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TRANSCRIPT
PAPER II.II
PSYCHOLOGY
OF
LEARNING
LEARNING ASPECTS
LEARNING
DEFINITION :
1. Gates & others: Learning is modification of behaviour through experience or
practice.
2. Learning is the improvement in the efficiency of adjustment as a result of
practice , insight , observation, imitation & conditioning.
3. Learning is a change in behaviour for better or for worse. The change must be
relatively permanent but rules out changes due to illness or fatigue.
4. Learning is not directly seen but manifests in the action of the individual.
5. Learning is a change that takes place through experience or practice.
CHARACTERISTICS / NATURE OF LEARNING
1. Learning is a continuous process :
We always aspire to learn more & more.
There is no specified age for learning. Learning takes place throughout the life.
Leaning is never ending growth.
2. Learning Results in growth :
A child or a person keeps learning throughout
the life. Through his daily activities the child grows both mentally & physically.
Therefore we say that learning is growth through experience.
3. Learning is adjustment :
Learning helps an individual to adjust himself
adequately to a new situation.
4. Learning is organizing experiences : Learning is not mere addition to
knowledge but reorganizing of the experiences & activities.
5. Learning is purposeful : All true leaning is based on a purpose. Purpose plays
an important role in leaning. All school activities should be purposeful so that the
child feels the urge of learning. It is a goal directed activity.
6. Learning involves use of intelligence: When a child learns something
unintelligently, he is likely to forget it very soon. Only efforts made intelligently
have lasting effects.
7. Learning is active: In teaching learning process the activity of the learner
counts more than that of a teacher. Learning by doing is the main principle
recommended by educationist.
8. Learning is both individual & social : Learning is more than an individual activity.
It is a social activity i.e individual is influenced by society i.e friends, parents,
classmates etc.& learns their feelings, ideas & notions.
9. Learning is influenced by the environment :
Environment plays a very
important role in the growth & development of an individual. Thus environment
should be healthy & rich in educative possibilities.
10. True learning affects the conduct of the learner :
Mental structure of learner
changes through each experience.
Q. Explain the learning process .
Ans: Learning is a process & not a product . According to Smith , the learning
process involves a motive or a drive, an attractive goal & a block in the attainment of
the goal.
STEP 1: The first step in the process is motive or drive. Motives are dynamic, forces
that compels the child to act. Satisfaction of these basic motives is necessary. For this
purpose he has to set definite aims & goals for achievement.
STEP 2 : This makes learning purposeful as the goal attracts us to learn.
STEP 3 : The next is the process of learning if there are any blocks or barriers than
achieving the goal is difficult. But if there are no blocks or barriers than the goal is
achieved & there will be no change in our present behavior. Thus block or problems
are essential in the learning process. We change or modify behavior only when we
reach the goals that are unsatisfied motives create.
STEP4: The next is the actual stage of learning by the learner. Here the learning
situation is important. The learning situation provides opportunities for learning. The
quality, speed & effectiveness of learning depend on the kinds of learning situation &
environment provided to the learner.
Healthy & favourable environment Result in satisfactory or good learning while
poor or unfavourable environment proves an obstacle in learning.
When the learner tries to learn something, the process involves
constant interaction.
Interaction is a process of responding to a situation & getting a feedback
from it. Learning takes place from such interactions. The process of learning goes on
throughout the life.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING :
The are four factors that affect learning
are –
1. Attention
2. Motivation
3. Maturation
4. Fatigue
1. Attention :
It is a process that affects both the process & product of learning . It
refers to conscious & deliberate effort on the part of the learner / individual to select
one out of many stimuli present in his environment & bring it to the centre of his
consciousness in order to perceive clearly & in order to achieve a desired goal.
DEFINITION:
1. Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one subject rather than that on
another .
2. Morgan & Gilliland – Attention being keenly alive to some specific factor in the
environment . it is preparatory adjustment for a response.
3. It is a process that compels an individual to select some stimulus according to his
attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment.
Interest : It is the feeling that prompts one to some spontaneous activity. Interest
is latent attention & attention is interest in action.
Attitude : It is a tendency to react in a favourable or unfavourable manner towards
a stimulii.
We are conscious of every object
we attend to but do not attend to every object we are conscious of.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTENTION :
1) Attention is a process.
2) It is explanatory.
3) It implies both awareness & involvement.
4) It is a function of both cognitive & conative factors.
5) Attention is synthetic (put all information together).
6) It is constantly shifting.
7) It is a state of preparedness or alertness.
8) It is influenced by perception (gut feeling).
9) Attention is the relevant thing which has meaning to an individual.
EFFECTS OF ATTENTION:
1) It helps in clear perception.
2) It leads one to think of the object he/she are going to pay attention to.
3) It helps in discriminating one object from the other.
4) It helps in retention.
Q) ―Which are the different factors affecting attention?‖
ANS.) Factors the affect attention can be divided into two types: -
Internal & External.
Internal factors:
1) Emotions: emotions are said to be the ―internal motivation‖ of attention. In
joy & affection we attend to certain things. In sorrow we like nothing. Hence
the teacher should try to make the classroom situation pleasant so that the
student can attend & gain the maximum.
2) Interest: interest & attention go side by side. According to Mc Dougall
―interest is latent attention & attention is interest in action‖. It is the interest
which inspires the attention, so the teacher should make her lecture interesting
to draw more attention of children.
3) Mood: The more the pleasant mood of the child the greater the level of
attention. It also leads to less distraction when pleasant.
4) Attitude: The attitude of the child towards something will determine his
attention level. Positive attitude will lead to higher level of attention &
negative attitude will lead to less or no attention.
5) Motives (Aim) : If the child has certain motive or aim in life, his attention
level for that particular study or idea will be more than those things which do
not motivate him.
6) Instincts: They are the ― prime movers‖ of our behaviour. So the things which
appeal to our instincts attract our attention. Hence the teacher should appeal to
the instincts of the students in order to catch their attention & make their
lesson success.
External factors:
1) Intensity: A strong stimulus attracts our attention more than a weak one.
Example, a teacher with a loud voice can attract the attention more than a
teacher with low voice.
2) Size: A bigger object captures attention better than a smaller one. Hence the
charts, maps & models in the classroom should be big enough to capture the
attention of the students. The teacher must write in bold writing on the board.
3) Repetition: If a stimulus is repeated, it is likely to attract more attention. So
the teacher must make sectional recapitulation during the session.
4) Change: change attracts our attention. If some change take place, our attention
gets automatically focused on it. Therefore change in voice, methods &
gestures is necessary in a class.
5) Movement : Object in motion attract our attention. A teacher who stands like a
statue in one place while teaching in class does not inspire the students so
much as the one who moves & acts according to the needs.
6) Contrast : Contrast in a natural course attracts attention. Hence the teacher
should sometimes introduce some points of contrast in their teaching.
TYPES OF ATTENTION:
1) Non volitional ( non voluntary) attention: Here we attend to an object or an
idea without making any conscious effort on our part. Example, mother‘s
attention to her crying child, a sudden loud noise.
Enforced non volitional attention : This is aroused by our instincts
specially basic needs. Example, attention towards food when hungry.
Spontaneous non volitional attention: It is aroused by our sentiment.
Example, love for mother will be attentive & the act will be natural.
2) Volitional attention: It demands conscious effort on our parts. We have a clear
cut goals before us & for its accomplishment we use all are effort & make
ourselves attentive. Example, a surgeon operating.
Implicit volitional attention: here a single act of volition is sufficient to
bring about attention. Example, a teacher warning a child to do his
home work, this will make him attend to his task &finish it properly.
Explicit volitional attention: it is obtained by repeated act of will. It
requires a strong will power, keen attention & strong motive for the
accomplishment for the task. Example , attention paid at examination,
time required or preparation against the heavy distraction.
VARITION OF ATTENTION:
1) Fluctuation of attention: Shifting of the centre of consciousness from one
stimulus to another or from one part of the stimulus to some another part of the
same stimulus. It is a rapid change in the intensity of attention. Weaker the
stimulus more will be the fluctuation in attention & vice versa. (It is a very
natural process & not a planned one‖.)
2) Division of attention: Here the attention is divided into two or more tasks. Here
too there is a rapid fluctuation of attention. Since the student is paying attention
to two or more tasks at a time, the quality & quantity of the output may suffer.
The impact on the quality of work is less when the task is simple or similar or
when one of them has been mastered & hence done mechanically. Example, a
steno reading the matter & the writing ate the same time.(it is the more conscious
process. You know that your attention is getting divided but can not help it)
3) Distraction of attention: it occurs due to the presence of any stimulus which
interferes with the process of attention or draws away attention from the object,
one is attending to or paying attention to
The sources of distraction are –
Internal factors:- example, fatigue, hunger
External factors:- Example, things around in the environment like school
being close to a noisy place, a class is on and your attention get distracted
by someone walking by etc.
4) Span of attention : It implies the number of objects a person can held in focus of
consciousness at one time. It refers to the ability to attend to a number of stimuli
in one short span of time.
Definition : Quality, size or an extent to which the perceptual field of an individual
can be effectively organized in order to enable him to attend to a number of things
in a given spell short duration.
It varies from person to person & from situation to situation.
Educational implication of attention:-
1. Attention is a necessary condition for any kind of mental task.
2. Attention is involuntary among small children. So teacher should make use of
attractive aids/ stimuli to draw their attention.
3. As the child grows old, he should be taught to pay attention whenever needed.
4. Must provide a mental set or create a state of mental readiness for learning to
take place.
MOTIVATION :
Definition : The word motivation comes from a Latin root meaning ― To move‖ &
is defined as an emotion, desire or physiological need that incites a person to do
something.
Motive is the ―why‖ of behaviour .( charles & senter 1995)
Concept and Definition of motivation:
The ―why‖ & ―how‖ of behaviour lies in
motivation.
Definitions :
1. Motives are the conditions. Psychological or physiological within the organism
that disposes it to act in a certain way.
2. Motivation refers to the way in which urges, desire, aspiration, strivings & needs
direct control & explain the behaviour of human. Eg. Gandhi was always
motivated to do things for his country for that he even ignored his family.
CAUSATIVE FACTORS OF MOTIVATION
1. Interests
2. Needs
3. Incentives
4. Wants
5. Drives
Are the factors that cause motivation.
1. Interests: only if the child is interested in a subject, he will pay the real attention
to it & will be motivated to learn it or if a child is motivated towards a subject
he/she will take interest in learning it. Example, if interested in maths than will
be motivated to learn it.
2. Needs: needs are necessary in every human. They have survival value. Only if
the child needs to get aware or know something will he be motivated to know or
learn it. Example, only if he needs to know about the different countries of
Europe he will be motivated to see the map of Europe. Needs are general want or
desire.
It means that lack of something can cause harm to individual.
Deficiency experienced leads in some damage.
Many needs – leads to want need not fulfilled – leads to drive.
3. Incentives: it is an approval given by any external agency. Example, pat on
shoulder by teacher, family member, friends etc. it could be in the form of praise,
reward which in turn will motivate the child to learn better.
4. Wants: wants are meaningless or unrealistic demand. A person can easily
survive without these unrealistic demands. Example, wanting n ice cream, toy, a
dress.
5. Drives: A drive is a feeling of mental tension on account of some bodily need.
They are initiated by physiological imbalance in the body.
Drive provide an organism to act in a certain way.
Drive reduction results in need satisfaction & vice versa
FACTOR AFFECTING MOTIVATION:
A. Physiological factors
B. Environmental factors
A. Physiological factors: physiological factors are like needs (hunger, thirst ,sleep
etc.), desires like to have something or be something(example to be a doctor),
aspiration to be something & capabilities that is what you are physically capable
of becoming.
Other factors are:-
Emotions: E.g. an emotional person will be highly motivated to serve his
family or the poor & needy.
Habits: the habits motivate he person to behave in a certain manner.
Example, if a person has the habit of keeping things in a organized
manner, he will be motivated to keep his home neat, clean & organized.
Mental state: a person‘s frame of mind may force him to act or behave in
a particular way & thereby increase or decrease motivation towards
something.
B. Environmental factors: They are all those factors that are available in the
environment which will motivate a person to do something.
Motivation cycle
Need creates wants cause tensions gives rise to action
The following are the traits of human
- curious
Curiosity to know & learn more & aware
-to initiate thought & behaviors
- to make meaning from some experiences eg- why it happened , it significance etc.
- to be effective at what we value eg – to be the most effective Tr.
Types of Motivation
1) Intrinsic motivation ( interests )
2) Extrinsic motivation ( incentives )
Intrinsic motivation
In occur when the child is motivated from written to do something. This type of
motivation is directly linked with natural instincts ,urges or impulses of an organism
.Person who is intensely motivated performs an act because he tends interest in that
activity. Therefore the product of intrinsic motivation will always be effective ( quality
product ) . Since the child is motivated from within his motivation lasts for a longer
period of time (as it is not forced upon him ) .
The child engages in learning something because he derives pleasure from the
learning of that thing. eg- a child who is intrinsicly motivated to read novels will enjoy
reading them.
The source of pleasure lies within the activities itself. Such types of motivation
has real values in the learning tats as it creates spontaneous attention & interest &
sustains throughout.
Extrinsic motivation
In this case some external factor motivates or drives you to do something .
In this kind of motivation the source of pleasure does not be within the task .
Here the individual does not learn something for its sake or because he is motivated but
as a means of obtaining the desired goal or getting some external reward.
Eg- Working for better grade or honors , learning to earn livelihood etc.
The product of extrinsic motivation has very low standards in terms of quality.
Since the child is motivated due to external factors the motivation usually lasts for a
short period of time . Children at young age have external or external motivation . so
we condition them through rewards & help them master the skill which later turns into
intrinsic motivation for the child .
So as children are growing we have to move them from extrinsic to intrinsic
motivation by recognition & appreciation of his effort , giving challenging activities eg
– say half story & ask them to complete it , build on their curiosity , encourage &
reinforces them , highlight their strengths & weaknesses & help them improve on their
weakness. All this will lead to intrinsic motivation in the child.
