AlsobyHaroldMcGee

OnFoodandCooking

TheCuriousCook

Copyright©2010HaroldMcGeeAllrightsreserved.Theuseofanypartofthispublication,reproduced,transmittedinanyformorbyanymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,orstoredinaretrievalsystemwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofthepublisher—orinthecaseofphotocopyingorotherreprographiccopying,licensefromthe

CanadianCopyrightLicensingagency—isaninfringementofthecopyrightlaw.

DoubledayCanadaandcolophonareregisteredtrademarks.

LibraryandArchivesCanadaCataloguinginPublicationMcGee,HaroldKeystogoodcooking/HaroldMcGee.

eISBN:978-0-38567130-9

1.Cookery.I.Title.

TX651.M3632010641.5C2010-902531-8

PublishedinCanadabyDoubledayCanada,adivisionofRandomHouseofCanadaLimitedVisitRandomHouseofCanadaLimited’swebsite:

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v3.1

ToFlorenceandJohn

CONTENTS

CoverOtherBooksbyThisAuthorTitlePageCopyrightDedicationIntroduction

1.GettingtoKnowFoods

2.BasicKitchenResources:Water,thePantry,and

theRefrigerator

3.KitchenTools

4.HeatandHeatingAppliances

5.CookingMethods

6.CookingSafely

7.Fruits

8.VegetablesandFreshHerbs

9.MilkandDairyProducts

10.Eggs

11.Meats

12.FishandShellfish

13.Sauces,Stocks,andSoups

14.DryGrains,Pastas,Noodles,andPuddings

15.SeedLegumes:Beans,Peas,Lentils,andSoyProducts

16.NutsandOilSeeds

17.Breads

18.PastriesandPies

19.Cakes,Muffins,andCookies

20.GriddleCakes,Crepes,Popovers,andFryingBatters

21.IceCreams,Ices,Mousses,andJellies

22.ChocolateandCocoa

23.Sugars,Syrups,andCandies

24.CoffeeandTea

WheretoFindMoreKeystoGoodCookingAcknowledgmentsAbouttheAuthor

C

K

INTRODUCTION

ookingcanbeoneofthemostsatisfyingthingswedoinlife.It’sachancetomakethingswithourownhands,nourishandgivepleasure topeoplewecareabout,andchooseexactlywhatwe

eatandmakepartofourselves.It’salsoawaytoexploretheastoundingcreativityofthenaturalworldandthousandsofyearsofhumanculture,to taste foodsandtraditions fromallover theplanetatourowntable.This endlessly rewarding quality is what has kept me delving intocookingformorethanthirtyyears.Cookingisespeciallyrewardingwhenitgoeswell! It’s true,aswe’re

frequently reminded, that the only way to become a good cook is tocook,andcook,andcooksomemore.Butmanyofusdon’tmanagetocookthatfrequently,andfrequentcookingcanalsobecookingbyrote,habitualandmediocre.Thesurestwaytocookwithpleasureandsuccess—whetheryou’reabeginner,aweekendgourmand,oranaccomplishedchef—istocookwithunderstanding.This book is designed to help you cook better by explaining what

foods are, how cooking changes them,whichmethodswork best, andwhy.

eys to Good Cooking is not a cookbook. Recipes we have inabundance,inprintandontheWeb,fromacrosstheglobeandacrossthecenturies,fromprofessionalsandcelebrities,families

and friends. Instead, thisbook isaguide tohelpyounavigate throughtheever-expandinguniverseof recipesandarriveat thepromised landofasatisfyingdish.It’s easy to get lost along theway. Some recipes give reliably good

results, butmany don’t. Some are sketchy and leave us guessing howexactlytoproceed.Othersareintimidatinglylonganddetailed.Differentrecipes for the same dish may give contradictory directions and

T

explanations. Some place faithfulness to tradition above realistichandling of today’s ingredients. And many perpetuate oldmisconceptionsandflawedmethods.Even good recipes are no guarantee of success. At best they’re anincomplete description of a procedure that has worked for the recipewriter.Wheneverwecookfromarecipe,wehavetointerpretandadaptitforourkitchen,ouringredients,andourexperience.Andtheprocessof interpretation and adaptation is just as important to success as therecipeitself.Agoodrecipecanbebadlymade.Happily,it’salsotruethatwecanredeemaflawedrecipebyseeingitsflawsandcorrectingthemasweadaptit.Keys to Good Cooking is meant to be a constructively criticalcompaniontoyourrecipecollection,andaguidetothekitchen,gadgets,ingredients,andtechniqueswithwhichyouturnrecipesintofoods.It’saconcise summary of our current understanding of food preparation. Itprovides simple statements of fact and advice, along with briefexplanations thatwillhelpyouunderstandwhy, andapply that insightwhenever you cook. Itwill help you evaluate recipes, recognize likelyflawsorproblems,andmakeadjustmentsandcorrectionsasyougo.AndIhopeitwillhelpyouputasiderecipes,improviseandexperiment,andcomeupwithyourownwaysofdoingthings.

hefirstsixchaptersofthisbookdescribetherangeoftoolsandpantry ingredients available to the home cook, how heat andbasiccookingmethodswork,andtheessentialsofkitchensafety.

These subjects aren’t likely to be at the top of yourneed-to-know list,andyoumayfigureyoualreadyknowwhatyouneed.But because we usually equip our kitchens and pantries piecemeal,andonlypayattentioninemergenciestohowtheovenworksordoesn’t,it can be a real eye-opener to pause and take a closer look at thesethings.Onceyouthinkabouthowheatactuallyflowsintoandoutofourfoodsaswecook,you’llunderstandwhystandardstewrecipesoftendryoutthemeat,whyamedium-hotovencanscorchbakedgoods,andwhatyoucandotomakesureyoudon’thavethoseproblemsagain.Anddidyouknowthatthoroughcookingnotonlycan’tkillsometoughformsof

bacteria that sicken us, it actually awakens them into rapid growth?Watch those leftovers! Themost important kitchen facts are often theleastobvious.So I suggest reviewing theseearlychapterseveryonce inawhile togetbetter acquaintedwith foods andappliances and cookingmethods,nomatter how familiar they seem.And take the time to read throughchapter6,“CookingSafely.”TensofthousandsofAmericansaremadeillbyfoodeveryday,manyofthemduetounnecessarymistakesmadebycookswhocouldandshouldknowbetter.The remaining chapters are organized by ingredients and kinds ofpreparations. Read the introductory sections to find out how torecognize and handle good ingredients. Then, when you’re cooking aparticular dish, go to the paragraph or two devoted to that kind ofpreparation. Review the facts and the various possibilities before youstart cooking, tohelp you choose a recipeormake adjustments to theoneyou’vechosen,and just togetorganized. If aproblemorquestionarisesasyougo,ifastepneedsclarification,checkagain.

Tokeepthisbookamanageablesize, itcoverscookingbasics,not

advanced techniques or fine points. And because a cook in the

kitchenneedstogetbacktocookingpronto,I’vetriedtomakethe

information as quickly accessible as possible. I’ve kept statements

brief and to the point, repeated themwhen necessary to save the

trouble of hunting down cross-references, and highlighted key

wordstomakethemeasytospotonthepage.

Keysubjectsandimportantfactstokeepinmindareindicatedin

boldface.

Directionsandimportantactionsareindicatedinitalics.

H ere’sanexampleofhowIhopeyou’lluse thisbook.Let’ssayThanksgivingiscomingup,youhaven’troastedaturkeysincelast Thanksgiving, and you’ve seen a recipe for brining the

turkeytokeepitmoist.Youmightstartbylookingattheintroductiontocookingmeatonthispage:

Nomatterwhatyoureadinrecipesorhearpronouncedbypeoplewhoshouldknow,keepthesesimpletruthsinmind:

Searingmeatdoesnotsealinitsjuices,andmoistcookingmethodsdonotmakemeatsmoist.Juicinessdependsalmostentirelyonhowhotyoucookthecenterofthemeat.Ifitgetsmuchhotterthan150°F/65°C,itwillbedry.Meatovercooksquickly.Lowheatslowscookingandgivesyouthegreatestcontroloverdoneness.Mostrecipescan’tpredictcorrectcookingtimes.There’snosubstituteforcheckingmeatdonenessyourself,earlyandoften.

Then you could read the summary of brining pros and cons on thispage:

Brining is the immersion of meat in a weak solution of salt and water, with orwithout other flavorings, for hours to days before cooking. Injecting brine into themeat interior speeds the process. The salt penetrates the meat, seasons it, andimprovesitsabilitytoretainmoistureandtenderness.

Brines of a certain strength, 5 to 10 percent salt byweight, also cause themeatproteins toabsorbextrawater from thebrine,making themeat seemexceptionallyjuicywhencooked.Veryleanpoultryandporkcanbenefitfromthisextramoisture,especiallywhenthey’reovercooked.

Brine selectively. Brines have drawbacks: they dilute the meat’s own flavorfuljuiceswithtapwater,andusuallymakethepanjuicestoosaltyfordeglazingintoasauce.

Andthenyoucould lookat thebasicsofroastingbirds,whichbeginthiswayonthispage:

Wholebirdsareachallengetoroastwell.Theirbreastmeatis lowinconnectivetissueandbestcookedto150°F/65°Cforchickensandturkeys,135°F/57°Cforduckand squab. But their leg meat is high in connective tissue and best cooked to160°F/70°C,andtheirskinisbestcookedto350°F/175°Ctomakeitcrispandbrown.

Toroastbirdswell:

Don’tstuffthebodycavityorrelyonapop-upthermometer.Stuffingmustbeheatedto160°F/70°Ctokillbacteria,sothebreastmeatwillbeovercookedanddry.Pop-upindicatorspoponlywhenthebreastmeatisalreadyovercooked.

Nowyoucandecide foryourselfwhetheryouwant tohaveabrine-moistturkeyoranediblepansauce,amoistbreastoranin-birdstuffing,and you can add a cooking thermometer to your pre-Thanksgivingshoppinglist(andconsultthispageforadviceonthermometers).You’llnotice that thepagesof thisbookhaveplentyofblank space.That’s because the words on them aren’t the last, just the first. Themarginsand line spacesare there foryou to fillwithnew informationandideasastheycomealong,andespeciallywithnotesspecifictoyourkitchen,yourtastes,yourdiscoveries—yourownpersonalkeystogoodcooking.Ihope thatyour copyof thisbookwill quicklybecomewell stainedandmarkedup,andwilllonghelpyoucookwithinsight,pleasure,andsuccess.

G

1

GETTINGTOKNOWFOODS

ood cooking starts with a good understanding of its rawmaterials,thefoodswecook.We’re all familiarwith the foods thatwe regularly buy and

eat,andthemorewecook,thebetterwegettoknowthemandthewaythey behave. But foods have histories and inner qualities that aren’tobvious from our everyday encounterswith them, and that determinetheirvalueandbehavior.Themorefullyweknowourfoods,thebetterwecanchoosethemandcookwiththem.Ifirstencounteredtheinnerworldoffoodsdecadesagoasastudent,

when I headed to an unfamiliar section of the library and found shelfaftershelfdevotedto thescienceof foodandagriculture. Ibrowsed inthem,andatfirstwasstartledandamusedbywhatIsaw:photographstakenthroughthemicroscopeofmeatfibersandthewaytheyshrankasthey cooked, microbes growing in yogurt and cheese, the oil dropletsjammedagainsteachotherinabitofmayonnaise,gossamer-thinglutensheets in bread dough. But soon I was mesmerized. And though I’dstoppedstudyingscienceyearsearlier, I foundmyselfdrawnintowhatwas goingonbehind these scenes, into the nature andbehavior of theproteinandstarchandfatmoleculesthattheywereconstructedfrom.Itwas thrilling tobegin tounderstandwhymeatsget juicywhencookedjustrightanddrywhenovercooked,whymilkthickensintoyogurtandcheeses have so many textures and flavors, why well-formed breaddoughfeelsalmostalivetothetouch.Thelanguageandideasofsciencearelessfamiliarthanourfoodsare,

andIknowthattheirstrangenesscanbeoff-putting.Trytoputupwiththemanyhow,anddon’tworryaboutthedetails.Juststartbyknowingthat thereare details, and that they can help you understand cookingandcookbetter.Then,whenaquestioncomesup,whenyoureallywant

toknowmore,usethebriefexplanationinthisbookasanentrypointtotheworldofdetailsthat’souttheretoexplore.

WHATFOODSARE

Foodsarecomplex,dynamic,andfragilematerials.Mostfoodscomeoriginallyfromlivingplantsandanimals,whicharenature’s most intricate and active creations. Some—fresh fruits andvegetables, fresh eggs, shellfish from the tank, yogurt—are still alivewhenwebuythem.Livingthingsare fragile.Theythrive in therightconditions,dieanddecay in the wrong ones. Their tissues can be damaged by physicalpressure,byexcessiveheatorcold,by too little freshairor toomuch,andbymicrobesthatstartconsumingthemforfoodbeforewecan.Mostfoodsareproducedonfarmsorranchesorinfactoriesfardistantfrom our kitchens. Before we can buy them, they have been raised,harvested,preparedandpackaged,transportedtothemarket,unpacked,and displayed—and require careful temperature control and gentlehandlingthroughouttominimizetheirdeterioration.Our food plants and animals have been bred and selected overthousandsofyearsandcomeincountlessdifferentvarieties,eachwithitsownadvantagesanddisadvantages.Thequalityofafood isageneralmeasureofhowwellitfulfills itspotentialforprovidingnourishmentandthepleasuresofflavor,texture,andappearance.Food quality depends onmany factors. These include the variety ofplantoranimalthefoodcomesfrom,howthatplantoranimallives,andhowthefoodishandledinitsprogressfromfarmtoplate.

HOWFOODSAREPRODUCED

Cooks today can choose foods from a wide and sometimes confusingrangeofproductionsystems.Mostfoodsareproducedin“conventional”large-scaleindustrial

systemsthataredesignedtominimizeproductioncostsandfoodprices,andmaximize shelf life.Conventional foods areproduced and shippedfromsourcesallovertheworld,whereverlaborandothercostsarelowenoughtooffsetthecostsoftransportation.Most meats come from farm animals raised largely or entirelyindoors, with little living space, on manufactured feeds that oftenincludematerialstheanimalwouldn’tnormallyeat(fishmeal,renderedanimalremainsandwaste),antibiotics tostimulategrowthandcontroldisease,andsometimeswithgrowth-stimulatinghormones.Mostfruits,vegetables,grains,andcookingoilscomefromplantsgrownwithindustrial fertilizers,herbicides,andpesticides.Somecropshave been genetically modified with modern DNA technology, whichmayreduceherbicideandpesticideuse.Most fish and shellfish are produced in aquaculture, the water-animal version of intensive meat production, in confinement and onformulated feeds. Some fish and shellfish are still harvested from thewild.Most prepared foods are made from conventional ingredients, andusually include texture stabilizers, natural or artificial flavorconcentrates,andpreservatives.They’reindustrialapproximationsoftheoriginalkitchenproduct,designedtominimizepriceandmaximizeshelflife.Conventional systems have important drawbacks. Conventionalagricultureandmeatproduction,andaquaculture,cancausedamagetothe environment, the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, andunnecessary animal suffering. Harvesting wild fish and shellfish hasdepletedmanypopulationstodangerouslylowlevels.Alternative production systems attempt to remedy variousdrawbacksof conventional systems.Many foodsarenowadvertisedorcertifiedtohavebeenproduced:

organically,withouttheuseofindustrialfertilizersorpesticides,geneticallymodifiedcrops,ormostindustrialadditives,andwithminimaluseofantibiotics;sustainably,withoutdamagingeffectsonthelocalorglobal

environments,oronwildpopulations;humanely,withconsiderationforthequalityoflifeoffarmanimals;fairly,withfarmersindevelopingcountriesreceivingagoodprice;selectively,withouttheuseofgeneticallymodifiedcrops,certainhormonesorantibioticsorfeeds,orpreservativesorotheradditives;orwiththeuseofhigh-qualityorheritagevarieties;locally,withfewerresourcesspentontransportation.

Food production terminology is neither precise nor tightlyregulated.Thetermsarelooseatbest,andbecausesomejustifyhigherprices,theymaybeusedtomisleadordeceive.Beskepticalaboutalternativeproductionclaims,butnotcynical.All

food choices, even casual ones, influence the agriculture and foodindustries and the people who work in them, and have a cumulativeimpactontheworld’ssoils,waters,andair.

CHOOSINGFOODS

Goodcookingcallsforgoodingredients.Cookingcanmaskthedefectsofmediocre or poor ingredients, but it can’t make the best foods withthem.Foods land in our shopping carts with a history. Their genetic

background,theirvarietyorbreed,andeverythingtheygothroughfromfarm to display case influence their quality andwhatwe can dowiththem.Think about your priorities and choose foods consciously. If

productionpracticesand their consequencesmatter toyou, thencheckthecredentialsofthesuppliersandbuyaccordingly.Noparticularproductionmethodisaguaranteeoffoodquality.Bothconventionalandalternativefoodscanbemistreatedorspoiled

duringtheharvestorlaterhandling.Learn to read the signs of quality in the foods you shop for. The

chaptersinthisbookdescribewhattolookforineachfood.Check the ingredient lists on prepared foods to know what you’re

reallybuying.Carefor thefoodsyoubuy topreserve theirquality.A longhotcarride from the store can cause damage asmuch asmishandling at anyotherstage.

INSIDEFOODS:FOODCHEMICALS

Aswithallmaterialthings,includingourbodies,foodsarecomposedofcountlessinvisiblysmallstructurescalledmolecules.Weeatsothatfoodmoleculeswillbecomeourbody’smolecules.Moleculescomeinvariousfamiliesorkinds,andwecall thosekindschemicals. Many chemical names—proteins, enzymes, carbohydrates,saturated and unsaturated fats—are familiar from nutrition guidelinesand packaged food labels. They’re becoming common cooking termsbecausetheycanhelpcooksunderstandwhattheirmethodsareactuallydoingtochangefoods.Themajorchemicalbuildingblocksoffoodsarewater,proteins,carbohydrates, and fats. These chemicals, and the changes theyundergoduringcooking,createthestructuresandtexturesofourfoods.

Water

Water is theprimarychemical in fresh foodsofallkinds, andamajoringredient in most cooked dishes. The cells of all living things areessentially bags of water in which the other molecules are suspendedanddotheirwork.Water iswhatmakes foodsseemmoist. Its loss iswhat canmakethemseemunpleasantlydryorpleasantlycrisp.Waterisalsoanimportantcookingmedium.Wecookmanyfoodsinhotwater,orinthewateryfluidsfromotherfoods.Watercanbeacid,alkaline,orneutral—neitheracidnoralkaline.Acidity and alkalinity affect the reactions of other foodmolecules andare important factors in cooking. Acid liquids include fruit juices andvinegar, and taste sour. Alkaline ingredients include many city tap

waters,bakingsoda,andeggwhites,andtasteflat.Theboilingpointofwaterisanimportantcookinglandmark.It’s

instantly recognizable as bubbling turbulence, and it marks a specifictemperature, 212°F/100°C at sea level (lower temperatures at highaltitudes),thatishotenoughtokillmicrobes,firmmeatsandfish,andsoftenvegetables.Theboilingpointofwaterisanimportantcookinglimitation.Itis

toolowtodeveloptherichflavorsofroastingandfrying,whichdevelopincreasinglyquicklyabove250°F/120°C.Water in foodscan slow their cooking.When foods areheated in

thehotdryairofanovenorbarbecue,theirsurfacemoistureevaporatesandcoolsthem.

Proteins

Proteinsarethemainbuildingblocksinmeatsandfish,eggs,anddairyproducts.Proteins are the sensitive food chemicals, easily changed by heat

and by acidity, and the reason thatmeats and fish are tricky to cookwell.Picture proteins as separate long threads, more or less folded up,

crowdedtogetherinawateryworld.Proteinscoagulatewhenthetemperaturerisesto100to140°F/40to

60°C and the threads unfold and stick to each other, forming a solidmass of stuck threads with water pockets trapped in between. This iswhy heating causesmeat and fish flesh to get firm and liquid eggs tosolidify.Coagulatedproteinsdryoutwhentheyarecookedhotterthantheir

coagulationpointandstickmoretightlytoeachother.Thisiswhymeatandfishfleshquicklygethardanddry,whyeggsgetrubbery,andwhyprecisetemperaturecontrolhelpscookthesefoodsjustright.Acidity can also cause proteins to coagulate, even at low

temperatures.This iswhyacid-producingbacteria setmilk intoyogurtandanacidmarinadefirmsandwhitenspiecesoffishinceviche.

Enzymes are activeproteins: proteins that change other chemicalsaround them,andsochange foodqualities.Meatenzymesmakemeatstender and more flavorful. Some fish enzymes turn fish mushy andunpleasantlyfishy.Enzymesinfruitsandvegetablescausediscolorationanddestroyvitamins.Cooking inactivates enzymes and prevents them from changing

foods further, because like other proteins they’re sensitive to heat andacids.Gelatin is the exceptional insensitive protein. Instead of its

molecules staying separate at low temperatures and sticking togetherirreversibly at high temperatures, they cluster together to forma solidgel when cool, melt when heated, and can be repeatedly gelled andmelted.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the main building blocks in foods from plants:vegetables,fruits,grains,andsoon.Sugars and starches are carbohydrates that plants use to store

energy,andthatwecandigest,absorb,anduseforenergy.Fiberisthecommonnamefortheothercarbohydratesthatplantsuse

tobuildthewallsoftheircells,andthatwecan’tdigestandabsorbwell.Theyincludepectins,gums,andcellulose.Carbohydratesarenotassensitiveandeasilychangedasproteins.

When heated,most of them simply absorbwater and dissolve. This iswhyordinarycookingsoftensplantfoods,andwhyprecisetemperaturecontrolisnotimportantincookingmostofthem.Carbohydrates are also extracted from plants and used as purified

ingredients.Sugars contribute sweetness to foods. In large amounts they also

createathickbody—asinsyrups—oracreamyorbrittlesolidity,asincandies.Starchisablandcarbohydrate,themainchemicalingrainfloursand

also sold in pure form. Starchmolecules are long threads, and plants

pack them into dense granules, the familiar powdery particles ofcornstarchandotherpurestarches.Whencookedinliquid,thegranulesabsorbwaterandreleasethelongthreads,creatingthickbodyinsaucesand solid structure in baked goods. Starches from different sources—wheat,corn,potato,arrowroot,tapioca—havespecialqualitiesthatsuitthemtodifferentcookinguses.Pectin is a bland carbohydrate whose long molecules thicken jamsandjellies.Agar, xanthan gum, guar gum, and locust bean gum are blandcarbohydratesfromseaweed,microbes,andseedswhoselongmoleculesarealsousedtothickenandstabilizesauces,icecreams,andgluten-freebakedgoods.

Fats

Fats and oils are chemicals inwhich animals and plants store energy.They’re commonly extracted and used as purified ingredients. Unlikeproteins and carbohydrates, they are fluids, and provide a deliciousmoistness to foods. Unlike water, they can be easily heated totemperatures far above water’s boiling point, and help create thecharacteristic flavors of roasting and frying. They also carry aromasbetterthanwater,andhelpflavorslingerinthemouthduringeating.Fatandoilnamedifferentversionsofthesamechemical.Fats are solidat room temperatureandmelt intoa liquidbeginningaround body temperature. They comemainly frommeats, and includebutterfatandlard.Oils arealready liquidat room temperature, and solidifyonlywhenchilled.They’remainlyextractedfromseeds—canola,soy,corn,peanut—andfromtheolivefruit.Foodfatsandoilsaremixturesofdifferentchemicalfats.Saturatedfatsarefatsthattendtobesolidatroomtemperatureandresistanttostaling,thankstotherigidstructureoftheirmolecules.Unsaturatedfatsarefatsthattendtobeliquidatroomtemperatureandprone to stalingandoff flavors, thanks to the flexible structureof

theirmolecules.Hydrogenated fats are unsaturated fats that have been chemicallymodifiedtomakethemsaturated,moresolidandresistanttostaling.Transfatsareunusualunsaturatedfatsthatbehavelikesaturatedfats.Smallamountsoccurnaturallyinbutter,beef,andlamb;largeamountsoccurinhydrogenatedoilsandshortenings.They’reunhealthfulandarebeingeliminatedfrommanufacturedfoods.Omega-3fatsarehighlyunsaturatedfatsfoundmainlyinseafoodandinwalnutsandcanolaoil.Theyappeartobeespeciallyhealthfulandarebeingaddedtomanyfoods.Meat fats are solid at room temperature because they have a highproportion of saturated fats. Poultry fats and pork fat (lard) are softerthanbeefandlambfatbecausetheycontainmoreunsaturatedfats.Vegetableandfishoilsareliquidatroomtemperaturebecausetheycontainahighproportionofunsaturatedfats.Oilsandmeltedfatsdon’tmixwithwaterunlessthey’rehelpedbyother ingredients. When combined, they form temporarily separatedroplets.Fatsandoilsarelessdensethanwater,sotheirdropletsrisetoformalayerabovethewater.Emulsionsarecreamymixturesofoilandwaterwith droplets ofone suspended in theother.Addedeggyolkandother ingredients cancoatthedropletsandmakeastablemixturethatfeelsthickerthanwateroroilalone.

FOODTEXTURES

Foodtextureorconsistencyiswhatafoodfeelslikeinthemouth:howhardor soft it is,andhow it feelsaswechew it,move itaround,andswallowit.Textureiscreatedbythemainfoodbuildingblocks,andbyhowthecookhandlesthem.Mostcookingproblemsinvolvetexture,notflavor.Liquidfoodsmaybethinandwateryorthickandvelvety,smoothorroughorlumpy,oilyorcreamy.Solid foods may be hard or soft, moist or dry, chewy or tender,

leatheryorcrisp.Most pleasant textures result when the building blocks are evenly

integrated with each other, and in the right proportions. Unpleasanttexturesresultwhenthebuildingblocksaresegregatedfromeachotherorfalloutofbalance.Meats,fish,eggs,andcustardsaretenderandmoistwhenmoderate

heat causes their proteins to bind loosely to each other and towater.They become tough and dry or curdled when excess heat causes theproteinstobindtightlytoeachotherandsqueezewaterout.Vegetablesaretenderandmoistwhenbriefnear-boilingheatcauses

their cell wall carbohydrates and starch to bind less tightly tothemselves,and toabsorbwater.Theybecomemushywhenprolongedheatcausestheplantcellstolosetheirstructureandfallapart.Breads, cakes, and pastries are pleasantly firm when their

carbohydrateshave absorbed the right amount ofmoisture, toodry ortoosoftotherwise.Sauces are smooth when starches or fats or proteins are evenly

dispersed in the sauce liquid. When these ingredients are not evenlydispersed,saucesarelumpyorcurdledoroily.Bird skins and bread crusts are crisp when they’ve had all their

watercookedoutofthemandthesolidstructureshavenoflexibility;astheyreabsorbmoistureandgainslightflexibility,theybecomeleathery.Tounderstand texture changes, try to picture in yourmindwhat is

happeningtothefood’sbuildingblocksasyoucook.

