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LE 901
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Language pedagogyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Language education may take place as a general school subject, in a specializedlanguage school,or out of school with a rich selection of proprietary methodsonline and in books, CDs and DVDs!here are many methods of teaching languages "ome ha#e fallen into relati#e obscurity and othersare widely used$ still others ha#e a small following, but offer useful insights
!here are three principal views
% !he structural#iew treats language as a system of structurally related elements to codemeaning &eg grammar'
( !he functional#iew sees language as a #ehicle to e)press or accomplish a certain function,such as re*uesting something
+ !he interactive#iew sees language as a #ehicle for the creation and maintenance of socialrelations, focusing on patterns of mo#es, acts, negotiation and interaction found incon#ersational e)changes !his #iew has been fairly dominant since the %-.s /%0
Methodology[edit]
1n the late %-..s and most of the %..s, language teaching was usually concei#ed in terms
of method 1n seeking to impro#e teaching practices, teachers and researchers would typically try to
find out which method was the most effecti#e/(02owe#er, methodis an ambiguous concept in
language teaching, and has been used in many different ways 3ccording to 4ell, this #ariety in use
5offers a challenge for anyone wishing to enter into the analysis or deconstruction of methods5/+0
Approach, methodand technique[edit]
1n %6+, 3nthony formulated a framework to describe #arious language teaching methods, which
consisted three le#els7 approach, method, and technique/803ccording to 3nthony, 5!he arrangement
is hierarchical !he organizational key is that techni*ues carry out a method which is consistent with
an approach5/902is concept of approachwas of a set of principles or ideas about the nature of
language learning which would be consistent o#er time$ 5an approach is a)iomatic5/902is methodwas more procedural$ 5an o#erall plan for the orderly presentation of language
material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected
approach5/90Finally, his concept of techniquereferred to the actual implementation in the language
classroom$ 5a particular trick, stratagem, or contri#ance used to accomplish an immediate
objecti#e5/902e saw techni*ues as being consistent with a gi#en method and by e)tension, with a
gi#en approach/80
3 method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned and should be based upon a
selected approach 1n order for an approach to be translated into a method, an instructional system
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must be designed considering the objecti#es of the teaching:learning, how the content is to be
selected and organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the roles of students and the roles of
teachers 3 techni*ue is a #ery specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an
immediate objecti#e "uch are deri#ed from the controlling method, and less;directly, with the
approach
/%0
3nthonyichards and >ogers< %-( approach e)panded on 3nthony?s three;le#el framework$ howe#er,instead of approach, methodand technique, they chose the terms approach, design, andprocedure/@0!heir concept of approachwas similar to 3nthonyichards and >ogers used/%%0ost current teacher training manuals fa#or the
terms approach, method, and technique/%(0
Structural methods[edit]
Grammar-translation method[edit]
Main article:Grammar translation
!he grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and pro#ides #ocabularywith direct
translations to memorize 1t was the predominant method in Burope in the %th century ost
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instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffecti#e by itself /citation needed01t is now most
commonly used in the traditional instruction of theclassical languages, howe#er it remains the most
commonly practiced method of Bnglish teaching in apan /citation needed0
3t school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which
must make it possible to all the students to correctly e)press their opinion, to understand the
remarks which are addressed to them and to analyze the te)ts which they read !he objecti#e is that
by the time they lea#e college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the #ocabulary,
grammar and the orthography, to be able to read, understand and write te)ts in #arious conte)ts
!he teaching of grammar e)amines te)ts, and de#elops awareness that language constitutes a
system which can be analyzed !his knowledge is ac*uired gradually, by tra#ersing the facts of
language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest to the most comple) !he e)ercises
according to the program of the course must untiringly be practiced to allow the assimilation of the
rules stated in the course/citation needed0!hat supposes that the teacher corrects the e)ercises !he pupil
can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results !hus can he adapt thegrammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system !he grammatical
analysis ofsentencesconstitutes the objecti#e of the teaching of grammar at the school 1ts practice
makes it possible to recognize ate)tas a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign
language Erammatical terminology ser#es this objecti#e Erammar makes it possible for each one
to understand how the mother tongue functions, in order to gi#e him the capacity to communicate its
thought
Audio-lingual method[edit]
Main article:Audio-lingual method