Distinguish between intrinsic & extrinsic motivation
INTRINISC EXTRINISIC
1) Doing something cause it is inherently 1) Doing something cause it lead to a
Interesting & enjoyable. Separable outcome .
2) The act of doing is itself a reward 2) Reward is external to the activity &
Very much sought.
3) Self endorsed & adopted with a sense of 3) Externally propelled & so compelled
Volition to perform.
4) Routed in the needs for competence 4) Routed in the needs of belongingness
Autonomy & relatedness. Acceptance ,recognition status etc.
5) Laste longer 5)Lasts till the thrill of the reward
Remains
6) Results in endurable learning . 6) Learning is short live & fades easily.
7) Result in high quality learning & 7) Initially may meet with resentment,
Creativity resistance or disinterest. so quality of
Learning may be poor.
Q) What are some of the motivational strategies used by the teacher to motivate the
students to Learn?
Ans) Some of the classroom motivational techniques used by the teacher are as
following.
1) Attainable goal The teacher should explain the students that each lesson taught has a goal
behind it.
This will motivate the students to continue their effort in a particular direction.
2) Healthy physical environment : A healthy classroom environment is itself a motivating force for the children
eg – happy & healthy relationship among the classmates & also between the Tr. &
St.
3) Stimulus variation by teacher.
It‘s observed that children are not able to attend to one thing for a long time.
The effectiveness of teaching learning in that case depends to a great extent on the
stimulus variation used by the Tr. Behaviors. Some of the common Tr. Behaviors that
will motivate children are:
- Teacher movement
The Tr. Should not be standing at one place in the class but should move around in
class while Explaining etc.
- Teacher gestures
The gestures of the Tr. are at time a motivation factor for children eg- positive
gestures
- change in speech pattern
voice modulation on the part of the Tr. is motivating factor as it draws the children
interest , attention which intern motivates them to learn.
- Changes in postures
- The body language of the Tr. Could motivate the children to learn
Reinforcement:
4 Changes in sensory focus
It could be either positive or negative & verbal or non- verbal
- Positive verbal reinforcement
Following the pupils answers the Tr. verbally indicates pleasure in the pupils
response by using words like good , fair,
- Positive non- verbal These include non- verbal clues like
a) nods & smiles
b) Tr. friendly movement towards pupils
c) Tr. friendly look
d) Writing students response on the black board .
- Negative verbal
These includes the use of negative words like no, wrong, not good, of course not
etc.
- Negative non- verbal.
This includes gestures like impatience, frowning , experience of annoyance etc
5) Rewards & punishment
Reward is a positive psychological motivation . Tr. should make use of reward at
Proper time & in proper manner for better learning to take place. Eg materialistic
Rewards like book etc
Punishment on the other hand can discourage a negative behaviors in an
Individual.
Eg – use of time out.
6) Experience of pleasure & pain
It is closely related to reward & punishment. Any kind of reward by the Tr. gives
Pleasure & happiness to the child which motivation or encourages the child to learn
Better.
Any kind of punishment bring sadness & pain to the child & thereby motivates
his
To stop that particular negative behaviors.
7) Experience of success
Tr. should divide big goal or task to smaller taske, which will make it easy for children
to achieve success. Success boost up the self esteem of the student which will intern
motivate him for better learning.
8) Ego involvement
The personality of the child must be given its due recognition . The child derives joy by
doing things himself which in turn motivates better & effective learning.
9) Novelty
Novelty & creativity in the methods of teaching motivates effective learning eg- field
trips, dramatics, sports literacy activities etc, these programmes satisfy the pupils self
actualization needs by providing opportunities by the child.
11) Cater to individual differences
Teacher should discover individual interest in the children and motivate them
accordingly eg. Some children are good in sports some in academics
12) Group work :
Children like to work in groups. They can be divided into various groups.
The group work leads to quicker, better, easier and enjoyable learning.
13) Teaching Skill:
Teacher should use the skill of questioning illustration with eg. Group
discussion etc. to bring liveliness in class
14) Self motivation
Teacher herself should be motivated in teaching the subject , then only she
can motivate the children to learn
Q. Explain the Maslows theory of Hierarchy of needs (motivation)?
Ans. A Person is confronted with many needs and the problems arises when he
needs to decide which needs should be fullfiled first. Maslows proposed that human
needs can be arranged in a particular order of their importance i.e. from lower to higher
needs. This was called Maslows Hierichy of needs. According to this theory our needs
could be categorized in the following way.
1.) Physiological needs:
These are the basic human needs to sustain itself like food, water, clothing which
serves the function of maintance of organism. It only when these needs or stated or
others needs emerged. Therefore its very important that these basic needs of person are
satisfied eg. A hungry child cannot be expected to concentrate on any work
Pysiological needs, i.e basic needs. Eg. Air, water, avoid pain
Security or safety need
eg. Shelter
Love and Belongingness
Esteem Needs
Self Actualization
Transcendence
2.) Safety and security needs:
Once the physiological needs are gratified the safety and security needs emerged. It is
very necessary to have a safe envoirment for childrens if the safety needs are not
satisfied then the child feels sense of insecutity and develop mistrust the people around
him/ her eg. Shelter need, freedom from any sort of danger or threat to life. It can also
be called the need for self preservation
Eg. A 3 yrs old child feels insecured when he joined school for first time. He feels
secured if his parents sits with him in the class.
3.) Need for the love and belongingness
When the child has his sense of security and trust he develops he develops
affectionate relationship with the people in his environment (friends, relatives and
teachers) and has desire to belong to other group. Since the man is a social animal it is
very important to have a feeling of acceptance and belonginess in society. When the
social needs become dominant he will strive the meaningful relationship with others
4.) self esteem needs: These needs related to awareness of self importance and
recognize from others. The child is able to function well in interpersonal situation. He
develops achievements and competence for independence and freedom eg. Need for a
self image self confidence, self respect status, recognization, prestige and attention and
respect from others. Satisfaction of these esteem needs produce feeling of self
confidence power and confidence. The people began to feel that they are useful and
have some effect on their envoirment. But in case these esteem needs are not satisfied
an individual resort to disrupt and immature behaivior, a child may throw temper
tantrums. Thus recognition is not always obtained through the mature behavior it is
sometime gained by immature behavior and irresponsible behavior eg. Confidence in
the game but never won the match, effects the esteem.
5.) Self actualization needs
These needs relates to self fulfillment. it is need for a self development and a need
to become what one is capable of becoming. This has special significance at a
adolescence stage. Maslows expressed ―what a man can be must be‖ the individual
satisfied these needs in a different ways. For some it could be expressed in desire to be
ideal mother, managing organization, to be a good athelete eg. Need to grow, the self of
fulfillment, the maximmun self development, the personal achievements
6.) Trancendence:
It is importance aspect of self actualized people. Self actualized people appear to
transcend many of the controversies of other aspect as the undeniable such as the
difference between spiritual and physical, selfish, unselfish, masculine & feminine.
Thus self actualized people need the following
Truth rather than dishonesty.
Goodness rather than evil.
Aliveness rather than the mechanization of life.
Uniqueness & not uniformity.
Simplicity and not complexity.
Self sufficiency not dependency
Educational implication:
1.) Help the people to discover his vocation, their calling faith or destiny.
2.) Teach people that the life is precious there is enjoy to be experienced in life,
there is goodness in all situation.
3.) See that the basic need are satisfied.
4.) Teach people to appreciate beauty and other good things in nature and living.
Characteristic of Self actualized person.
1.) They demonstrate on efficient perception of reality and acceptance .
2.) They accept themselves and others.
3.) They show high degree of Spontaneity and simplicity eg. Gandhiji – very
simple, natural, open and transparent.
4.) They show the problem centered orientation, irrespective who cause to create the
problem tried to work on solution to problem.
5.) Privacy and detachment: they are with world and at the same time away and
beyond the world. A person is private because there is much more to that person
that we donot know. They like to have their own space to grow above the world.
6.) They are autonomous and independence of their envoirment. They are
independent. Nobody can control their behavior. They are self controlled people.
They donot depend on any kind of envoirmental factors.
7.) Identity with mankind: they sacrifice for the sake of other people.
8.) They appreciate the basic goodness of life with continued freshness and
pleasure. They are highly positive people who starts everday with the freas min
by living on day at a time.
9.) Democratic in outlook
10.) They keep means and end distuinguishable. The process and product are
equally importamt so keep them separate.
11.) Good sense of humor: they can even laugh on themselves as they are very
spontaneous natual and creative.
12.) Non-conformiost: The self actualized people have more of experience than
other. Its experience when you become one with situatution and everthing
around you.
Maturation It is biological terms.
Def: Maturation is the qualitative changes in organism, not induced by learning and
independent of activities, experience and practice. Eg. In speaking.
When child is small he only makes sounds but as he matures his speech
develops
Def; Garry & kngsley : Maturation is the process whereby behavior is modified as
the result of growth and development of physical structure. Maturation in learning
are closely related to each other. For learning definite level of maturity is essential.
It involves the biological process of growh and development.
Maturation is the ripening and upholding of intrest and traits.
It is a developmental process from within i.e. it cannot be seen.
It is a function of time and age. As the child ages he gets more more and more
mature.
Maturation brings about both the qualitative and quantitave changes in an
individual this means the child matures physically (increase in height, weight
etc) and also intellectually or mentally. Therefore learning can bring about
changes in individual which are not genetic inheritance.
Relation between matuiration and learning
1.) learning and maturation go hand in hand. The learning is possible only when a
certain stage of maturation has reached eg. A six month old child cannot work.
This particular learning is possible only when the nerves and muscles have attain
a particular stage of maturity and development.
2.) Both learning and maturation leads to changed in behaviour. It changes the way
we react to a particular stimuli.
e.g On seeing a doll , a six years old child will be a happy and start playing with it ,
but a 16 year old child may not be interested in doll. She may be more inclined towards
computers .
Teacher‘s Role
1) The teacher must understand the complexity of the interaction –
She should consider the age of the child while talking to him and go down
to the level of the child so that it is easy for him to understand what the teacher is
saying . e.g. with a 6 year old, the teacher cannot talk or behave the way she does
with a 16 year old .
2) The teacher must teach only when the child is ready to learn e.g. In 5th history
class the teacher cannot do history as the children are not mentally mature enough
to take in the matter.
3) The teacher must pace out her activities – she must present the activities at a rate
which is parallel to the developmental stage of the child.
Fatigue
Def- It‘s a condition of lowered efficiency due to the expenditure of energy.
Def- Gulbert – Fatigue is a decreases in capacity to work and decrease in the
pleasure taken in the output.
Characteristics of fatigue –
1) There is loss of willingness to continue the work .
2) Feeling of tiredness appears.
3) Movements of individual becomes irregular and jerky , yawning ,returning ,
twisting of fingers etc.
Types of Fatigue
1) Sensory fatigue-
This means fatigue of the senses .e.g. A person staying near the airport
are used to the sounds of the air planes and thus the sense of hearing can get
fatigued.
2) Physical Fatigue –
It means fatigue of the body. It is caused by physical activities like
walking , jumping , running etc. It is when the organs of the body are unable to
carry out the functions efficiently & properly.
3) Mental Fatigue –
It means fatigue of the mind . It is caused by mental exertion and
strain such as reading , writing , calculating and problem solving.
Causes Of Fatigue-
1) Exhaustion Of Energy producing compounds –
When the individuals are engaged in continuous activity the
energy producing compounds i.e. glycogens are consumed and the organisms feels
fatigued.
2) Lack of Oxygen –
It is also responsible for fatigue.
3) Accumulation of poisonous substance-
During continuous activity glycogen are consumed up and
the poisonous substances cause fatigue.
4) Inadequate light and illumination-
It causes over strain on the eye and hence responsible for fatigue.
5) Noise-
It is directly related to the on set of fatigue . Noise cause distraction and
fatigue .
6) Adverse temperature and humidity-
According to Vernon and Osborn the ideal working temperature is
62.5 F -72.5f .The above and below temperature is most fatiguing.
7) Physical condition of workers –
People who are not physically fit cannot concentrate on strenuous
work. They are more susceptible to feel fatigue.
8) General working conditions –
If the rooms are dark and dizzy, no proper ventilation, inadequate
seating arrangement it will quickly lead to fatigue.
9) Long hours of study –
It can decrease the efficiency of students by causing fatigue.
10) No provisions of rest-
Lack of rest makes the work dull, monotonous and heavy and the
child may feel fatigue . The output of the work will also suffer qualitatively &
quantitively.
11) Unpleasant emotions –
Like anger , anxiety , stress may lead to fatigue.
12) Uninteresting lessons –
If the lessons are uninteresting , unpleasant ,lengthy then the
students begin to bored and fatigued.
13) Uninteresting methods of teaching can lead to fatigue –
e.g. lecture method, no student –teacher interaction.
14) Physical Condition of students –
If the eye sight of the students is weak or if he is suffering from the
some physical ailments or diseases then he can get fatigued quickly.
15) Mental condition of students-
If students are not mentally healthy or are suffering from the
complexes, conflicts & worries then he may be easily fatigued.
16) Lack of games –
If there are no arrangement for the games or play in school then it can
cause fatigue.
17) Interest of the child –
If the child is not interested in the lesson or activity going on then he
can easily get fatigued.
18) Previous knowledge –
If the chiold has previous knowledge of thye topic being done then
there is less or no fatigue , but a new concept altogether (which he is not following at
all ) leads to more fatigue.
Prevention / Remedies For Fatigue-
1) Favorable Physical environment –
It should be provided i.e.
- well lighted ,ventilated and airy class rooms.
- Comfortable seating arrangements
- the school should be situated away from the noisy surroundings.
2) Interesting methods of teaching –
Teacher should make use of interesting method of teaching i.e.
- effective use of audio – visual aids should be made
- teacher should ask questions so that the students remain active.
- Lesson should be made practical as far as possible.
- Students should be encouraged to learn by doing.
3) Teacher Personality-
- teacher should have a pleasing personality and a good sense of humour
- she should present the subject matter in a systematic and effective way. e.g. by
narrating them interesting stories, illustrations and some personal adventures.