FOODFLAVORS

Flavorsarethemajorsourceofourpleasureineating.Theycomefromspecific chemicals in foods,usuallypresent in tiny amounts,whichweareabletosensewithourtasteandsmellreceptors.Goodcookshonetheirabilitytoanalyzefoodflavors,recognizehow

theycanbeimproved,andmakeadjustments.Flavor isacombinationof tasteandsmell.Wesense tasteon the

tongue,andsmell,oraroma,inthenose.

Therearefivebasictastes.

Saltinesscomesmainlyfromsodiumchloride,infoodsandaddedintheformofsaltcrystals.Sournesscomesfromacidsofseveralkinds,especiallycitricandmalicacidsinfruits,aceticacidinvinegar,andlacticacidinfermentedfoodssuchasyogurtandcheese,curedsausages,andsauerkraut.Acidsstimulatesalivaflowandcontributetothemouthwateringqualityoffoodsanddrinks.Sweetnesscomesmainlyfromvariouskindsofsugarsfoundinplantsandinmilk.Therearemanydifferentchemicalsugars,allwithnamesendingin-ose.Table-sugarsucroseissweeterthancorn-syrupglucoseandmilk-sugarlactose,butlesssweetthanhoney’smainsugar,fructose.Savoriness,alsocalledbytheJapanesetermumami,isthebrothy,round,mouthfillingtastecausedbymonosodiumglutamate(MSG)andafewotherchemicals.It’sstronginmeatstocks,soysauce,agedcheeses,mushrooms,andtomatoes.Bitternessisthecharacteristictasteofchemicalsthatsomeplantsmaketodeteranimalsfromeatingthem.Thisiswhyittakesgettingusedto,andwhynotallpeopleenjoyit.Bitternessisstronginchicories,brusselssprouts,andmustardgreens,andanimportantpartofcoffee,tea,chocolate,andbeerflavors.Addedsaltgreatlydiminishesbitterness.

Pungencyandastringencyareotherimportantmouthsensations.Pungencyistheheatandbiteofblackandchillipeppers,ginger,raw

garlic and onion, and mustard, wasabi, watercress, and arugula.Astringencyisthedrying,rougheffectcausedbytanninsinstrongblackteaorredwine.Therearehundredsofdifferentaromasinfoods.Aromasarewhat

individualize foods and give them their specific flavor identities. Allfruits have sweet and sour tastes, but only apples smell like apples,peacheslikepeaches.There are many different aroma qualities in foods, which may

smellnotjustfruity,meaty,fishy,eggy,nutty,orspicy,butalsoflowery,

grassy,earthy,woody,smoky,leathery,andbarnyardy.Foodaromasarealwaysmixturesofaromachemicals.Likechords

in music, food aromas are an integrated combination of severalindividual chemical notes. Coriander seed and ginger share a lemonynoteintheirspiciness;ripebananahasanoteofclove.When we combine ingredients in cooking, we create new aroma

mixtures.Herbsandspicesgiveusdozensofnotestofillouttheflavorharmonyofadish.Heat changes food flavors. Cooking gives meats and fish stronger

flavors than they had when raw. It makes onions and garlic milder,cabbage stronger. Mustard greens lose their pungency and gainbitterness.Cookingcanaddnewflavorstofoods.Fryinginoilorfatcreatesa

characteristicflavorfromchangesinthefatmolecules.High heat or prolonged heat creates especially delicious

“browned”flavors.Whenafoodturnsbrowninthefryingpanoroven,or on the grill, it’s a sign that heat has caused flavorless proteins andcarbohydrates to react together to form hundreds of taste and aromamolecules.Thebrowningreactionsaremostproductiveattemperaturesabove theboilingpointofwater, so foodsbrownbestwhenheatdriesouttheirsurfaces.

SEASONINGFOODS

Toseasonafoodistobalanceandadjustitsflavorstogivethegreatestpossiblepleasuretothepeoplewhowilleatit.Good seasoning is the cook’s responsibility. It can’tbe specified ina

recipe,becauseingredientsandcookingproceduresaretoovariable.Peopleperceive flavorsdifferently.This isamatterof inescapable

biology, not arbitrary preference. People inherit different sets ofchemicalreceptors,andmaybehypersensitivetosometastesorsmells,completelyblindtoothers.Somepeoplearebornwithmoretastebudsthanothers.Andeveryone’soverallsensitivitytotasteandsmelldeclinesinlaterlife.

A good cook allows for differences in flavor perception. Discussthemopenlytolearnwhetheryou’reespeciallysensitiveorinsensitivetoparticularflavors,andthentakethatself-knowledgeintoaccountwhenyou season foods. Don’t be offended when people ask to season yourfoodforthemselves.Tastesprovidethefoundationofflavor,andaromasareitsfree-

formsuperstructure.Toseasonafoodistobalanceitsbasictastesandfilloutitsaromaticpossibilities.Alwayschecktheseasoningtowardtheendofcooking.Foodflavors

evolve during the cooking process. Flavor integration or “melding” isdesirable,butofteninvolvesthelossofappealingflavornotes.Seasonfoodswhilethey’reatservingtemperature.Flavorperception

is strongly affected by temperature. Saltiness, bitterness, and mostaromasareaccentuatedinhotfood.To season a food, taste it actively. Ask yourself questions such as

these:

Isthereenoughsalttoavoidblandness?Wouldtheacidofsomelemonjuiceorvinegarmaketheflavorbrighterandmoremouthwatering?Acidityisespeciallyundervaluedasageneralflavorboosterandbalancer.Isthereenoughsavorinessorsweetnesstocarrythearoma?Wouldsomepungencyfrompepperaddadesirableedge?Havedesirablearomasfadedawayorbecomemasked?Shouldtheyberevivedbyaddingafreshroundofthosearomatics?Shouldthearomabefilledoutwithacomplementaryherborspice,orbutter,orgrassyoliveoil?

W

2

BASICKITCHENRESOURCES

Water,thePantry,andtheRefrigerator

aterandthefoodswe’vealwaysgotonhandaresofamiliarthatweseldomgivethemasecondthought.It’sworthgivingthemthatandmorefortheveryreasonthattheyenterinto

almosteverythingwecook.Water is the lifebloodofcooking,auniversal ingredientaswellasa

mediumforheatingfoods,coolingthem,andcleaningup.Butthere’salotmoretoitthanH2O,andthewaterthathappenstocomeoutofthetapdoesn’talwaysgivethebestormostwholesomeresults.Thepantryisasetoffoodsandingredientsthatkeepwellandthatwe

keeponhandbecausewecookwiththemregularly.Itincludespreparedfoodsincansandjars;drygrains,beans,flours,andpastas;cookingfatsand oils; and flavorings and seasonings, herbs and spices. The pantryusuallyexpandswithoutourplanningit,andcanturnintoaverymixedcollection of old andnew, stale and fresh, flavorless and flavorful. It’sgoodtotakestockregularlyandcullit.I’ve foundoneway todo somepantrymaintenance thatcanalsobe

pleasurable and stimulating.Occasionally I’ll just stand in front ofmycrowdofflavorings,openonecontainerafteranother,andtasteorsniff.Notwithanyparticularcookinginmind,butjusttorefreshmymemoryof the things I’ve got andwhat they’re like, to enjoy each for its ownqualities, and to setaside the faded for replacement.Maltvinegarandbalsamic, black pepper and long pepper, plain brown cane sugar andwiney brown palm sugar, vanillas from Madagascar and Tahiti andMexico: they’reall absorbingon theirownas thedistinctive flavorsofspecific places and cultures, and as possible elements in what I’ll puttogetherformyowntableinthecomingweeks.Aworldofsensationson

acoupleofshelves.

WATERINTHEKITCHEN

Pure water itself is plain H2O. But all actual waters—whether from awell, a city supply, or a bottle—contain small quantities of dissolvedminerals,organicsubstances,andair.Theseminorcomponentsinwatercan affect the flavor, color, texture, and long-term healthfulness ofingredientscookedinit.Tapwater isusuallyadequate forcooking,but some foodsmay turnoutbetterifyoufilteritorcheckitscompositionandadjustit.Have your tap water tested for lead if your dwelling is old, newlyplumbed,orpartofamultiunitbuilding.Leadisapotentnervepoisonthatisespeciallydamagingtochildren,accumulatesinthebody,andiscommonly found in drinking water thanks to the past use of lead inplumbing. In the United States even today, “lead-free” fixtures maylegallycontainsomelead.Let the cold tap run for1 to2minutes or until cold if youhaven’tdrawnanywaterforhours.Evenamostlyplasticplumbingsystemcanrelease undesirable amounts of lead, copper, and zinc from faucetfixturesintothewaterasitsitsinthepipes.Usecoldtapwaterformostcookingjobs.Waterhotfromthetapmaycarrymore dissolvedmetals from the plumbing pipes, and off flavorsfromsittinginthehot-watertank.Usehot tapwater for steaming or in awater bath,when thewaterdoesn’tcomeindirectcontactwiththefood.Checkthetasteofyourtapwater.Runthecoldwater foraminute,fillaglass,letitwarmtoroomtemperature,andtasteit.Ifthetasteisunpleasant,trytoimproveitwithawaterfilter.Check the pHandhardness of yourwater andmake adjustments ifnecessary.Get this information from thewater quality report for yourcity’s system. Or get pH test papers or a pH meter from a scientificsupplycompany.WaterpHisameasureofacidity.TheidealpHformostcookingisa

neutral 7. If it’s less than 7, it’s slightly acid and may speed thediscolorationofgreenvegetableswhenthey’reboiled.Ifit’sabove8andalkaline,itwilltasteflat,willbrewflat-tastingtea,andmaycausepalevegetablesandgrainstoturnyellow.ToadjustthepHofyourwaterforcooking,addalittlebakingsodatomakeacidwatermorealkaline,oralittlelemonjuice,soursalt(citricacid),orcreamoftartartomakealkalinewatermoreacid.Waterhardnessisameasureofcalciumandmagnesiumcontent.Toomuchofeithercancauseabittertaste,theyellowingofriceandotherpalefoods,scumformationonbrewedtea,andslowedsofteningofboiledvegetablesandgrains.If your water is hard enough to cause any of these problems, usebottled water for making tea, and steam sensitive foods rather thanboiling them. Water softeners replace “hard” minerals with sodium.Softenedwatersvarywidelyinsodiumcontentandtaste.Tomakeclean-flavored ice, startwith good-tastingwater and cleanice trays. Once frozen, store ice cubes in an airtight container. Beforeusing,rinsethemforafewsecondsinrunningwater.Iceoftensitsinthefreezerlongenoughforitssurfacetoabsorbunpleasantodors.

STORINGFOODS

The aim in storing foods is to keep themonhandwhile slowing theirnaturaldeteriorationandmaintainingtheirqualityaslongaspossible.Stalefoods are foodswhose flavorand/or texturehavedeterioratednoticeably,butthatarestilledible.Cookingcanoftenremedystaleness.Reheating softens stale bread and recrisps pastries, nuts, and friedsnacks.Spoiled foods are foods whose flavor and/or texture havedeterioratedtothepointthatweconsidertheminedible.Thisjudgmentissubjective.Spoiledfoodscanstillbenutritiousandsafetoeat,butoffflavorsandmushinessarewarningsignsthatfoodsmaybeinfectedwithharmfulmicrobes.Theenemiesof freshnessand longshelf lifeareheat, light,and

air.Heatandlightenergy,oxygen,moisture,andmicrobescausefoodstogostaleandtospoil.Most foods keep best when stored in cold, dark, airtight

conditions.

StoringFoodsatRoomTemperature

Pantries, cupboards, and cabinets at room temperature are coolenough for storingdry, canned, and cured foods, anda few fresh rootvegetables that are naturally slow to spoil. Dry foods will keep formonths;hermeticallysealedincansforayearormore.Saltandrefinedsugarskeepindefinitely.Keep storage shelves as cool as possible. Don’t use toasters,

countertop ovens, or other portable heating appliances directlyunderneath them.Pullappliancesout fromunder food-storagecabinetsbeforeusing.Avoidstoringfoodincabinetsunderthesink,nexttothedishwasherorrefrigerator,orabovethestovetop.Storedrypantryingredientsinopaquecontainers,or inwindowless

cabinets.Glass bottles and jars look attractive but allow light to enterandstalethecontents.Paperandcardboardpackagingandthinplasticbags can impart

offflavorstodryfoods,andofferlittleprotectionfrommoisture,oxygen,andinsects.Chooseproductsthatarepackagedintoughplasticbags,ortransferfoodsfromtheoriginalpackagingtoglassorplasticcanisters.Cannedfoodsoftenhaveastrongflavorfromthehightemperatureat

which they’reprocessed.Theycanbedelicious;Europeanconnoisseursprize the best and carefully age canned seafood andmeats for severalyears.Canned vegetables and fruits often include large amounts of salt,

citric acid, sugar, and other additives to give flavor and maintaintexture.Readlabelsbeforebuying.Refrigerate leftover canned foods in glass or plastic containers to

avoid reactions between food, oxygen, and the exposedmetal edge. Ifyou keep food in the can, cover the opening with plastic wrap, not

aluminumfoil,whichwillcorrode.Markthestoragedateonpackagesandcans,placenewitemsbehindoldonesontheshelf,andusetheoldestitemsfirst.There’s no reliable rule for predicting the shelf life of pantryfoods.Properlypreparedandstoredfoodswillnotbecomedangeroustoeatwhilestoredunopened.Theyslowlyslidefromedibletobarelyedibletoinedible. Different people will define these stages differently.Manufacturers’expirationdatesareusuallyconservative.Tastelong-storedfoodsforyourself,andusethemquickly if they’reedible.Onceopened,anypackagedfoodwilldeterioratemuchfaster.

StoringFoodsintheRefrigeratorandintheFreezer

The refrigerator and the freezer are appliances in which we chill orfreeze foods that would quickly spoil at room temperature. They alsoextendtheshelflivesofmanypantryingredients.Refrigeratorsandfreezershelpusstorefoodslongerbyremovingheatenergy from them. This slows the chemical changes that cause stalingandspoilage.Most fresh ingredients and cooked foods require chilled storage toslowthegrowthofmicrobesthatcausespoilageandfood-relatedillness.Someprefrozenvegetablesandseafoodcanbeofhigherqualitythan their fresh versions if they’ve been frozen within hours of theharvestandkeptproperlyfrozenuntilthey’recooked.Cooked dishes usually freeze better than their raw ingredients.Ice crystals cause tissue damage and juice loss in rawmeats and fish,vegetablesandfruits,buthavelessnoticeableeffectsoncookedtissues.Check refrigerator and freezer temperatures regularly with athermometer, and adjust the thermostat if necessary. Clean the doorgasketsandcoolingcoilsregularly.Keep the coldest refrigerator area between32 and35°F/0 and2°Cforespeciallyperishablegroundmeats,fish,chicken,andmilk.Loweringthetemperaturefrom40°F/5°Cto35°F/2°Ccandoubletheirshelflife.

Keepthefreezerascoldasitwillget,ideally0°F/-18°Corlower.Avoidhabits thatwarmrefrigeratorsor freezers.Open thedoorsas

brieflyandseldomaspossible.Coolcookedfoodsatroomtemperatureor in an ice bath before putting them in the appliance. Temperaturevariationsgraduallydamagetextureandflavoreveninfrozenfoodsthatremainfrozen.Enclose foods in solid plastic or glass containers to minimize odor

transfer among foods and the appliance air and walls. Use glasscontainers to store strongly flavored or colored foods, which leavepersistent residues in plastic. If you use flexible plastic bags, choosestandard thick-walled bags for freezer storage, or special bags forvacuumpacking.Minimizeexposuretoairwithinstoragecontainers.Usethesmallest

possible container, or a flexible bag that you squeeze to the food’scontours by hand or with a vacuum-packing machine. Press flexibleplasticwraporwaxedpaperontothe foodsurface,orcoatwitha thinlayerofoil.Allow dry spices or herbs, grains or flours to warm to room

temperaturebeforeopeningthepackage.Moistureintheaircondensesoncoldobjects,andwilldamagefoodflavor.

FATSANDOILS

Fatsandoilshavemanyuses inthekitchen, fromsimplyanointingwithflavorandrichness,tofrying,tostructuringcakesandpastries.Fatsaresolidatroomtemperature;oilsareliquid.Therearemanydifferentfatsandoilstochooseamong,withdifferent

flavors and consistencies. Unrefined oils, extracted from their sourcewithout removingall impurities, generallyhavemore flavor than theirrefinedequivalents.Flavorfulanimalfats includebutter fromcow’smilkand lard from

pigs,andsofterchicken,duck,andgoosefats.Lard is softer thanbutter and goes rancidmore easily.Check labels

and avoidhydrogenated lard,which ismore stable but contains trans-

fattyacids.Flavorful plant fats include coconut, palm, and cocoa fats, and

margarine,animitationofbuttermadewithvegetablefats.Flavorful plant oils include olive, sesame, walnut, almond, and

hazelnut oils. Their distinctive flavors are changed by heat, and bestpreservedwhentheoilsareaddedattheendofcooking.Oliveoilsvarywidelyinqualityandprice.“Extra-virgin”designation

andpricearenoguaranteesofquality.Goodinexpensiveoilsaremildinflavor and right for cooking. Good expensive oils tend to be stronglyflavored, sometimes pungent enough to make you cough, rich inantioxidants,andbestusedasacondiment.Mostlyflavorlessplantoilsincludecanola,corn,cottonseed,peanut,

soy, safflower, and grapeseed oils. Vegetable shortening is a flavorlessplant fat, created by chemical modification of refined vegetable oils.Theseneutraloilsaregoodforfryingfoodswithoutaddingflavor.Fatsandoilsslowlybreakdownandbecomerancid.Exposureto

light,warmth,and/oraircausesthemtodevelopstale,cardboard,paintaromasandaharshtaste.Liquidoilsareespeciallypronetorancidity,whilesolidfatsaremore

stable.Use the freshest fatsandoils possible. Checkuse-bydates, andbuy

them in small quantities so they don’t sit in your pantry forweeks ormonths.Store fats and oils tightly sealed in a cool dark place. Refrigerate

especially vulnerable tree nut oils and lard, and also butter andmargarine, which contain traces of water and milk solids. Butter andmargarine can last for several days at room temperature if protectedfromairandlight,forexampleinabutterkeeperthatimmersesthefatsurfaceinwater.Wrap solid fats tightly to the surface, preferablywith impermeable

foil. Don’t leave a gap between fat and wrap, where air can causerancidity.Whenusingstoredfats,scrapethesurfacelayerawayanddiscardit.

Thisiswhererancidflavorsaccumulate.

Tasteoilsandfatsbeforecookingwiththem.Offflavorswillgetintothe food,andarealsoasign that theoilor fatwilldeteriorate furtherduringcooking.Refined and fresh oils tolerate higher frying temperatures thanunrefinedandstaleoils.All fatsandoilsdeteriorateandsmokeatpantemperatures much above 400°F/200°C. Butter, margarine, and somevegetable shortenings contain other substances that lower their smokepoint to around 350°F/175°C. For frying, choose shortening withoutaddedflavorsandemulsifiers.Home-rendered poultry and pork fat contain impurities thatencouragerancidity.Wrapthemclosely,refrigerateorfreezethem,andusethemwithinafewweeks.Keepoilleftoverfromdeep-fryingonlyifit’sstillrelativelylightandthin,andhasbeenstrainedtoremovefoodparticles.Discardifit’sdarkand viscous. Used or long-stored oils will smoke at a lower fryingtemperaturethanfreshoils.Nonstick sprays combine a small amount of vegetable oil withemulsifiersandotherchemicalsthathelppreventfoodfromadheringtopan surfaces. Most sprays begin to brown and smoke at around350°F/175°C.

THEFLAVORPANTRY

Mostpantryitemsaresourcesofflavorthatmakethefoodswepreparemoredelicious.Building and refining the flavor of a dish means adjusting thebalance among the basic tastes and drawing on the flavor pantry tocreateafull,harmoniousaroma.Collect a broadpalette of tastes and smells in your pantry, keep iteasilyaccessibleandorganized,anduseitactivelyandcreatively.Whena dish seems not quite right, when it “needs a little something,” scanyourcollection,refreshyourmemorywithtastesandsniffs,andimagine.

Salts

Salt isanessentialseasoningfornearlyall foods. Itevenheightensthe flavor of sweets. Salt is a mineral—sodium chloride—and keepsindefinitely. It’s sold in many different forms. Salt is also a definingingredient in many prepared pantry foods, including soy sauce, miso,anchovypaste,andfishsauce.Granulatedtablesaltsaresometimesfortifiedwithpotassiumiodide,a mineral that helps prevent iodine deficiency diseases. They ofteninclude small amounts of a silicate anticaking agent, essentially apowderedsand,topreventthecrystalsfromstickingtoeachother.Koshersaltsandpicklingsaltsdonot include iodideoranticakingpowders,andsowillmakeapicklingbrinewithoutanycloudiness.Theycomeinlarge,flatcrystalsthatareeasierforthecooktopinch,sprinkle,andseeonthefoodsurfacewhenseasoning.Seasaltsareharvestedfromtheocean,asmuchordinarysaltis.Theymay bemore or less refined.Moist sea salts include tracemagnesiumandcalciummineralsthatmayprovideaslightbitterness.Rock salts are coarse and chunky, not necessarily pure enough forhuman consumption, used as a coolant in ice creammakers, and as adecorativebedonwhichtopresentshellfishandotherfoods.Fleurdesel,or“flowerofsalt,”isharvestedfromthesurfaceofsaltpondsinlarge,flatcrystals.It’sexpensiveandintendedasalast-minutecondiment, to provide visual appeal and a crunch as it dissolves intomomentarilyintensesaltiness.Seasonedor seasoning salts supplement basic saltinesswith addedflavors, including spices, herbs, monosodium glutamate, sugar, andsmoke.Coloredsalts combine sodium chloridewith coloredminerals, fromredclaystoblacksands,thataddlittleornoflavor.Anexceptiontothisruleis“blacksalt”fromIndia,alightgray-pinkandwithastrongeggysmell.Salt substitutes replace some sodium chloride with potassiumchloride.Theytastelesssaltyandmorebitterthansalt.Allsaltswithoutaddedflavorstasteaboutthesame,especiallyinfood.Exoticoriginscanbeveryinterestingtothemindbutdon’tregister

onthepalate.Different salts can differ importantly in their density, or how

muchagivenvolumeweighs.Aspoonfuloftablesaltmayweightwiceas much as a spoonful of flaky kosher salt, and produce double thesaltinesswhenaddedtoafood.Differentbrandsofkoshersaltmayvaryintheamountofsaltperspoonfulbymorethanathird.Measuring salt correctly is one of the biggest challenges in

cookingfromrecipes.Manyrecipesspecifyvolumesofsaltbutnotthekindofsalt,andsodon’treally tell thecookexactlyhowmuchsalt touse.It’salwaysbesttospecifysaltquantitiesbyweight,notvolume.Try tomake sure what kind of salt your recipe calls for if it uses

volumemeasures.Ifyoudon’tusethesamekindofsalt,thenadjustforthe difference in density. If the recipe doesn’t specify salt brand, thenstartwithasmallervolumeandaddmoretotaste.Forsaltbrines,findarecipethatspecifieseithersaltbrandorweight.Different people often experience the same level of salt

differently. This can be a matter of perception, not just preference.Someonewho likes a lot of saltmaynot be able to taste it aswell asotherpeople.Getanideaofyoursaltsensitivityandtakeitintoaccountwhenyou

cook.Seasonadishwithotherpeopleandcompareyourperceptions.Curingsaltsarenotsaltsforeverydaykitchenuse.Theyareamixture

ofsodiumnitrite,nitrate,andregularsodiumchloride.They’reusedtomakesausagesandothercuredmeats,wherenitriteandnitratepreventthegrowthofbotulismbacteriaandpreservemeatcolor.Label curing salts clearly and use them carefully. The nitrites in

curing salts are toxic in largeamounts.Theyare sometimesdyedpinkand calledpink salt to distinguish them from table salt.Don’tmistakepinkcuringsaltsforpink-coloredspecialtytablesalts.

Acids

Acids are substances that taste sour, or tart. They’re a characteristic,balancing,andrefreshing taste inalmostall fruits, in fermenteddrinks

anddairyproducts,andinmanysaucesanddressings.Mostfoodacidsarejustsour,withnoaroma.Theexceptionisacetic

acid,whichgivesvinegaritscharacteristicsmell.Lemonandothercitrusjuicesarethemostcommonacidingredient,

butnotwellsuitedtothepantrybecausethefruitsandtheirsourjuicesareperishable.Citrusjuicesarebestsqueezedfreshandaddedtoadishjust before serving. They’re usually damaged by cooking heat anddeterioratequicklyintherefrigerator.Verjusisthetartjuiceofunripegrapes,anuncommonalternativeto

citrusjuices,andalsoperishable.Vinegars are water solutions of acetic acid, and keep for years at

room temperature. They come in different strengths. Standard malt,cider, and distilled vinegars are usually 5 percent acetic acid. SomeAsianvinegarsare3to4percent,whilewinevinegarsmaybe7percent.Check vinegar labels for acetic acid contents before substituting

vinegarsinarecipe,andadjustquantitiesaccordingly.Vinegars often have complex tastes and smells because they’re

madebyfermentingflavorfulalcohols.