!he audio;lingual method was de#eloped in the "3around World War 11when go#ernments
realized that they needed more people who could conduct con#ersations fluently in a #ariety of
languages, work as interpreters, code;room assistants, and translators 2owe#er, since foreign
language instruction in that country was hea#ily focused on reading instruction, no te)tbooks, other
materials or courses e)isted at the time, so new methods and materials had to be de#ised For
e)ample, the " 3rmy "pecialized !raining Arogram created intensi#e programs based on the
techni*ues Leonard 4loomfieldand other linguists de#ised for Gati#e 3merican languages, where
students interacted intensi#ely with nati#e speakers and a linguist in guided con#ersations designed
to decode its basic grammar and learn the #ocabulary !his 5informant method5 had great success
with its small class sizes and moti#ated learners/%0
!he " 3rmy "pecialized !raining Arogram only lasted a few years, but it gained a lot of attention
from the popular press and the academic community Charles Fries set up the first Bnglish
Language 1nstitute at theni#ersity of ichigan,to train Bnglish as a second or foreign language
teachers "imilar programs were created later at Eeorgetown ni#ersity,ni#ersity of !e)asamong
others based on the methods and techni*ues used by the military !he de#eloping method had
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much in common with the 4ritish oral approach although the two de#eloped independently !he main
difference was the de#eloping audio;lingual methods allegiance to structural linguistics, focusing on
grammar and contrasti#e analysis to find differences between the student
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%th;century applied linguists such as Itto esperson and Daniel ones but attempted to formally
de#elop a more scientifically founded approach to teaching Bnglish than was e#idenced by the direct
method/%0
3 number of large;scale in#estigations about language learning and the increased emphasis on
reading skills in the %(.s led to the notion of 5#ocabulary control5 1t was disco#ered that languages
ha#e a core basic #ocabulary of about (,... words that occur fre*uently in written te)ts, and it was
assumed that mastery of these would greatly aid reading comprehension Aarallel to this was the
notion of 5grammar control5, emphasizing the sentence patterns most;commonly found in spoken
con#ersation "uch patterns were incorporated into dictionaries and handbooks for students !he
principal difference between the oral approach and the direct method was that methods de#ised
under this approach would ha#e theoretical principles guiding the selection of content, gradation of
difficulty of e)ercises and the presentation of such material and e)ercises !he main proposed
benefit was that such theoretically based organization of content would result in a less;confusing
se*uence of learning e#ents with better conte)tualization of the #ocabulary and grammaticalpatterns presented/%0Last but not least, all language points were to be presented in 5situations5
Bmphasis on this point led to the approach
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!he direct method, sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains from using the
learners< nati#e language and just uses the target language 1t was established in Eermany and
France around %.. and is best represented by the methods de#ised by 4erlitz and de "auzJ,
although neither claims originality and it has been re;in#ented under other names /%80!he direct
method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of firstlanguagelearning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language7 a child ne#er relies on
another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a
foreign language !his method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language
from outset 1t ad#ocates teaching of oral skills at the e)pense of e#ery traditional aim of language
teaching "uch methods rely on directly representing an e)perience into a linguistic construct rather
than relying on abstractions like mimicry, translation and memorizing grammar rules and #ocabulary/%80
3ccording to this method, printed language and te)t must be kept away from second language
learners for as long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed words until hehas good grasp of speech Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed
word has been introduced, and grammar and translation should also be a#oided because this would
in#ol#e the application of the learner
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decided that language learning was a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions, using
language to represent what one e)periences Language is not an arbitrary set of con#entions but a
way of thinking and representing the world to oneself 1t is not a conditioning process, but one in
which the learner acti#ely organizes his perceptions into linguistics concepts/%80
!he series method is a #ariety of the direct method in that e)periences are directly connected to the
target language Eouin felt that such direct 5translation5 of e)perience into words, makes for a 5li#ing
language5 &p9' Eouin also noticed that children organize concepts in succession of time, relating a
se*uence of concepts in the same order Eouin suggested that students learn a language more
*uickly and retain it better if it is presented through a chronological se*uence of e#ents "tudents
learn sentences based on an action such as lea#ing a house in the order in which such would be
performed Eouin found that if the series of sentences are shuffled, their memorization becomes