4) Good and Effective time table –
- time table should be flexible4 and according to the needs and interests of the
child.
- Difficult and important subjects should be taught first
- Time table should provide for co-curricular activities that children enjoy
- For smaller classes the duration of the period shuld be shorter.
5) Change of activity-
It helps in removing fatigue. so oral work followed by written work
and mental work may follow physical work. The teacher if possible can also change
the topic as per the interests of the children.
6) Habit formation-
It saves on mental energy brings about physical efficiency. Those who
form regular study habits get tired after a long time, whereas those who do not have
the regular work habits get tired sooner . So regular habits towards the activity
should be formed.
Learning Curve-
Def. It is a graphic representation of the progress in learning of an individual or a
group in a given period of time.
The course of learning can be depicted or represented graphically by drawing
learning curve against X and Y axis.
X axis –represents numbers of trials or some measure of time.
Y axis – represents unit of accomplishment like scores.
Types of Leaning Curves-
1) Straight line curve-
2) Concave and Convex curves-
There is a progress. It is an upward curve . Initially the progress is slow, but
increase with time ultimately towards mastery over the learning material.
It depicts rapid initial improvements in learning that slows down with time. It
occurs when the task is very simple or when the learner has had previous practice on
a similar task.
3) Combination Curves
Convex – concave curve.
Concave – convex curve
Since these curves take the S shape t hey are also known as the s curve.
Such curves may take concave or convex shapes in the beginning depending
upon the nature of the learner, learning material , Learning environment and are
generally obtained in situations where we study the entire learning of a task from
zero performance to the mastery.
Factors affecting shape/ type of learning curve-
1) Nature of the learner-
The learners interests, attitudes, potentials capabilities etc affects the shape
of the curve.,
Eg- more interests more learning, more upward moves the curve.
2) Nature of learning material –
The more interesting the learning materials, the more the child are
motivated to learn and vice versa.
3) Length of practice period –
If the task is very difficult, but is also given lot of time then it leads to
progress.
But if the task is difficult and not given enough time than the progress is
affected, it may lead to less or even no learning.
4) Previous Learning –
It adonts the principle of moving from the Known to unknown.
This leads to progress in learning.
5) Environmental factors –
Factors like proper ventilation ,lighting ,seating arrangements etc leads to
better learning as these factors help child to pay more attention .
It leads to progress in learning.
On the other hand poor environmental condition affects learning and leads
to downward moving curve.
6) To known the extent to which objective have been achieved
Objective achieved leads to progress – curve moves upward .
Objectives not achieved – leads to no?less learning , decline in the
progress.
7) To diagnose -
The curves help us to diagnose the amount of learning that has taken
place.
8) To provide research potential –
Looking at the curve we can do the research on how much learning
has taken place among the group of people.
Drawbacks / limitation of learning curve -
1) The data for leaning curve is very limited –
e.g. acquisition of skills , memory , forgetting ( how much you forget after each
interval)
2) Disregard to individual learning in its environment i.e. it ignores the learning
environment.
3) It does not show progress in terms of learning that has taken place as per unit
time i.e. how much learning has taken place in each interval.
4) Learning curve does not show latent learning i.e. hidden learning. e.g. .– a
small child learning to speak in the initial phases of life. The learning of language
cannot be measured.
Phases of Typical Learning Curve-
A typical learning curve
1) A period of slow progress –
Here since the learning material is new or because the child has just started
learning, the rate of progress in this initial stage is very slow.
e.g. child learning types of noun for the first time – slow learning.
2) A period of rapid progress-
Now slowly slowly the child gets turned into the process of learning or in
case of new material with the more practice gains mastery over it thus showing a
rapid progress in learning thereby accelerating the curve upward,
3) Period of no progress-
Now since the child has gained mastery over the learning material, he
may revise the some material or may take some rest because of which no new
learning takes place and therefore the curve stays stable.
4) Period of sudden rise –
Now again the child takes place up something new and learns
it because of which learning has taken place which leads to o rise in
Learning curve.
5) Levelling off – The phase of leveling off is reached when your
Physiological limits are reached. When your brains are saturated
And you are not physically and mentally ready to do any more
Learning.
At such time you need to take a break from learning and take
Some rest.
Questions-
1) Describe /explain learning curves .Discuss various types of curves
(also include typical curve-less in detail).
2) What is learning curve? Explain and illustrate typical learning curve
(do not include the other types of curves).
What is Plateau formation? What are its causes and how can it be prevented?
Plateau is a period of no progress in the rate of learning.
At this period / stage the rate of learning neither increases nor
decreases, but it remains constant. The curve at this stage is a horizontal straight.
Plateaus are more likely to occur in complex tasks in simple ones.
Causes of Plateau-
1) Fatigue and Boredom-
A learner may get tired and bored of learning and thereby reach a stage
of plateau where no learning takes place.
2) Lack of interest, motivation or purpose on the part of the learner.
If the child is not interested in the learning task or is not motivated to
learn it than the learner reaches a stage of plateau.
3) Undue attention to one task or activity which disorganizes the
Various responses.
4) Shifting of attention from one phase of performance to another.
E.g. from speed of writing to accuracy of writing.
5) Transfer of errors from one part of the activity to the other.
6) Lack of balance among various phases of a complex skill.
7) Failure to follow the consistency in the practice of the task.
8) Using inconsistent and wrong methods of learning.
9) If the subject matter to be learnt is very difficult.
10) Feeling of Satisfaction i.e. when the learner has mentally made up
his mind that he has learnt quiet a good amount which he has learnt quiet a good
amount which is more than enough for the time being.
11) Negative transfer-
When the previous learning affects new learning.
12) Organizing -
W hen the learner spends time organizing the learning
material and not learning anything new.
13) Correction of errors and bad habits-
When time is spent on correcting the mistakes made and in
Improving upon the bad learning habits then no learning takes place at
that time.
14) Lack of understanding of basic concepts-
When the child has not understood the basic concepts well
further learning in the field gets difficult leading to a stage of plateau.
Preventing of Plateau-
A teacher in the classroom can adopt the following measures for
Preventing or avoiding plateau formation-
1) Adopting efficient methods of teaching e.g. role play,
dramatization, group project.
2) Helping children in appropriate method of work or learning
Of e.g. how to form answers how to learn long answers etc.
3) Acquainting them with the clear cut goals or aims of the work
at hand. E.g. knowing the purpose behind learning a particular
Subject motivates the student to learn it better.
4) Arousing and maintaining the interest in work e.g. this could be
Done by using effective teaching aids and methods of teaching.
5) Arranging learning experiences or learning material according to
the increasing level of difficulty. E.g. starting with easy and simple
task and then moving to complex tasks.
6) Suggesting the learner to discontinue the practice or to leave the
task in hand for the time being when a period of no improvement is
reached.
7) To advise the learner to change his method or to change or to
Engage himself in other aspects of his work, if it is not possible for
the learner to take time out from his work.
8) Minimizing the distracting factors and taking care of the physical
environment e.g. proper ventilation, seating arrangements etc.
9) Providing sufficient motivation and incentives to encourage the children for
better learning.
10) Provide the children with proper guidance and supervise their work and study
habits.
Uses of learning Curves / Importance-
1) Learning curves are extremely useful as enough generalization of the rate of
progress, the regularity or irregularity of progress and the relation of progress to
increasing difficulty of material.
2) Whenever decrease in efficiency is predicted, these curves suggest the teacher to
control motivation to make continuous inventories and periodic examination to
detect errors to organize learning material and methods of learning material and the
methods of teaching and to provide connect incentives.
3) Learning curves are helpful in detecting those errors which if allowed to persist
may become difficult to break and impede progress.
4) Plateaus are the prominent features of all learning curves. It
controls plateau formation.
5) It guides the process of learning .
6) It identifies the learning styles of the learner .
7) Helps in judging the teachers teaching skills .
MEMORY AND FORGETTING
DEF :- Memory
1) Woodworth and Marquis :-
Memory consists in remembering what has previously
been learned.
2) Rebury ;-
The power that we have to ―store‖ our experiences and
to bring them into the field of consciousness some time after
the experiences have occurred is termed as Memory.
PROCESSS OF MEMORY
1) Registration :- It involves learning or memorizing the
material given .
It is encoded neural connection i.e. because we have
neurons , we can encode information in our brains . It‘s a forms
of neural connection.
2) Retention :-
Retention is the process of improving the material
learnt.Retention is important to retain in mind the material
learnt.
-There is structural modification in the brain.
-It involves memory trace
-When we register something there is a physiological
disposition in the brain.
- Memory trace is formed where the material gets
imprinted in the brain. This is called Engram.
- Engram is the modification in your brain. It happens
when you try to register something.
- Engram is a neural network.
3) Recall :-
- Accurate and quick recall means quick and sharp
memory.
- If you cannot recall the material as and when required
then it is not called good memory.
- Recall is calling back /mental revival of the stimulus
learnt.
- Any kind of emotional problems or tension affects recall.
4) Recognition:-
- It is a feeling of awareness of familiarity of the material
learnt.
- It is the definite identification of the object or learnt
material.
- Poor recognition hinders recall and new memory.
- Students must possess the ability to recognize quickly and
accurately.
STRUCTURE OF MEMORY
1) Environmental Input :-
Whatever information you get is from the
environment around us. You can get the input from the
various senses.
The child has to imbibe right values from the
environment around him.
2) Sensory Stores :-
You see things for a fraction of seconds which is
now in sensory store for a short term store(working
memory) which decides whether the information shall
move to long term store or forgotten.
3) Moving the information from short term store
To the long term store can be done through
- rehearsal of information .
- coding the information.
- Making the decision i.e. only if the information is
important then move it to long term store , or else forget it
.
4)Long term store is the permanent working
memory . Therefore when you are trying to recall or recollect
the information, the item/ information goes from STM to LTM
and then it is recalled. This leads to Response Output.
TYPES OF MEMORY
1) Short term memory
This memory leads for a few seconds only. But after
some time if the information is not rehearsed its lost from
STM.
E.g. :- remembering of a phone number for sometime , which
is forgotten after a few seconds.
2) Immediate Memory
It is needed when we want to remember a thing for a
short time and then forget it .
E.g. :- we look at telephone number from the directory and
remember it. But after making a call we usually forget it .
Immediate memory helps us to learn a thing immediately
with speed and accuracy , but this retention last for a second/
short time.
3) Permanent Memory
Under this , it is possible to remember thing
permanently . It may or may not involve understanding and
insight . e.g. :- Remembering our name.
4) Rote Memory
Here things are learnt without understanding their
meaning . e.g. :- students mug up the material and reproduce it
during the time of exams.
Rote Memory helps in remembering a thing only for a time
being and for a specific purpose. It is unreliable and fails to
bring out enduring and lasting remembrance.
5) Logical Memory
It is based on logical thinking. It is purposeful and
insightful learning. Here the learner tries to understand what he
learns and why he learns.
6) Associated Memory
This type of memory allows one to associate previously
learned things with many related things and then establish
multiple connections.
7) Active Memory
Here one has to make deliberate attempts for recollecting
past experiences .e.g. ; when answering exam paper .
8) Passive Memory
In this , past experiences are recalled spontaneously
without any serious attempt or will. e.g. ;- If we meet a close
relative , we immediately remember the time spent with that
person.
9) Long term memory
It includes the tip of the tongue phenomenon. In the
information to be recalled first goes into the STM and it is
recalled. It involves recall and recognition of the information.
10) Episodic Memory / flash back memory
This memory helps you to recall an episode or an
event which has occurred in the (flash back) or past in your life
.e.g. :recalling of where you had been when the bomb blasts
took place.
11) Semantic Memory
BIRD
Can sing Is tall
(sparrow) ( OSTRICH)
yellow/brown in CANNOT FLY
color
It is a collection of general information which cannot
be clearly explained. You move from knowing the
characteristics of a canary to knowing that it is a bird.
12) Photographic Memory
It involves remembering only a few instances of the
past. i.e. memory in explicit details only.
13) Paranormal Memory
It involves remembering of events from the past birth.
14) Autobiographical Memory
It involves memory of something that you have seen
but not experienced.
How can we IMPROVE MEMORY
methods which help in improving memory are
1) Making Associations:-
Making association is conducive to memorization .
Association of ideas facilitates memory. E.g. :- word
‗VIBGOUR‘ can be prove useful in memorizing colors of the
rainbow.
2) Linking new knowledge with past experience.
It will help in retaining the material in the mind quickly
and for a longer period.
3) Persistent Repetition:-
Practice makes a man perfect. By repetition impression
become deeper in the mind. Things repeated and practiced
frequently are remembered for a longer time .
Practice and repetition must be given due weightage in
the process of memorization and learning.
4) Recitation method ;-
Recitation serves as a kind of reinforcement as it gives
knowledge of progress , sense of competition and satisfaction .
It helps in organizing the material and hence favors learning and
memorizing.
5) Whole learning :-
It is based on understanding and insight. With whole
learning associations are formed in different parts of the lesson.
Even when a long chapter is to be studied , view it as a whole
even before the intensive study of its parts.
6) Learning by doing :-
Learning by doing facilitates memorization. So the pupil
should be encouraged to learn through active ties.
7) Introduce motivation:-
Remembering is improved if motivation is introduced in
the lesson. Motivation creates interest , helps in capturing
attention and facilitates learning and memorization.
8) Intelligent and meaningful Learning :-
It is conducive to memorization. Hence , the teacher must
encourage intelligent learning in the pupil.
9) Introducing rest:-
There should be adequate provision for rest . Rest remove
fatigue and monotony and refreshes the mind. Hence rest should
be taken after sometime.
10) Proper Grouping :-
Grouping facilitates remembering & memorization. E.g.
:- The telephone no. 827426537 can be memorized & recalled if
we group it as 827 , 426 , 537.
11) Use of Rhythm :-
Various experiments have showed that rhythm is an aid to
memory .
E.g.:- Children remember tables & poems better in a sing song
fashion.
12)Use of Rewards & Punishments:-
Rewards motivates the child to learn & thereby
enhances memory. Children also learn better in order to avoid
punishments.
WHY WE REMEMBER , WAT WE REMEMBER .