Cider,malt,wine,andsherryvinegarstasteliketheirsources.Distilledvinegarispureaceticacidinwater,andhasnootherflavors.Balsamicvinegarhasadistinctivearoma,intensesweet-sourtaste,anddarkcolorthankstoitsuniqueproductionmethod,whichcantakeyears.Itcomesinaveryexpensiveoriginalform,acheapindustrialimitation,andanumberofgradesinbetween.Chineseblackvinegarismadefromroastedfermentedriceandisrichflavoredandsomewhatsalty.Japanesericewinevinegarismadefromunroastedfermentedriceandhasadelicateflavor.Flavoredvinegarsaremadebysteepingvariousherbsorfruitsinvinegar.

Driedacidfruitsarepantryacidsthatkeepforyearsandalsoprovidesomefruitflavors.Findtheminethnicmarkets.

Tamarindisthesoft,darkbrownpulpofatropicaltreepod,sourandsweetandsavoryfrombrowninginthesun,usedinIndianandMexicancooking.Amchurispowderedunripemango,usedinIndiancooking.Sumacisthepowderedredfruitofthesumacbush;it’stannicaswellassour,andusedinMiddleEasterncooking.

Pure acids, crystallized from fruits or fermentations, are handy forgiving a simple acid accent to foods, with no aroma or added liquid.They’reallavailablefromsuppliersforhomebrewing.

Ascorbicacid,orvitaminC,isanantioxidantandespeciallyvaluableforpreventingthediscolorationofcutorpureedfruitsandvegetables.It’smuchmoreeffectivethanlemonjuiceorcitricacid.Ascorbicacidisapureformofthevitaminfoundinmanyfruits.IfyouwanttouseavitaminCsupplementincooking,checkthelabeltomakesurethatitdoesn’tincludeothernutrientsorfillers.Citricacid,orsoursalt,canoftenbefoundinthespecialtyorkoshersectionofsupermarkets.It’sapureformoftheacidfoundinlemons.Malicacidcanbefoundinhealth-foodstores.It’sapureformoftheacidfoundinapples.Tartaricacid,orcreamoftartar,isapureformofanacidfoundingrapesandwines.It’sfrequentlyusedinbakingtomakestableeggfoamsformeringuesandcakes,andtoreactwithbakingsodatoproduceleaveningcarbondioxide.

SugarsandSyrups

Sugars and syrups are crystalline and liquid sources of sweetness, theonetastethatallhumansenjoyfromthemomentthey’reborn.Mostareextractedfromthefluidsofvariousplantsandtrees.Refinedsugarsarecrystalsofpuresucrose,washedfreeofallother

plantresidues.Theyprovidesimplesweetness.Unrefinedandpartlyrefinedsugarsaresucrosecrystalsthatretain

acoatingofmolasses,thesyrupydarkby-productofcookingdownand

crystallizing plant juices. Generally, the darker the color, the strongertheflavor,whichisrichandcomplex.Differentformsofsugarhavedifferentdensities,sothatspoonfuls

willweighdifferentamounts.Incookingit’stheweightofsugar,notthevolume,thatcounts.Ifyousubstituteadifferentformofsugarforthekindspecifiedina

recipe,checktomakesurethatyouusethecorrectweight.

Tablesugar,puregranulatedsucrose,maybemadefromsugarcaneorsugarbeets.Usuallythere’snodifference,butbeetsugarcansometimeshaveaslightoffflavor.Extra-fine,orbaker’s,sugarisfinelygroundtablesugar.Thesmallercrystalsdissolvemorerapidlyintouncookedpreparationssuchasmeringues.Confectioners’,orpowdered,sugarisveryfinelygroundsugarcombinedwithasmallpercentageofcornstarch,andmainlyusedtomakeicings.It’sfluffy;substitute13/4volumesfor1volumeofgranulatedsugar.Brownsugarisgranulatedsugarwithafinecoatingofmolassessyrupthatmakesthecrystalsclingtogetherinasoftmass,andthatcandryoutontheshelftoformhardlumps.Standardbrownsugarismanufacturedbyaddingmolassestofullyrefinedsugar.Toresoftenbrownsugar,heatlumpsinthemicrowaveovenfor20to30secondsatatimeuntilsoft,orsealthemforsomehoursinaplasticbagwithapieceofappleorsliceoffreshbread.Muscovado,turbinado,barbados,demerara,piloncillo,andwholesugarsarepartlyrefinedcanesugarsthatretainacoatingofmolassesfromtheoriginalcanejuice.Theyusuallyhavestrongerflavorsthanstandardbrownsugars.PalmsugarandjaggeryareunrefinedcrystalsfromthesapofAsiansugarpalmtrees,coatedwithabrownmolasseslikeresiduethat’sdistinctivelywiney.Datesugarconsistsofgrounddrieddates,andincludestinyfragmentsofthefruit.Itdoesn’tdissolvecompletelyasothersugarsdo.

Syrups are concentrated water solutions of various sugars, usuallyglucose and fructose. Traditional syrups provide a range of distinctivearomas as well as some acidity. Thanks to their water content, largervolumesofsyrupareusuallyrequiredtosubstituteforgranulatedsugar.

Honeyisthenectarofflowers,concentratedandtransformedbythehoneybeeintotheoriginalsugarsyrup.“Varietal”honeysfromspecificplantshavedistinctiveflavors.Honeycontainsfructoseandglucosesugarsinsteadoftable-sugarsucrose.Itissweeterthantablesugarvolumeforvolume,brownsfasterwhenheated,andretainsmoisturebetterinbakedgoods.Honeyslowlycrystallizesintoagrainypastewhenstored.Reliquefyitbywarminggently.Don’tfeedhoneytochildrenlessthanoneyearold.They’resusceptibletobacterialsporesinitandcanbecomeveryill.Mosttraditionalsyrupsareboiled-downplantsaps.Darkercolorsmeanmoreintensecaramelflavors.Maplesyrup,mainlysucrose,andbirchsyrupcomefromtrees,canesyrupandsorghumsyrupcomefromlargegrasses,andagavenectar,mainlyfructose,comesfromacactuslikedesertplant.Maltsyrupismadefromgerminatedbarleygrains;itsprimarysugarmaltoseislesssweetthansucroseorfructose.“Pancakesyrup”andotherimitationsofmaplesyruparemadefromcornsyrupandartificialflavorings.Molassesisthedark,thickresidueleftfromrefiningcanesugarintocrystallinesucrose.Itsflavorisstronganddistinctive,lesssweetthanpuresugar,somewhatbitterandacid.Pomegranatemolassesistheboiled-downjuiceofthepomegranatefruit,sweetandtart.Cornsyrupsaremanufacturedfromcornstarch.Theyarepartglucosesugar,partstarchythickener,sotheyprovidethethicknessofaconcentratedsugarsyrupwithonlymodestsweetness.Unliketheothersyrupstheyhavenointerestingflavoroftheirownandareoftenflavoredwithvanilla.They’reausefulstructuralingredientinbakingandcandymaking.High-fructosecornsyrupsarecornsyrupswhoseglucosehasbeenpartlyconvertedintosweeterfructose.

Sugarsubstitutescomeintwodifferenttypes:

Intensivesweetenersprovidesweettasteinverysmallquantitiesandwithfewornocalories.Artificialintensivesweetenersincludesaccharin,aspartame,sucralose,andacesulfame.Rebaudiosidesarenaturalsweetenersextractedfromthesteviaplant.Allofthesesweetenersexceptaspartameretaintheirsweetnesswhencooked.Aspartamecansickenpeoplewhohaveageneticdiseasecalledphenylketonuria.Bulkingagentsprovidethephysicalmassofsugarwithfewercaloriesandwithlesssweetness.Xylitol,abulkingagentderivedfromplantfiberandsoldinhealth-foodstores,hasacoolingeffectwhenitdissolvesonthetongue.

SavorySeasonings

Savoriness is the mouthfilling, mouthwatering taste found inconcentrated meat broth, aged cheeses, tomatoes, and cookedmushrooms. It’salsocalledby itsJapanesename,umami. Savoriness iscreated mainly by an amino acid, glutamate, and partner substancescalledribonucleotides.MSG,ormonosodiumglutamate, isacrystallinepowderthathasasavory and salty taste. Despite its reputation for causing the “Chineserestaurantsyndrome”offacialflushingandheadache,numerousmedicalstudieshavefoundnoevidenceforthis.Therearemanyingredientsandcondimentsthatareespeciallyrichinglutamateanditspartners,andvaluedfor theirsavory,mouthfillingquality.Theyinclude:

Cannedmeatandvegetablebroths,packageddemi-glace,concentratedmeatextract,bouilloncubes;Curedanchoviesandanchovypaste,Italiancolatura,Japanesebonitoflakes(katsuobushi),Asianfishandoystersaucesandshrimppastes;Mushrooms,especiallydriedshiitakesandporcini,yeastpastes(Vegemite,Marmite),driedseaweeds,especiallyJapanesekombu;

Worcestershiresauce,soysauce,liquidaminoacids(alsofromsoy),miso,fermentedblackbeans.

Soy sauce may include wheat as well as soybeans, and comes inseveraldifferent types.Chinesebrands areusuallydarker and strongerthan Japanese brands. Tamari sauce is made with little or no wheat,“white”soysaucewithlittlesoy.Check soy sauce labels to make sure that the sauce has beenfermented.Traditional and more flavorful soy sauce is made slowly byfermentation;“chemical”soysaucesaremadeveryquicklyusingstrongacids.

Bitter,Pungent,andCoolingSeasonings

Bitterness,pungency,andcoolnessarenotespeciallypleasantsensationsin themselves, but they provide a pleasing edge when combined withotherflavors.Bitterness is an important taste component of coffee, tea, andchocolate flavors, of quinine or tonicwater, and in vermouth, Fernet-Branca,andotheraperitifalcohols.The main pantry sources for bitterness are bitter alcohols andpreparations called bitters, extracts of spices and wood barks usedmainly in cocktails. They have strong aromas in addition to the taste.SomeChineseteasareselectedfortheirextremebitterness.Pungencyisnotataste,butafeelingofburningirritationthatcanbepleasantlypainful. It’sproducedbyvariouschemicals inonionsandgarlic,inoliveoil,andinafewplantsthatweuseaspantryspicesandasthebasisforcountless“hotsauces.”Thereareseveraldifferentkindsofpungency.

Pepperandgingerpungencyburnsonlythemouthorwhateverbodysurfacethefoodtouches.Whiteandblackpepper,greenpeppercorns,chillis(manyvarietiesofred“peppers,”cayenne,paprika,pimientos),andgingerburnthe

mouth.Pepperpungencysurvivescooking.Mustardpungencyburnsthenoseandlungsaswellasthemouth.It’svolatileandiscarriedonthebreathandthroughtheair.Cookingdiminishesmustardpungency.Mustardseedsandtheirvariouspreparations,horseradishroot,andJapanesewasabirootallstingthenoseandlungs.Wasabipowderisusuallyhorseradishpowdercombinedwithgreenfoodcoloring.AuthenticfreshwasabirootisavailableinJapanesegroceries;grateitjustbeforeusing.Toavoidacoughingfitfromexcessivemustardpungency,ortorecoverfromone,inhaleonlythroughthenoseandexhaleonlythroughthemouth.Sichuanpepperpungencyisabuzzing,numbingsensationinthemouth,causedbySichuanpeppercorns,Japanesesanshopowderandleaves,andAustralianmountainpepper.Itsurvivescooking.

All pungent flavorings can irritate the eyes and lungs whenthey’reheatedduringcookingordishwashing.Whenhandlingchillis,wearprotectiveglovesorbecarefulafterwardtowash hands thoroughlywith soapywater. Residual irritants on thefingerscanburnwhateverpartofthebodyyoutouchnext.When cooking with pungent spices, turn on exhaust fans and openwindows.When cleaning cutting boards, knives, and containers, begin withcoldwater and scrape and rinse chilli residues gently down the drainwith minimal splashing. This will minimize the creation of irritatingvapors.Torelieveamouthburningfromhotchillis,sipanoncarbonatedcoolliquid.Theirritantscausingtheburncan’tbewashedoff,butloweringthe mouth temperature reduces the pain. The prickling of strongcarbonation increases it. To relieve chilli-burned skin, cool it withrefrigerator-temperatureobjectsor tapwater.Don’tuse ice,whichcancausecold-inducedpainandinjury.Cooling is a sensation caused in the mouth by the menthol inpeppermint and spearmint. It’s especially evident when breathing inthrough the mouth. Pantry sources of menthol are mint extracts and

mentholatedcandies.

AromaticSpicesandHerbs

Spicesandherbsprovidearomaticaccentsincooking.Therearedozensfromallovertheworldtotryout.Spicesareidealpantryitems.They’remainlyplantseeds,barks,androots,generallybecomemoreconcentratedandintensewhendried,andkeepwell.Usewholespiceswheneverpossible,andgrindjustbeforeusing.Onceground,spiceslosearomaandstalequickly.Todeepenspiceflavors,heatthembrieflyinadrypanorinoiluntiltheysmellnutty.Many herbs are much better fresh than dried. Herbs are greenleavesandtendtolosearomaandbecomehaylikewithtime.Good dried herbs include bay laurel, oregano, rosemary, sage,savory, and thyme, all tough Mediterranean plants tolerant of dryconditions.Store dried herbs and spices in airtight containers that are eitheropaqueorkeptinthedark.Sample bottled spicesandherbswhen you’ve just bought them andthenregularlyafterward,andreplacethemwhentheiraromahasfaded.Wholespiceskeepwellforaboutayear,butherbsandgroundspicesforonlyafewmonths.Commonherbsincookingincludecarrot-familychervil,cilantro,dillleaf,andparsley;mint-familybasil,marjoram,mints,oregano,rosemary,sage, and thyme; dried onions and garlic; lemon verbena andlemongrass;aniseliketarragon,andbaylaurel.Common aromatic spices in cooking include carrot-family anise,caraway,celeryseed,coriander,cumin,dill,andfennel;tropicalallspice,cardamom(green,white,black),cinnamonandcassia,clove,gingerandgalangal, grains of paradise (a distant relative of cardamom), nutmegand mace, star anise, turmeric, and vanilla; mainly pungent chillis,peppers (black, white, long, cubeb, green peppercorn), mustard and

horseradish and wasabi, and Sichuan peppercorn and sansho fromJapan; pinelike juniper berries; garlicky asafetida; dried citrus peels;sweet-smelling fenugreek and licorice; and nutty poppy seeds andsesameseeds.Spice and herb mixes that give a distinctive regional flavor

includequatreépicesandbouquetgarnifromFrance,garammasalaandpanch phoran from India, shichimi from Japan, ras el hanout andchermoula from northern Africa, five-spice powder from China, andza’atarandzhugfromtheMiddleEast.

FlavoredIngredientsandFlavorExtracts

Flavored ingredients and flavor extracts aremeans of infusing aromasintofoodsinstantly,oftenjustbeforeserving.Mostflavoredingredientsare stable, but flavored oils are prone to rancidity. Keep themrefrigerated.Flavored oils, vinegars, alcohols, salts, and sugars are widely

available and of variable quality. Make them yourself by infusing ormixingtheunflavoredbasematerialwithherbs,spices,citruspeels,andsimilaringredients.Be cautious when making flavored oils, beware of noncommercial

flavoredoils,andstoreall intherefrigerator.Deadlybotulismbacteriaarecommonlyfoundonplants,includingherbsandspices,andthriveintheairlessenvironmentunderroom-temperatureoil.Besureyourrecipeaddressesthishazard.Commercialflavorextractsareconcentratesandusedinverysmall

quantities. They’re usually made with alcohol, and mix easily withwater-basedingredientsandsauces.Vanillaandalmondextractsarethemostcommonflavorextractstoday.Checkextract labels carefully to seewhether theyweremade from

complex natural ingredients or from “flavors” or “flavorings,” whichindicates a simplified approximation of the natural ingredients.Approximated and artificial extracts are less expensive but often tastewrong.Add extracts a drop or two at a time and taste the food to check

intensity.Addtowardtheendofcookingsothataromaisn’tcookedoutandwasted.Liquidsmokeisawaterextractofsmoke,anditcanbespray-driedto

make smoke powder. Smoke itself contains cancer-causing chemicals,some of which may persist in extracts. If liquid smoke contains anysediment,letitsettleanduseonlytheliquidaboveit.Alternatives to liquid smoke include smoked salts, smoked chillis

(pimentón,chipotle),andblackcardamom.Hydrosols arewater-based aroma extracts of herbs and other plant

ingredients.They’reeasilydiluted inwaterandareespeciallyuseful inflavoring drinks. Orange flower water and rose water are ancientexamplesfromMiddleEasterncooking.Essential oils of perfumery quality are increasingly available for

kitchen use. They’re highly concentrated and offer unusual nonfoodaromas,includingwoods,leather,andtobacco.Mostmixbestwithfoodoilsandfats,butcanalsobedispersedinwater-basedsauces.

CookingAlcohols

Alcohols are liquids that contain ethyl alcohol, a substance that yeastsproduce from sugars during the fermentation of grape juice, cookedgrains, and other materials. Alcohols include wines, beers, and sakesrangingfrom4to15percentalcohol,anddistilledproducts—brandies,whiskeys,rums,vodkas—thatmaybe40percentalcoholormore.Alcoholitselfissweetandaromatic,butirritatingatthehighlevelsin

distilledproducts.Italsoreactswithotheringredientsduringcookingtoextractandcreateadditionalflavors.Most alcohols carry other flavors, including acidity, sweetness,

savoriness, and awide range of aromas from the fermentation processandsometimesfromaddedflavoringredients.Cooking wines are usually fortified to a minimum alcohol content

around 18 percent; otherwise they would quickly spoil after opening.Madeira,marsala,sherries,andChineseshaoxingricewineshareanuttyaroma thanks to controlled oxidation,which stabilizes thewine flavor

againstchangeduringstorage.Refrigerateleftovertablewinestopreventthemfromspoilingbefore

youcookwiththem.Cookingdoesnoteliminateallalcoholfromadishmadewithwine

or spirits. Stews and flambés may retain enough to cause adversereactionsinpeoplewhoaresensitivetoalcohol.Brandy, rum,vodka, andother strongalcoholswill ignitewhen

hotandexposedtoaflame.Flambéwithcaution. Lower thepanheat and turnoff the stove-top

hood;otherwisetheflamescanbepulledintothehoodfilter.

I

3

KITCHENTOOLS

t’seasiertocookwellwhenyouhavetherighttoolsforthevarioustasksthatcookingentails,thecleaningandcuttingandmixingandholdingandheating.

Someutensilsandappliancesareclearlybettersuitedthanothersforparticulartasks,butthechoiceofkitchentoolsisalsoapersonalmatter,not dictated simply by performance. Some cooks are minimalists andtakepride indoing themostwith the fewestpossible tools.Othersareconnoisseurs of gadgetry and enjoy amassing a collection thatmay bemore shown off than employed. Andmost cooks just knowwhat theylike.Copperpansareveryexpensiveandnotthatsuperiortoaluminum,cast iron is apain tomaintain, claypots arebreakable.But I love theheftandlusterofmyonecoppersautépan,theyearsofseasoningonmycast iron, and the deeply saturated umber, sparkles of mica, andhandmade roughness ofmy country French clay. These toolsmay nothelpmecookbetter,buttheydohelpmecookwithmorepleasure.Todatetherearenoperfectpansthatheatevenly,releasefoodsinstantly,cleanwithaswipe,andlastforever.Bututensilscontinuetoevolve.Thelastfewyearshavebroughtnewceramicpanmaterialsthatcantoleratedirect stove-topheat.And there are nownew families of pan coatingsthat don’t break down into toxic materials when accidentallyoverheated,andthataregettingbetteratpreventingfoodsfromstickingdespite constant use and wear. Even minimalists can welcome a newgeneration of tools that are easier on the food, the cook, and theenvironment.

MEASURINGTOOLS

When we cook, we combine ingredients and heat them until they’ve

beentransformedtooursatisfaction.Proportions,cookingtemperatures,andcookingtimesallaffecttheoutcome.Measuringtoolsareoftenhelpful,andsometimesessential,tocontrolfoodproportionsandtheheatingprocess.Scalesareessential forcookingwithprecision.Weight isadirectmeasure of an ingredient itself. By contrast, the volume takenup in ameasuring spoon or cup includes variable amounts of empty space. Ateaspoonofgranularsaltcancontaintwiceasmuchsaltasateaspoonofflakesalt.Weighingwithascale isalsoquickerandlessmessythanmeasuringvolumeswithcupsandspoons.Investinagooddigitalscalethatreadsingrams,hasacapacityofatleast1kilogram(2.2pounds),readsinincrementsofatenthofagram,andisaccurateto1gram.Weighandwritedowntheweightequivalentsofvolumemeasuresyouusefrequently—cupsofwater,spoonsofsalt—andusethemtoconvertrecipesthatdon’tgiveweights.Measuringcupsandspoons indicate thevolumeof space takenupbyamaterialandanyairthatcomesalongwithit.Measuringcupsfordryingredientsareusuallymadefromopaquemetalorplastic,andaremeanttobefilledlevelwiththetopedge.Measuringcupsforliquidsareusuallytransparentglassorplastic,markedinfractionalquantities,andmeanttobefilledlevelwiththeappropriatemark.Choose metal measuring spoons and cups that are rigid andwon’tdent.Chooseliquidmeasuringcupsthatarenarrowandtall,sothatsmallvolume differences translate into large changes in the level of theingredient.Laboratory-stylegraduatedcylindersareideal.Thermometersmeasuretheheatcontentoffoodsandvariouskitchenmaterialsandappliances.Theycomeinseveraltypes.

Instant-readthermometerswithmovingneedlesrelyontheexpansionofmetalwithheat.They’reinexpensive,slowtoregisterthetemperature,notveryaccurate,andrequirefrequentcheckingforaccuracy.Oven-readyversionscanbeleftinahotoventomeasureitstemperatureorthetemperatureinsidearoast.

Digitalprobethermometershaveanelectronictemperaturesensoratthetipoftheprobe.They’reinexpensive,faster,accurate,andrequireoccasionalchecking.Oven-readyversionsseparatetheprobeanddialwithalongwire,sothattheprobecanbeintheclosedovenwhilethedialstaysonthestovetop.Infrared,noncontact,point-and-shootthermometersmeasuretheinfraredradiationemittedbyanobject’ssurface.They’remoderatelyexpensive,veryfast,accurate,andrequireoccasionalchecking.Frying,candy,andchocolatethermometersarespecialtytoolsdesignedforparticulartemperatureranges,andoftencomewithusefulclipstoattachthemtopans.Manyareliquid-filledglasstubesmountedonametalscale.Makesurethatthetubecan’tslidebackandforthonthescale,acommondefectthatcompromisesaccuracy.

Choose a digital probe thermometer to measure interior foodtemperatures and the temperature of hot water. Check its accuracyperiodically by measuring the temperatures of crushed ice, 32°F/0°C,andboilingwater,212°F/100°Catsealevel(subtract2°from212°Fforevery 1,000 feet of elevation, 1° from 100°C for every 300 meters ofelevation).Choose an infrared thermometer to measure the temperatures ofcookingsurfaces—ovenwalls,fryingpans,pizzastones—anddeep-fryingoil,aswellasdifferentareasintherefrigeratorandfreezer.Don’tuseitwithhotwater,whosesurfaceissignificantlycooledbyevaporation,orwithglass,metalfoil,orbarestainlesssteelpans,whichgivefalselylowreadings.Tomeasurethetemperatureofashinypan,placeadropofoilonitandaimthethermometerattheoil.Timerskeeptrackofhowlongacookingactivityhasbeengoingon.Ittakes time for heat to transform food, and perhaps themost commoncooking error is to heat food too long, or not long enough, simplybecausethecookgetsdistractedandforgets.Usetimersasaremindertocheckfoodbeforeit’sovercookedandtomeasurethedurationofcookingsteps.

WORKSURFACES

Much kitchen work is done on countertops and tables, which arevaluable long-term furnishings. We protect their surfaces with thinsheetsofothermaterials.Cutting boards are made from various kinds of wood, wood

composites,andplastics.Woodcuttingboardsareeasieronknifeedgesthanplastic.Avoidglassboards.Bothwoodandplasticcanbeproperlycleanedtoeliminateharmfulbacteria.Keep several cutting boards to save the trouble of cleaning one

repeatedly as you prepare ameal. It’s important to avoid the possiblecontaminationofoneingredientwithanother,andpropercleaningtakestime.Placeadamptowelunderacuttingboard topreventit fromsliding

aroundonthecountertopasyouwork.Large wood boards and stone slabs are useful and sometimes

essentialinbakingandincandyandchocolatework.Anoversizewoodboard makes an easily cleaned surface for kneading bread. Thin butweighty marble or granite slabs have a hard surface and high heatcapacity.Theyhelpkeeppastrydoughscoldandflakyasthey’remadeandshaped,andsteadilycoolmeltedchocolateandscalding-hotcandysyrupssothecookcancontroltheircrystallizationandtexture.Pastry cloth is a stiff, tightlywoven cloth that can be dustedwith

flourandusedasanonsticksurfaceonwhichtorolloutpastrydoughornestlebreaddoughrisinginabasketorbowl.

