8.0 7.8 7.7 7.5 7.5 7.3
December 6.0 5.1 5.0 10.1 9.6 9.8January 8.0 7.8 7.5 7.1 10.3 9.4 9.5 9.2February 11.2 9.6 9.0 8.9 8.9 8.2 7.9 7.5March 10.9 10.5 10.0 10.0 8.3 7.7 7.2 6.0
April 20.0 11.5 11.0 8.0 6.3 3.6
May 25.7 16.0 14.0 10.8 5.7 4.6
June 29.5 20.0 19.8 15.6 2.1 1.0
July 30.0 24.0 14.6 3.5
August 28.0 24.2 12.2 0.4
September 24.0 20.6 9.9 0.6
36
Table 10. Temperature and dissolved oxygen data for Kahn's Pond from May 1973 to September 1973.
Depth (m)Temperature (°C)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
May 23.0 21.0 20.0 19.0 8.8 7.8 6.7 3.9
June 27.0 24.1 23.5 13.4 13.2 8.1
July 27.0 24.9 24.1 12.8 9.7 10.1
August 26.0 24.0 23.5 9.0 8.5 7.5
September 24.9 23.0 22.5 14.4 10.9 5.5
• Table 11. Temperature and 1973.
dissolved oxygen data for Missile Site Pond from October 1972 to September
Depth (m)Temperature (°C) Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
October 20.4 19.5 18.9 18.8 18.5 8.2 7.4 2.9 1.0 1.2
November 11.1 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 8.0 8.1 8.1 8.1 7.6
December 6.0 5.2 5.0 4.9 10.8 10.4 10.5 10.4
January 6.9 6.1 6.0 6.0 5.9 9.8 9.7 9.6 9.5 9.0
February 12.0 10.5 9.0 8.8 8.8 8.8 14.0 10.8 8.0 6.1 3.5 1.5
March 13.0 11.0 10.0 9.2 8.0 7.9 11.8 11.4 9.4 8.6 3.2 1.5
April 16.5 14.2 13.0 12.2 12.0 10.9 12.8 12.4 11.0 9.0 5.3 1.1
May 21.0 20.0 17.6 15.0 13.0 11.0 10.0 9.3 9.6 2.8 0.6 0.2
June 24.0 23.4 20.0 17.2 15.0 9.8 9.4 1.8 0.5 0.4
July 25.0 25.0 23.5 19.5 18.0 17.5 7.2 6.6 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1
August 26.8 25.0 23.5 21.0 20.0 7.1 5.7 0.3 0.0 0.0
September 23.5 22.5 21.9 21.2 21.0 7.1 6.6 4.9 2.4 0.0
w
APPENDIX B
DIED TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN DATA FOR TWIN
LAKES, WONG'S POND, CHALK RESERVOIR,
AND MISSILE SITE POND
38
39
Table 12. Diel temperature and oxygen data for Twin Lakes taken July23-24, 1973.
Temperature C°C)Depth (m) 0 1 2
Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)
0 1 2
8 p.m.
10 p.m.
12 p.m.
2 a.m.
4 a.m.
6 a.m.
10 a.m.
12 a.m.
2 p.m.
4 p.m.
6 p.m.
28.1 27.5 25.5
26.5 26.5 25.0
25.4 25.3 24.0
25.2 25.1 23.5
24.0 23.5 23.0
24.0 22.0 21.5
26.0 25.4 24.9
27.1 26.5 25.5
28.7 27.1 25.5
30.0 28.0 26.0
29.1 28.0 26.0
12.8 10.2 8.2
11.4 10.6 1.0
11.1 11.2 3.0
9.0 9.1 1.3
9.5 9.1 1.0
8.3 8.0 2.7
11.9 12.3 1.0
12.4 13.2 1.5
13.8 20+ 9.6
14.4 18.6 2.6
14.0 18.0 2.0
40
Table 13. Diel temperature and July 18-19, 1973.
oxygen data for Wong's Pond taken
Depth (m)Temperature (°c)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)
0 1 2 0 1 2
6 p.m. 31.0 28.5 27.3 10.4 10.2 10.2
8 p.m. 30.0 28.3 27.0 10.2 9.9 9.8
10 p.m. 29.0 28.0 27.0 9.7 9.9 9.6
12 p.m. 28.0 28.0 27.0 10.0 9.6 7.9
4 a.m. 27.0 27.0 26.9 9.7 9.3 9.1
6 a.m. 26.9 26.9 26.9 9.2 9.0 7.5
8 a.m. 27.0 27.0 26.5 9.6 9.1 6.2
10 a.m. 28.1 27.9 27.7 10.4 10.0 7.7
12 a.m. 30.0 28.0 27.5 10.4 10.3 9.8
2 p.m. 31.5 28.5 28.0 10.6 11.0 10.2
4 p.m. 32.1 29.1 28.1 11.2 11.2 10.5
6 p.m. 31.5 29.0 28.9 11.5 11.6 10.8
41
Table 14. Die! temperature and oxygen data for Chalk Reservoir taken July 23-24, 1973.
Temperature (°C)Depth (m) 0 1
Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)0 1
8 p.m.
12 p.m.
6 a.m.
12 a.m.
27.5 21.0
22.0 21.0
18.4 17.6
30.5 21.0
17.1 1.0
3.9 1.5
0.8 0.3
20+ 1.5
8 p.m 28.0 21.8 19.9 1.4
. Table 15. Diel temperature and oxygen data for Missile Site Pond taken July 21-22, 1973.
Depth Cm)Temperature (°C) Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)
0 i 2 3 4 0 i 2 3 4
6 p.m. 29.1 25.5 23.0 20.4 19.5 9.1 7.8 0.8 0.4 0.4
8 p.m. 27.5 25.5 22.0 19.8 18.5 8.2 7.9 0.5 0.4 0.4
10 p.m. ' 26.0 25.0 22.0 20.0 18.8 7.6 7.2 1.0 0.5 0.3
12 p.m. 25.0 24.1 21.0 19.5 18.0 7.5 7.0 0.7 0.3 0.2
2 a.m. 24.0 24.0 21.2 19.9 18.0 7.3 6.9 0.7 0.2 0.2
4 a.m. 23.0 23.0 21.0 19.0 18.0 6.7 6.4 0.4 0.2 0.1
6 a.m. 23.0 22.5 21.0 19.1 17.8 5.8 5.7 0.3 0.1 0.0
8 a.m. 23.6 23.0 21.2 20.1 19.5 5.7 5.7 0.1 0.0 0.0
10 a.m. 25.0 24.1 22.0 20.0 19.0 6.6 6.2 0.4 0.2 0.1
12 a.m. 26.0 24.7 22.2 20.0 19.0 7.3 6.9 0.5 0.3 0.2
2 p.m. 27.0 25.0 23.0 20.0 19.0 7.7 7.3 0.7 0.4 0.3
4 p.m. 28.0 25.1 22.2 20.1 19.0 8.4 7.4 0.6 0.3 0.2
6 p.m. 26.9 26.0 23.0 20.1 19.0 8.7 7.6 0.7 0.3 0.3
4>to
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44
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78 17 8