1) Primacy effect
Material introduced and learnt in the beginning is
remembered better.Eg ;- while studing Q & A of a chapter . Q &
A learnt in the beginning are remembered better than the others.
2) Recency effect
The material or matter learnt towards the end is
remembered better . e.g. : the last answer learnt will be
remembered better than the other answer.
3) Distinctiveness
The more clear and distinct the learnt matter is from the
other matter , the better remembered as there is no confusion in
remembering it .
4) Frequency effect
The more frequently you come across the material the
better the learning , memorizing & thereby its remembering .
5) Association
Forming associations or links leads to better remembering
of the learnt material.
6) Reconstruction
Revising the matter again & again leads to better
remembering of the learnt material .
FORGETTING
What is Forgetting
Forgetting means failure to recall or recognize an idea. It is
the opposite of memorizing ./it is the wreaking of the bonds that
are formed in learning.
Def:- Failure at ant time at recall an experience when attempting
to do so
Def:- apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in
the L.T.M
Def:- it is a loss , permanent or temporary of the ability to recall
and recognize something learnt earlier
THEORIES OF FORGETTING
1) Decay Theory :-
Forgetting is something thought to be due to the fading or decay
of memory traces in the brain with the passage of time
Such fading or decay could be the result of the normal
metabolic process of the brain .As the passes these processes
might cause the traces of material once learnt to disintegrate
gradually and eventually to disappear altogether
2) INTERFEARANCE THEORY :-
By interference it is meant that different memory traces
overlapping and disturbing each other in this process either the
old learning interferes with the new experience or the new
learning interferes wit the old
Retroactive Inhibition :-
Here new learning interferes with the
previous knowledge i.e. the newly learnt material
inhibits us from recalling previously learnt
information
e.g. ; learning of theory of kohl berg inhibits
recalling that was learnt previously
Proactive inhibition;-
It occurs when information or experience already
stored in the memory (L T M) hinders the ability to learn new
information
E.g. in small classes the previously learnt formulas with the
learning of new formula
3)TRACE CHANGE THEORY / DISTORTION
It refers to the misrepresentation of information
image is recalled from L M T
5) MOTIVATED FORETTING THEORY;-
Motivated forgetting also called as repression is the active process
of forgetting an experience because one want to forget it
Forgetting due to repression occur in order to protect oneself from
the material that is too painful or may cause guilty or anxiety or
even unpleasant feeling in an individual
Repression explain why pleasant experiences are better to
remember that the unpleasant ones .
Suppression removing from ones consciousness ,disturbing , guilty ,
provoking to otherwise unpleasant memories so that one is no
longer aware that a painful event occurred
What are the cause of forgetting ?
1) Inadequate impression at time of learning :
Inadequate or improper learning is likely to be forgotten
intention or will is most important factor in remembering a
thing
Learning without proper attention fails to create a lasting
impression on our mind this inadequate impression is that real
cause of forgetting
2) Lapse of time
What is learned or experiences is forgotten with passage of time
or lapse of time .PSYCHOLOGISTS call this passive decay
thought disuse
According to them with that passage time , memory traces get
weaker and weaker and finally fade away
3)Interference of Association ;-
Bath retroactive and proactive interference can lead to that
forgetting or that learnt matter
- Retroactive interference ; here new learning interferes
with previous knowledge
-Proactive interference; here previous learning of new
matter
4)REPRESSION
Repression is that mental function that safeguard that
mind from the impact of painful expernicies
As a result of this function we actively push the unpleasant and
painful memories in to the unconscious and this try to avoid at
least sensuously the conflicts that bother us
This kind of forgetting is wishful ness .we forget the thing we do
not want to remember .
5)Rise of Emotions
Emotions play a key role in learning & forgetting.
Sudden rise of emotions in excess blocks the process of recall .
When one is taken over by emotions like fear , anger or loss ,
one forgets all one has experienced , learned & thought of
before hand . During these emotions , we become so much self
conscious that our thinking is paralyzed.
6) Alternation of stimulus condition
Sometimes forgetting occurs when we have alternation
of stimulating conditions between the time of recall.
Learning may have a deep association with a particular kind
of stimulus & in case it is absent there is difficulty in recall.
Eg:- a child who learns meaning of different words – cat , rat , dog
with the help of picture feels great difficulty in naming them in the
absence of such pictures .
7) Poor health & defective mental state;
A sound body is said to have a sound mind .A person
with poor health is in a constant state of tension and is unable to
concentrates learn or recall a particular thing at a given time
People having low I.Q or suffering from mental defects are
generally found to be poor in retention and recall
Brain in fury may also be a cause for lose of memory
Education implications of forgetting
1) learning need a desire , a receptive mood and interest in the
learning task .Materials read heard or seen without
intentions are remember well
2) Things are better remember when presented through than
one sense
3) Develop as many associations as possible between the
materials presented and the one already read e.g; learning
letter of alphabet associations like A for apple etc
4) Rhythm is an aid to learning .Children learn nursery rhyme
easily because of rhythm
5) Rehearsal and recitation are useful in
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Memorizing.Recetation gives us a chance of self evaluation & confidence
in oneself.
6) Constant reviewing helps in relation of the material learnt.
7) Meaningful material is more easily learned and retained than non
sensical material.
8) Mnemonic devices are often useful when facts have no inherent
organization in themselves.
9) Periods of rest and preferably sleep help retention.
10) Over learning aids retention. Its best for learning alphabet or tables
which are hard to retain
11) Often forgetting occurs due to interference. A teacher should try and
remove interference for better learning on path of students.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
I] PAVLOV’S THEORY OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Expt: Pavlov kept a dog hungry during the night and then tied him to the
experimental table.
Arrangement was made to give food to the dog through automatic
devices.
When the bell rang, the dog was produced with food Naturally the dog
salivates at the site of the food. The experiment went on for some days.
After that the dog salivated at the sound of the bell even if no food was
produced.
Food – natural stimulus
Bell – artificial stimulus / conditioned stimulus
Response of the dog to the bell to conditioned response
Principles of Conditioned Theory
1] Principles of Reinforcement:
Reinforcement is necessary for learning to take place.
Children’s learning becomes effective when they are rewarded
immediately
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after they perform well. Their behavior is conditioned with reinforcement.
2] Principle of sequencing of time interval and latency
Time: How close or far the CS and UCS must be 0.5 secs.It is only then
that optimal learning can take place.
Latency: Which stimuli must be presented first .(2) The ideal sequence
should be CS first and UCS 2ND
Intensity.
If the CS (ringing of bell) is of high intensity then CR (Salivation) will be
more & vice versa.
3] Principle of Extinction:-
If the sound of bell is not followed by food, it implies that there
is not reinforcement. A stage reaches when dog stops to salivate.
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S
A
L
I
V
A
T
I
O
N
In the first trial salivation is ideal But as the UCS [food is missing] in the
salivation is ideal But as the UCS [food is missing] in the subsequent trials
less salivation takes place. Thus CR goes on declining. Thus learning gets
instinct.
4] Principal of Spontaneous Recovery:-
If the spontaneous recovery the experiment even after
extinction there may be a sadden response to the bell. This phase is
the phase of spontaneous recovery.
5] Principle of Inhilrtion
It’s a tendency not to responds. The response could be both
internal and external.
E.g. a child may do an act in front of his mother, But not in front of
strangers.
6] Principal of stimulus generation
It’s a transfer of response tendency from one situation to the other
77
Without further conditioning.
E.g. when the class bell goes, Children get up and walk out. Now on
hearing some other bell also cauldron behaves in the some way.
7] Principle a discrimination/differentiation
When two stimuli are sufficiently distinguishable, the organism
can be conditioned to respond to one of them by reinforcing only that
one and not the other.
E.g. a dog may salivate to a long bell but not to a short bell.
S
A
L
I
V
A
T
I
O
N Extinction
Spontaneous
Recovery
No. of trials after extinction
8) Principle of Higher order conditioning:
E.g. the dog is conditioned to salivate to light. Now pair the dog
salivates at the coloured cloth.
Pairing of CS to a new one to substitute the earlier one.
9] Principle of Secondary Reinforcement:
Conditioned response is established to some stimulus other
than the pairing one.
E.g. initially, mummy may wake you up
Once tea is ready. Once you are conditioned to that you may wake up
automatically with any activity associated with tea making e.g. Boiling
water.
10] Principle of age and conditioning
The greater the age of the person the stronger is the
undesigning.
Educational implications:-
1] Halrt formation
Condition the could to form the right study halrts from the right
study halrts from the initial stages.
2] Developing right attitude
Children should be taught to form the right attitude towards
different situations.
3] To eliminate phobias and fears.
The teacher must help the child to overcome strong human.
4] Language learning
Language in school might be influenced by the mother tongue
spoken at home.
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Language learning is a conditioning process. The way the child hear a
language or the way they speak.
5] Use of symbols
We are conditioned to behave in a certain manner so that
our behavior changes towards that symbol.
E.g. On seeing the red traffic light for crossing, pedestrians stop and do
not cross the road.
6] Significance of immediate
Reinforcement system.
The behavior of the clued has to be immediately reinforced in
order to conduction him properly.
Limitations
1] All learning is not conditioning.
2] Ignores the application of intelligence thinking, interest, motivation etc
in the process of learning.
3] Ignores the rob played by heredity environment and the will of the
individual to make learning take place.
4] Reduces learning to a niechanised activity thereby taking away the joy
of learning.
II] THEORY OF TRIAL &ERROR LEARNING OR THEORY
OF CONNECTIONISM (THORNDIKE)
Drive
Mature
Block
Random movements
Expt: Of cat in a box who is hungry through random movements learns to
press the liver to move out of the book in order to eat the fish kept
outside.
Drive- Hunger
Motive- fish outside the box
Block- fish outside the box.
Random movement-unspecific movements.
Varied responses-unspecific movements.
Varied responses on port of the learner.
Varied responses
Annoying satisfying
Represses responses
(Elements) (Repeated)
Specific responses
Better learnt
Leads to fixation
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Laws of Thorndike’s theory
1} Law of readiness
The law indicates the readiness on the part of the learner to
participate in the learning process.
Acc. To Thorndike readiness is preparation for action.
When a bond is ready to act, it gives satisfaction, but when not ready
to act gives annoyance.
(Bond is the connection between sense impression and the impulse to act.
It’s on invisible connection.
E.I.
1] Teaches should prepare the minds of the children to accept the
knowledge, skills and aptitudes.
2] Teacher should provide apportuneties in which students can
spontaneously participate.
3] Aptitude tests may be given to student to find out their readiness to
learn.
4] Teacher should follow the maxim of “simple to complex ’’.
2} Law of Exercise
The law states that other things being equal, exercise
strengthens the bond between situation and response.
Thus the laws have 2 parts:-
Law of use:-
When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and
response, that connections strength, other things being equal, increases.
Law of Disuse:
When a modifiable connection is not made between a situation
and a response over a length of time that connections strength decreases.
E.I (for law of effect)
1] A pleasant environment should be created in the classroom.
2] Teacher should be sympathetic but form.
3] Experiences provided to the students should be satisfying and
meaningful.
4] Material should be presented to the children in a number of interesting
ways including the use of audio-visual aids.
3} Law of Effect
When a pleasant or a satisfying consequence follows or
attends a response, the latter tends to be repeated.
When painful or annoying consequence attends a
response, it tends to be eliminated.
Behavior which gives you pleasant experiences tends to be
repeated, but
When a behavior causes unpleasant experiences, it tends to be
eliminated.
E.I. (of law of exercise)
1] More and more opportunities should be provided to the students to use
and repeat experiences, they get in the classroom.
2] Drill work should be provided as it strengthes the bond between
stimulus and response.
3] Review of the lesson should be done as it maintains connection.
Other Subordinate laws
1} Principal of multiple response
When confronted with a new situation the organism
responds in a variety of ways before arriving at the correct response.
2} Principal of mental set
The central frame or the condition of the mind is
important for learning to take place.
3} Principle of partial activity
We have many things in our environment but we pick up
or choose any one aspect and react to it.
4} Principal of Analogy or assimilation
The organism responds to a new situation on the bases of
the responses made by him in similar
Situation in
past. He makes responses by comparison or analogy.
5} Principle of associative shifting
We can get any response from the learner of which he is
capable, associated with any situation
E.g. – a child cannot take anyone beating his dog, when he sees someone
beating a stray dog –similar reaction. Shift from personal dog to stray dog.
6} Principal of Polarity:-
Connections are made more easily in the direction in
which they were first formed than in opposite direction.
B.F Skinners Theory of operant conditioning
An operant is a set of acts which conditions an organism in doing
something in a particular manner.
S type response – response elicited by a known stimulus only. This
response is not controlled by an organism.
R type response: - response emitted by an unknown stimulus. The
response is controlled by an organism.
‘S’ Type response ‘R’ Type response
1] Reinforcing stimulus is pored with response occurs
spontaneously ever
Neutral stimulus to elect a response. In the absence of
stimulus or the
Organism omits the
response.
2] Initially o strength connote have o strength
as the behavior is
activated in some form the time.
3] Internal- personal beh. External behaviors (can
be seen
(Reflexive behavior) all time)
Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process where response
is made more frequently by continuous reinforcement.
- behavior operates upon the environment to generate its own
consequence
- Response is emitted by an unknown stimulus
- Knowledge of the cause of the behavior is not important.
- Its controlled by the strength of the consequences rather than the
stimulus
- Response is contingent (depends) upon the reinforcement.
I. Shaping :
Its refers to the judicious use of selective reinforcement to
bring certain desirable change in the behavior of an organism. It is a
successive approximation to the desired behavior.
Principals involved in shaping
- generalization :-
Response generalization
Stimulus generalization
E.g. love your own pet dog –love for all dogs – slowly love for all
animals.
- Halrt Competition
The right response should attain dominance over the other
response.
E.g. instead of random movement of the cat the movement of
pressing the lever should gain dominance.
- Chaining
Linking of small responses (beh.)
In order to generate the right response. (Beh.)
- Discrimination
The organism learns to distinguish between the right behavior
and wrong behavior.