KNIVESANDOTHERCUTTINGTOOLS

Food preparation often requires the cook to divide large masses intosmallerpieces,fromboningalegoflambtogratingcheese.Sharpmetaledgesarethebesttoolsforthistask.Knives come inmanydifferentmaterials, styles, andqualities.Read

aboutthechoicesandtryanumberbeforeinvestinginexpensiveones.Alarge“chef’sknife,”asmallerparingknife,andahoningtooltorealignknife edgeswill servemost needs. Serrated edges are good for cutting

fragiletomatoesandcakesandbrittlebreadcrusts.Choose knives made of stainless steel for the easiest care. Carbonsteel issofterandeasier tosharpen,but loses itsedge faster,discolors,andcangiveametallictastetoacidicfruits.Ceramicbladesarebrittleanddifficulttosharpen.Keep knife edges sharp. Dull knives compress and damage foodsinsteadofcuttingcleanly,andaremorelikelytoglanceoffthefoodandcutafinger.Takeaminutetohoneknivesbeforeeveryuse,andsharpenthemonceor twice a year. Sharpening, or grinding and reforming theedge, requires sharpening stones or devices, practice, and time. Somecookwarestoresoffersharpeningservices.Handle kniveswith care. Don’t hit the bladewith other utensils orbowlorsinkedges.Usecuttingboards,anddon’tcutdirectlyonstoneorsteel countertops. Wash knives by hand, dry them quickly andthoroughly,andstore theminasleeveguard,rack,orblocktoprotecttheiredges.Kitchenshearsarehandyforcuttingvariousfoodswithoutacuttingboard, including herb leaves from stems, whole chickens into parts,cookedleafyvegetables,andpizzaslices.Mandolines or Japanese slicersmake it possible to cut vegetablesandfruitsrapidlyintoverythinslicesandregularshreds.Usetheplasticattachmentoratoweltoholdfoodpiecesandavoidslicingfingers.Peelers that remove the outer layer of vegetables and fruits have asmall,suspended,flatbladethatcanbepushedorpulledalongthefoodsurface.They’rehardtosharpenbutinexpensive;keepseveral.Mezzalunas consist of one or two curved blades that are quicklyrocked back and forth on a cutting board to chop such ingredients asherbsandchocolate.Thecurvedbladesarehardtokeepsharp.Graters scrape foods into shreds, from coarse to fine. Box-shapedgraters should be stiff enough not to deformwhen you press on theirsides. Smaller, very sharpplanelikegraters cut extremely fine,delicateshreds. Use fine graters only at the last minute, especially with hardcheeses and truffles; the shreds give up their aroma quickly and oftenclumptogetheragain.

Specializedcutting tools include zesters for removing the aromaticbutpaper-thinpigmentedskinofcitrusfruits,applecorers,melonballersandicecreamscoops,french-fryandcheeseandhard-boiled-eggslicers,andthemultiple-bladeJaccardforpiercingandtenderizingmeats.Canopenerscutthroughmetallidsusingasharpmetaledge.They’re

pronetodullingandfailure,sokeepinexpensivebackupshandy.Whenyou open cans, examine can edges and carefully remove any metalshards before emptying the contents. Wash the opener’s cutting edgewell after each use, to prevent the growth of microbes andcontaminationofthenextcan.Keep bandages andantibiotic cream in the kitchen. Knives, cutters,

andcanedgesoftencutcooks.

HANDTOOLSFORGRINDING,MIXING,ANDSEPARATING

Cooks can call on many simple hand tools to break foods down andeithermixorseparatetheircomponentparts.Mortars and pestles pound foods, crushing them stroke by stroke.

Thepestleheadscoveronlyasmallarea,sotheyrequiremanystrokesandlongefforttogetanevenpuree.Ricerspresscookedpotatoesandother softvegetablechunks inone

motion directly through a perforated metal cup, producing an evenpureewithminimaldisruptionofthetissue.Foodmillssimultaneouslycrushandstrainsoftfoodswhenthehand-

turned metal blade forces them through a perforated metal screen.Metal-on-metal contact at the central pivot can leave residues in thefood; check the underside of the screen as youwork and remove anygraymaterial.Somenewmodelshaveresidue-freeplasticpivots.Hand-cranked coffee and spice grinders crush seeds into more

even-sizeparticlesthanthestandardelectricpropellergrinder.Theytakelongerbutoffergreatercontrol.Citrus juicers squeeze fluid and some solid cell debris out of the

fruit’sinnerpulp.Strainers, sieves, slotted spoons, skimmers, and colanders let

fluidsorpressedsoftmaterialsflowthroughtheirholeswhileretainingsolids on the metal, metal wire, cloth, or plastic grid. Smaller holesproduce a smoother fluid, but take longer to drain. Plastic colandersurfacesshedwaterfasterthanmetal.Fine cheesecloth and paper ormetal coffee filters are especially

small-holedstrainers,goodforseparatingwheyfromyogurt,orgritfromshellfish cooking liquids or the water used to soak dried mushrooms.Most supermarket cheesecloth is too coarse and should be folded intodoubleorquadruplethicknessesforthesejobs.Usecoarsecheeseclothtobundleherbsforeasyremovalfromstocksandstews.Saladspinners pushwateroffwashed leaf surfaceswith centrifugal

force.They’requickandeffectivebutcanbruisedelicate leaves,whichmaybebettertossedgentlyinadrykitchentowel.Wirewhisksandeggbeatersmixfluidingredientswitheachother,

and incorporate air bubbles into cream and eggs to make whippedcream,meringuesandsoufflés,andsabayons.Largeballoonwhisksandnestedwhiskswithinwhisksspeedairincorporation.Siphons are metal canisters that force gases into cream, eggs, and

other liquids, and turn them into foams. They’re filledwith the liquidingredientandpressurizedwithcartridgesofcarbondioxideornitrousoxide.Thegasesdissolveintheliquid,andformbubblesinitwhentheliquid isreleasedfromthenozzle.Siphonscanalsocarbonatewaterorpiecesoffruitplacedinsidethem.Sprayersoratomizersbreakliquidsupintotinydropletsthatcanbe

appliedasafineevenmisttofoodsandsurfaces.Useawatersprayertomake low-moisture pastry doughs, an oil sprayer to coat cookingsurfaces,doughs,andsaladswiththethinnestpossiblefilm,andsprayersof bleach or vinegar solutions to sanitize countertops, cutting boards,andsinks.

ELECTRICGRINDERS,MIXERS,ANDPROCESSORS

Kitchenapplianceswithelectricmotorsapplyverystrongphysicalforcesto foods very rapidly. They make short work of otherwise time-consumingjobs,buttheirpowercanalsodamagefoods.

Spice and standard coffee grinders chop hard seeds into particleswith awhirlingmetal blade. They produce an unevenmix of particlesizes unless they’re run long enough to reduce everything to a finepowder.Burr grinders use a mechanism that essentially sieves particles asthey’re ground. They produce more even particles whose size can beadjusted.Handheld electricmixers canwhip cream and egg foams atmuchhigherspeedsthanamanualwhisk.Thewhiskattachments themselvesaresmallandnotidealforincorporatingalotofair.Standmixers are versatile appliances that efficientlymix, whip, orknead largevolumesof ingredients.Theyusuallyhaveattachments forgrinding meat and milling grain, which are useful for making freshhamburger meat and sausages, and especially flavorful breads andpolenta.Stand blenders draw ingredients into a small volume where theirblades cut and shear, and mix them into an increasingly fine, silkenpuree or emulsion. They require caution when blending hot foods,whosesteamcanbuildup,forcethelidoff,andspewthefoodontothecookandthekitchen.Toblendhot foodssafely, fill theblender less thanhalfway, looselycovertheholeinthelidwithatoweltoallowsteamtoescape,startonlowspeed,andincreasespeedgradually.Immersionorstickblendersturnasetofblenderbladesattheendofashaftthatcanbeinserteddirectlyintocookingpots,servingbowls,andmeasuringcups.They’relessefficientthanastandblender,andthecook has to move the blade around in the pot to pulverize all thecontents.Theyusuallycan’tmakeassmoothapureeasastandblender,butthey’remuchmoreconvenient.Food processors and their assorted blades can chop, grate, slice,pulverize, puree, and knead foods. Their broad, horizontal spinningbladedoesn’tworkaswellasthesmall,angledblenderbladesonsmallvolumesoffood,whichcangetthrownbeyondorbelowthereachoftheblade.Andtheycan’tproduceasfineapureeasablender,oranevenlysizedchop.

Juicers grind all kinds of food into a pulp, then strain them toseparate the solid fibers from the fluids. Some juicers can make fine-texturednutbutters.

HANDLINGTOOLS

Themost versatile tools for handling foods are thehands. Fingerscanmixingredientswithgreatthoroughness,provideimmediatesensoryinformationaboutdoneness,consistency,andcoverage,andplacefoodsprecisely on the plate. To use the hands but avoid direct contactwithfood,wear disposable thin glovesmade of polyethylene, vinyl, nitrile,rubber, or latex. Latex offers the best touch sensitivity but can causeallergicskinreactions.Kitchentowels,potholders,andthickgloves insulatehandsfromhotpotsandpans.Clothhandguardscancauseburns if theygetwet,and ignitewhenexposed to flame.Rubberlike siliconepotholdersandglovesrepelwaterandareslowertoburn.Choosehandling toolswith longhandles to keep fingers away fromhotpans,burners,andgrills.Usespoonrestsorsmallplatestoholdhandlingtoolsonthestovetopbetweenusesandreducecleanup.Spoonsstir liquidsorsmallsolidpieces,andholdsmallamountsfortastingor transferring.Ladlesarebetterdesigned for transferring largevolumes. Spoons made of wood, plastic, or silicone don’t change thefood temperatureasmuchasmetal spoonsdo,anddon’tgetashot tothetouch,buttheycanretainfoodflavorsandtransferthemtoanotherdish.Spatulas,paletteknives,andscraperssupport,scrape,stir,spread,andfoldliquidandsemiliquidfoods.Spatulasandpaletteknivessupportbroadsolidpiecesof foodandlift themfromcookingsurfaces.They’rebest for gentle handling because they don’t put direct pressure on thefood, thoughthecookcanuse themtoexertpressureand improve thecontact between food and pan. Plastic spatulas don’t scratch nonsticksurfaces, but they quicklywear into a rough edge at the tip, andwillmelt if left perched on a hot pan. Silicone spatulas can tolerate

temperaturesupto450°F/230°C.Forksimpalepiecesoffoodsothattheycanbemoved.Piercingfood

causes localdamage,whichmayresult invisibleholesandslight juiceloss.Impalingadelicatematerialsuchascookedfishmaybreakitapart.Tongs and chopsticks pick up solid foods by squeezing them from

two sides.The squeezingpressuremaybreak thedelicate structuresofsuchfoodsascookedfish,friedcrusts,andsoftenedvegetables.Tweezers,forceps,andneedle-nosepliersgripsmallobjectsandare

usefulforthepreciseplacementofdelicateingredientsandforremovingsmallbonesfromfish.Skewersandtoothpicksprovideahandleforsolidfoodpieces,and

can hold pieces together (the legs on awhole chicken; pieces ofmeatand vegetables in shish kebab). They’re also handy for probing theinsidesofcakesandcustardstoseewhetherthey’recookedthrough.Brushes spread thin coating films of fluid onto foods and cooking

utensils. Brush bristles often trap and soak up food residues that canbecome rancid between uses. After each use, rub brush bristlesvigorously in hot soapy water, then rinse them well and dry themquickly.Brushbristlesmadewith rubberlike siliconeareheat resistantandcanbecleanedinthedishwasher.Funnelsdirectabroadflowofliquidintoanarrowflow.Usethemfor

fillingbottlesandothercontainersthathaveasmallneck.Theymaybemetalorplastic,andthehandiesthaveagroovedshaftthatallowsairtoescapeeasilyfromthecontainerasitfills.Bulbbastersandpipettesexploitairsuctiontodrawupliquidfrom

asmallspaceandplaceitsomewhereelse.Usethemtodrawmeatjuicesupfromunderneaththefatinaroastingpan,ortoremovevinegarfromunderthefloating“mother”inavinegarbarrel.Gravyorfatseparatorsaremedium-sizecontainerswithasidespout

projectingfromtheverybottom.Whenyoupourthepanjuicesfromaroast into them andwait a fewminutes, fat floats to the top and themeatjuicessinktothebottom,wheretheycanbeseparatedoffthroughthespout.

FOILS,WRAPS,ANDPAPERS

Kitchenfoils,wraps,andpapersarethinsheetsofmaterialforprotectingfoodsurfacesduringstorageorcooking.Kitchen foil ismade from aluminum, a softmetal that conforms to

foodsurfaces,blockscontactwithair,conductsheatwell,andtoleratesrelativelyhighheat.Veryhighgrillheatcanweakenanddamagefoil.Usefoiltofine-tuneheating intheoven.Foilreflectsheatradiation.

Place looselyover food in theoven,oron therackaboveorbelow, toshield it from theheatof theoven surfaceswhileallowing thegentlerheatoftheairtocontinuethecooking.Place foil on topof grills andpans to superheat them by reflecting

escapingheatbackontothem.Asheetonthecharcoalgrillasthecoalsreachtheirmaximumheatwillturnfoodresiduesintoash.Asheetonaheating griddle or wok will make it significantly hotter than it couldotherwiseget.Don’tuse foil towrapacidic foodsor cover steel or cast-ironpots.

Aluminum corrodes in contact with acid or with nonaluminum metalcontainers,developsholes,anddissolvesintothefood.Insulatefoilfromdirect contact with corrosives using a layer of plastic wrap or waxedpaper.Plastic wraps and preformed plastic storage bags are petroleum

products,usuallypolyethylene, andoften include trace substances thatcanmigrate into fatty andoily foods. Somehave anunpleasant smell.Theytolerateboilingwater,butbreakdownandgeneratetoxicfumesatoventemperatures.Plastic wraps conformmore tightly to a food surface than foil, but

aren’t as strong an air and odor barrier. Thick-walled freezer bags arebetter air barriers than thinwraps.When available, polyvinyl chloride(PVC) and polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) plastics are much betteroxygenbarriersthanpolyethylene,butcarryevenhigherenvironmentalcosts.Toreducecorktaint,theoffflavorofawinewithaninfectedcork,

gently stir a piece of plastic wrap and the wine together for a fewminutes.Theplasticwillabsorbtheoffflavor.

Plasticvacuum-packand“boil-in”bagsaremadefromplasticsthattolerateboilingwater.Theyaredenserand tougher than storagebags,more effective air and odor barriers, and are useful in controlled low-temperaturecooking(sousvide).Roastingandovenbagsaremadefromnylonandcantolerateoven

temperatures between 300 and 400°F/150 and 200°C. They contain afood and its aromas while transmitting heat or microwave radiationfrom theoven. Foodsbrownand crisp slowly in ovenbagsdue to themoderatecookingtemperatureandmoistatmosphereinsidethebag.Parchmentpaperismadefromplantfiberstreatedwithsulfuricacid

and silicone to make it stiff, water resistant, and tolerant of oventemperatures up to 450°F/230°C. Use it to line cake pans and bakingsheets,asafloatingcovertocontrolevaporationduringbraising,andtobakeindividualservingsoffoodsinpackets(enpapillote).Waxedpaperistissuepaperimpregnatedwithparaffin,whichrepels

water andmelts like candlewax atmoderate temperatures. Use it forwrapping foods or as a temporary surface onwhich to place sticky oroilyitems.Butcherpaperisapaperlayeredwithawater-repellentplasticlining,

usedforwrappingrawmeatsandfish.Brown or kraft paper protects surfaces during the butchering of

meatsandothermessyprocedures,butcontainsmanufacturingresiduesandshouldnotbeleftinprolongedcontactwithfood.Don’tusebrownpaperbagsforcookingmicrowavepopcornoranythingelse.

MIXINGCONTAINERS,STORAGECONTAINERS,ANDRACKS

Mixingandworkingbowlsareusuallymadeofglass,ceramic,stainlesssteel,orplastic.Glass and ceramic bowls are heavy and move around less on the

countertopthanotherbowlsdo,butthey’rebrittleandbreakable.Theyheatupandcooldownslowly.Stainlesssteelbowlsarelightandrugged,andtransferheatquickly.Plastic bowls are light and rugged, and transfer heat slowly. Their

surfacesaremoreeasilyscarredthanceramicormetal,canabsorbfoododorsandpigments,andtendtoretainoilsandsoaps.To minimize bowl movement when working, place a moist kitchen

towelbetweenthebowlandthecountertop.Storagecontainersareusuallyplasticorglass.Themostversatilecan

bemoveddirectlybetweenthefreezerorrefrigeratorandtheoven.Plasticcontainersabsorbflavorsandpigmentsfromhotfoodsandare

hardertocleanthanglass.Insulatedplastic picnic coolers are invaluable shopping tools.Use

coolers to provide temporary cold storage for fish and shellfish, icecream,andotherdelicateperishableswhenyoutransportthemfromthestore.Racks are flat frameworks of wire or metal bars that support

containers and foods and allow air to circulate across their bottomsurfaces. Racks air-cool foods more evenly than solid sheet pans orcountertops.Theypreventcrisplybakedorfriedsurfacesfromtrappingthefood’sinnermoistureandgettingsoggy.

POTSANDPANS

Pots and pans are the containers in which we heat foods. They’reavailableinmanydifferentmaterialsanddesigns.Try toaccumulatea rangeofpanshapesandsizes so thatyoucan

findgoodmatchesforthekindofcookingyouliketodo.Tallpotsaregood for boiling and steaming, broad pots are good for concentratingliquids,straight-sidedskilletsforbraising,slope-sidedpansforsautéing,side-less griddles for flipping, hemispherical woks for stir-frying, flatsheetpansforbaking.Pansizestronglyinfluencesthecookingprocess.Apanthat’stoo

smallorlargeforitsburnerwon’theatevenly.Apanthat’stoosmallforits contents won’t heat its contents fast or evenly enough for a goodresult.Onafryingpanthat’stoolargeforitscontents,thebareareascanscorchandspoiltheflavor.Avoidmetalpanswithplasticorwoodenhandles thatcan’ttolerate

oven temperatures. A number ofmeat, fish, and grain dishes are beststartedonthestovetopandthenfinishedinthesamepanintheoven.Heat diffusers help even out and moderate heat from the burner

beforeitgetstothepotorthepan.Lidshelp tocontrol themovementofheatand foodmoistureoutof

thepot.Perforatedspatterguardsinterceptmuchoftheoilspattergenerated

during frying, while allowing moisture to escape so that the pantemperatureremainshighandthefoodcanbrown.Foodsfrequentlysticktopotsandpansduringcooking.Highheat

causes food proteins and carbohydrates to form bonds with the pansurface.Stickingisdesirablewhenitleavesaflavorfulresidueinthepanthat

canbeturnedintoasauce.Sticking isundesirablewhen the food can’t be lifted from the pan

without damaging its structure or appearance. This ismainly the casewithdelicateeggsandfish.Stickingisreducedongrill-like,dimpled,andirregularpansurfaces

that reduce direct contact between food and pan. They also reducebrowningandflavordevelopment.Nonstickcoatingsareplasticorhybridmaterialsappliedtopansthat

resist forming bonds with foods. They’re not as durable as metals orceramics,degradewith thestressesofheatingandscraping,eventuallylose their nonstick properties, and sometimes flake off into the foodscookedinthem.Silicone isa rubberlikematerial that ismade into flexible,nonstick,

easy-releasebakingpansandbaking-sheetliners.Read pan instructions carefully for safe temperature limits. Teflon

and related fluorocarbon coatings decompose into toxic gases attemperatures above 500°F/260°C. Silicone degrades in the sametemperature range,butwithout releasing toxicgases.Newercompositeceramicsiliconesurfacesaresafeto800°F/430°C.Handle nonstick pans and liners gently and carefully. Don’t leave

themonheatunattended,oruseinhigh-temperaturebroilingorrecipes

that call for the pan to be heated until smoking. Avoid sharp-edgedmetalspatulasandabrasivecleaners.

CeramicPotsandPans

Earthenware,stoneware,andglassarebrittleceramicmaterials,andconductheatpoorlyandslowly.Thismeansthattheyheatupunevenly,andmaycrackifplaceddirectlyonaburnerormovedfromtheoventocoldwater.Oncehot, they releaseheat to the foodslowlyandevenly.Theirsurfacesnormallydon’tcausecolororflavorchangesinfoods.Glass transmitshighovenheat to foodsfaster thanopaqueceramics,becauseit’stransparenttoheatradiationaswellastolight.Have artisanal pots tested to see whether they release lead. Sometraditionalclaysandglazesarestillmadewithlead-containingmineralsthatcancauseseriousillness.Use ceramic pots for baking and braising in even oven heat, forkeeping foods warm after cooking and when they’re served, and forrefrigeratingandreheating.Uselowheatwithceramicsonthestovetop,andametalheatdiffusertospreadburnerheatovertheentirebottomsurface.Somenewceramicpanstoleratedirectburnerheatwithoutcracking,butmostcannot.Useunglazedbakingstonestobakefree-formbreadsandpizzas.They conduct heat evenly and absorb dough moisture to speed thecrispingofthebottomcrust.Glazedsurfacesheatwellbutdon’tabsorbmoisture.Aclocheisacombinationbakingstoneanddomedcover,whichcanmakeanenclosedovenwithintheoven,trapsteamfrombreaddough,andproduceanairierbreadwithaglossy,cracklycrust.

MetalPotsandPans

Metalsaredurablematerialsandconductheatfasterthanceramics,butcanaffectfoodflavorandcolor.Aluminumislightweightandaverygoodheatconductor,properties

thatmakeitagoodall-aroundchoiceformostcookingtasks.Itssurfacereactswithacidicandsulfur-containingfoodstoproduceoffflavorsandcolors. Anodized aluminum has been treated to form a less reactiveceramiclikesurfacelayerofaluminumoxide.Copper is heavy and a superb conductor, ideal for heating foodsquickly and evenly. But its surface tarnishes in the air and releasesmetallic-tasting copper into acidic foods. The traditional tin liningapplied to copper pots is fragile and not easy to replace.Most coppercookwareisnowlinedwithstainlesssteel.It’sexpensive.Cast iron is heavy and a relatively poor heat conductor, acombinationthatmakesitexcellentatmaintainingitstemperatureonceit’sheated.Itssurfacerustsandcausesoff flavors insomefoodsunlessit’sprotectedbyalayerofenamel(aceramicmaterial)orbyseasoningtoproducearesinlikeprotectivelayer.Somecast-ironpansarenowsoldpreseasoned.Toseasonacast-ironpan, clean anddry it thoroughly, coatwith athin layerofcookingoil,heatoverahighburneruntil it smokes, thencool andwipe out excess oil. After using the pan,wipe it as clean aspossible, use minimal water, detergent, and scouring to remove anyresidue,drythoroughly,andburnishwithasmallamountofoil.Carbonsteelisasofterrelativeofcastironthat’sformedintothinnersheets. It’s also a relatively poor heat conductor and prone to rusting,butinexpensiveandusedinwoksandrestaurantsautépans.Seasonandcleancarbonsteelasyoudocastiron.Stainlesssteelisapoorheatconductor,butitssurfacedoesn’ttarnishorproduceoffflavors.It’salmostalwaysusedincombinationwithothermetalsthatheatmoreevenly.Compositepotsandpanscombinetwoormorematerialstoprovidegoodheat conductivityanda relativelyunreactive surface in the sameutensil. Most have either an aluminum or copper base covered bystainlesssteel.Choosecompositepotswhoseconductivematerialextendsupintothesides. A conductive base plate alone will scorch foods along its outeredge.

H

4

HEATANDHEATINGAPPLIANCES

eatistheessentialbutinvisibleingredientincooking,theonethat we can’t easily measure out with a scale or spoon. It’swhat we add to raw foods to transform them into safe,

nourishing,tastydishes.Heatisaformofenergy,andit’salwaysonthemove,flowingoutoffoodsevenaswepouritin.It’s important toaddtherightamountofheat to the foodswecook.

Too little won’t transform them enough, and too much turns themcurdled, dry, tough, or burned. But it’s tricky to get heat right. Theappliance settings that we usually rely on are often inaccurate, andsometimesirrelevanttotheheatingthatactuallygoeson.Someyearsago Idecided that I’dbeenburnedoftenenoughbybad

recipesandmyownbadassumptions.Iequippedmyselfwithacoupleofreliable aids: a digital instant-read thermometer for measuringtemperatures inside foods, andapoint-and-shoot infrared thermometerfor measuring the temperatures of food and utensil surfaces. Then Istartedtoscrutinizemycooktopandovenandpots,andfollowtheflowofheatasIcooked.What I learned surprised me and helped me work with heat more

effectively. Low-power electrical and induction burners can heat foodsfaster thanhigh-powergas,becausemoreof theirenergygoes into thepotand less into thekitchenair.Foodscan scorch inanoven set toamoderate temperature, because the oven’s heating elements superheattheirvicinitywhentheycycleontomaintainthetemperature.Apotofstew in a low oven may cook calmly and gently or boil violently,depending onwhether the lid is ajar so that evaporation can cool thecontents,orclosedsothattheheatjustbuildsandbuilds.Tryexploringthetemperaturelandscapeofyourkitchenasyoucook

foodsindifferentways.You’lllearnalotabouthowheatworksandhowto control it better, and you’ll know through your own eyes and noseandfingertips,notjustthroughthewordsinabook.

HEATANDTEMPERATURE

Allchangeintheworldisdrivenbyenergy.Heat is thepenetrating formof energy thatmoves intoand throughfoods.Ittransformsfoodsbyagitatingtheirmolecules,breakingupsomestructuresandcreatingnewones.Whencooked foodscooldown, theylose the heat energy that transformed them, but they remaintransformed.Temperature is a manifestation of the heat energy in a material,whetherafood,afryingpan,oragasflame.Thehigherthetemperatureofapanorpotofwater,themoreheatenergyithastopourintoafood,andthemorechangeitcauses.We measure temperature with thermometers, and using one of twodifferent scales: degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. One Celsiusdegreeequals1.8Fahrenheitdegrees.Thefreezingpointofwaterissetat32°ontheFahrenheitscale,0°ontheCelsiusscale.Theboilingpointofwateratsealevelis212°For100°C(andlowerbyabout2°F/1°Cforevery1,000feet/300metersofelevation).The boiling point of water is the one visible temperaturelandmarkthatcanberecognizedwithoutathermometer.Waterattheboilingpointconstantlyformsandreleasesvisiblebubblesofsteam.Itstemperatureremainsconstantwhileitbubblesbecausesteamformationsoaksupalltheheatenergycomingfromtheburner.Cooksdomostoftheirheatinginthreetemperatureranges.

Temperatureswellbelowtheboilingpointofwater,between130and160°F/55and70°C,causejustenoughchangetokillmostmicrobesandfirmdelicateeggs,meats,andfishwithoutdryingandhardeningthem.Temperaturesaroundtheboilingpointofwater,212°F/100°C,provideenoughenergytokillmostmicrobes,softenvegetables,and

setdoughsandbatters.Buttheydryoutandhardeneggs,meats,andfish.Temperatureswellabovetheboilingpoint,300°F/150°Candabove,crispfoodsurfacesandcausethedevelopmentofbrowncolorsandrichflavors.