nearly impossible For this, Eouin preceded psycholinguistic theory of the (.th century 2e found
that people will memorize e#ents in a logical se*uence, e#en if they are not presented in that order
2e also disco#ered a second insight into memory called 5incubation5 Linguistic concepts take timeto settle in the memory !he learner must use the new concepts fre*uently after presentation, either
by thinking or by speaking, in order to master them 2is last crucial obser#ation was that language
was learned in sentences with the #erb as the most crucial component Eouin would write a series in
two columns7 one with the complete sentences and the other with only the #erb With only the #erb
elements #isible, he would ha#e students recite the se*uence of actions in full sentences of no more
than twenty;fi#e sentences 3nother e)ercise in#ol#ed ha#ing the teacher solicit a se*uence of
sentences by basically ask him:her what s:he would do ne)t While Eouin belie#ed that language
was rule;go#erned, he did not belie#e it should be e)plicitly taught /%80
2is course was organized on elements of human society and the natural world 2e estimated that alanguage could be learned with -.. to .. hours of instruction o#er a series of 8... e)ercises and
no homework !he idea was that each of the e)ercises would force the student to think about the
#ocabulary in terms of its relationship with the natural world While there is e#idence that the method
can work e)tremely well, it has some serious flaws Ine of which is the teaching of subjecti#e
language, where the students must make judgments about what is e)perienced in the world &eg
5bad5 and 5good5' as such do not relate easily to one single common e)perience 2owe#er, the real
weakness is that the method is entirely based on one e)perience of a three;year;old Eouin did not
obser#e the child
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Communicati#e language teaching&CL!', also known as the !ommunicati"e Approach, emphasizes
interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language Despite a number of
criticisms/%90it continues to be popular, particularly in Burope, whereconstructi#ist#iews on language
learning and education in general dominate academic discourse 3lthough the
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bilingual students with mastery of both Bnglish and the immersion language 3s in partial foreign
language immersion academic content is deli#ered through the medium of the immersion language
for part of the school day, and through Bnglish the rest of the school day
1ndigenous immersion programs in the " are designed for 3merican 1ndian communities desiring
to maintain the use of the nati#e language by deli#ering elementary school content through the
medium of that language 2awaiian 1mmersion programs are the largest and most successful in this
category
ilent !a"[edit]
Main article:#ilent $ay
!he "ilent Way is a disco#ery learning approach, in#ented by Caleb Eattegnoin the early %@.s
!he teacher is usually silent, lea#ing room for the students to e)plore the language !hey are
responsible for their own learning and are encouraged to interact !he role of the teacher is to gi#e
clues, not to model the language
Communit" Language Learning[edit]
Main article:!ommunity Language Learning
!he !ommunity Language Learning&CLL' is a method proposed byCharles 3 Curranduring the
%@.s 1t is based on the counseling approach in which the teacher is seen as a counselor 1t
emphasizes the sense of community in the learning group, encourages interaction as a #ital aspect
of learning, and it considers as a priority the students< feelings and the recognition of struggles in
language ac*uisition !here is no syllabus or te)tbook to follow and it is the students themsel#es
who determine the content of the lesson Gotably, it incorporatestranslationand recordingtechni*ues
uggestopedia[edit]
Main article:#uggestopedia
"uggestopedia was a method that e)perienced popularity especially in past years, with both staunch
supporters and #ery strong critics, some claiming it is based onpseudoscience
#atural Approach[edit]
Main article:%atural approach
!he natural approach is a language teaching method de#eloped by "tephen =rashenand !racy D
!errell !hey emphasise the learner recei#ing large amounts of comprehensible input !he Gatural
3pproach can be categorized as part of the comprehension approachto language teaching
Total $h"sical %esponse[edit]
Main article:Total &hysical Response
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1n !otal Ahysical >esponse &!A>', the instructor gi#es the students commands in the target
language and the students act those commands out using whole;body responses !his can be
categorized as part of thecomprehension approachto language teaching
Teaching $roficienc" through %eading and tor"telling[edit]
Main article:Teaching &roficiency through Reading and #torytelling
!eaching Aroficiency through >eading and "torytelling &!A> "torytelling or !A>"' was de#eloped
by 4laine >ay, a language teacher in California, in the %.s 3t first it was an offshoot of!otal
Ahysical >esponsethat also included storytelling, but it has e#ol#ed into a method in its own right
and has gained a large following among teachers, particularly in the nited "tates !A> "torytelling
can be categorized as part of the comprehension approachto language teaching
Dogme language teaching[edit]
Main article:Dogme language teaching
Dogme language teaching is considered to be both a methodology and a mo#ement Dogme is a
communicati#e approach to language teaching and encourages teaching without published
te)tbooks and instead focusing on con#ersational communication among the learners and the
teacher 1t has its roots in an article by the language education author, "cott !hornbury !he Dogme