II) Extinction
It is permitting a behavior to die out by not
reinforcing it. This is known as external approach to motivation.
III) Spontaneous recovery
It means that at some point of time the behavior
that you have forgotten comes back to you.
IV) Reinforcement
A reinforcement is a stimulus whose presence either
increases or decreases the probability of the response.
Types of reinforcement
A. Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Punishment.
Introduction of an additional stimulus, if it
increases the probability of the response than it is called
reinforcement, but it decreases the probability of the response,
it is called punishment.
- positive reinforcement :- (+ B )
Occurrence of a pleasant event leads to +R.
E.g. getting a chocolate for being truthful.
- Negative reinforcement ( - R )
Cessatwn (ending) of an unpleasant event leads to –
R
E.G.-POOR CHILD EXAMITED FROM PAYING THE EXAM FEE.
Occurrence of an unpleasant event leads to +ve
Punishment e.g.-getting beating 4lyir cessation of a pleasant event
leads to -ve punishment.
E.g.-stopping a child from watching TV
Reinforcement strengthener the behavior .Punishment reduces the
behavior for some times, but once taken away the
Behavior repeats again
Effect of reinforcement
a) Modification in behavior occurs instantly and persists in time.
b) Cessation of reinforcement may lead to extinction of behavior
Educational Implications
Learning objectives should be defined as very clearly in
terms of behaviors.
Objectives should be arranged in order of simple to complex.
For developing motivation in students for classroom work
rein forcers like praise, blame, grades etc should be used.
Proper use of +ve rein forcers also serves as rein forcers to
work
Rein forcers should be used periodically so the desired
behavior is resisted
Immediate feedback reinforces the behavior.
Limitations
a) It is doubtful if the results derived from controlled
experimental studies on animals would yield the same
results on human beings in the
Social learning situation
b) role of heredity and environment in the process of
learning is lost
c) higher order thinking is not encouraged
d) operant theory of learning does not deal with the depth
of mind and hence it is artificial in nature
e) Creativity, imagination and thinking not present in the
operant theory.
Classical conditioning Operant Conditioning
1) Forced conditioned response more spontaneous
response
2) Dog was made to salivate cat was made to press
the lever
3) Reinforcement is provided to elect the reinforcement comes as
a
Response. Consequence of the
response.
e.g. 1st
reinforcement than behavior. E.g. 1st
beh. Than
reinforcement
4) Focus is on single S-R bonding only one series of responses
forming a chain to
Stimulus used. Lead to the goal.
91-108
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
5) Emphasis is on tune
control
6) Essence of learning is
Stimulus substitution
Eg:Food substituted by bell
7)Unconditioned stimulus
Is presented irrespective
Of the condition response
8)Reflexes or response
May have O strength
Initially.
9)Responseded behavior is
Internal.
5) Emphasis is on motivation &
reward.
6) Essence of learning
is behavior modification
eg:Random movement
To straight
7)stimulus is presented
only if the if the
organism makes the desired
response.
8)Response must have
occurred earlier so
No O strength.
9)Responseded behavior is
External as the organism operates
In the environment
CONCEPT FORMATION:-
What are conpets?
-Concepts are mental categorizes for object, events or ideas that have a common set of features .
-Concepts allows us to classify objects and events. In learning a concept you bmust focus on the
relevant
Features and igonrse those that are irrelrvant.
-most of the words we use to refer to concept and not to particular things Proper nouns suchas
exceptions.
Def:
A label for a set of percepts which have essential common attributes
Def: a phenomenon in a given field which are grouped together for their common characteristics.
Def: concept are fundamental agent of intellectual works.
TYPES of concepts 1) Natural Concepts:
These are the concepts that are learnt naturally by the child.
Eg: concept of food, concept of seasons.
2) Artificial concepts:
Artificial concepts are those concepts which are not learnt naturally and are taught to the children.
Eg: Process of Digestion is not known naturally but taught by others to the child.
Eg: measuring of temperature.
Eg: Melting and boiling point.
3) Spontaneous Concepts:
These are the concepts which are learnt by the child on his own.
Since these concepts are learnt on own they are not well defined concepts.
Eg: Concepts of Water.
4) Instructed Concepts:
These types of concepts are not learnt by the child on his own, but are taught to him by the elders in
family or teacher in through instructions.
Since these concepts are learnt through instructions, these concepts are well defined.
Eg: Concept of disease.
TYPES OF CONCEPTS ACCORDING TO BRUNER:
1) Conjunctive concepts:
They are concrete ideas formed through combining different features or attributes.
One or more attributes required to define a concept.
Eg: Concept of dog, chair, lake etc.
2)Disjunctive concepts:
These are abstract ideas
They have only one attribute to define a concept.
Eg: Concept of intelligence, fairness etc.
3) Relational Concepts:
These types of concept always have reference to something or the other inorder to be explained.
A kind of comparison is made with something in order to be explained.
Eg: Concept of old, Average etc.
PROCESS OF CONCEPT FORMATION:-
1) Perception :- (Experience or learning)
Experience or learning in any form is the starting point of the process of concept formation.
Our perceptions or imaginary experiences, formal or informal learning, provide opportunities
for getting mental images of things, persons and events.
2) Abstraction:
The mind Analyses these images and synthesizes what is common to all, neglecting what is
merely particular. This process of observing similarities and commonness is named as
abstraction.
3) Generalization :
After making such observations in the form of abstraction for a number of times, the child is
able to generalize or form a general idea about the common properties of some objects or
events.
On account of this generalization the child will develop concept of this things and events.
E.g.: Figure of speech – simile & metaphor
Simile- Comparison using words as & like.
Metaphor- Comparison without using as and like.
Therefore any sentences with comparison using words as and like is a simile.
LEVELS OF CONCEPT FORMATION:
1) Concrete level :-
At this level the child can discriminate one concept from the other.
Eg: A small child can identify his mother from others.
2) Identity level :-
At this level, discrimination is clubbed with generalization.
E.g.: All females become mothers for the child.
3) Classificatory level :-
The child can identify that this particular lady is my mother .E.g.: A lady with
particular attribute is my mother and rest are not my mothers
4) Formal level :-
At this level child can compare one concepts with from the other.
E.g. The child knows this is my mother and his friend who is also a child has different
Mother.
Need / Importance of Concepts formations:-
How to develop concepts 1) Give the child rich and varied experiences.
2) Use the previous knowledge the child to help him understand the concepts better. E.g. Use of nouns
to teach adjectives
3) The child should not develop too many illusions as it leads to faulty perceptions.
4) Provide direct experience and use multisensory approach.
This helps in better retention and long lasting learning. 5) Use inductive deductive approach.E.g. . Use examples in order to help the child to form the concepts.
6) Discourage rote learning :
the child should understand the concept and not just by heart it.
7) Make use of maxims of teaching
Eg. Maxims of simple to complex, Logical to psychological, Concrete to abstract.
Note :- Thinking and reasoning could be looked at synonymously . Reasoning is specialized thinking.
Problem solving is result of reasoning and thinking
,
Def: - Concept Formation It is a form of thinking that helps us to better understanding the world we live in as well as
ourselves
Def:-Thinking – (Ross) Thinking is mental activity in its cognitive aspect or mental activity with regard to psychological
objects
Def:-Mobin
Thinking is an implicit problem solving behavior.
Def:- Garett Thinking is behavior which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbol are ordinarily employed.
Tools or Instruments of Thinking:-
Percepts:- Percepts stimulate thinking suppose we have seen our friends stealing something. This perception will
set our thinking in order to discover ways and means of preventing our friend from this act. Many
Other percepts help in Thinking
2. Images:- Images are kind of symbols which include the fault recollection of perceptions.
Past experiences of an individual move around in the mind in the form of images
Images may be recalled through a conscious effort but they also flash in the mind involuntary
3. Concepts:- Concepts are indispensable in thinking
Classification of object is done on the bases of concepts
Concepts extend the units of thinking to include both the past and his future
4. Sign and Symbols:- Symbols and sign represent and stand for as substitute for actual subject, experience and activities
Traffic Lights, railway signals, school bells, badges, songs, flags and slogans all stand for the
symbolic expression.
Concepts are usually represented in thinking by these symbols and signs
Similarly ―Red‖ is the symbol which stands for the concepts of readiness.
5.Language:- It services as a tool of thinking. It consists of words and therefore uses symbols. Sometimes instead of
words we use gestures in our language the showing of thumb, milling or lifting of eyebreus,shrugging
of shoulders carries a lot of meaning.
Language is the most efficient and developed vehicle for carrying out the process of thinking.
Types of Thinking:
1. Perceptual Thinking:-
It is a form of thinking in which we make use of sensation and perceptions.
E.g.:-The tr Punishes the student for not doing his homework, Now whenever the student sees that Tr,
he recollects that very incident.
It is thinking of a lower order such king of thinking is present even in animals and children.
2. Imaginative Thinking:-
In such type of thinking mental images are used and employed by using mental images and memory
the individual thinks about his future
3. Conceptual Thinking:-
In this type of thinking we depend upon the concepts. Concepts are formed with the help of
observation, anaysis, comparison and mental unification. On the bases of past experiences, we reach
at some definite decision whole keeping in view the future
4. Logical Thinking:- It is the highest type of thinking in this type of thinking ue makes use of various concepts with a
definite aim in view and likes them together in a logical order
5. Convergent Thinking:- It is the basic of intelligence. In convergent thinking the person has the tendency to find out one most
appropriate idea or responses.
Convergent thinking is regid,stereotyned and mechanically operated in convergent thinking we
include remembering,recognition and manipulation of some concerete material.Convergent thinking
is stimulus bound.
6. Divergent Thinking:-
It forms the bases of creativity Divergent Thinking has been regarde as the dectinctive aspect of
creative thinking.Divergent thinking allows as many responses as possible.This type of thinking as
characterized by flesculrlity oruginalety and fluency.
Flexiblity :-It refers to the case with which one changes or stufts from one set of assumption or
approach to anther.
Orignality:- It refers to the novel approach
Fluency:-Fluency refers to the mubler of ideas provided in a given unit
Thus in divergent thinking we think in defferent directions,rearching and seeking some variety and
novelty.
Types of thinking(College notes)
1.Inductive reasoning-
In thus method of inductive reasoning we lead our pupils from particular instanecs to general
conclusions,from concrete cases to abstract rules from known to the unknown from observed to the
unobserved from emprical be rational and from individual cases be generalisations.
Eg.We find that one crow is black anther crow is also blck still anther crow is black we then come to
the conclusion that all erows are black.
-The method is psychological it is base on the principle of learning by doing
-Conclusions are not dependent on the premises They are a set of new information altogether.
-It provides strenght to the theory by making its base more stronges.
-It is a mathematical approach as the solutions are applied to the saluation and results are verified.The
procedure is repeated untill a correct solution is derived.
-In this type of Thinking we do not start with principle instead we collect the data and observe it
With the help of the experiment we try to determine the correctness of the theory and reach a
particular principle.
Concept:- Reasoning reaches conclusions based on correlations between data events boserved. To reach that
conclusion a relation is inferred between the events and the concluded cause(called the conclusion)
Conclusion are called hypothesis You check whether a conclusion excepts.
Used by economist cruminologist politicions and behaviorust
Limitaion Of I.T:-
1.Irrelevent features are studied
2.Wrong hypotheses are arrived at
Conclusion :-I.T is a bottoms up approach
E.I:-
1.It develops the aspect of observation skill in students
2.Helps pupil to reason.
3.Helps them to correlate
4.Help them to generalize and arrive at laws
Deductive Thinking
-It is arguing from general to particular eg.All men are moral
Kaidas is a man
Therefore kaidas from a known principle or premises to an unknown conclusion.
-It is considered more ―conseruational‖in that it uses releable and known theories (Brued and ture
Theories)
-This type of thinking moves from whole to nart from generalization to underlying concepts to
example
-First of all the problem is put before us, we start solving it in order to solve the problem we look at
our past experiences and try to lay down theories Thus with the help of the principle we are able to
solve theories
Inductive Thinking Deductive Thinking
1.It follows the maxim particular to general
2. Conclusion contains completely new info.
3.It Provides strenght to the theory.
4.Its mathematical in approach
5.Its independent of events
6.It is statistical
7.Its an upward movement of toughs leading
to defunct ion principles or rules
8.Its a method of discovery
9.Its a method of specialization
1.It follows the maxim general to
particular
2. Conclusion firms the previous reflect
its based on implicit data.
3.Its valid as the law can be applied in
varous situations.
4.Its empirical in nature.
5.Its dependent on the events
6.It is experimental
7.It is a downward movement of
thoughts leading to good under standing
of principle/rule
8.Its a method of verification and
expiation.
9.Its a method of generalization.
3.Convergent Thinking /Reasoning:-
-Thus type of thinking is cognitives processing of information around a common point,on attempt to
bring throughts from defferent direclcone into union or common conclusions.
-Convergent thinking is the basis of intellegence
-In this kind of thinking an individual has the tendency to find out one most appropreate idea or
resposes.
-Intellegence tests teet Convegent thinking.
-It is rigid stero-types and mechanically operated
-convergent thinking includes remembering recongnition and maupulation of some concrete natural.
-It is stumulus boud
-It is used by scientists and Technologests
4.Divergnet Thinking -Thus type of thinking starts from a common point and moves outward to a variety of responses or
perspectives
-It forms the basis for creativity
-It allows as many resposes as
109-126
Possible.
Divergent thinking involves
- Flexibility :- it refers to the case with which one changes or shifts from one set of assumptions
to another.
- Origianality :- it refers to a novel approach
- Fluency :- it refers to a number of ideas provided in a given unit.
Convergent Thinking Divergent Thinking
Non-creative people have Creative people have Divergent
Convergent thinking thinking
C.T. produces single correct D.T produces a variety of responses
answer
It arrives at a commonly The answers arrived at are
accepted answer uncommon
It is rigid stereo-typed and It is novel and exploratory
Mechanically operated
It is stimulus bound It is stimulus free
Involves vertical thinking Involves lateral thinking
It is sometimes known as It is known as creative, imaginative
reasoning or rational thinking or original thinking
It forms the basis for intelligence It forms the basis for creativity
How to foster thinking in a child ?