Precise temperaturemeasurement and control are important incookingmeats,fish,eggs,chocolate,andcandies,whereadegreeortwocanmeananoticeabledifferenceinthequalityoftheresult.Temperaturesinthisbookareroundedofftothenearest5°Fwhenprecision is not important, tomake them easier to remember. They’respecifiedtothedegreewhenadegreemakesadifference.

HOWHEATMOVESINCOOKING

Heatenergyalwaysflowsfromareasofhighheattolowerheat.Itflowsintofoodsintwobasicways.Contact heat transfers energy to food by direct contact with a hotsurfaceorwithhotwater,oil,steam,orair.Hotairheatsfoodsslowlybecause it’smuch lessdense thanothermaterials.Wecansafelyputahandinahotovenforafewseconds,butnotintohotwateroroil.Radiatedheat transfersenergy to food fromadistance,by invisiblelightcalledinfraredradiation.Thisistheheatwefeelwhenweholdahandaboveahotfryingpanorsitinthesun.Allobjects,evencoldones,radiateatleastsomeheatenergy.Materialshotenoughtoglowvisibly,including the sun, flames, coals, and electrical elements, are radiatinglargeamountsofheat.Wesometimescookfoodswithcontactheatandradiatedheatatthesametime. Inanoven, theheatingelementsandwallsall radiateheatenergy,andmaytransfermoreheattofoodthanthehotovenairdoes.Foodscookthroughwhenheatfromtheirsurfaceisconductedtotheir center.With the exception ofmicrowave ovens, heating devicesheatfoodsurfaces,andthefoodsurfacesinturnheattheirinteriors.Weusuallypourheatenergyontofoodsurfacesfasterthanitcan

beconductedtothecenter.This iswhywecanuse3,000°F/1,650°Ccoalstoheatasteaktoacrisp,brown500°F/260°Csurfaceandamoist130°F/55°Cinterior.Wecookmoreevenlywhenwematchsurfaceheatingwithheat

conduction through the food. This is one benefit of slow, low-temperaturecooking.Heatmovesoutofpotsandfoodsduringcookingwheneverthey’re

hotter than their immediate surroundings. A pot on the stove top ishotter than the air above it and gives the air some of the heat that itabsorbsfromtheburner.Heatmovesoutof foodsorhot liquidsduringcookingwhenever

theyevaporatemoisture.Evaporationabsorbsandcarries energyawayfromthefoodorliquid,andcoolsit.Amoistroastorawaterbathintheovenwillstaymuchcoolerthanthehotairaroundit.

HEATFROMKITCHENAPPLIANCES

Kitchencooktopsandovensprovideheatenergy fromseveraldifferentsources.Gasflamesradiatetheheatproducedwhenoxygenintheairbreaks

down the natural gas molecules into carbon dioxide and water. Theflamesthemselvesburnataround3,000°F/1,650°C.Electrical elements conduct and radiate heat produced from the

movement of their electrons when they’re energized by electricalcurrent.Theycanreachabout2,000°F/1,100°C.Halogen elements are specialized lightbulbs that radiate heat

producedbywirefilamentswhenthey’reenergizedbyelectricalcurrent.Halogengasesinthebulbhelpthefilamentsburnhotterandlongerthanordinary lightbulbs. Halogen elements can reach temperatures above1,000°F/540°C.Inductionelementsheatwithradiowavesthatenergizetheelectrons

iniron-containingpansplacedonthem.Microwaves are radio waves that heat foods by directly energizing

thefoodmolecules.

HeatingpowerismeasuredinBTUsandwatts.TheheatingpowerofgasappliancesisratedinBTUs,electricalappliancesinwatt-hours,orwatts for short. One thousand watts is the equivalent of 3,400 BTUs.Mosthouseholdelectriccooktopsareratedattheequivalentof3,000to5,000 BTUs, most gas burners at 9,000 to 15,000 BTUs, and high-poweredcommercialburnersat35,000BTUsandabove.Don’t rely on power ratings to judge the cooking performance of acooktoporoven.Low-powerelectricappliancesoftenheatfoodsfasterthanhigher-poweredgasburnersbecausethey’remoreefficient.Muchmoreoftheirheatoutputgoesintothefood,andlessintothekitchenair.Thermostats are electrical devices that set andmaintain ovens andotherappliancesataspecifictemperature.Check the accuracy of your appliance thermostats regularlywith athermometer. Find out what thermostat settings correspond to a fewtemperaturelandmarks,andadjustyourcookingsettingsaccordingly.

STOVE-TOPBURNERS

Most stove-top burners heat pots and pans by both direct contact andheatradiation.Burnerswastea lotofenergy.More thanhalf the energyof agasflameescapesaroundthesidesofthepotandheatsthekitcheninstead.Electrical elements waste about a third of their energy. Inductioncooktopsarebyfarthemostefficient.Theywasteaboutafifthoftheirenergy.Cover pots and pans with lids as they heat up to heat them morequickly and efficiently, and to a higher temperature than usual. Lidspreventthemfromimmediatelylosingmuchoftheirheattothekitchenair.Gasburners are easiest to control. The flame size can be adjustedinstantlyandjudgedbyeye.Electric burners, both exposed metal coils and recessed halogenbulbs,changetheirheatoutputmoreslowly inresponsetoturningthe

dial,andthechangeisusuallynotvisibleexceptforthepositionofthedial.To lower the heat instantly when cooking on an electric burner,

simplyliftthepanofftheburner.Inductionburners can change their heat output instantly, butwith

no visual indicator except the position of the control dial. They alsorequiretheuseofpotswhosebaseincludesmagneticallyactivesteeloriron,oraseparatemetaldiskthatactsassuchabaseforaluminumorcopperpots.

HOT-AIROVENS

Kitchen ovens are heated metal boxes that in turn heat foods placedinsidethem.Conventional ovens heat their air andwalls either by a gas flame

from underneath, or by electrical elements underneath or within thebox. The heating elements andwalls radiate their heat toward the airandfood,andthehotairheatsthefoodbycollidingdirectlywithit.Ovens can be tricky to cook in. Their effective temperature only

occasionallycoincideswiththetemperatureyousetthethermostatto.Apanof food receivesdifferent amountsofheat from theair, thewalls,and the heating elements themselves,which cycle on and off and canscorchfoodsatmoderatethermostatsettings.Take time to learn the idiosyncrasies of your oven. All ovens heat

unevenly,andhavehotandcoldspots.Useaninfraredthermometertospot-checktemperatures.Useadigitaloventhermometertoseehowthetemperaturefluctuateswhentheheatingelementscycleonandoff.Gasovensareventedtoallowtheescapeofwatervaporandcarbon

dioxidegenerated in the flame.Theyallowcookingmoisture toescapeaswell,whichhelpspromotethedryingandbrowningoffoodsurfaces.Electricovens don’t generateheatinggases, aremore tightly sealed

thangasovens,andretaincookingmoisturebetter.Thisisanadvantageinbakingbreads,andafactorthatspeedsthecookingofotherfoods.Convectionovensaregasandelectricovenswithafanthatforcibly

circulates thehotair in theoven.Forced-aircirculationevensoutheatthroughouttheoven,increasestherateatwhichthehotaircollideswiththefood,andspeedscookingsubstantially.Broilers are gas flames or electrical elements arranged in ovens to

heat foods directly from above, over a distance of a few inches. Theyvarywidelyinheatoutputandcookingrates.

MICROWAVEOVENS

Microwave ovens heat foods with radio-wave energy, which foodsabsorb and turn into heat energy.Microwaves are not a form of foodirradiationorradioactivity.Theydonotcookfromtheinsideout.Microwaves pass through nonmetal containers and penetrate

foodstothedepthofaboutaninch.Bycontrastordinarydirectheatingand heat radiation heat containers first, then the food surface, fromwhichtheheatisthenslowlyconductedintothefoodinterior.Microwave ovens heat more quickly and efficiently than other

appliances because the radio-wave energy penetrates and is absorbeddirectlybythefood,notbytheairorthecontainer.Microwave ovens usually offer less direct and precise heat

control than conventional ovens because the power output of mostovensisfixed.Thecookcanonlysetwhenandhowoftenthemicrowavegenerator turns on and off. Newer microwave ovens offer trulyadjustablepowersettingsandcanheatmoregraduallyandgently.Foodquantitiesaffectmicrowavecookingmorethanconventional

cooking. Microwave ovens take significantly longer to cook largerquantities of food, because the fixed output of microwave energy isbeingabsorbedbymorefoodmaterialanditsheatingpowerisdiluted.Multifunction or hybrid ovens combine electrical elements,

convectionfans,andmicrowavestocooklargepiecesoffoodespeciallyquickly. Some produce best results with built-in heating programs fordifferentkindsoffood.

COUNTERTOPAPPLIANCES

Small heating appliances usually offer the advantage of heating moreefficientlyorwithlesssupervisionthanthestovetoporoven.Electrickettlesboilwaterfasterandmoreefficientlythananystove-topburner,andshutoffautomatically.Electric skillets have a thermostat for setting and maintaining thecookingtemperature.Pressurecookershavetightly fitted lids thatretainsteamandbuilduppressure.Theycookfoodsespeciallyquicklyattemperaturesaround250°F/120°C,wellabovetheboilingpointofwateronthestove.They’reavailable as self-powered countertop appliances, or as specialized potsforstove-topuse.Countertoportoasterovensaresmallelectricalovensthatheatupquickly to cook small amounts of food. Small ovens frequently scorchfoodsevenatlowovensettingsbecausetheelectricalelementsthatheattheovenareveryclosetothefoodandgetveryhot.Slowcookers heat andhold foodsat temperatures somewhatbelowtheboil,andcanbeleftunattendedformanyhours.Choosea slowcookerwithanadjustable thermostat tomakemoistbraises and stews. Models with fixed high and low settings usuallyovercookmeats.Ricecookersautomaticallyheatriceandotherdrygrainstotheboil,maintainasimmeruntilthefoodhasabsorbedallthewater,thenreducethe heat to keep the cooked food warm. They’re reliable, convenient,andcanalsomakeporridgesandmoreelaborategraindishes.Immersioncirculatorsareacombinationofathermostat,heater,andwaterpump.Placedinapotortubofwater,theykeepthewateratasettemperature for precision low-temperature bath cooking, whichproducesperfectlydonemeat,fish,andeggs.Water ovens are kitchen water baths, a specialized kind of slowcooker thatyou fillwithwater.Foodsareenclosed inplasticbagsandthen immersed in the water, whose temperature is set with the oventhermostat.Likeimmersioncirculators,waterovensmakeitpossibletoheatmeat, fish, and eggs at low cooking temperatures to produce theexact doneness desired. Water ovens that don’t actively circulate the

waterwon’theataspreciselyorquicklyasanimmersioncirculator.Deepfryersheatoil to temperatureswellabovetheboilingpointofwater,highenoughtocrispandbrownfoods.Deep-fryingiseasilydonein an ordinary pot, but deep fryers offer thermostatic temperaturecontrol and the convenienceof adrainingbasket and container foroilstorage.Chooseadeepfryerwithahighpowerand/orefficiencyrating.Thefasterafryercanrecoveritstemperatureaftercoldfoodisaddedtotheoil,thequickerthefoodfriesandthelessoilitabsorbs.Indoorgrillscookfoodsonmetalbarsthatmaybeheateddirectlyorthatsuspendthefoodaboveanelectricalheatingelement.Clamshell grills press the food between two heated surfaces. Theyheatfoodsnearlytwiceasfastasafryingpan.Fooddryers provide controlledheat at temperatures that arebelowtheminimumsettingofmostovens,butarebetterforremovingmoisturewithoutactuallycooking.Gas torches are useful touch-up tools for quickly applying highbrowning heat tomeats, fish, and such sweet dishes as crème brûlée.They’re also good for starting charcoal fires quickly. Use a torchsparingly,toavoidscorchingandleavingdistastefulgasresiduesonthefood.Chooseaninexpensivehardware-storetorchkitthatincludesaflame-spreadingattachmentforbroadercoverage.Hairdryersandheatgunscandryoutfoodsurfacesandkeepsugarworkwarm.

OUTDOORGRILLSANDSMOKERS

Outdoorgrillsoffercontrolledversionsofcookingwithfire,eitherwithglowing charcoal orwith burning natural gas. Electric grills heatwithglowingmetalelements.Coveredgrillsoffermorecontroloverheatingthanopen,hibachi-stylegrills.Choosea cookerwitha large cookingarea for barbecuing or slow-cooking roasts, so that the meat can be kept far away from the high

radiantheatofthecoalsorflame.Chooseacookerwithalargedialthermometerinthelid,sothatyou

canmonitorthetemperatureoftheclosedchamberataglance.Charcoalgrillscanbrownanddeeplyflavorfoodsurfacesinamatter

of seconds, or slowly andgently imbue themwith a distinctive smokyaroma of smoldering charcoal and wood. They cookmainly by directheat radiation if the grill is uncovered, by a combination of directradiationandhotairmovementifit’scovered.Gas grills use aroma-free gas flames to heat the air and metal or

ceramicsurfaces,whichthenreradiatetheirheattothefood.Gasgrillscan’tachievetheextremetemperaturespossibleonacharcoalgrill,andrequire the addition of hardwood chips or burning of the food’s ownjuicestoproducedistinctivearomas.Electric grills cook over glowing metal rods, and don’t provide

charcoal-levelheatoraromas.Rotisserie attachments rotate large pieces of meat on amotorized

spit.Theyhavetwoadvantages:theycausejuicestoclingandcookontothemeatsurfaceratherthandrippingoff;andtheyexposethemeattoshort bursts of high surface-browningheat, then longer periods of lowheattocookitthroughgently.Smokers cook foods slowly and gently with hot, smoky air. They

shieldfoodfromthedirectheatofcoalsorheatingelements.Turkeyfryersareportablehigh-powergasburners foruseoutdoors.

They’re handy for high-heat wok cooking and any kind of frying thatgeneratesobnoxiousfumesandspatter.

T

5

COOKINGMETHODS

herearemanywaystocookaneggorasteakorapotato,andcountless variationson eachof them.A recipewill specifyoneway, usually without much detail. “Simmer for 10 minutes.”

“Grill for 5minutes, then turn and continue for 4minutes.” “Bake at400°untildone.”Followingdirectionsmaygiveusagoodeggorpotato,butitdoesn’t

help us learn fromwhatwe’re doing and adjust to get an even betterresult.Exactlyhowhotisasimmer,ordoesitnotmatter?ShouldIdoanythingdifferent ifmysteaksarea little thinner thantherecipecallsfor?IstheresomethingIcandotogetmybakedpotatoskintocomeoutcrispinsteadofleathery?ThesearethekindsofquestionsthatI’vebeenaskingforthirtyyears,

and still ask prettymuch every day I’mnear the kitchen. I’ve tried topackthesepageswithgoodgeneralinformationandanswers,butthey’refarfrombeingthelastword.Ihopethey’llencourageyoutoaskmanymore questions about what’s going on in your own kitchen with thefoodsyoucareabout.That’showyou’lldevelopadeeperunderstandingofwhatyou’redoing,andcookwitheverbetterresults.Thischapterdescribessimmering,grilling,baking,andtheotherbasic

methods that we use for heating foods. It summarizes the ways oftransferring heat that underlie these methods, how they work, whatthey’re good and not so good at doing, and keys to getting the bestresults with them. Later chapters will refer you to sections of thischapter when they apply directly, or will build on this chapter toprovidemoredetailedguidanceforparticularfoods.

MEASURING

All cooking starts with the measurement of ingredients andtemperatures, even if it’s just by eye and touch. Sometimes precisionisn’timportant,andsometimesit’sessential.Afewdropsmoreorlessofwaterwon’tmakeadifferenceinastew,butitwillinapastrydough.Haveagoodsetofmeasuringtools:adigitalscaleforweights,rigidcups and spoons for volumes, and digital probe and infraredthermometersformeasuringthetemperatures insidefoodsandonfoodandutensilsurfaces.Becomefamiliarwithmetricmeasures,whicharemucheasiertousethan the spoon-cup-ounce systemand encourage greater precision. Seetheinsidecoversofthisbookforconversiontables.Measure ingredients by weight instead of by volume wheneverpossible.Weightisadirectmeasureofhowmuchofaningredientthereis,nomatterhowcoarseorfine,looselyortightlypacked.Volumeisameasure of how much space the ingredient occupies, including airpocketsbetweenparticles,andthiscanvarytremendously.Translate your favorite recipes into more convenient and reliableformbyannotatingtheirmeasureswiththemetricweightequivalents.Whenyoumeasurebyvolume,holdmeasuringcupsateyelevel,andlevelthecontents,toreadthescaleaccurately.Double-checkrecipesformeasuring details: for example, whether to use dense granular salt orlighterflakesalt,whetherfloursorfinesugarsshouldbesifted.Whenyoumeasuretemperature,holdthethermometerinplaceuntilits reading is steady. Instant-read dial thermometers actually take 20secondsormoretoregistertemperatureaccurately,andneedatleastthebottom 1 inch/2.5 centimeters of the probe to be in contact with thefood.Noncontactinfraredthermometersarehandybuthaveimportantlimitations.Theyneedtobeheldwithinafewinchesoftheobjectandcarefully aimed at it, andwill give an incorrectly low reading for hotliquids(becauseevaporationcoolstheliquidsurface)andforshinyglassormetalcontainers(becausetheirsurfaceemitslessheatradiationthanaseasonedorcoatedsurface).Tomeasurethetemperatureofashinypan,putadropofoilmidwayfromthecentertothepanedge,aimthethermometerattheoil,moveit

backandforthwhilepullingthetrigger,andusethehighesttemperaturereading. Don’t oil the entire surface until it has reached the cookingtemperature.

SERVINGFOODSRAW

Rawfoodshighlighttheflavorsoftheingredientsthemselves,whichareusually more delicate and light than cooked flavors. Raw vegetabletexturesarecrunchierthancooked,andmeatandfishtexturesarefirmandchewy,neitherasmoistnorastenderastheycanbewhencookedjustuntiltheirjuicesflow.Rawfoodsarenotnecessarilymorenutritiousthancookedfoods.There’snogoodevidenceofanyhealthbenefit tokeepingfoodsbelow118°F/48°C,apracticereputedto“preserveenzymes.”Cookedfoodsareoftenmorereadilydigestedandtheirnutrientsbetterabsorbed.Takespecialcaretoserveonlythefreshestandcleanestfoodsraw.Becausethey’renotexposedtomicrobe-killingtemperatures,rawfoodsareonlyassafeasthe ingredientsusedtopreparethem.Handlingandholding foods at warm temperatures will encourage the growth ofmicrobes and increase the risk of foodborne illness. Knowwhere youringredients come from, clean them as thoroughly and handle them aslittleaspossible,andkeepthemcolduntiljustbeforeserving.

MOISTANDDRYHEATINGMETHODS

The many methods for heating foods fall into two broad groups thatproducedifferentqualities.Moist heating methods cook food with hot liquid water or watervapor. Boiling, braising, poaching, steaming, and pressure-cooking aremoist methods. Their maximum temperature is limited to the boilingpointofwater,212°F/100°Catsea level,andaround250°F/120°Cinapressurecooker.Dryheatingmethods cook foodwithhot air or oil ormetal, or byheat radiation from very hot flames, coals, or metal surfaces. Baking,frying,andgrillingaredrymethods.Theyexposefoodstotemperatures

wellabovetheboilingpoint,often400°F/200°Corhotter.Dry heating methods can dry out food surfaces and turn them

crisp and brown. Dryness and high temperatures encourage foodproteinsandsugarstoreactwitheachotherandformbrownpigmentsanddistinctive,richflavors.Moist heating methods generally don’t encourage these browning

reactions,anddon’tdevelopthesamerichnessofflavor.Moistheatingmethodsdonotguaranteethatfoodswillcomeout

moist.Infactthequickestwaytodryoutmeatsandfishandeggsistoboilthem.Thekeytomoist,tenderfoodsiscarefultemperaturecontrol,no

matterwhatthecookingmethod.

HEATINGINWATER:BOILING,BRAISING,POACHING,WATERBATHS,LOW-TEMPERATURECOOKING,ANDSOUS-VIDECOOKING

Cookinginhotwaterissimple,versatile,andquick.Watercanholdalotofheatandtransfersittofoodsfasterthanoil,steam,orair.Boilinginsalted water is a common way to cook many vegetables, grains, andpastas. Lower-temperaturepoachingandbraising inbroths, juices, andotherflavorfulliquidsworkwellforeggs,fish,andmeats.Moveslowlyandcarefullywhenhandlingpotsfullofhotwater.Hot

watercancauseburns ina fractionofa second,andgivesoff scaldingsteamwhenpouredintothesink.Usepot lids tosavetimeandenergyandcontrol temperaturewhen

cooking in water. Evaporation from the water surface has a coolingeffect.Heat a pot to theboil inhalf the timebyputting the lid on toprevent evaporation. Prevent a braise in the oven from boiling byleavingthelidajartoallowevaporation,oronlypartlycoveringwithatemporarylidcutfromparchmentpaper.Theboilingpointofwater is theeasiestcookingtemperatureto

recognize and maintain. Plain water boils—bubbles—at a specifictemperature, 212°F/100°C at sea level, andwon’t ever get hotter thanthat,evenifit’soverahighflameorinahotoven.

Turntheheatdownandleavethelidajaronceyou’veaddedfoodtothepotandithasreturnedtotheboil.Arollingboilisnohotterthanagentleone,andit’smorelikelytocausefoamingover.Apartlyopenlidallowssomecoolingandhelpsdeflateanyfoam.Boilingwaterinstantlykillsnearlyallmicrobesonfoodsurfaces,andisgoodformakingfoodsassafetoeataspossible.Blanching,parboiling,andscaldingaretermsforbriefexposuretoboilingor near-boilingwater, to cleanse food surfaces andpartly cooktheminpreparationforothercookingprocesses.When cooking vegetables directly in boiling water, salt the watergenerouslytoreducethelossofflavorfulandnutritioussubstancesintothewater.Saltdoesnotraisetheboilingpointenoughtoaffectcookingtimes.Add less salt to thewater for dry grains andpastas,whichwillabsorbmorethanvegetablesdo.Avoidtheboilingpointforcookingmostmeats,fish,eggs,andlargevegetables.Boilingwaterovercookstheiroutsideswhiletheinsidescookthrough.Simmering, poaching, and braising are loosely defined terms forcookinginwaterattemperaturesbelowtheboil,aslowas130°F/55°C.Thesemethodsareoftenappliedtoheat-sensitivemeats,fish,andeggs,whichboilingtemperatureshardenanddryout.Thewatertemperatureiscriticalforproducingthedesiredtexture,butisn’tobviousvisually.Simmering usually involves water just below the boil that bubblesoccasionally;poachinginvolveshotwaterthatdoesn’tbubbleatall.Braisingusuallymeanscookingmeatspartly immersed in liquid thatwillbecometheirsauce,inacoveredpot.Alwayschecksimmering,poaching,andbraisingtemperatureswithathermometer,andadjustasneeded.Temperaturesnearthebottomofthepot may be significantly higher than near the top, especially if thecooking liquidhasbeen thickenedat all.Ovensona low settingoftenprovidemoreconsistentandevenheatthanstove-topburners.Don’t trust standard braising recipes or slow-cooking appliances tocookmeatsattheidealtemperature.Mostcooktooclosetotheboilandproducedryresults.Seethispageforimprovingmeatbraises.

Water baths or bains-marie are arrangements for heating sensitivefoodsgentlyandevenlyby immersing them inacontainerofwater inthe oven. Custard dishes and cheesecake pans are placed in a bakingdishorpotfilledwithenoughwatertocomepartwayuptheirsides.Thewatermoderates theovenheat thanks to evaporation from its surface,whichkeepsthetemperaturewellbelowtheboileveninahotoven.Low-temperature cooking is the shorthand term for heating foods

just at the temperature we want them to reach for ideal doneness,usuallyinawaterbathwhosetemperaturecanbepreciselycontrolled.It’s especially valuable for meats, fish, eggs, and other heat-sensitivefoodswhosetexturesarebestbetween130and150°F/55and65°C,andareeasilydriedoutatstandardcookingtemperatures.Thefoodissealedinaprotectiveplasticbagorwrapping,thenimmersedinawateroven,or in a pot of water whose temperature is monitored andmaintainedeither manually by the cook or automatically by an immersioncirculator.Theadvantageof low-temperaturecooking is that it guaranteesa

particulardonenessthroughoutthefood,becausethefoodiscookedatexactly the temperature that produces that doneness. Once it reachesthattemperature,thefoodcanbeheldinthewaterbathforsometimewithout any risk of overcooking. This means that cooking times aremuchlesscriticalthantheyareinallothermethodsthatcookathighertemperatures.The disadvantage of low-temperature cooking is that it doesn’t

createtherich,savorysurfaceflavors thathigh-temperaturefryingandgrillingdo.Toget thebestofboth lowandhigh temperatures, simplycook foodsuntildone,allowthemtocool somewhat,and thenquicklyfryorgrill themjust longenoughtoflavorthesurfacesandreheattheinterior.Understand and avoid the potential hazards of low-temperature

cooking. Lowcooking temperaturesare slower tokill thebacteria thatcause foodborne illness, and tight wrapping makes it possible forbotulism bacteria to grow. Use recipes that explain the hazards, andfollowtheirinstructionsexactly.Beespeciallycarefulwhenmaintainingthetemperatureyourself.Ingeneral,it’ssimplestandsafesttoservelow-temperaturefoodsimmediately.

Tocookfoodsatlowtemperature:

Heatthewaterovenoralargepotofwateruptothedesiredtemperature.Alargevolumeofwaterwillholditstemperaturebetterthanasmallone.Sealthefoodinaplasticziplockstoragebag,pressingoutasmuchairaspossiblebyimmersingitinthewaterjustuptothezipperandthenzippingit;orvacuum-packusingahomevacuum-packingmachine.Eggsintheshelldon’trequireaprotectivebag.Immersethebaginthebathandheatuntilthefoodiscookedthroughevenly.Lowtemperaturesheatslowly,soallowmoretimethanusual:30to60minutesforeggs,anhourorsoforsteaksandchops.Ifyou’renotusingawaterovenorcirculator,stirthewaterregularly,monitorthetemperaturefrequentlywithanaccuratedigitalthermometer,andheatoraddhotwaterasnecessarytomaintainit.Makesurethatthefoodremainsfullyimmersedinthecookingwaterandsurroundedbyit.Airandvaporpocketsinabagcancauseittofloat,andwaterfloworcrowdingcanpushbagsagainsteachotherorthepotsides.