approach is also referred to as MDogme BL!N, which reflects its origins in the BL! &Bnglish language
teaching' sector 3lthough Dogme language teaching gained its name from an analogy with the
Dogme 9 film mo#ement &initiated by Lars #on !rier', the connection is not considered close
Proprietary methods[edit]
"ome methods are tied to a particular company or school, and are not used in mainstream teaching
4esides those mentioned below, there are dozens of competitors, each slightly different/%0Gotable
are the computer courses which use speech recognition to gi#e feedback on pronunciation /(.0
$imsleur method[edit]
Main article:&imsleur language learning system
Aimsleur language learning system is based on the research of and model programs de#eloped by
3merican language teacherAaul Aimsleur1t in#ol#es recorded +.;minute lessons to be done daily,
with each lesson typically featuring a dialog, re#ision, and new material "tudents are asked to
translate phrases into the target language, and occasionally to respond in the target language to
lines spoken in the target language !he instruction starts in the student
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ichel !homas ethod is an audio;based teaching system de#eloped by ichel !homas, a
language teacher in the "3 1t was originally done in person, although since his death it is done #ia
recorded lessons !he instruction is done entirely in the student
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more specialist subject fields, eg legal le)icography "uch a dictionary is usually called
a specialized dictionaryor L"A dictionaryand following Gielsen %8, specialized dictionaries are
either multi;field, single;field or sub;field dictionaries
!here is some disagreement on the definition of le)icology, as distinct from le)icography "ome use
5le)icology5 as a synonym for theoretical le)icography$ others use it to mean a branch
oflinguisticspertaining to the in#entory of words in a particular language
1t is now widely accepted that le)icography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub;
branch of applied linguistics, as the chief object of study in le)icography is the dictionary &see eg
4ergenholtz:Gielsen:!arp (..'
Contents
/hide0
% Btymology
( 3spects
+ >ecommended reading
8 "ee also
9 >eferences
6 B)ternal links
Etymology[edit]
Coined in Bnglish %6-., the word 5le)icography5 deri#es from theEreekOPQRSTUXTY&lei)ographos', 5le)icographer5,/%0from OPQRSZ[ &leicon', neut of OPQRSZY &lei)os', 5of or for words5,/(0from O\QRY &leis', 5speech5, 5word5,/+0&in turn from O\U] lego, 5to say5, 5to speak5/80' and UX]
&grapho', 5to scratch, to inscribe, to write5/90
Aspects[edit]
Aractical le)icographic work in#ol#es se#eral acti#ities, and the compilation of well crafted
dictionaries re*uire careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects7
profiling the intended users &ie linguistic and non;linguistic competences' and identifying
their needs
defining the communicati#e and cogniti#e functions of the dictionary
selecting and organizing the components of the dictionary
choosing the appropriate structures for presenting the data in the dictionary &ie frame
structure, distribution structure, macro;structure, micro;structure and cross;referencestructure'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_lexicographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialized_dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSP_dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#Aspectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#Recommended_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lexicography&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lexicography&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-referencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_lexicographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialized_dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSP_dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#Aspectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#Recommended_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lexicography&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicography#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lexicography&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-reference -
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selecting words and affi)es for systematization as entries
selectingcollocations,phrases and e)amples
choosing lemmaforms for each word or part of word to be lemmatized
defining words
organizing definitions
specifying pronunciations of words
labeling definitions and pronunciations for registerand dialect, where appropriate
selecting e*ui#alents in bi; and multi;lingual dictionaries
translating collocations, phrases and e)amples in bi; and multilingual dictionaries
designing the best way in which users can access the data in printed and electronic
dictionaries
Ine important goal of le)icography is to keep the le)icographic information costsincurred by
dictionary users as low as possible Gielsen &(..-' suggests rele#ant aspects for le)icographers to
consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users< impression and actual use of specific
dictionaries
!heoretical le)icography &or metale)icography' concerns the same aspects as le)icography, but
aims to de#elop principles that can impro#e the *uality of future dictionaries, for instance in terms ofaccess to data and le)icographic information costs "e#eral perspecti#es or branches of such
academic dictionary research ha#e been distinguished7
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bilingual< or