1. Have interesting set inductions that leads to curiosity on the part of the students. Curiosity
would lead to divergent thinking
2. Appreciate the students for their novel and creative ideas
3. Teacher should use CAM where you emphasize on inductive thinking
4. The teacher must introduce stimulus variation leading to thinking
5. Include higher order questions involving WHY and HOW in order to stimulate their thinking
6. Ask them appreciative questions which will help them introspect
7. Provide situations related to their ideas or their level of thinking. Relate what is being taught
to their previous knowledge
8. Ask children to formulate questions. This will lead to thinking
9. Tools of thinking should be used in order to foster their thinking
10. Children should be given appropriate reinforcement for their responses which inturn will
motivate them for further thinking.
11. The climate in the classroom should be congenial – positive, healthy.
12. Encourage students to ask questions, but avoid only a few students asking questions and the
others remaining silent.
13. Put forth a problem to them and ask them to arrive at a solution.
IMAGINATIONS
Definition : It is the ability to form mental images or the ability to spontaneously generate images
with ones own mind.
- It is a mental manipulation
- It is constructing of elements
Past Experience / Previous Knowledge
| |
| |
Come up with a new combination
familiar ideas
\ /
\ /
Imagination
Nature of Imagination
- It helps provide meaning to experience and understanding to knowledge eg. In tare Zameen
par movie, how the child arrives at the answer 3 x 9 in maths test
- It is a fundamental facility with which people make sense of the world
- It is accepted as an innate capacity, everyone has the innate capacity/ability to imagine in
their own way. (imagination could be innate or acquired through indirect experience)
- It is free from objective restrains eg. Wright brothers went beyond the objective material
available to imagine something like a plane when they saw birds flying.
- It involves both convergent and divergent thinking.
Types of Imagination
|
|
Productive
/ \
Immitative Creative
/ \
/ \
/ \
Pragmatic Aesthetic
/ \ / \
Theoretical Practical Artistic Fantastic
Creative imagination
- it is a process of recompiling facts, ideas or observation – result transcends new knowledge
- mental impressions are received, recalled, reflected upon and applied.
- Process involves 4 stages.
1. Preparation :- inorder to solve a problem one has to be prepared for it i.e. gather all the data
and think how you will go about solving that problem.
2. Incubation :- now leave the problem and all the information aside. Indulge in some another
activity. All the information is now getting incubated in your mind
3. Illumination : when the information is getting incubated in your mind the solution to the
problem gets illuminated.
4. Verification :- Now you verify whether the solution is the right one or not. If not then you get
back to the preparation stage
Pragmatic Imagination
- Imagination is pragmatic when it serves practical end
- Here imagination is restricted because we are thinking practically.
- Pleasure is normally derived after the activity
People who are pragmatic are :-
- Theoretical people like scientists, mathematicians who theorize everything
- People who do practical work like architects, engineers who generalize everything.
Aesthetic Imagination :-
- Imagination is aesthetic when it is directed to the production and appreciation of beauty eg.
Imagination of a poet or of an artist
- No outside control is accepted. Pleasure comes during the activity as the person enjoys every
step of the activity as and when the idea develops.
People who are aesthetic are :-
- Artistic people – They are the people who impose control on themselves to produce a work of
art
- Fantastic people – They are the people who do not impose any kind of control on their
thinking eg. Building castle in air
Day dreaming and Imagination
- Day dreaming is the process of thinking or imagining through which unfulfilled urges are
gratified. It allows a person to achieve in fancy what he cannot achieve in reality.
- Day dreaming is when imagination goes on as a continuous chain, working out various
themes.
- Inorder to help the child stop day dreaming the teacher need to make teaching interesting, keep
the child occupied, ask questions to keep them alert.
Day dreaming is not bad, but if done very often, the child need to be checked.
Thinking and Imagination
- thinking can be illuminated by imagination
- imagination is guided by thinking
- both are essential in problem solving
Limits of imagination
- Imagination is limited by range of past experiences.
- It is also limited by inseperable associations eg. A man cannot imagine what he has never
experienced before eg. A blind man cannot imagine the colours of the rainbow.
Educational Implications
1. education should cultivate and develop healthy forms of imagination activity so that it
becomes as asset in personality and avoid growth into harmful channels
2. teachers should provide students with varied and numerous opportunities for free play as it
gives powerful help in stimulating and developing imaginations eg. A child considers a stick
to be a horse and rides it
3. Cultivation of pragmatic imagination is of great importance. Learning by doing develops the
power of imagination. Therefore activities like clay modeling and drawing are useful to build
up imagination.
4. In teaching of languages, story telling is a fruitful exercise. The teacher should not only tell
stories herself but also encourage the pupils to say the story. Eg. History/geography when
taught through pictures and descriptions will help children imagine places and
time.
5. Aesthetic imagination can be developed through poetry and literature
6. Composition work in languages like writing story, poem, essay or expansion of ideas
encourages creative imagination in all its forms – pragmatic, fantastic and aesthetic
7. Students can give shape to their aesthetic ideas when they compose a poem or paint a picture
Children should be encourage to reproduce what they have observed.
Their ideas will become accurate which will help them in creative imagination.
LEARNING THEORIES
Gestalt Theory of learning by Insight/ Learning by wholes
By- Max Werthimer, Kurt Kofka, Walfgang Kohles
Learning depends upon perception.
- Perceptional phenomena are experienced only as wholes or gestalts. We first perceive things
as a whole and then as parts.
- Learning is not by random steps (Thorndike)
- Learning is not trial and error
- Learning is not by conditioning
According to the psychologists learning is by :-
1. Insight :- getting into the details of the matter
2. Introspection :- mind works over the information
3. Understanding :- of the matter
Emphasis was laid upon
- dynamic interaction between the elements in our perceptual field
- intrinsic organizing capacity of the brain
Experiment by Kohler
A chimpanzee is kept hungry in a cage. A banana is put outside the cage which is beyond his reach.
There are two sticks of different length near him. The chimp tries reaching the banana with his hand
but does not succeed. Tries with each stick individually but still fails. So he examines the sticks and
finally joins both the sticks and then he is able to reach the banana
Definition :- Learning :- It is a process of problem solving by understanding the relative position of
elements in one‘s perceptual field.
Gestalt :- (german word)
- it means some pattern or configuration
- its an organized whole in which each part affects every other part
- all perceptions are gestalts or organized wholes (good gestalts lead to meaningful perceptions)
INSIGHT
- Insights are perceptions and gradual reconstruction of psychological field (when people go
beyond the normal perception and develop greater understanding of a phenomena, it‘s a
gestalt )
- Insight occurs when an individual while pursing his purposes sees new ways of utilizing
elements in his environment.
- Learning is the development of insight
- Learning is the development of good gestalts
Forming of good gestalt leads to the development of insights
Gestalts are the patterns that we perceive. By perceiving these patterns we develop an understanding
of these patterns in detail. This detail understanding further leads to the formation of insight into the
matter.
What is a good gestalt ?
A good gestalt will have
1. Stability :- whatever you see, your perception remains stable and does not keep changing.
2. Simplicity :- The gestalt should be very simple and should not make the picture confusing for
the perceiver.
3. Regularity : - You see the same picture consistently even after time variation
4. Symmetry :- Everyone‘s opinion about the picture could be symmetrical
Law of Pragnanz
If a perceptual field is disorganized when a person first experiences it, he/she imposes an order upon it
in a predictive way (If our perceptual field is not organized when we perceive it, we feel
uncomfortable. This kind of mental state is called pragnanz)
Pragnanz is nothing but a goal directed tendency to restore equilibrium
Principles governing Pragnanz
Characteristics/Steps of learning by Insight
Survey of the problem situation :- what is the problem and what are its features.
Hesitation poses an attitude of concentrated attention
Trial of mode of responses :- trying out various solutions to the problem
Sudden transfer from one mode to the other, if the earlier one seems inadequate
Frequent recurrent attention to the objective or goal
Appearance of critical point – sudden, direct or definite performance of the required act.
Steady repetition of the adapted behaviour
Discernment of the essential and the non-essential elements present in the psychological field.
Factors affecting insight
Problem Solving
Definition :- A process of overcoming difficulties that interferes with the attainment of goal. It‘s a
process/procedure for making adjustments inspite of interferences
Nature/features of problem solving
- its deliberate and purposeful : (you know there is a problem and want to solve it)
- it is goal specific (it has a focus)
- it attempts to remove the blocks that hinders arriving at solutions
- it results in novel procedure and novel products eg. You can have a novel/different procedure
to build a building but still turn out to be a normal building and vice versa
eg. Use a normal idea – lead to a novel product
- efficient path, as short as possible and few detours (divergence) { every problem is solved in
the prob space. There is initial stage and final stage, there are many branches, select the
shortest and the most apt to arrive at the solution}
- problem solving is also called a node approach.
Steps in problem solving
- Being aware of the problem
- Understand the problem
- Collect information
- Formulate hypothesis
- Selection of correct solution
- Verification
1.Being aware of the problem :- Consists of 3 parameters
- it makes you late
- it increases cost
- it degrades the performance
Every hindrance is not a problem eg. To find out if the child is dyslexic or his is just lazy in work.
To know what is a problem ask questions like who, what, when, where, why, how (to the problem)
2.Understanding the problem :- The real and the perceived.
- we are looking at treating the symptoms rather than tackling the problem
eg, rather than labeling the child, find out the cause of the problem in child
- find out real problem and attack it. Find out the source of the problem.
- explore the problem once you have done then state the problem in words
145>. Generalisations are more likely to transfer. if they are regarded as of some value & some emotional sanction clowned to a plane of an ideal worth living in" - There should seek transfer values by emphasizing ideals of neccesarry.<raj>, love. tolerance, etc
5- Gestaitl or Relationship theory - Gcsiall psychologists ===> Generalising conecpt of insight which arc developed in one leaning, employed in other situation; here applicable - Transfer does not occur automatically. Pupil must perceive the relationship between
the two situations see past experience applicable to new situation
EDUCAT1ONAL IMPLICATIONS: 1. Curriculum and T of L
- Utility aspect kept in view while selecting and planning curriculum:
- Close association with day-to-day needs
- Example: Teach spellings of everyday words first
- Curriculum content should be related to vocational interests
- No superiority of one subject over another - The degree of transfer depends upon the
applicability of the outcome of learning 2. Principles of Transfer (Condition that facilitate transfer)
a) There should be some similarity between two tasks
b) The learner must realise the similarity
c) Learner should be keen to use old learning in new situations
d) The mere intelligent / capable a learner more likely for transfer to take place
c) An intelligent teacher can also facilitate transfer - Use of correlation f) The better the first task has been learnt, easier is the transfer to the new situation g) Understanding the underlying principles (arriving at generalizations) adds to transfer:
h) Self-discovery of principles by pupils is better than being told
i) The more experience children have of applying a principle in different situations, that <raj> will be for
them to apply it m a new situation 3. Proper Methods of Instruction
- Provision for the integration of theory and practical
- De-emphasize rote learning - teaching should be understanding based
- Verbal instruction and audio-visual aids should be used for interesting learning
- Proper attention to the process of learning as well as the product
4. Due Preparation On Part Of The Learner - Learner should be told. the importance of transfer
- Encouraged to perceive the relationship between two situations
- Proper training to transfer knowledge and apply it in real life situations
5. Development Of Desirable Attitudes And ideals - Ideals possess a great transfer value
- Tr. should make use of practical situation to inculcate them
- Encouragc transfer ITOHI classroom lo outside situations
Pg no. 127--144
Try and analyze the problem
3) Collecting relevant information about the problem :-
Assess the problem based on the past experiences try to assess the lundrances.eg. joining
a dot by 4 lines this is done with previous knowledge of triangles & lines.
__ relevant information should be collected and rearrange it to understand the problem
better.
4) Formulation of hypothesis
--stating factor influencing a given situation through controlled experimente.
-- have assumptions and preconceived motion to form hypothesis.
--hypothesis should be formulated keeping in mind intar and emotional blocks.
-- hypothesis should be formed keeping emotional blocks away.
--if you have formulated the hypothesis than you plan to arrive at a solution
5) Keeping in mind :-
--how realistic is the solution
--how practical in nature
--can it be easily implemented
--can problem be solved in the given time span
--does it solve your problem at all.
6) Verification :-
Is the solution solving the problem apply to the same problem and than try and apply it
to similar situation if it solves the problem then it‘s a valid solution.
Strategies to enhance problem solving abilities in students
include collaborative group activities
you can brainstorm many ideas in a group. In a grp. You can get many ways to see the
problems.
---activities more than routine calculation rather than given exact activities for the work
taught, given them more challenges activities which will allow them to use
experimentation.
--- encourage open ended activities with more then one answer.
Therefore problem solution includes divergent thinking as students can come up with a
new idea for solving the same problem .
--activities which accommodate multiple intelligence.
So that all children get a chance to display their intelligence and solve the problem in
his intelligent way.
--activities in which both the genders participate freely.
Men and women think differently. So encourage their thought process.
--questions one should ask oneself.
--use a variety of assessment methods rather than paper pencil feet.
--avoid haste ;:- do not rush to a solution of the problem. ―haste is waste‖.
--avoid forming mental sets that is habitual thinking i.e. thinking only in one way i.e.
avoid functional fixedness and rigidity
Be flexible in your approach to solve a problem.
--teacher should avoid lack of expertise.
--use heuristic approach
--working backward :- i.e. you go back to the situation that has caused the problem and
you work on the problem all over again with a new outlook.
--sub goal strategy :- divide the problem into every sub goal in order to solve the big
problem
--use olgorhythms :- eg rearrange ubc to get a 3 letter work i.e.cub
Educational implications:-
1) teacher should be trained for scientific problem solving .
2) prob. Solving should be used to motivate the students.
3) The problem should be as per the age of the students.
4) Brainstorming enhances group activities
5) Have variety in your teaching aids
6) Encourage scientific thinking in students by asking why and how
7) Homework should be provided in form of incomplete solution ask the child to solve
and comeback next day.