Sous-videcookingisaversionoflowtemperaturecookinginwhichthe foods are vacuum-sealed in plastic bags (sous vide is French for“under vacuum”). Vacuum sealing in a professional chamber machinecan speed the infusion of flavors into a food, compress fruits andvegetablestogivethemadense,meatytexture,andremoveallairfromthepackage,sothatthefoodheatsmoreevenlyandkeepslongeraftercooking. Household vacuum-packagingmachines don’t create a strongenoughvacuum to infuseor compress foods, can’t beusedwith liquidingredients,andleavesomeairinthepackage.

HEATINGWITHWATERVAPOR:STEAMINGANDDOUBLEBOILERS

Steamishotwatervapor.Itcooksfoodsinthesametemperaturerangeasliquidwater,butsomewhatmoreslowlybecausewatervaporis lessdense than liquidwater. Steam is as hot as thewater it’s rising from.

Most steaming is done at the boiling point, but it can be done moregentlyoversimmeringwater.Steaming requires a pot to contain the food and a small amount ofwater,alidtocontainthesteam,andabasketorimprovisedstandthatwillfitinthepotandholdthefoodabovethewater.Double boilers are arrangements for cooking gently with indirectsteamheat.Adoubleboilerconsistsofapotorbowlnestedontopofapotofsimmeringwater.Steamfromthewaterheats thebottomof thecookingpot,whichcanbeliftedawaytostoptheheatingquickly.Steaming uses much less water and energy than boiling, andleacheslessnourishmentandflavorfromfoods. Itonly takesa fewcupsofboilingwatertofillalargepotwithsteamfor15to30minutes.Steamingiswellsuitedtothesimplecookingofanyvegetable,andtoshellfishandthinpiecesoffish.It’salsogoodforreheatingmanyfoods.Pilethefoodverylooselyonthesteamingracktoallowthesteamtocirculate throughout. In a large pot, you can stack bamboo or metalbasketsandsteammorethanonefoodatatime.Placethemoredelicatefoodsattherelativelycooltopofthestack.Makesureyouhaveenoughwaterinthepotsothatitwon’tboildry.Just a few seconds of smoke from the charring bottom can ruin thefood’sflavor.Bringthecoveredpottoaboiloverhighheat,thenreducetheheattomaintainamoderateboilfortheremainderofthecookingtime.Ahighrolling boil doesn’t produce a higher steam temperature, but it doesspeedevaporationandthechancesofboilingdry.Opensteamerlidsawayfromyou,anddon’tputyourhandaboveorinthepot.Steamcancauseablisteringburninafractionofasecond.When checking doneness or removing food, turn off the heat and usetongs.Self-steaminginapacket,orcookingenpapillote,isaveryflexibleversionofsteamingthatdoesn’trequireapot.Foodisenclosedinoneofmanydifferentwrappingmaterialsandthepacketthencookedwithanysourceofheat,fromacampfiretoamicrowaveoven.Whenthetrappedmoistureonthefoodsurfacesgetshotenough,itformssteamandhelps

cookthefoodthrough.Iftheexternalheatcomesfromafireorgrill,itmaycreatesomebrowningorcharringaromasinsidethepacket.Commonpacketwrappingsincludelettuce,cabbage,bananaandlotusleaves,cornhusks,parchmentpaper,foil,dough,salt,andclay.

HEATINGATHIGHPRESSURE:PRESSURE-COOKING

Pressure-cookingheats foodswith hotwater or steamat above-boilingtemperatures, around 250°F/120°C. It’smuch faster andmore efficientthanordinarystove-topcooking.Apressurecookerisaspecialpotthatsealstightlyandtrapshotsteamtobuildthepressureandtemperature.Recentdesignsuseaspringtoregulatepressure,anddoabetterjobthanolderweight-regulated types at retaining cooking vapors and ensuringthatpressurecan’tbuildtounsafelevels.Pressure-cookingisespeciallyusefulforcookingdishesthatotherwisetakehours:drybeans,meatstocks,stewsoftoughmeat.It’salsousedtosterilizehome-cannedvegetablesand fruits.Thehigh temperatureskillthetoughsporesofbotulismbacteriathatsurviveordinaryboiling.Avoid pressure-cooking most meats. The high temperature doestenderize tough connective tissue, but also squeezes out the meat’smoistureandleavesitdryandstringy.Becarefulnottofillpressurecookersmorethanabouttwo-thirdsfull,andincludesomeoiltosuppressthefoamthat’ssometimesgeneratedbydrybeansandgrains.Excessliquidandfoamcanclogthepressurevalveandcreateunsafepressuresormessyboilovers.Reducetheheattolowoncethecookerdevelopsfullpressure.Ittakesvery little heat to maintain the boil in a sealed pot. To avoid excesspressureonaslow-changingelectricburner,removethecookerfromtheburnerforaminuteorso.Check recipe timings carefully, and set a timerwhen you pressure-cook.Foodsheatthroughveryquickly,soafewminutestoomanycanovercookthembadly.Reducethecookerpressureslowlytokeepfoodstructuresintactandprevent boilovers. Rapid cooling or steam release causes water

throughoutthecookertoboilviolently.Thiscanblowapartbeansandpotatoesandforceliquidthroughthevents.Instead,simplyturnofftheheatandletthepressuredroponitsown.Tosimplifycleanup,use thepressurecookerasapressure steamer.

Pour somewater into thecooker,place the foodandanywater itwillneedtoabsorbinasolidbowl,andthenplacethebowl inthecooker.Thefoodwillcookinthebowl,andyoucanjustrinsethecookerout.

HEATINGONMETAL:PANFRYINGANDPANROASTING,SAUTÉING,ANDSTIR-FRYING

Panfrying and sautéing aremethods that heat foods by contactwith ahotmetalpan,usually lubricatedwitha thin coatingof fat oroil thatalsoaidsheatconduction,onesurfaceatatime.Thepantemperatureiswellabovetheboilingpointofwater,hotenoughtodrythesurfacesofmanyfoodsandformabrown,flavorfulcrust.Panfrying, often shortened to frying, is the term usually applied to

cooking largepiecesof food for some timeoneach side, turning themwithaspatulaortongs.Pan roasting is a combination of panfrying and oven roasting: you

brownthickcutsofmeatorfishinthefryingpan,andthenputthepanin a preheated oven to finish heating the food through from all sides.Finishingintheovenleavesthecookandstovetopfreeforotherduties,andheatsthefoodthroughmoregentlyandevenlythanfryingalone.Sautéing, fromtheFrenchfor“jump,”isthetermusuallyappliedto

cooking small pieces of foodwith frequent shakes or stirs of the pan.Sautépanshavehighersidesthanfryingpanstokeepfoodpiecesfromjumpingout.Fryingisbestsuitedtomedium-thickpiecesoffoodthatwillcook

through in about the same time it takes tobrown the surface.Thickerpieces can be browned at high frying temperature and then cookedthroughonlowerheat.Fryingspattercanburnthehandandarm,andsmalleroildroplets

canslowlyraindownalloverthekitchen.

Tominimizespatterandmess,makesurefoodsareasdryaspossible,orcoatedwithflourorbreading.Turnonstove-topventilationanduseascreenlikespatterguardoverthepan.Keepeyeglassescleanbywearinga baseball-style cap; most eyeglass spatter falls from above onto theinnerlenssurfaces.Foodscansticktothepanwhentheyleakstickystarchorproteins,

or when prolonged heat turns the frying oil sticky. Nonstick cookingsprayscanreducethisproblembutdevelopoffflavorsatrelativelylowfryingtemperatures.Tominimize sticking on a panwithout a nonstick surface, preheat

thepanwithoutcookingfatoroil.Useunclarifiedbutter,whichcontainsnonstickmaterials naturally, but only at low frying temperatures. Dryfoodsurfacesthoroughly,orcoatwithflourorbreading.Don’ttrytoliftthe food until it has had time to develop a brittle crust. Turn and liftusingaspatulawithasharpmetaledgethatcanslipunderthecrust.Topanfryorsauté:

Warmthickcutsofmeatandpoultrypiecestoroomtemperaturetospeedheatingandminimizeovercooking.Dryfoodsurfaces,orcoatinflourorbreadingtominimizespatterandstickingandspeedbrowning.Coatingspreventthefoodsurfaceitselffrombrowning,butaddcrunchandflavor.Tosschoppedvegetablesinoiltoprecoatthem.Choosetheappropriatepan,largeenoughtoholdthefoodwithoutcrowding,butnotsolargethatvacantsurfaceswillscorchoilandescapingjuices.Acrowdedpanwon’tmaintainhighenoughheattovaporizethefood’sjuices,andthefoodwillstewinthem.Heatthepanonamoderateburnerwithoutoilto350to375°F/175to190°C.Verifythetemperaturewithaninfraredthermometer,orwithadropofwaterthatshouldskitteronthesurfacebeforeitboilsaway.Addoilorfattocoatthepansurface,whereitshouldripplewiththeheat.Iffryingonlowerheatwithunclarifiedbutter,addittothecoldpanandheatuntilitstopsfrothingandbecomesfragrant,around300°F/150°C.Addthefoodandkeeptheburneronhightorestorethepan’sheatasit’slosttothefood.Adjusttheheatasyougotomaintainalivelysizzling,thesoundof

moisturebeingvaporized,andtoavoidscorching.Tolowertheheatquickly,especiallyonanelectricstovetop,movethepanofftheburner,thenchangetheburnersettingandreturnthepan.Ifsizzlingandbrowningdostopandliquidaccumulateswhilecookingheat-sensitivemeatsorfish,removethemfromthepan,raisetheheattoboilofftheliquid,andaddthefoodbackwhentheliquidhasevaporated.Ifthishappenswithmushrooms,eggplant,orothervegetables,justleavetheminthepan,raisetheheat,andboilofftheliquid.Don’tmoveorturnlargerpiecesoffoodforseveralminutes,untilsurfaceshaveachancetodryfullyanddetachfromthepansurface.Whenyoumoveorturnthefood,makefulluseofallareasofthehotpansurface.Oncebothsurfaceshavebrowned,turningthefoodfrequentlyslowsfurtherbrowningbutspeedsandevensheatingthrough.

Blackeningisanextreme,high-temperatureversionofpanfryingthatgives foods a very dark and aromatic crust. Blacken only in a well-ventilatedkitchenoroutdoors;theextremeheatgeneratessmoke.To blacken, coat a piece of meat or fish with butter and then

powderedseasonings,heatacast-ironpanoverhighheat,coveredwithalidorpieceoffoil,untilitsmokes,andplacethefoodinthepan.Stir-fryingas it’sdone inChina isahigh-temperature, rapidversion

ofsautéingthatproducesacharacteristicanddeliciousflavor.Theidealpanisthebaresteelwok,whosecurvedsidesmakeiteasytokeepthepiecesoffoodmoving.Usenonstickwoksonlyformoderate-temperaturesautéing;theircoatingsdegenerateonhighheat.Dotruestir-fryingonlyinawell-ventilatedkitchenoroutdoors;itgeneratesalotofoilspatterandfumes.Tostir-fry:

Cutfoodintosmallpiecesthatwillcookthroughin1to2minutes.Drythefoodsurfaces.Heatthewokoverhighheatuntilitbeginstosmoke,coveredwithalidorpieceoffoiltoretainheat.Toreducestickingwithakindoflast-minutepanseasoning,heatthewokwithsomeoil,thendiscardthe

oilonceitsmokes.Addthecookingoil,thenthefood,andstirthefoodconstantlyuntilit’sdone.

HEATINGINOIL:DEEP-ANDSHALLOW-FRYINGANDOILPOACHING

Deep-and shallow-frying are methods that heat foods primarily bycontactwithhotoil,notwiththehotmetalsurfaceofordinary frying.Oilcangetfarhotterthanwater’sboilingpoint,anddoesagoodjobofcrisping and browning many different foods. Deep-and shallow-fryingincreasethefatcontentoffoods,butifwelldonetheymayaddlessfatthaneverydaypanfrying.Deep-frying immersesfoodscompletelyinhotoil. It formsabrown,

flavorfulcrustoverwholepieceswhilethe insidesheat through. Itcanbe applied to everything from millimeter-thick potato sticks to wholeturkeys.The disadvantages of deep-frying are the large volume of oil

required,andthepotentialhazardofspilledoil,whichcanburnskinandcatchfire.Shallow-frying is a low-oil alternative inwhich the food is fried in

justenoughoiltocomehalfwayupitsside,andthenturnedtocooktheotherside.Oil poaching is an alternative to low-heat water poaching. The oil

remains well below the boiling point of water, and doesn’t crisp orbrown the food surface. Compared to water poaching, it extracts lessflavorandnourishment into thesurrounding liquid, imparts itsownoraddedflavorstothefood,andheatsthefoodmoregradually.Todeep-orshallow-fry:

Chooseadeeppotorsaucepanthatcanholdmorethandoublethequantityofoiltobeused,toaccommodatethefoodtobeaddedandthevigorousbubblingofwatervaporwhenthefoodisadded.Useaclip-onfryingthermometeroracountertopelectricfryerwiththermostat.

Choosefreshrefinedcookingoilslowinpolyunsaturates.Freshandlight-bodiedoilsdrainbestandclingleasttofriedsurfaces.Refinedoilsarebetterthanmostunrefinedorhighlyunsaturatedoilsattoleratinghighfryingtemperaturesandresistingbreakdown,smoking,andoffflavors.Goodfryingoilsincluderefinedpeanutoil,cottonseedoil,oliveoil(thoughitcontributesadistinctiveflavor),low-polyunsaturatetypesofsunfloweroil,andsolidbuttrans-fat-freevegetableshortening.Carefullyrenderedanimalfats—lard,tallow,duckfat—areflavorfulalternatives.Cutfoodintoevenlysizedpiecesanddrythoroughly,orcoatinflour,breading,orbatter.Thedrierthefood,thelessitwillfoamandspatterandthefasteritwillbrown.Coatingsprotectthefoodsurfaceitselffromthehotoil.Tohelpbattersadhere,lightlyflourthefoodbeforedippingitinthebatter.Tohelpbreadingsadhere,lightlyflourthefood,dipitinmilkorbeatenegg,thencoatitwiththebreading.Foranespeciallycrispcrust,makebatterswithriceorcornflourorcornstarchreplacingsomewheatflour,includesomedouble-actingbakingpowder,orreplaceuptohalfoftheliquidwithvodka.Togettheirregular,lacycrustofJapanesetempurabatter,mixice-coldwaterbrieflyandincompletelywiththeflourandeggjustbeforefrying.Thisminimizestheformationoftoughglutenandthetimerequiredtocrispthecrust.Makefreshbatterforeveryfewbatches.Don’tuseabatterformorethan4hours.Themoistingredientsandrepeateddippingofrawfoodscanleadtounsafelevelsofbacteria.Heatoiluptothecookingtemperatureovermoderateheat;averyhotpanbottomacceleratesoilbreakdown.Don’tletthepothandleprojectoverthestove-topedgewhereitcanbebumpedintoandcauseaspillofhotoil.Addfoodtotheoilwithoutsplashing,insmallbatchestoavoidcoolingdowntheoilexcessivelyandobstructingfreeoilcirculation.Raisetheheattoreturnittothefryingtemperatureasquicklyaspossible,thenturnheatdowntomaintainthecookingtemperatureandsteadybubblingofvaporizedmoisture.Don’tcoverthepot;evaporatingfoodmoisturewillfallbackintotheoilandcausespattering.Monitorthefryingcloselyandremoveorturnthefoodwhenithas

coloredasdesired.Asthebubblinggetsquieter,theoiltemperaturerisesandthefoodbrownsfaster.Thefirstbatchofanyfoodwillcookmoreslowlythansubsequentbatches;asoilisusedandbeginstobreakdown,itheatsandbrownsfoodsmorerapidly.Removefoodwithawirestrainerandshakegentlyoverthefryer,thenblotimmediately.Foodsabsorbmoreoilasthey’recoolingdownthantheydoduringfrying.

Toholdfriedfoodsandkeepthemcrisp,placethepiecesonarackoronbunchedpaper towelswithplentyofair spaces.Avoidcrowdingorpiling,whichtrapstheirsteamandcausessogginess.To reuse frying oils, filter them through cheesecloth to remove allfoodresidues,andstoreinacoolplace.Discardthemwhentheybecomeunpleasantlyflavored,viscous,dark,orfumeatfryingtemperatures.

OVENBAKINGANDROASTING

Oven baking is amethod that cooks foodswith hot air andwith heatradiation from the oven walls and heating elements. Bakingtemperaturasrangefrombelowtheboilingpointofwatertowellaboveit, lowenough tocookgentlyandevenly,andhotenough todry foodsurfacesandformabrown,flavorfulcrust.Ovenbakingtakeslongerthanmostothermethodsbecausehotairheats foods much more slowly than water or oil. This slow and all-enveloping heat allows us to cook foods in the oven unattended forhours,andhavea longerperiodof timeduringwhichmeatsandothersensitivefoodsremainproperlycooked,notoverdone.Gasandelectricovenscooksomewhatdifferently.Gasovensdon’tretainmoist cookingvapors aswell as electricovens,which canmakethemslowertocookandcauselessrisingandlightnessinbakedgoods.Convectionovensspeedandevenoutheatingbyforce-circulatingthehotairwithafan.To adapt standard oven recipes for a convection oven, reduce thebakingtemperaturesby25to50°F/15to30°C.Countertoportoasterovenssaveenergywhenbakingsmallamounts

offood,butreadilyscorchfoodsbecausetheirheatingelementsareclosetothefoodandturnonfrequently.Toavoidscorchingfoodsinsmallovens,preheattheovenwellabovethe desired baking temperature, place the food on the lowest rackposition, farthest from the heating elements, shield it loosely with apieceoffoil,andresetthethermostattothebakingtemperature.Check the accuracy of your oven thermostat, and learn the oven’sheat landscape. Preheat the oven until the heating elements cycle off,then scan the interior with an infrared thermometer. If the racks andsidewallsaremuchhotterorcoolerthanthethermostatsetting,thensetthe thermostat to appropriately lower or higher temperatures thanrecipescallfor.Leave room for hot air to circulate around foods. Don’t put largebakingsheetsonmorethanonerackunlessthere’saconvectionfantoforceaircirculation.Anovenset toamoderate temperaturecanscorchbakedgoodsandvegetables.Theeffectiveoventemperaturecanrepeatedlyrisefarabovethethermostatsettingwhentheheatingelementscycleontokeeptheovenhot.Togetthemostevenovenheatforbaking,minimizetheneedfortheheating elements to turn on. Preheat the oven well above the finalcooking temperature to compensate for the initial temperature dropwhenyouputthefoodin.Setbakingstonesintheoventohelpitretainheat.Reduce excessive heat radiation from the oven floor or ceiling byusingfoilorbakingsheetsasshieldstopreventovercooking.Thehottestareas in an oven are near the oven floor, where at least one heatingelement is located, and the ceiling,where heat rises and collects (andwheretheremaybeanotherelectricalelement).Usealowoven,160to220°F/70to105°C,forcookinggrains,driedbeans,andbraisesandstews.Theovenheatspotsmoreevenlythanthestove top and won’t crust or scorch the bottom. Prevent pots fromboilingbyleavinglidsajartoallowevaporation.Panmaterials affect how quickly and evenly foods bake in theoven.Dullanddarkmetalpanstransmitheatmorerapidlyfromovento

foodthanshinypansthatreflectheat.Thinpansheatunevenly.Ceramicpanscollectandbuildupheatmoreslowlythanmetalpans,butretainheatwellforserving.Clearglasspanstransmitheatradiationdirectlytofood as well as conduct heat to it, and heat more quickly than othernonmetalpans.Don’t depend on recipe timings for baking. Ovens, pans, andingredients are too variable. Always check doneness for yourself, andstartcheckingearly.

BROILING

Broiling is a method that browns and cooks foods with the strongradiation from a gas or electric heating element just above the food’suppersurface.Broilingworksbestformoderatelythickcutsofmeatorfishandflat-lyingvegetablessuchasasparagus,ortoquicklycolorandflavor the surface of prebaked dishes, including gratins and crèmebrûlée.Broiler heat and browning power weaken drastically as thespacing between food and heating element increases. Too large adistancewill increase thebrowning timeto thepoint that itovercooksthefoodinterior.Thisisthemostcommonerrorinbroiling.Preheatbroilersuntilthemetalelementsglow,tospeedbrowningandavoidovercooking.Oil lean foods lightly to speed browning and improve brownedflavors.Wipeoffanyexcesstoavoidflare-upsinthebroiler.Place the food surface close to the heating element, as little as 1inch/2.5 centimeters away, and monitor browning frequently once itbegins, everyminute or less. Turn or remove the food as soon as thebrowningisasdeepasyouwantit.Ifnecessary,finishcookingthroughin the hot broiler compartment with the broiler turned off, or in theoven.

GRILLING

Grillingisahigh-temperature,fastmethodofcookingfoodsfrombelowwithacombinationofheatradiationandhotairfromglowingcoals,orgasorelectricheatingelements.The high heat of grilling contributes the flavors of fire, smoke, andextremebrowning.Carelesslyapplied,itscorchesfoodsandcoversthemwithsootandothertoxicsubstances.Open flames and glowing coals are hazardous. They generatepoisonouscarbonmonoxidegas,andcancauseburnsandfires.Grillinan open, well-ventilated area outdoors, use long-handled utensils andprotectivegloves,andhaveafireextinguishernearby.Gas and electric grills only approximate charcoal grills. Theyproduce heat without the smoky aromatics of burning coals, aren’tpowerfulenoughtoreachthesametemperatures,andcantakesolongtobrownthefoodsurfacethattheinteriorendsupovercooked.Charcoalgrillscookmainlywithdirectheatradiationaslongasthecoalsareglowingunderneath the foodand thegrill isopen.When thecoals die downor they’re placed to one side of the food, hot air doesmoreofthecooking.Closingthegrilllidtrapsthehotairandturnsthegrillintoanoven.Usehardwoodcharcoal,whichdoesn’tcontainthebindersandotheradditivesthatformedbriquettesdo.Useachimney-stylestarterinsteadofpetroleumlighterfluid,whichcanleavebad-tastingresidues.Tostartcoalsveryquickly,ignitethemwithagastorch.Createalow-heatareaonthegrillwithfewornocoalsunderneath,for the gentle indirect heating through of thick foods whose surfaceshavealreadybeenwellflavoredoverhighheat.Tosuperheatthemetalgrilltoburnoffcookingresiduesandquicklyproducegrillmarksonfood,placesheetsofaluminumfoiloverthegrillforafewminutesjustbeforecooking.Cast-irongrillsaccumulatemoreheatthanlightstainlesssteelandmarkfoodsbetter.Avoid fat flare-ups and charring,which deposit soot, harsh flavors,andcarcinogensonfoods.Trimextrafat frommeats,andblotoil frommarinatedvegetables.Monitorfoodsonthegrillconstantly.Topreventfoodfromstickingtothegrill,drythefoodwell,lightlyoil

thegrillandthefoodjustbeforecooking,anddon’ttrytomovethefooduntilithascookedlongenoughforthesurfacejuicestodry,harden,anddetach.To speed the cooking of steaks and chops and cook surface and

interiorevenly,turnthemfrequently,everyminuteorless.Avoid contaminating grilled meats and fish with their raw juices,

whichmaycarryharmfulmicrobes.Don’tbasteorsaucetowardtheendofcookingwiththesameliquidyouappliedatthebeginning.Setsomeaside,cookedifnecessary,forfinishing.Putthegrilledfoodonacleandish,notthesameonethatheldtherawfood.Countertop clamshell grills also cook largely with heat radiation,

but from twometal plates a fraction of an inch away from the food,which is suspended on grill-like ridges. The two plates are heated tofrying temperatures and cook simultaneously from top and bottom.Clamshell grills cook quickly, but without the flavors created by truehigh-temperaturegrilling.

SMOKING

Smoking isamethodof flavoring foodswith thearomasofsmolderingwoodorotherplantmaterials,includingspicesandteas.Smokealsohasantimicrobial and antioxidant properties and can help preserve foods,thoughthesmokeflavoritselfdeteriorateswithtime.Hot-smoking flavors foodswhilecooking them.Cold-smoking flavors

foodswhilekeepingthetemperaturelowenoughtoavoidcooking.Thebestwoodsmokearomascome fromparticularwoodsheated to

particulartemperatures.Hardwoods—especiallyhickory,oak,andfruit-treewoods—producearomaticsalsofoundinvanilla,cloves,andotherspices. They do so at smoldering temperatures, 570 to 750°F/300 to400°C,wellbelowthetemperatureatwhichwoodburns.Pineandotherevergreenwoodscontainresinsthatcreateharsharomasandsoot.For the best smoke flavor, prevent the aromatic materials from

burning by controlling their temperature or air supply. Soak wood orspices in water before placing them on glowing coals, or wrap themairtightinfoilwithsmallslitstoallowsmoketoescape.Closegrillvents

tothepointthatflamesdiedowntocoalsfromlackofair.Tohot-smokeoutdoors,useadedicatedsmoker,orsetupastandard

grillasyouwouldforbarbecuing.Tohot-smoke in thekitchen, usea stove-top smokingbox,or linea

wok or other pan and lid with kitchen foil. Place a foil packet ofsawdust,groundspices,tea,orotheraromaticsonthepanbottom,andthe foodona rack.Cover thepan tightly andheat it onmediumheatuntil you can smell smoke. Continue smoking for a fewminutes, thenturn the heat off and let the pan cool down, covered, until smoke nolongerleaksfromitsedge.Finishcookingthefoodintheovenifnecessary.Tocold-smoke foods, use a smokerdesigned for that purpose.Cold-

smokinglargecutsofmeatandfishrequirestwoseparatebutconnectingchambers, onehot and containing the smoke source, the other aroundroomtemperatureandcontainingthefood.Forquick,lightcold-smokingof small cuts and prepared dishes, use a handheld food smoker thatburnssawdustoraromaticsandcanaimanarrowsmokestreamintoacovereddish.

MICROWAVECOOKING

Microwave ovens heat foods directly, deeply, quickly, and efficientlywith radiowaves thatpass throughnonmetal containersandpenetrateintofoodstoadepthofaninchormore.Microwaveovensworkwell forheatingsmallquantitiesof foodthat

mightscorchonthestovetop,andthincutsoffishandmostvegetables,whosenutrients theypreservebetter thanboiling.They’realsogoodatheatingwater,poppingpopcorn,makinghotcereals,reheatingleftovers,meltingbutterandchocolate,andsofteningicecream.Microwaveovenssparetheuseandcleaningofpotsandpansby

heating foods in theirstorageorservingcontainers.Plastics,glass,andmostceramicsdon’tabsorbmicrowaveswell,andsodon’tgetanyhotterthanthefoodtheycontain.Containersidentifiedasmicrowave-safecanbetakendirectlyfromrefrigeratortomicrowaveoventotable.

Don’tplaceusedplastic foodcontainersor to-go foodpackaging inthemicrowave. Theymay soften and release chemicals into the food.Always make sure that plastic containers are marked as safe formicrowaveuse.Avoidputtingmetalcontainersorutensils in themicrowave.Metals

reflectmicrowavesandturn theirenergy intoelectricalcurrents.Metalcontainersshieldthefoodinsideandpreventmicrowavesfromheatingitefficiently.Smallgapsbetweenmetalobjects,ortheirnearnesstoovenwalls,cancausesparkingandburning.Forksanddecoratedchinadishesarealmostguaranteedtospark.Do use metal foil to shield the thin edge of a fish fillet and other

delicatepartsofadishformoreevenheating.Justbesuretoleavelargespacesbetweenfoilpiecesandthewalls.Microwaveovenshavepowersettings,nottemperaturesettings.The power settings on some ovens simply determine whether full-

power microwaves are emitted constantly or are cycled on and off.Newerovensoffercontrolovermicrowaveintensity,whichallowsmoregentleheating.Use high power with care and check cooking progress frequently.

Penetratingmicrowavescanburn the interiorofbakedgoodsandnutswhile leaving the surface lookingunchanged.Meltingbutter can eruptwhenthewaterthatseparatesbeneaththefatsuddenlyboils.Acupofwater can superheat past the boiling point without bubbling, thensuddenlyeruptandscaldwhenthecupismoved.Use low power settings for greater control and delicate heating,

includingtoastingspicesandnuts,andthegentlereheatingofcoffeetoretainitsaroma.Allowmorecookingtimeforlargequantitiesoffood.Themorefood

thereisintheoven,themoretheavailableenergyhastobeshared,sothere’slessenergyforanygivenportionoffoodtoabsorb.Looselywraporcover foods.Microwavesmainlyenergize thewater

infoods,andcanquicklydrythemout.Coverfoodsloosely,withplasticwraporlidsslightlyajar,tohelpthemretainmoistureandtosurroundthemwithsteamthatwillinterceptthemicrowavesandmoderatetheirheating.Don’tcovercontainers tightly,or thedevelopingsteamwithin

willburstthecoveringorcontainerandmakeamess.Move foods around during cooking either by hand or with an

automatic turntable.Microwavestendtocluster incertainspotswithintheovenandheatunevenly.

COOKINGATHIGHALTITUDES

Manycookingmethodsandrecipesmustbeadjustedataltitudes1,000feet/300 meters or more above sea level. Because the air pressure islowerthere,waterboilsatlowertemperatures,foodsurfaceslosemoreheat to evaporation and transmit heat more slowly, and leaveningsproducebiggerbubblesearlierinbaking.Itoftentakesseveraltrialstoadaptarecipe forhighaltitudes.Specificsolutionsdependonaltitude,cookingmethod,anddish.Mostfoodswilltakelongertocook.Formanyegg,meat,fish,and

vegetabledishes,simplyallowingforenoughtimeistheonlynecessaryadjustment.A pressure cooker is especially useful at high altitudes forspeedingthecookingofdrybeansandwholegrains.Baked goods, custards, and fruit preserves require more

complicated adjustments because they either won’t set at theappropriatestageofcooking,orwon’tsetatall.Thesolutiongenerallyinvolvesincreasingtheliquidingredientsandflour,decreasingthesugarandleavening,andcookingatahighertemperatureforalongertime.

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COOKINGSAFELY

oodsafety is the sobering sideof cooking, the subject that foodloverswouldratherignore,andnocookcanaffordto.Thebasicfacts are simple and stark. Harmful microbes are frequently

present on foods. They can’t be completely removed by washing, andsomecansurvivecooking.Saladsandmanyothernourishingfoodsareeaten raw or lightly cooked and can make people sick. Foodtemperatureshighenough toquicklykillallharmfulmicrobesalsokilldeliciousness.And foodscooked tobe safemay remain safe foronlyafewhours unlesswe act to protect them.Amoment’s carelessness canundothegreatestcare.Thesesimplefactstoucheveryhousehold.TheU.S.CentersforDisease

Control estimate that unsafe food sickensnearly200,000people everydayandkillsadozen.It is possible to prepare foods that are both delicious and safe. This

takescareandeffort,andworkingwithguidelinesthatarenotsosimple,because foods and microbes are not simple. But anyone who cooksshouldmaketheeffort,fortheirownsakeaswellasforothers.My father likes his hamburgers rarer than rare—“Wave it near the

grill,”hewouldsay—andheregularlysufferedforit.Groundmeatsareamongthefoodsmost frequentlycontaminatedwithharmfulmicrobes.Whenhemovedcloseenoughformetocookforhim,ItoldhimthatIwouldtakecareofhishamburgerhabit,anddevelopedawaytopreparethe meat to ensure its safety even when it’s barely cooked (see thispage). Ever since, both of us have been able to relax and enjoy ourburgerswithoutasecondthought.Don’t be put off by the many dos and don’ts below. They’re just

specific applications of a few basic habits. Keep raw foods cold and

clean.Cookthemproperly.Servecookedfoodspromptly.Chillleftoverspromptly.Start lookingoveryourownshoulderwithsafety inmindasyoucook,andyou’llcomeupwithyourownchecklistofthemanysmallactions thatcanmakeadifference. It’llbecomesecondnature to thinkaboutmakingfoodssafelyandsafeaswellasdelicious.

COOKINGSAFELY

Themain hazard in the cooking process is physical injury from sharpedges,powerfulmachines,andhighheat.Kitcheninjuriesareusuallytheresultofforeseeableaccidents.Afewcommonsensehabitswillreducetheoddsofanaccidentalinjury.Wear longsleeves,pants,andshoeswhenyoucook, toprotect skinandlimbsfromhotovenedges,scaldingspills,anddroppedknivesandglass.Unplug cutting, grinding, and blending machines before handlingtheirblades.Keep knives sharp, and put themdownwell away from countertopedges.Dull knives requiremorepressure andmaymoveunpredictablybeforepenetratingthefood.Always use knives on a cutting board, and cut away from fingers.Keepthecuttingboardfromshiftingduringusebyplacingitonamoisttowel.Keeptowels,potholders,andmittshandytogriphotpans,handles,ovenracks,andmicrowavecontainers.Make sure that towels, pot holders, and mitts are dry or made ofwaterproof materials. Even a little moisture can transmit heat rapidlyfromhotmetalandcauseburnsanddroppedpots.Blisteringburnsresultwhen skin is exposed for a few seconds to 140°F/60°C, andinstantaneouslyat160°F/70°Candabove.Turnpothandlesoverthestovetoptoavoidcollidingwiththemandcausingspills.Beforemovingahotcontainer,make sure that theway is clearandthere’saheat-resistantsurfacetoplaceiton.

Lift lidsoffhotpansbackedgefirst, toallowsteamtoescapeawayfrom you.When emptying a pot of cookingwater into the sink, pourslowlytominimizesteaming.To minimize the splatter of hot oil, thoroughly dry foods beforefrying.Coverthepanwithasplatterscreen.Fumes from high-temperature cooking can cause immediatediscomfort and chronic illness. They contain irritating and toxicchemicals.Equip your stove with a hood and exhaust fan that vent to theoutdoors, especially if you do a lot of frying or oven roasting. Manystove-top hoods filter some fumes and spatter from the air butrecirculatetherestbackintothekitchen.Openthekitchenwindowstodilutefumeswithfreshair.

DEALINGWITHCUTS,BURNS,ANDFIRE

It’simportantandeasytopreparefortheaftermathofkitchenaccidents.Equipyourkitchenwithsmalland largegauzebandages,antibioticwoundcream,andafireextinguisherratedforkitchenuse(classKorclassBfires).Readthedirectionsforusingtheextinguisher,andcheckthe pressure gauge regularly. Keep it near the door youwould escapethroughintheeventofafire.If you cut yourself, hold the cut under cold runningwater towashawayfooddebris.Drywithacleantowelandapplyantibioticcreamandabandage.Ifnecessary,holdthecutaboveheartleveltoreducebloodflow.Ifthecutwon’tstopbleeding,getemergencymedicalhelp.If you burn yourself, hold the burn under cold running water forseveralminutes,orapplyaclothcooledrepeatedlywithcoldtapwater,orcool the skinonacan taken fromthe refrigerator.Protect theburnwithagauzebandage.Iftheburnislargeorifsignsofinfectiondevelop,getmedicalhelp.Don’tputicecubesorfrozengelpacksontoaburn.Extremecoldcancauseadditionalskindamage.Moderatecoolingminimizesdamageand

painandspeedshealing.Iftheburnissevere,getemergencymedicalhelpandkeep theburn

coveredwithamoistcloth.Intheeventoffire,trytoputouttheflamesbysmotheringthemwith

a fire extinguisher or salt.Waterwill only spread burning oil and cancreatethehazardofelectricalshock.Iftheflamesareconfinedtoapot,coveritwiththelid.Ifyoucan’tputoutafireinafewseconds,evacuatethekitchenand

call911.

FOODBORNEILLNESS,OR“FOODPOISONING”

Themain hazard in the foodswe cook is “food poisoning,” foodborneillness caused by microbes that either infect us or sicken us with thetoxinstheyleaveinfoods.Toxinsusuallysickenuswithinafewhours,whileinfectionsmaytakeadayormoretomakeusfeelill.Microbes are everywhere in the kitchen, on foods and work

surfaces,inthesink,intheair,andonthecook.Microbesareinvisiblysmall bacteria, molds, yeasts, viruses, and parasites (some wormlikeparasites are big enough to see). They canbepresent on foods by themillions without causing obvious signs of spoilage. People can carrymicrobesandspreadthemwithoutbeingaffectedbythem.Foodborne illness is caused by microbes whose names are familiar

from the news—E. coli, salmonella, listeria, botulism bacteria—andothers that are less familiar but just as harmful (campylobacter,staphylococcus, vibrio, Bacillus cereus, noroviruses). They’re found inmanydifferentfoods,butmostofteninfoodsfromanimals:meats,fishandshellfish,eggs,anddairyproducts.A few bad microbes in a food can quickly multiply into many

thousands.Onecellinapieceofwarm,moistfoodcandivideintotwoevery20minutes,andproduceseveralthousandcellsinjust4hours.Afewbacteriaareseldomenoughtocauseillness,butafewthousandcanbeplenty.Microbesmultiply at temperatures in themicrobegrowth zone,

between 40 to 130°F/5 to 55°C. Most microbes don’t grow attemperatures close to the freezing point. They grow quickly at roomtemperature, very quickly at body and warm food temperatures, thenmore slowly as the temperature approaches 130°F/55°C, where theybegintodie.Wecancontroltheirnumbersbykeepingfoodsoutofthemicrobe growth zone: by storing them cold, cooking and eating themhot,andchillingleftoversrightaway.The higher the food temperature, the fastermicrobes die. Mostbacteria die in a couple of hours at 130°F/55°C, a few minutes at140°F/60°C,andinstantlyat170°F/75°Candabove.Viruses, often the culprit in illness caused by shellfish, aredestroyedonlyat temperatures close to theboil, 212°F/100°C. If afood is contaminatedwith viruses, even cooking that renders it toughmaynotmakeitsafetoeat.Somedormantmicrobesporessurviveveryhighheatandreviveasthefoodcoolsdown.Thesecangrowinfoodandcauseillnesseventhoughthefoodhasbeenfullycooked.Thisiswhyit’simportanttokeepleftovershotorrefrigeratethempromptly.Ordinarycookingcan’teliminateallmicrobesandtoxinsinfood.The onlyway to guaranteemicrobe-and toxin-free food is to pressure-cookitforhoursandconsumeitimmediately.Suchfoodwouldalsobepleasurefree.

MAXIMIZINGSAFETYFORVULNERABLEPEOPLE

Safety ismore important than anyother considerationwhenyou cookfor people who are especially vulnerable to physical illness: youngchildren, pregnant or nursingwomen, the elderly, and anyonewho isalready ill or takingmedication. Even antacids lower our resistance tofoodborneillness.Thereareseveralwaystomakeeatingassafeaspossible.Don’tserverawsaladsoranyrawfruitsorvegetablesthatcan’tbepeeled.Washfoodsthoroughlybeforepeeling.Servepasteurizedmilksandfruitjuices.Don’tservesoftcheeses.

Don’t serve raw or undercooked meats, fish or shellfish, eggs, ordairyproducts.Don’tservefreshoysters,mussels,orclamsinanyform.Allofthem

cancarryvirusesandtoxinsthatsurvivecooking.Cookmost foods toaminimumtemperatureof160°F/70°Cat their

center, intact cutsofmeat to140°F/60°C.Check temperatureswithanaccuratethermometer.Boilhome-cannedfoodsfor10minutes.Oncefoodshavebeencooked,holdthematroomtemperatureforno

morethan4hours,or1hourifit’swarm.Forlongerservingtimes,holdthefoodshot,ataminimumof130°F/55°C.

BALANCINGFOODSAFETYWITHFOODQUALITY

Many foodsaremostdeliciouswheneaten rawor lightly cooked.Greensaladsandsushiaredeliciousrawfoods.Cooked fishgetsdry ifheatedtoatemperatureabove120°F/50°C,beefabove140°F/60°C,andeggyolksabove145°F/63°C.Mostpeopleingoodhealthaccepttheriskofeatingsomefoods

rawor lightly cooked. That risk canbe greatly reducedby followingtheguidelinesbelow.To further minimize the risk of eating lightly cooked foods,

compensateforlowcookedtemperaturesbyholdingthetemperatureforalongertime.Checktemperatureswithanaccuratethermometer.Microbenumbersaregreatlyreducedbyholdingfoodscoveredatan

internaltemperatureof130°F/55°Cforatleast2hours,135°F/57°Cforatleast40minutes,140°F/60°Cforatleast15minutes,and150°F/65°Cforatleast5minutes.

GUIDELINESFORPREPARINGSAFEFOODS

Therearethreegeneralrulesforlimitingtheriskoffoodborneillness:

Startwithwholesomeingredients,andavoidcontaminatingthemwith

harmfulmicrobes.Keepperishablerawfoodsandleftovercookedfoodscolderthan40°F/5°C.Cookfoodsthoroughlyenoughtokillmostharmfulmicrobes,andservethempromptly.

Manyspecificpracticesfollowfromthesegeneralrules.Buy foods that appear to bewholesome,with no visible damage or

badsmells.Checksell-bydates. If they’re fromarefrigeratedcaseorafreezer, make sure they’re actually cold or frozen. Avoid moldy ordiscolored foods (mold-ripenedcheesesexcepted),orpackages thatareleaking. Avoid or discard bulging cans, cracked or open jars, or anysealed containers that showother signs ofmicrobial growth, includingunusualbubblingorclouding.Transferperishablerefrigeratedandfrozenfoodstoyourrefrigerator

promptly. Perishables include raw meats, fish, shellfish, eggs, dairyproducts, and precut vegetables and fruits. Bag cold and frozen foodstogethertokeepthemascoldaspossible.Iftherewillbeadelay,bringalongacoolerandsomeice.Don’t letperishablessit inawarmcarorkitchenforhours.Storeperishable foodsatorbelow40°F/5°C, in thecoldrearof the

refrigerator. Check refrigerator temperatures regularly with athermometer and adjust the thermostat if necessary.Open the door asseldomandbrieflyaspossible.Leavefoodsinthecolduntiljustbeforeyoupreparethem.Thawfrozenfoodsintherefrigeratororinicewater.Don’tthawat

roomtemperature,whichallowsfoodsurfacestobecomewarmenoughformicrobestogrow.Keephands,worksurfaces,andtoolsascleanaspossiblethroughout

cooking. Cooks can contaminate otherwise sound food by carelesshandling.Wash hands and wrists with soap and warm water, rubbing all

surfaces vigorously. Before you wash, use a nailbrush to clean undernails.Repeathandwashingduringthecookingprocesswheneverhandsare exposed to microbes by handling food, opening doors, answering

phones, reaching into pockets, covering coughs and sneezes, using thetoilet, and touching other people or pets. Dry hands on clean towels,eitherdisposableorusedonlyforthatpurpose.Toavoidrepeatedhandwashing,weardisposableplasticgloveswhilehandlingfood.Rinse foods in running water, and scrub away obvious soiling.Washingdoesn’teliminatemicrobes,butcanreducetheirnumbersandthecontaminationthatcanoccurwhenpeelingproduceorevenopeningdirtycans.Don’tusesoaps,whichcanleaveresiduesonthefood.Avoid placing produce or meats in the sink. Use a clean containerinstead. If you have to use the sink to rinse large amounts of food,sanitizeitwithavinegarorbleachsolutionimmediatelybeforehandandafterward.Haveonecuttingboardjustformeatsandfish,andaseparateoneforother ingredients,soyoucanprepareamealwithoutbeingtemptedtoskipcleaningbetweenuses.Uselargeboardswithachannelaroundtheedge to avoid spilling pieces or juices. After preparing foods, rinseboardsandknivesthoroughly,thenwashthemwithhotsoapywateranddry. For addedprotection, sanitize cuttingboardswith a solutionof 1partdistilledvinegarto2partswater.Don’t cough or sneeze over foods, or dip fingers in food to taste.Whencheckingseasoning,useacleanspoonforeachtaste.Clean thermometer shafts with soapy water between temperaturechecks.Ifyoumoistenafoodwithamarinadeorsaucewhileit’scookingandalsowanttoserveitwiththefinishedfood,cooktheliquidthoroughlyjustbeforeserving.Put cooked foodson cleandishes, not on theuncleaneddishes thatheldtherawingredients.Heatfoodssteadily.Makesurethat the foodreachesmicrobe-killingtemperatures within 6 hours. Don’t let them linger at warmmicrobe-multiplyingtemperatures.Makesurethatyoucookfoodsasthoroughlyasyouintendto.Useathermometertoverifycookingandfoodtemperatures.When cooking in themicrowave,make sure that all portions of the

dishreachthecorrecttemperature.Microwaveovenscanheatunevenly.For the safe preparation of particular foods, see the chapters thatfollow.

SERVINGFOODSAFELY

Servefoodsassoonaspossibleafterfinishingtheirpreparation.Thisisespecially important for gently cooked egg,meat, and fish dishes, anddishesmadewithcream.Allowroastedmeatarestperiodbeforecarving,butonceit’scarved,serveitimmediately.Carveonascrupulouslycleancuttingboard.Tomake salads that combine cookedwith raw ingredients, such aspotatoesorpastaorbeanswithfreshherbs,coolthecookedingredientsbefore combining, to minimize the growth of microbes on the herbs.Includevinegarinthedressingtohelpdiscouragemicrobegrowth.Don’tallowfoods toremainatroomtemperatureor in themicrobegrowthzone—40to130°F/5to55°C—formorethan4hours,1houronahotday.To serve foods over several hours at parties or buffets, reserveportions in the refrigerator or in the oven, held covered at or above130°F/55°C, and serve as needed in fresh dishes. Don’t refill emptieddisheswithout washing them first. Or serve foods directly from a hotchafingdishorcoldfromabedofice.Don’t follow the 5-second rule. Food dropped on the floor iscontaminated immediately. If you can’t remove the contaminatedsurface,discardthefood.Inform guests of ingredients thatmay not be obvious and that arecommon causes of allergic reactions, which can be serious. Theseinclude nuts and grains, tree fruits, dairy products and eggs, andshellfish.

GUIDELINESFORHANDLINGLEFTOVERS

Refrigerateor freeze leftovercooked foodsas soonandasquicklyas

possible,within4hoursofcooking.Ifadishhasbeenleftoutovernight,discardit.Don’tput largeamountsofwarmfooddirectly into therefrigerator

orfreezer. Itmayendupspendinga long time in themicrobegrowthzone, and will heat the chilled foods around it, compromising theirquality.Divide large volumes of warm food among smaller containers to

speedcooling.Immerse the containers in cold or ice water first, to further speed

coolingandminimizewarmingoftherefrigeratororfreezer.Usemostrefrigeratedleftoverswithinafewdays.Thawfrozenleftoversintherefrigeratororimmersedinicewater.Reheat cooked leftovers to a minimum of 160°F/70°C, covered to

avoidheatlossfromevaporatingmoisture.Whenindoubtaboutthesafetyofafood,throwitout.Illnessismore

costlythandiscardedfood.

CLEANINGUPANDSANITIZING

Cleaningupremovesfoodresiduesandmicrobessothatnewfoodscanbepreparedandservedsafely.Sanitizing is theprocessof treatingkitchenworksurfaces to reduce

thenumbersofmicrobesonthemandmakethemsafeforcontactwithfood. Microbes persist on apparently clean sinks and dry counters,drainingracksandboards,onfaucets,evenindishwashers.Tominimizethetroubleofcleaningup,usepanlids,spatterguards,

andspoonreststokeepfoodsandprocessescontained.Rinse, soak, and clean as you cook. Food residueswill come off all

surfaceswithlesswork,soap,andwateriftheydon’thaveachancetodry.Hottapwateranddetergentsareeffectiveatdetachingandrinsing

awaymostfoodresiduesfromsurfaces.Undercookedeggsanduncookeddoughshardeninhighheatandsoftenbetterinwarmwater.

Dishwashersarea time-savingandthoroughwayofcleaningdishesand utensils. Make sure your hot-water heater supplies the necessarywatertemperatureforpropercleaning,intherangeof120to150°F/50to65°C.Use lye oven cleaners carefully for baked or charred residues on

ovens, outdoor grills, and nonaluminum pots. Lye is caustic and candamageskinandclothes.Bacteriathriveinmoistspongesandinscouringpads,cloths,and

brushes,which spread them toother surfaceswhenused to “clean.”Asoursmellisatelltalesignoflargebacterialpopulations.Usequick-dryingclothsandbrushes formostcleaning,spongesonly

forsoakinguppuddlesofwater.Replace kitchen linens everydayor two, and launder in hotwater.

Useseparatetowelsfordryinghandsandsurfaces.Sanitizeyourkitchenworkareas regularlywithvinegar,household

chlorinebleach,orboilingwater.It’sespeciallyimportantafterhandlingrawmeats, poultry, fish, and fruits and vegetables that grow in closecontactwiththesoil.Treatfaucetsandrefrigeratordoorhandlesalso.Tosanitizeworksurfaces:

Scrubthesurfaceswithsoapandhotwater,rinseanddry.Sprayorwipedownthesurfaceswithadilutedsolutionofdistilledvinegar,1partto2partswater,orhouseholdbleach,1teaspoon/5millilitersperquart/literofwater.Usevinegarforwoodcuttingboards,whichchlorinewilldiscolor.Allowthesurfacestodry,andthenrinseorwipeoffwithcleanwetcloths.Ventilatethekitchenwellandleavetheroomwhilebleachacts;itformstoxicvolatileorganiccompounds.

Tosanitizecleaningsponges,pads,andcloths,holdtheminapotofboilingwater for 5minutes; or soak in bleach or vinegar solution; orwet,wraplooselyinplasticwrap,andmicrowaveuntilsteaming.Runyourdishwasher’shigh-temperaturesanitizingcycleregularly,if

ithasone.

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FRUITS

ruitsoffereverydayinspirationtothecookwhentheyremindushow needlessly delicious and beautiful foods can be. Fruits aretheonlyfoodswehavethatweredesignedtobebothtastyand

eye-catching forus—and forour fellowplant-eatinganimals.Andwithno cooking required, just the self-preparation we call ripening. Plantsmakefruitsappealing,brightandsweetandjuicy,socreaturesthatcanmovearoundwilleatthemandspreadtheirseedsfarandwide.Missionaccomplished.Trulydeliciousfruitsaren’tnecessarilyeasytocomeby,especially if

youpicknotfromthetreebutfromthesupermarketbin,wherethey’reseldom ripe and at their best. I feel lucky to have gorged on wildblackberries as a child, and to have planted peach and nectarine andcherry and fig treeswhose fruit I could let linger before harvest untilthey were soft and ripe to the core. These remain touchstones ofdeliciousnessforme,asdothetastesofmyvisitafewyearsagotothenational collection of apple varieties in Geneva, New York, where Isampled more apple flavors in a day, anise and banana and roseamazinglyamongthem,thanIhadinalltherestofmylife.Ifyoudon’thaveagarden,oragardeningneighbor,oranearbynationalcollection,thenseekoutfarmer’smarketsormakeapickingexpedition,andgathersometouchstonesofyourown.Inspiringly ripe fruits can alsobe a challenge to the cook:what can

youmakewith them thatwill be an improvement over giving themawash,aplate,andanapkin?Well,thetextureofadriedapricot,velvetyoutside and chewy within, the distractionless intensity of a seedlessraspberrypuree,theslow-developingrubycolorofsimmeredquince,thenaturalspicinessofapplescookedforafewminutesintoasauce.Justtobeginwith.