2.2 Learning theories -----Psychology
( theory of insightful learning _ By gestalt psychologists.)
GESTALT THEORY OF LEARNING
Learning by Insight / learning by wholes
(Max werthemer, Kurt kofka, wolfgang kohler)
Learning depends upon perception –perceptional phenomena are experienced only as
wholes or gestalts.
( we first perceive things as a whole and than perceive the parts of it )
Therefore it is said.
--learning is not by random steps (Thorndike)
--learning is not by trial and error
--learning is not by conditioning.
But awarding to these psychologists.
Learning is by
--insight :- get into the details of the matter
--introspection – mind works over the information
--understanding – of the matters.
Emphasis upon
--dynamic interaction between the elements in ones perceptual field.
--intrinsic organizing capacity of the brain
Expt. By Kohler :- a chimpanzee is kept hungry in a cage. A banana is kept outside the
cage but it beyond the reach of the banana. There were 2 sticks . the monkey tried to reach
the banana with his hands but not possible . Tried with individual sticks but still not
possible so he started examining them. So he found the 2 sticks and that‘s how he could
reach the banana.
Def.:- learning is a process of problem solving, by understanding the relative position of
elements in once perceptual field.
Gestalt _ ( German word)
it means some pattern or configuration.
--Its an organized whole in which each part affects every other part.
All perceptions are gestalts or organized wholes.
(when we have good gestalts our perception becomes meaningful)
INSIGHT;-
--Insights are perceptions and gradual reconstruction of psychological field (when people
go beyond the normal perception and develop greater understanding of a phenomena, its
called insight)
--insight occurs when an individual while perusing his purposes, sees new ways of
abilities elements in his environment
--Learning is the development of insight.( as teacher we should help children develop an
insight into the learning matter)
--learning is the development of good gestalts. (forming good gestalts leads to
development of insights )gestalts are the pattern that we perceive, by perceiving these
patterns we develop an understanding of the patterns in detail. This detail understanding
further leads to the formation of insight into the matter. Gestalts could be good leading to
insight. Gestalt could be had which does not lead to insight.
What is a good gestalt ?
A good gestalt will have
--stability - what ever you see your perception remains stable and does not change.
--simplicity- the gestalt should not make the picture many confusing for the perceiver
.should be simple.
--regularity _ you see the same picture consistently even after time variation
-- symmetry :- the picture should have symmetrical by all , should be perceived as the
something by all
Law of pragnanz
If a perceptual field is disorganized when a person first experiences it, he /she imposes an
order upon it in a predictive way. ( when our perceptual fild is not organized when you
perceive it first time wefeel uncomfortable. This kind of mental state is called prognanz.)
Pragnanz is nothing but a goal directed tendency to restore equilibrium.
Principles governing pragnanz
--law of similarity
--law of proximity
--law of continuity
--law of closure
--law of symmetry
-- law of connectedness
--law of membership character –we drive the the law from the context.
--figure and ground :- sometimes the image goes into the background and the background
becomes the image depending upon the perception.
Characteristics (steps) of learning by insights.
survey of the problem situation :- what is the problems, its features.
Hesitation , pause an attitude of concentrated attention.
Trial of mode of response
Sudden transition from one mode to another, if the earlier one proves inadequate.
Frequent attention to the objective or goal motivation.
Appearance of a critical point sudden , direct, definite performance of the required
act.
Steady repetition of the adapted behaviour.
Discernment of the essential and non essential elements present in the psychological
field.
Factor affection insight :-
--experience
--intelligence, creativity
--learning situations motivations, encouraging
-- initial effort—repetition and generalization :_ improve upon the ability to develop
insight.
How to develop insight :-
-use of concrete objects small words
- adjust instructional strategies to match with the alula‘s developmental stage.
- structure and organize subject matter meaningfully
- provide for problem solving situations
- provide worthwhile goals
Provide for sustained interest and attention
-use of review, outline, analogy , diagrams, to reveal sudden relationships.
- provide for meaningful and wholesome learning
- identify purpose and order.
Con :- Learning is purposive, explorative, imaginative, enterprise!
Key point :- ( to concentrate for answer)
-concept of learning, gestalt, insight, pragnana
-principle of pragnanz
- steps of learning by insight
-factore affecting insight
-how to train for insightful learning.
Q. what do you mean by learning by insight, what are the characteristics/ features/ steps/
process in learning by insight ? what are its implications in classroom teaching
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY/ LEARNING BY OBSERVATION/ LEARNING BY
IMITATION___
ALBERT BANDURA
Q. HOW POPLE DEVELOP DIFFERENT PERSONALITIES?
-Early childhood experiences have profound effect on adult personality.
- consequences of one‘s past behavior determines one‘s future beahaviour.
People are thinking organism, they do not simply react to a stimulus but they interpret it.
Acc. To bandura
Learning is an internal representation of behavior being construed through informal
feedback resulting from:-one‘s direct behavior
- one‘s observation of the example‘s of the behavior of the other people and
- - the consequences of both
Therefore learning is the acquisition of new responses i.e. a function of a model
performing some specified behavior.
Process involved in observational learning 1) attention 2) retention 3) production 4)
motivation stage of acquiring behaviour stage of performing behaviour
1) Attention prices depends upon factors like
- characteristic of the stimuli
- -characteristic of the observer.
- (stimuli :- should be appealing, interesting, has a lot of significance, high value, the
stimuli clarifies many a problems , forceful and powerful. Observer:- as aspirations,
interest, need.)
2) Retentional process depends upon factors like
-symbolic coding
- cognitive organization
- symbolic rehearsal
- motor rehearsal
3) Motivation depends upon factors like (motivation runs throughout the process i.e. at
every stage
Motivation
__________________________________________________________________
Direct motivation vicarious motivat
- regulating our behaviour based -regulating the beh. Based upon
upon our own past exp. Consequences occouring to the
Sources 1) external models manifesting those
2) self behaviour
Guiding principles for selecting a model.
Characteristics of the characteristics of
Model characteristics of the learning seluations
Learner.
strong ,popular, higher
strata of society, gifted, age, internists etc.
genius
characteristics of the model
--rewardness :- i.e. how well the model has been rewarded for his/her accomplishments
-- dominance :- the dominance of the model with strong personality
-- similarity :- similarity of behaviour with the person who is your model.
Eg . if u are interested in music than u will choose musician as your model.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEARNER..
Age:- young adolescences
Dependency :- person who cannot take his own decisions , who is always dependent on
others.
Self esteem :- low self esteem people as compared to people with high self esteem.
Social lstatus :- people with low social status make any one their model
Intelligence :- slow learners are normally neglected people they engage with activity .
Emotionality :- an emotional person picks up someone who satisfies your emotional
needs as their model
Competence :-
Social desirability :- tend to choose someone as your model he /she is a socially
desirable person
CHARACTERISRTICS OF THE SITUATION
--DIFFICULTY LEVEL :- eg you selected a model but intuiting that behaviour is very
difficult, softly you give up on that behavior and may change the model also.
--manner of presentation of the model – eg the way are model presents a behaviour
may not be upto your expectation/
Types of modeling
\1) direct modeling :- picking up different behaviour from different models and develop
your own personality.
4) abstract modeling :- pick up ideas from the model , but you modify the
behaviour and then implement it. It is more of your behaviour and less of the
model.
Significance of modeling :-
--acquisition of new beh.
--strengthening or weakening of old beh.
--reduces the cognitive strain involved in trial and error learning :- learning on your
own leads to a lot of cognitive preserve , so its better to learn by limitation others
saves time.
Impact on human personality ( of learning through imitation )
--personality trait
-- problem solving stills
-- aesthetic performances.
--achievement, motivation, phobias
--addictions , cognitive developments
--moral judgments etc.
Reciprocal determinism :-
I am what my environment has made me
--teacher should seeme as a role model for the students
--curriculum should include stories of great men, direct examples
--to must provide enriching experiences
--make classroom conducive for learning to takes place eg, good interaction among
students
--opportunities to express
THEORY OF INSTRUCTION / THEORY OF CONSTRUCTIVISM / THEORY
OF DISCOVERY LEARNING
____BRUNER.
His assumptions
--human beings are information processors , thinkers and crators.
--acquisition of knowledge is an active process
Learner 1) select the information
2) frame a hypothesis
3) making decisions
Based on the cognitive structure of the learner and also his psychological frame of
reference the learner takes the decision . A person activity constricts knowledge
through relating incoming information to a previously acquired psychological frame of
reference.
Strategies :- (sequence of decisions deliberately taken to achieve a goal )
Strategies chosen by the learner to deal with the information depend upon
--information situation
_- cognitive situation
--risk
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
MEANING
The application or carry over learning from one act of learning to another is called
transfer of learning
--implies the application of knowledge learnt in various subjects and fields.
-- basic to education
--Assumes that child will use whatever is taught in school to solve problems o life after
completing formal education
DEF:-
―Transfer of learning is generalization for it is the extension of idea to a new field‘
M J Peterson
―The carry over habits of thinking, feeling or working of knowledge or of skills from
one learning to another usually is referred to as transfer of learning
CROW AND CRPW
―transfer of learning occurs when a person ‗s learning in one situation influences his
learning and performance in other situations.‖
B.L. Bigge
―transfer of learning means that experience or performance on one task influences
performance on some subsequent task ―
A comprehensive definition of transfer of learning would mean the application or carry
over of knowledge skills, attitudes m habits, values or other responses from the
situation in which they were initially acquired to some other situation for which they
were not specifically intended
FORMS.
1) Positive transfer
--when something previously learnt benefits performance or learning in a new
situation
--example learning of maths helps in solving numerical problems in physics
2) Negative transfer
--Previous learning hinders performance or learning in new situation
Example Having learnt to pronounce ‗put‘ correctly child had difficulty in learning
to pronounce ‗but‘ .
2) zero transfer
--In case previous learning makes no difference to learning in new situation
-- something previous learning may partly help and partly hinder new learning
--Example learning to play baseball after learning to play tennis.
TYPES
1) Lateral transfer—Most common
--Example child learns addition and subtraction at school using blocks –should be able
to do the same in other situations using other objects
.—thus in LT. child makes use of understanding and skills learnt at school in learning
situations outside the school.
2) sequential transfer
–forming of a sequence of concepts or ideas
–curriculum is divided into sequential units and the subject matter is organized into
broad disciplines, the content of which is taught sequentially.
3) Horizontal transfer
LT and ST are called HT because the learner stays within the same behavioral
category in making the transfer.
4) Vertical transfer
- Implies facilitating the higher behavioral level in vertical manner by the lower
levelof learning
- 5) Bilateral transfer
--works on the principle of transfer of skill from one lateral of the brain to the other
Example Mirror drawing experiment.
THEORIES OF TRANSFER.
1) Theory of mental transfer
–oldest theory but not accepted by modern psychologist.
--principle feature – the mind and its faculties, llike muscles, need to be
strengthened through exercise and later function automatically
--Rigorous study of geometry train the mind in reasoning applicable in maths.
Social studies, philosophy and business.
-first challenged by William james _-one cannot improve memory for all situations
by rigorously exercising in one specific situation
2) theory of identical elements _Thorndike and woodworth were main founders
–T of L occurs from one situation to another on account of presenceof identical
‗wins
--extent of identical elements in old and new situation either in subject matter
/procedure / attitudes
-peter sandiford ―reasonable theory bound to be common elements greater the
number of common elements , greater the transfer ‗
-example learning addition helps multiplication
3) theory of generalization of experience
4) –C.H. Judd Tof L takes place to the extent to which learner can generalize his
experiences emphasis on intelligence of learner understand and appl y
knowledge
5) –statement the development of special skill, mastery pf specific facts.
-achieving of particular habits or attitudes in one situation have little transfer unless the
sills, facts, habits, are systematized and related to other situations in which they can be
utilized
Examples study habits applicable to all subjects.
145162-
147> Cognitive
Theories of Learning
(Learning is a dynamic process involving mental operations)
Emphasis
- on meaningful learning and not rote
learning
- on expository learning not on discovery
learning
Bruner Ausubel
Ausubel's Theory of
Meaningful Verbal Learning
Meaningful Learning
•To help the teachers to organize and present what is to be learnt.
•To help students to master the information.
Aim of Education is to strengthen student's cognitive structure
Learner's Structure
educational Background, Age, Intelligence, H ow to l ink ?
Social Status,
Cultural Factors
The Learning
Material
How to teach ?
Assumptions:
Mind is an Infofmation processing & in storing system •Knowledge Is hierarchically
If one has to reduce the entire
educational psychology to one
principle influencing learning,
then it is...
•There Is a parallel between the structure discipline and the cognitive structurethe mind •A learner manifests a learning set -->
•Learning proceeds from top-down deductive manner •The material a learner intends to learn must be potentially meaningful to him
What the /earner already
knows
149> How to link?
4. Combinatorial Learning 1. Derivative Subsumptlon
New idea Is derived from another Idea
Ex: Previous Knowledge - Adaptation -
New Knowledge - Adaptation In birds New Knowledge - Plant Cell
Animal Cell
2. Correlative Subsumptlon How to Teach?
To accommodate new Information, / Information Is altered or extended
Ex: Previous Knowledge - Causes for Industrial Revolution
New knowledge- Hour <0rf M spread
A to otnwrcoantfes —
.
1. Advance organizer
An introductory material at a higher
level of abstraction, generality and
inclusiveness than the learning
material, presented before the
learning material.
U'vl-r .
1
3. Super Ordinated Learning Advance Organizer
When all Inclusive concept to Include previous learning and new one is chosen, that serves as super ordhiated learning
Ex: Previous KnoMrfedfee -Pakistan M«w Knowledge - China (Pakistan «. China •re neighbouring counties of India)
Comparative Organizer A model is presented to draw
comparison witti the new learning
material
•Provides mental scaffolding
U> a i • , f \J-^J VJV^A r)
•Strengthens the cognitive structure
. - ^ Q o .5KiL.lDLteJ
already being learnt
Expository
Organizer
A general model when
the new (earning is completely unfamiliar
151> 2. Principles to
make learning stable
.Progressive Differentiation
General idea progressively differentiated In terms of detail and simplicity
•Integrative Reconciliation
New ideas consciously Integrated and reconciled with the previously leamt content
COGNITIVE THEORIES
1
i AUSUBEi.
1 BRUNER
•Meaningful Verbal
learning •Expository ft
Reception learning
•Constructivism or
Theory of Instruction •Discovery learning &
Concept Attainment •Inductive Approach
•Spiral Organization
•Amplifiers of the mind •Training In the u*«* of
mind •Pupil Centered
•Hierarchical
Organization •Advanced Organizer •Assimilation of
knowledge •Teacher Centered
Educational implications
•Help students to grasp the
structure of the subject
•Provide for better retention &
application
•Inculcate habits of precise thinking
•Create interest in inquiry
Constitution of India
1 Fundamental
Rights
1 ! Fundamental Directive Principles
Outies of State Policy ECONOMIC & Person.) s.,,^,1 i 1 StM
Eflviioitiucnt i, « , - '
1 1
Eq«li<y R«
Freedom
4igio« *
Constitutional Ag>«K
R™,cdi« Eipk>rt»(k)«
Role of the teacher
•Knowledge about the student
•Content knowledge •Well organized presentatton -Hlerarchlcally
arranged concepts •Unking new with the o ld
•Present the holistic picture •Provide for compare & contrast among the
concepts presented • Conduct synthesis to analysis and then
move the other way
Triangles
Based on Sides
i i uiUlrml '
o
|K S< a
•en
t
i i Acute
Rifhl Anelrd
I :.... ----- 1
Based on
Angles
154> Learning is an act of categorization I!
Learning to a process off connecting
things that are akin and connecting them Into structures that give them
significance.
Equivalence Categories
Formal Equivalence Categories: When there Is m deliberate attempt to specify the Intrinsic properties of the objects to place them In a given category.
Categorization
Identity Categories: Is formed by putting Into one intellectual barrel a number of onTsren* variations of
is formed i HHHmr^^t tftmAm *** — •-• ------ *•—
i ewneffwm nmos ow OD|ec>B
placed hi the same barrel.
Learning
* Acquisition of Information
-Refinement
-Modification
Transforatattoa of •Information
-To fit into a »»w task To
Mitt a N*W purpo*e
Check of Pertinence or
- Relevance of Information
-Evaluation
Equivalence Categories Representation
• Enactive - Knowing some aspects of reality without the use of words
affective on Internal Imagery representation
**r flejdbie system of thought using
is having (lie are placed In the (MMPUFIERS OF THE
MINI
153> Brunei's Theory of Constructivism
•What do the people do wtth the information that they receive? How do they go beyond discreet information to achieve generalized insights or understanding that give them competence?
Concerns:
•How to represent knowledge?
•How to sequence it? •How to embody H in the forms, that are appropriate for different age groups?
Strategies- (Sequence of decisions deliberately taken, to achieve a goal)
Information Situation
Cognitive Strain
Risk
Assumptions:
• Human beings are information processors, thinkers & creators.
• Acquisition of knowledge is an active process.
LEAKNSK
•Selects Information
•Frames Hypothesis
— •Makes decisions
(Based on Cognitive
Structure A
Psychological Frame
of Reference)
(Learning)
( \ PARMPD F ---------- *S+tocts iMvOffnMtton
\ /
*Ntakcs d^cliiom
' COGNITIVE STRUCTURE ' Psychological Frame of Reference
"A person actively constructs
knowledge through relating incoming
information to a previously acquired psychological frame of reference".
Categorization
• People interpret the world in terms of similarities & differences.
To perceive is to categorize; to
conceptualize is to categorize; to
learn is to form categories; to
make decisions is to categorize.
Strategies (Based on Information Position, Cognitive Strains. Risk)
Categorization
155> COGNITIVE
GROWTH
• Cultural stock • Environment
• Motivation
"Man is not a naked ape but a culture-clothed human being, hopelessly
ineffective without
the prosthesis provided by CULTRURE"
The nature of knowledge getting process
Emphasize discovery Provide for extrapolation to fill In the gaps Induce
economy-emphasize structure & relevance
Emphasize learning to learn
Goal of Education
Training In the use of mind with -
Confidence •Energy
•Honesty &
•Technique
What prevents man from realizing his full potential??
- Lack of confidence in his capacities.
- Lack of confidence in his ability to develop it further.
- Br uner's Theory of Constructivism
Sftfocte (nfornurtfon — • -»lnfomution Sttultton *-
» CognKlv* Strain -> Risk
Stratoofes -
coomrtvc
sntwcTtMte Ntak** fftKHfom '
/?jfc|»MH_a COGM | GROW OtonrSract
*m*
of Categorization — •
1 Identity CeitvyiNtes
TIVE LEARNING
i R*pr*S*fTtMfon
CateoortM -Affective -
Functional -Formal
1 ; fconfcmode
1 Symbolic Hoar (AMPLIfKKS Of THE MIND)
Educational Implications
- Nature of the learner Readiness of the learner? (consider the
context) - Optimal experiences to predispose learners
to team - Build seH-confidence. - Provide for self expression. - Foster self-propulsion. - Foster intellectual honesty. - Provide for stimulating, thoughtful procedures
in a school setting. - Teachers as working models.
- The nature of knowledge-.
- Structure of discipline-spiral
COGNITIVE THEORIES
I AUSUBEL
1 BRUNER
*M0WNffl9Till »•€!>•• •Expository & Roc*ptfto«i toarntttg
•Constructivism or Theory of Insll uctlon •Discovery learning *. Concept Attainment •Inductive Approach •Spiral
Organization j
•Amplifiers of the mmd •Training in the use of : mind : •Pupil Centered
•Hierarchical Oroamzation •Advanced Organizer
•Assimilation of •Teacher Centered
Group Dynamics
Arundhati SyvaJatti
157> Group Dynamics: A term coined by Kurt Lewiti to mean a field of inquiry d;?cli'.•;.•> :-
". v, advancing th.e knowledge about the nature of groups. Group dynamics refer;; io the
.sf.dy of forces operating within the group. It is the study of the forces exerted by uie
muiViuuai on the group and by the group on the individual to understand how groups
form, their structures and process and how they function. Basic Assumptions:
• Groups are inevitable and omnipresent
• Groups may produce good as well as bad consequences
• Groups shape the behaviour of the individual
• Correct understanding of group dynamics may lead to increase in the desirable and decrease in the undesirable behaviour.
Importance of Group Dynamics for improving classroom group:
• To improve the behaviour of the students
• To develop mental processes
• To develop a feeling of cooperation, sympathy and service
• To prepare for adult social roles
What is a group?
A group may be defined as a collection of people. But psychologists state tir -A fo1;
characteristics should be present for labeling a collection of people as a gro'-o.
They are Interaction among members, Shared goals. Perception of group memueri,[i:j_ ..c
Interdependence of fate.
Definitions:
Mills(1967) defined group in terms of its goals and objectives. The group is a unit
composed of two or more persons who come into contact for a specific reascv-
consider this contact meaningful.
Fielder (1967) said, " by group we generally mean a set of individuals who share a
common fate, that is who are interdependent in the sense that an event which affects one
member is likely to affect all".
Bass (1960) approached the definition of a group from the angle of motivation and
satisfaction of needs. He says an individual joins a group because it satisfies some of his
needs and the membership of the group is rewarding to the individual.
Characteristics of a group: 'Structure
•Cohesiveness
•Common interests
•Group Norms
•Conformity:
1. Structure - Essential for the group to attain its aims and objectives. It means power
structure, organizational structure and communication structure.
2. Cohesiveness - The degree of belongingness to the group.
• Group cohesiveness indicators: Group decision-making, loyalty, identificati^ ,
responsibility, defense of the group, acceptance of norms & goals.
• Factors affecting group cohesiveness- need for power, status, security, emoti: rval
support, goal accomplishment, recognition, affiliation, emotional validation.
158> Group size, group status, compatible goals, group leadership & outside pressure.
3. Common Interests: Similarity of interest promotes unity.
4. Group Norms: Widely accepted standards of behaviuors. Provide stability to the group.
5. Conformity: Pressure to adhere to social influence. Affects both the over behaviour and co>
thoughts of the member.
Stages of Group Formation: Forming Stage. Storming Stage. Norming Stage & Performing
Stage.
Types pf Groups:
• In group versus Out group or We group versus They group (W.H. Sumner)
• Primary groups, Secondary groups & Tertiary groups (Cooley)
• Organized versus Spontaneous groups (McDougall)
• Formal Versus Informal groups & semi-formal groups.
Some Typical Groups: Crowd, Club & Community
Crowd: Most temporary and unstable group. Transient "we" feeling, changing composition.
Emotions prevailing are of temporary excitement and sympathy. No specific structure and are
short lived.
CROWD
i
Mob
Intentional
(Pre-determined order)
(..can transform into....) Behaviour of the
crowd -
• Loss of individual identity
• Inexplicable bond between members
• Prone to suggestions-imitation
• Powerful temporary group mind
• Heterogeneous swamped by homogeneous
• Baser instincts surface and are emphasized in mob behaviour.
Club: A relatively permanent social group. Members have common interests,
sentiments. Each member seeks to develop talent. No loss of individuality. Criteria lor
membership are laid uut. Implies mobilization of resources, funds, space, personnel, and
strong leadership.
Community: A permanent social group. More complex and better organized.
Membership changes but group survives.
-Unorganized, rapidly
growing in no,
exhibiting
uncontrolled,
uninhibited passions
Leadership
159> Leadership is the ability to guide, direct and manage others.
Leader: A member of the group whom others follow because he has demonstrated
master)' of the soeial relationships in the group and as a consequence beeomes center of its
living.
Leadership Styles: Autocratic. Democratic & laissez faire
LEADERSHIP
I i r ^ r
Characteristics +ve Dimensions Skills Planning
Organizing Monitoring & control Reviewing & appraisal Forecasting Decision-making Communicstio" Interpersonal
Extroverted ness Identification with the group Superiority over others Dynamic, flexible Future oriented, risk taking Conceptual clarity
Consideration Integration Organization Motivation Delegation Achievement orientation Social awareness
Factors affecting teachers as leaders:
• Personal variables
• Organizational structure
• Class size, nature
• Communication structure
• Student related variables
Type of Leadership
Autocratic Leadership
Democratic
Leadership
Laissez fa ire
Leadership
Teacher's Behaviour Constant check on students Rigid discipline No compliments No faith in students
Shares planning & decision making with the class Helps individually Encourages group participation Objective praise & criticism
Little confidence about oneself and about students Believes in letting students do their work Difficulty in decision making No clear-cut goals, no help, no advise, no guidance. _______________
Students' Behaviour Submission, revolt, dislike Buck passing Back biting Reluctance to cooperate
Like work, like each other, like th; teacher Better quality output. Respect & recogniz-j :;un o:her Motivated
Poor morale. Buck passing, irratioralitx No team work No one knows what '.e co
Teacher's Leadership & reaction of students
160> Teacher's Roles as a leader
^ r T
r 1 r
Instructional
roles — Learn inn
Extra-instructional roles Democratic
— Administrative roles, membership mobiliser, liaison officer
strateuist - Goal
agent,
ev;
iluator setting, discipline handling
fhcranist
Development of leadership & to promote group interaction in the classroom
• Teach by example
• Identify leadership potential by observation, interview and case study, using
instruments.
• Provide for development of leadership through freedom for expression, creating
opportunities to display leadership (Project work, mock parliament, student union,
subject clubs, celebrations, competitions, social work etc)
• Keep school climate open & democratic
• Reinforcement is timely and supportive
• Develop proper emotional climate
• Conflict management -sensitivity, being objective
» Good classroom management
« Reward management
• Encourage cohesiveness & encourage deviant thinking
• Set appropriate goals
• Monitoring student behaviour
Sociomctry: Jacob Moreno (1932) Latin socious- Companion; mentrum - measure
Nature: Study of human connectedness. Shows how individuals associate with each
other when acting as a group towards a specified goal. Sociometry is a methodology for
tracking energy vectors of interpersonal relationships in a group.
Sociometry is a mathematical study of psychological properties of a population, the
experimental techniques and the results obtained by the application of quantitative
methods. (Moreno)
Basis:
• Individuals are social atoms
• Individuals make choices in interpersonal relationships
• People perceive the social status of the other members in a group
Advantages:
• Facilitates constructive changes in individuals and groups
• Increases empathy, awareness, reciprocity and social interaction
• Explores social choice patterns and reduces conflicts
• Clarifies roles, interpersonal relations and values
• Reveal over and covert group dynamics
• Increases group cohesion and productivity
161> l:acilitates group task elTectiveness and satisfaction of participants
Identifies participant's status in the group and paves way for remediation
Sociometric Techniques
Sociometric
matrices
Sociogram Guess who
technique
Social Distance
Scale
Sociometric techniques are
• Not tests
• Are means of assessing the attraction and repulsion within the group
• Methods of restructuring the group
Sociometric Matrices: Rectangular arrangement of numbers indicating the choices made
by the members of a group on a certain criteria. Ex: "With whom would you like to sit in
the class?" "With whom would you not like to sit in the class?"
Choices made by the
students
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Like to sit with 2,5 3 2.5 5 1.2,3,4 1,7 6.9 7 3 8
Do not like to sit with 6 8 9 8 5 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 -
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Uses: To plot sociograms & to determine the choice status individual members
Choice status = the extent to which an individual member is chosen in the group
Sociogram: Graphic representation of responses to a Sociometric questionnaire. What
to look for? Stars (Positive nomination), Mutual Pairs (paired friendships). Chains
(A chooses B, B chooses C, C chooses D), Cliques (A, B, C and D mutually choose
each other), Isolates (not chosen by any one), Rejects (rejected by the group).
162> island (a subgroup lying far off from the main group) & Ghosts (neither chosen by
anybody, nor chooses anybody).
Procedure to construct sociograms-
• Distance (length of the arrows to indicate degree of +ve. attraction).
• Stars at the center
• Isolates at die periphery
Compiled by Mr. Farhiz Panthaky