FRUITSAFETY

Themainhazardsposedbyfruitsresideontheirsurfaces.Bacteria, viruses, and chemical residues can end up on fruitsurfaces during growth in the field, harvest, processing, shipping, andsale.Fruits carryingharmfulbacteria regularlycause seriousoutbreaksof illness. You can’t always recognize contaminated fruits by theirappearanceorsmell.Washing can’t eliminate allmicrobesor chemical residues fromfruits.Tominimizetheirhazards,peelfruitsand/orcookthem.Don’t serve raw unpeeled fruits to people who are especiallyvulnerabletoillness.Prepareallfruitswithcare,especiallythosethatgrowonorneartheground.Wash soiledmelon rindswith soapywater before cutting intothem.Wash fruits thoroughly in copious water. If you don’t use themimmediately,drythemtodiscouragesurfacemicrobes.Trim awaymoldy or discolored parts alongwith awidemargin ofhealthy-lookingflesh.Servepeeledorcutrawfruitspromptly.Tokeepthemformorethananhouror two, refrigerate them.Sprinklewithstronglyacid lemonorlimejuicetoslowthegrowthofmicrobes.Keepprecutfruitsrefrigerateduntiljustbeforeserving.Dried fruits treated with sulfites can cause life-threateningreactions in people who suffer from asthma or allergies. If this is aconcern,checklabelsandbuyfruitsdriedwithoutsulfites.

FRUITRIPENING

Fresh fruits are alive and at their best when they’re fully ripe.Ripening is the natural process by which mature fruits soften anddevelop flavor. Once fully ripe, many fruits continue to change andbecome overripe— too soft and unpleasantly flavored—and prone tospoiling.

Most fruits are harvested and sold before they’re fully ripe, sothey’ll be firmer and less easily bruised, and will keep longer beforespoiling.Fruitsgenerallyripeninoneoftwodifferentways.Plant-ripening fruits don’t develop much flavor after they’reharvested from the tree or vine, and should taste goodwhen you buythem.They includecitrus fruits,mostberries,grapes,cherries,melons,pineapples,andplums.Delayed-ripeningfruitscontinuetodevelopflavorandsoftenafterharvest.Thesefruitsarebestheldforseveraldaysuntiltheysoftenandtheir flavor peaks. They include apricots, avocados, bananas, kiwis,mangoes, pears, peaches and nectarines, persimmons, and tomatoes.Applesalsosoftenandsweetenwithtimebutareusuallypreferredwhilethey’restillcrisp.To speed ripening, keep delayed-ripening fruits in a warm place toquicken their metabolism and enclose them in a paper or perforatedplastic bag, if possible with an already softening piece of fruit, toconcentratetheirripeninggas,ethylene.Don’tkeeptheminanairtightbag,whichwillsuffocatethem.

SHOPPINGFORFRUITS

Witha fewexceptions, thebest-quality fresh fruitsare those thathavebeenripenedfullyonthetreeorplant,handledwithcarenottodamagetheirsoftflesh,andbroughttomarketwithinadayortwo.Most supermarket fruits are picked hard and unripe and shippedhundredsorthousandsofmiles.Buy local fruits in season whenever possible. Out-of-season fruitscome from far away and are picked before their full flavor hasdeveloped.Taste samples before buying. Looks can be deceiving, and bargainfruitsareoftenontheedgeofspoiling.Heirloomandnovelvarietiesareoften more flavorful than the standard mass-produced types, but notalways.

Bewareofglossysupermarketfruits,whichareoftencoatedwithwaxtomaximizeshelflife.Amattesurfacethatbecomesshinywithrubbinghasretainedtheplant’snaturalwax,andcanbeasignoffresherfruit.Choosesmall-tomedium-sizefruitswithbrightcolorsandafirm,full

appearance. Very large fruits are oftenwatery and less flavorful. Heftfruitsandchoosethosethatfeelheavyfortheirsize.Chooseplant-ripeningfruitsthatappeartobetheripest:full-colored,

soft,andaromatic.Avoid fruits that lookwrinkled, leathery, dented, bruised, slimy, or

moldy.Atfarmer’smarkets,avoidfruitsthathavebeensittinginfullsunandgottenhottothetouch.Prolongedhighheatharmsfreshfruit.Examine berry baskets from the bottom and sides, and avoid those

withsignsofdamage,leakedjuices,ormold.Don’tputheavyitemsontopoffreshfruitsinshoppingcartsorbags.

Physicalpressuredamagesthemandspeedsspoilage.Precutfruitsareconvenientbutvulnerabletospoilage,especially

afterthepackageisopened.Frozen fruits can equal or better the flavor quality of fresh,

especially delicate berries that spoil quickly after harvest. But freezingdamagestheirtexture,whichbecomessoftandleaky.Choosefrozenpackagesfromthecoldestcornersofthefreezer,and

just before you check out, tominimize partial thawing. Bring a picniccoolertotransportfrozenfoodshome.Dried fruits come in two forms. Some are treatedwith sulfites to

preservetheircolor, flavor,andvitamins.Nonsulfitedfruitsareusuallybrownandhaveamoregenericraisinyflavor.They’resafertoservetopeoplewithasthmaorallergies.Buycannedfruitssoldintheirownjuices,notinasugarsyrup.Traditionalfruitpreservesarehighinsugartoproducetheirthick

consistency.Manypreserves that claim tohave lessornoadded sugararemadewithconcentratedgrapeandotherjuices,andcontainasmuchsugarasstandardpreserves.

STORINGFRUITS

Fresh fruits are alive and breathing. They exhale moisture, whichencouragesmold growth and spoilage if it’s trapped on their surfaces.Berries are especially fragile due to their active metabolism and thinskins.Theaiminstoring fruits is toslowthe inevitablegrowthof spoilagemicrobes,andsometimestoslowthefruits’metabolism.Tokeepmostfruitsforafewdays,removethemfrombagsorbasketsand place them in a single layer on a surface lined with moisture-absorbingclothorpaper.Pilingtrapsmoisture,causesdentsandbruises,andspeedsspoilage.Keepfragileberriesforadayatroomtemperature,spacedapartonaplatterorbakingsheetlinedwithclothorpaper.Tokeepthemlonger,refrigerateinaplasticbasketenclosedinagentlyinflatedplasticbag,toreducecontactbetweenbagandberrysurfaces.Todelaymoldgrowthonberries,especiallyifyouseeitbeginningonsome berries in a basket, heat a pot ofwater to 125°F/52°C, immerseandgentlymovetheberriesaroundinthewaterfor30-45seconds,thenallowthemtodryinasinglelayer.Tokeepmostripefruitsformorethanafewdays,refrigeratethem,enclosedinaproducedrawerorplasticbagtoslowmoistureloss.Keep tomatoes at cool room temperature, to avoid flavor lossescausedbytemperaturesbelow50°F/10°C.Don’trefrigeratefruitsuntilthey’veripenedfully.Coldtemperaturescandamagetheirabilitytoripen.To restore the flavor of refrigerated fruits, remove them from coldstorageat least several hours before using them.Cold suspends aromaproductionandreleaseinfruits.Tofreezerawfruitsforusewithinafewweeks,washandcutthemupifnecessary,tosscutfruitswithpowderedvitaminC(ascorbicacid)toreducebrowningandoff flavors,andplaceonabakingsheet inthefreezeruntilhard.Storethefrozenpieceswrappedtightlytopreventoffflavors from freezer burn or the freezer itself. Or freeze the piecesimmersed in a container of medium to heavy sugar syrup (5 to 10

tablespoons/75to150gramssugarpercup/250milliliterswater).To freeze fruits formore thana fewweeks, “blanch” them first by

dropping them into boiling water for a few minutes. This inactivatesfruit enzymes and prevents them from slowly creating off flavors anddestroyingnutrients.Tokeepdried fruits formore thana fewweeks,wrap themairtight

andstoreintherefrigerator.Driedfruitsslowlybrownandloseflavor.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGWITHFRUITS

Fruits are filled with sugars, acids, sensitive pigments, and activeenzymesthatcancomplicatetheirpreparation.Always start by washing fruits thoroughly, even if you’re going to

removetheirpeels.Aknifecaneasilytransfersurfacecontaminationtotheinnerflesh.Toaidthepeelingoftomatoes,stonefruits,andcitrusfruits,blanchin

simmeringwater:10 to15 seconds for thin skins,aminute for thickercitrusskins.Use stainless steel or ceramic knives to cut fruits. Carbon steelwill

causeofftastesandcolors.Cutfruitstoroughlythesamesizesothatpieceswillcookthroughat

thesametime.Tominimizetheoxidationandbrowndiscolorationofsusceptiblecut

orpeeledfruitswhileyou’repreparingthem,protecttheirsurfaceswithantioxidant vitamin C (ascorbic acid), themost effective treatment, orwithanacidthatslowstheresponsiblebrowningenzyme.Immersethemin ice water containing dissolved vitamin C (a crushed 250-milligramtabletpercup/250milliliters),orcitricacid(soursalt)orlemonjuice(1gram citric acid or 1 tablespoon/15 grams lemon juice per cup/250milliliters).OrtosstheminpowderedvitaminCorcitricacid,orlemonjuice. Fruits susceptible to browning include apples, bananas, peaches,andpears.Use cut or peeled fruit immediately, or cover it closely and

refrigerate.

Use stainless steel, enamel, ceramic, or nonstick utensils to cookfruits. Contact with bare aluminum or iron turns some pigments blueandgreenandimpartsametallictaste.Whenexposedtodryheat,fruitsbrownandscorchquicklythanks

to their high sugar content. Usemoderate temperatures when baking,frying,andgrilling.Somerawfruitscontainenzymesthatliquefygelatin-basedjellies

and canmakemilk and cream taste bitter. These include fig, melons,pineapple, and kiwi. To make a jelly with these fruits, cook themthroughtodisabletheirenzymesbeforecombiningwiththegelatin,orusecannedfruits,ormakethejellywithprotein-freeagar.Fruit acids and tannins curdle milk and cream, especially when

they’rewarmorhot.Dried fruits absorb water from other ingredients. If this isn’t

desirable,asinmakingbakedgoods,presoaktheminwateroranotherliquid,orbrieflysteamthem.

RAWFRUITSANDFRUITJUICES

Rawfruitsandjuicesarefragile,bestservedimmediatelyorimmediatelychilled.Preparerawfruitswithcarefullycleanedhands,utensils,andcutting

surfaces.Washthefruitthoroughlyandcutawayanybruisedormoldyareas.Combat brown discoloration in fruits prone to it, especially apples,

pears,andbananas,bytreatingpieceswithvitaminCoracids(seetheprecedingpage).Juicing extracts the flavorful and nutritious fluids in fruits, leaving

behind most of the solid structural materials, or fiber. The thoroughmixing of fruit enzymes and othermaterialswith the airmakes juicesespeciallyquicktoloseflavor,color,andnutrients.Use rawcut fruitsor juices immediately, or cover themcloselyand

refrigerate.Toslowjuicedeterioration,immediatelyadd1gramvitaminCtoeachquartorliterofjuice.

Tofreezefruitjuicesintoicesandsorbets,seethispage.

FRUITPUREES,SAUCES,BUTTERS,ANDPASTES

Pureeing breaks up fruit flesh and individual fruit cells, and creates athick fluid thatcan serveasa flavorful ingredientor sauce.The fruit’ssolidstructuralmaterialsgivebodytothewateryfluids.For fine-textured, silky purees, use a blender. Food mills andprocessorsusuallyproduceacoarser result.For the finest texture,passpureesthroughastrainer.To minimize the browning of light-colored fruit purees, includingapple, banana, peach, and pear, prechill fruits and dust pieces withpowderedvitaminCbeforepureeing.Serve fresh purees quickly, or press plastic wrap directly onto thesurface and refrigerate or freeze. Fresh pureed fruit is an unstablemixtureof enzymesandothermaterials that reactwithoxygen,and itquicklydeteriorates.Tofreezefruitpureesintoicesandsorbets,seethispage.Cookingfruitpureesremoveswater,thickenstheirconsistencies,andintensifiesflavor.Fruitbutters,pastes,andcheesesarepureescookedthickenoughtobecome spreadable or solid. They’re usually made with apples, pears,quinces,andguavas,andtakehoursofgentleheatingtocookoffmuchoftheirmoisturewithoutscorching.Toavoid scorching a puree, heat it in a broad panwith occasionalstirringinanovenat225°F/110°C.Oronthestovetop,turndowntheheatgraduallyasitbecomesmoreconcentrated,andstirandscrapethebottomincreasinglyoften.Pureesmovemoreslowlyastheythicken,andstickandscorchmoreeasilyonthepanbottom.Start cooking apple, pear, and quince purees with the whole fruit,minus stemsanddried flower remains at thebottom, and strain skins,seed,andcorewhenthefruitbreaksdown.Skinsandseedsaddflavor.

DEHYDRATINGFRUITSANDFRUITPUREES

Dehydrating fruits and fruit purees preserves them indefinitely,intensifies their flavor, and gives them a pleasantly chewy texture.Dehydratedpureesareoftencalledleathers.Heat fruits and purees at very low oven temperatures, 130 to160°F/55 to 70°C, to avoid hardening the surface before the innermoisturehasescaped,andtoavoiddamagetocolorandflavor.Forthegreatestcontrol,useanelectricfooddryer.Cutfruitintothinslices,andspreadpureesintoathinlayer,tospeeddrying.Refrigerate dried fruit pieces and leathers, wrapped airtight, tomaintaintheir flavorandtexture.Theyslowlyturnbrown, losearoma,andtoughen.

POACHINGFRUITS,COMPOTES

Poachingfruits insugarsyrupstabilizestheircolorandflavor,andcaneither firm their texture or soften them tomake a compote. Compoteliquids often include fruit juices whose acidity can slow and controlsoftening.Cutfruitsintoequal-sizepiecessothatthey’llcookevenly.Presoakorprecookdryfruitsinliquidtoremoistenthem.Adjust the syrup’s sugar concentration to the task. Use a low-sugarsyrup,3or4volumeswaterto1volumesugar,tosoftenfirmfruitsandmake a compote. Use a high-sugar syrup, 2 or 3 volumes sugar to 1volumewater,tofirmthesurfaceofsoftfruits.Keep the syrup at a gentle simmer to avoid damaging the fruitsurfaces,eitheronthestovetoporinamoderateoven.Check the fruit’s firmness frequently, and remove from the heatpromptly to avoid overcooking. Both softening and firming take just afewminutes.

BAKINGANDFRYINGFRUITS

Bakingandfryingaredifferentmethodsforapplyingdryheattofruits,removingmoisture, softening them,concentratinganddeveloping theirflavor,andcreatingsweetcaramelaromas.Bakingcooksslowlyandevenlywiththeoven’shotairandwalls,and

tendstoconcentratethejuicesinthefruit.Fryingcooksmorerapidlythroughcontactwithhotfatoroilandthe

metalpan,andreducesleakedjuicestoastickybrownsyrup.Buttercontributescaramelaromastofruitscookedwithit,andworks

especiallywellforfryingfruitsorgreasingabakingdish.Bake and fry atmedium to low heat. Fruits are high in sugar, and

brownandscorcheasily.To bakewhole fruits, pierce or partly peel them so that theywon’t

burstduringbaking.

GRILLINGANDBROILINGFRUITS

Grillingandbroilingexposefruitstothehightemperatureofaflameorglowingelectricalelement.Theycreateadarkbrownorcharredsurfaceandcharacteristicflavor.Fruit surfaces brown and char quickly thanks to their high sugar

content.Thedarkerthatsugarsarecooked,thelesssweetandthemorebittertheyget.Toevenoutthebrowningofthefruitsurface, lightlyoilorbutterit

beforecooking.Thekeytogoodgrilledorbroiledfruit istobalancerapidsurface

browningwithslowerheatingthrough.Cookingratesdependontheintensityoftheheatsource,thedistance

betweentheheatsourceandfruit,andthefruit’ssugarcontent.For maximum flexibility in grilling, have one area very hot for

browning,andasecondmoderatelyhotareaforheatingthrough.Colorthefruitsasdesiredovertheveryhotarea,thenfinishcookingoverthemoderatearea.Check fruits frequently during broiling to make sure they don’t

blacken excessively. If they’re well colored before they heat through,finishthecookingintheoven.

CANNINGFRUITS

Canningcooksandpreservesfruitpieces,purees,andjuicesindefinitelybyisolatingthemcompletelyandheatingthemhotandlongenoughtokillallmicrobes.Improperly canned fruits will deteriorate quickly, and can be

dangerous.Iftheheattreatmentisinsufficientorthehandlingcareless,itcanencouragethegrowthofpotentiallyfatalbotulismbacteria.Follow well-established guidelines carefully. Consult the U.S.

Department of Agriculture’s Complete Guide to Home Canning andPreserving,availableinprintorontheUSDAWebsite,www.usda.gov,ormakesurethatyourrecipeincludesthesesteps:

Preparethejarsandlidsinboilingwater.Heatthefruitpreparationortheliquidportionofittoaboil.Sealthehotfruitpreparationinthehotjarsairtight.Heatthejarsfullyimmersedinboilingwaterorinapressurecanner.Timingsvarydependingonthejarsizeandkitchenaltitude.High-temperaturepressurecanningisessentialforafewlow-acidfruits(figs,papayas).Checkthecooledjarstomakesurethelidsarebowedinthecenterandthesealremainsairtight.

MAKINGJAMS,JELLIES,ANDSUGARPRESERVES

Jams, jellies, and other traditional sugar preserves treat fruit with acombinationofthoroughheatingandenoughaddedsugartodiscouragethegrowthofspoilagemicrobes.Sugar isusuallythemainingredient in fruitpreserves.Preserves

that contain60 to65percent sugarbyweightaremost stableand setinto the traditional spreadable solid consistency. Lower sugar levelsmake thinner preserves that require refrigeration to slow spoilage by

molds.Acidity andpectin content also determine the consistency of jams

andjellies.Pectinisanaturalthickeningagentinfruits,anditrequireshighacidityinordertoset.Afruitmayhaveenoughacidandpectintosetonitsown,ormayneedsupplementingwithoneorboth.Count on adding pectin to many berries, stone fruits, and tropical

fruits.Pectin issold inpowderedandliquidform.Totest foradequatepectin, prepare the fruit by simmering, then mix 1 spoonful with 3spoonfulsofdenaturedrubbingalcohol.Ifthefruit liquidformsasolidmass,itcontainsenoughpectintomakefirmpreserves.There are two main cooking steps in making fruit preserves,

simmeringthefruitalone,andthenboilingitwithsugar.Firstsimmerthefruitaloneorwithwatertofreethefruitfluidsand

thickening pectin from the flesh. Supplement if desired by includingpectin-richapplecoresorlemonpith.Tomake a clear jelly, strain the simmered fruit andwater through

severallayersofcheeseclothbygravityalone,withoutpressingdownonthefruitsolids.Pressingwillmakeacloudyjelly.Thencook the fruitor its strained liquidwithsugar andanypectin

preparation at a rolling boil, and evaporate excess water until themixture reaches 217 to 226°F/103 to 108°C (at sea level). Thetemperatureindicatesthatthemixturehasevaporatedenoughwaterandreachedthecorrectsugarconcentration.Forthefreshestflavorandgreatestpectin-thickeningpower,keepthe

cooking periods as brief as possible. Prolonged high heat and aciditybreakdownpectin.Tospeedevaporationandminimizecookingtime,maximizethearea

offruitmixexposedtotheair.Cooksmallbatchesinawidepan.Useapanwithhighsides,topreventthemixfromboilingover.Totestthemixwhenithasboiledatthecorrecttemperature,placea

drop on a cold spoon or plate, and refrigerate for 2 to 3 minutes. Itshouldset.If the testdrop fails to set, call themixa fruit sauceandenjoy the

more immediate flavor release it provides compared to a jam. Or

combinemorepectinand/oracidwithasmallamountofthemix,addtothepot,andreboil.Tostorepreservesindefinitelyatroomtemperature,packinsterilized

jars and process them in boilingwater. Times depend on jar size andkitchenaltitude.Consult theU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture’sCompleteGuidetoHomeCanningandPreserving,availableinprintorontheUSDAWebsite,www.usda.gov.Tostorepreservesforonlyafewweeksintherefrigerator,pourthem

intocleanplasticorglasscontainersandcover.Uncookedandlow-sugarjamsarepreservelikespreadsthatarenot

true preserves, and must be refrigerated. They’re made with specialpackaged pectins. They are quicker to prepare, contain a higherproportionoffruittosugar,andretainmorefresh-fruitflavor.Tomakeuncookedorlow-sugarjams,followthedirectionsthatcome

withthespeciallytreatedpectinsthatmakethesespreadspossible.

PRESERVINGFRUITSINALCOHOL

High-alcoholspiritscanpreserveandflavor fruits,andbe flavoredandcolored by them. Vodka and brandy are common choices. Wine andsherrydon’thaveenoughalcohol topreserve fruits, so storewine-fruitmixturesintherefrigerator.Keepfruitcompletelysubmergedinthealcohol.Weightherawfruit,

and use at least the same weight of spirits that contain around 40percent alcohol, so that themixturewill be about 20 percent alcohol.Inadequatealcoholmayallowthefruittospoil.

PICKLINGFRUITSANDPRESERVINGLEMONS

Pickling flavors fruits in a sweet-sour mixture of sugar, vinegar, andspices,andpreservesthemfordaystomonthsintherefrigerator,monthswhencanned.Topicklefruits,cleanthefruitsthoroughly,cutintopieces,bringtoa

simmer with the other ingredients, and cook until somewhat tender,

whichmaytakehours.Pickledfruitsretainsomefirmnessthankstothehighacidandsugarofthepicklingliquid.Storefinishedpicklesintherefrigerator,orcanthem.Preserved lemons are pickled in a mixture of salt and their own

highlyacidjuices.To make preserved lemons, wash unwaxed lemons well, partly cut

them into four connectedquartersandcrowd them intoa jar, sprinklethemliberallywithsalt,topupthejarwithlemonjuice,cover,andkeepat room temperature for several weeks, until the lemons soften anddeveloparicharoma.Make sure that all of the lemons are always fully submerged in

liquid.Store preserved lemons in the refrigerator tomaintain their texture

andaroma,or at room temperature for continued softeningand flavordevelopment.

COMMONFRUITS:APPLESTOWATERMELON

Applescomeinmanyvarieties,somedenseandcrisp,someporousandmealy,somewithdistinctiveflavors,somefirmandsomemushywhencooked.Keepapplesintherefrigeratortomaintaintheirflavorandtexture.To preview an apple’s cooked texture, microwave a few slices just

untilsoft,orbrieflybakethem.Varietiesthatholdtheirshapewellwhenbaked whole include Cortland, Empire, Jonagold, Northern Spy, andRome.McIntoshapplesbecomeveryfragilewhencookedinanyway.Apricotsquicklypassfromripetomushy.Torescuemushyapricots,

cookthemforafewminutesintoathicksauce,orcuttheminhalfanddrytheminalowoven.Driedapricotscomeintwomainmarketstyles:paleanddeeporange.

Choose thedeeporange type for thebest flavor andnutritional value.Both are treated with sulfites. Less common sulfite-free apricots arebrownandhaveagenericraisinyflavor.Bananasrequireholdingatroomtemperatureinordertoripen.Don’t

refrigerate them until they’re fully ripe. Refrigeration will darken theskinbutnottheripeflesh.Plantainsarevarietiesofbananathatdon’tgetassweetorsoftwhentheyripen.For cooking,use firm, slightlyunripebananas,or replace themwithplantains.Berries—blackberries,blueberries, raspberries, strawberries—aresmall,mostlyfragilefruitsthatcangomoldyinhours.Usethemassoonaspossibleafterbuyingthem,andrinsejustbeforeusing.Berries freezequicklyandwellonbakingsheets for latercooking.Whenfrozen,slidethemintoaplasticfreezerbag,squeezetheairout,andsealtightly.Allberrieswillleakjuiceswhenthawed.Cherries keep best when they’re picked with the stem on. Sweetvarieties are themost common; sour cherries (morello,Montmorency)are a different species with a distinctive flavor, and are preferred forpies.Intensifytheflavorincookedcherrydishesbyleavingthepitsin.Butservewithawarning!Citrus fruits—grapefruit, lemons, limes, oranges, mandarins,pomelos—are high-acid fruits whose segmented interior is filled withsmall,separatejuicesacs.Mostcitrusaroma is in theouterpeelorzest, the thincolored layerdottedwithoilglandsthatliesabovethebitterwhitepith.Usethezestbypeeling itoffwithas littlepithaspossible.Add it todishesor flexpiecesofpeeltosprayskinaromaticoilsontothejuiceorotherfoods.Choosecitrusfruitsthatfeelheavyandfirmandhaveathinflexiblepeel.TheclimatesofCaliforniaandTexasoftenproduceespeciallydeepcolorsandflavors.Ifyou’llbeusingthepeel,choosefruitsthathaven’tbeencoatedwithwax.Tosqueezeoutthemostjuicefromacitrusfruit,preparethefruitbypressingdownwhilerollingitonacuttingboard.Thisweakenstheskinandinnerfruitstructure.Use juicemade from seedless navel oranges within a few hours. Itslowlybecomesbitter.Valenciaandotherjuiceorangesdon’thavethis

problem.Cranberries keep forweeks refrigerated thanks to theirhighacidityand antimicrobial compounds. Their high pectin content produces athicksaucewithjustafewminutesofcooking.Pickthroughcranberriescarefullyanddiscardsoftberries.Thestrongofftasteofjustafewcanspoilabatchofsauceoradish.Datesaremostcommonlyavailabledried,butworthseekingoutfreshandenjoyingintheircrunchyandmoistsoftstages.Keepfreshdatesinasinglelayeratroomtemperature.Figs are very perishable thanks to their highmoisture content, lowacidity,andasmallopeninginsomevarieties(BrownTurkey,Mission)that exposes theirmoist interior to insects andmicrobes. They can bespoiledinsidewithoutobviousexternalsigns.Eatfreshfigswithinaday,orrefrigerateorcookthem.Toensureagainstservingorcookingspoiledfigs,cuttheminhalftochecktheirinterior.Grapesareusuallyharvestedbeforethey’refullyripe,whentheyhaveacrisptextureandwillkeepwellforweeksinacoldrefrigerator.Formore flavorful grapes, choose “green” grapes that have ripenedenoughtoturnyellow,orespeciallyflavorfulvarieties,includingmuscatandConcord.Kiwi fruits are firm and tart and decorative, with a beautifullypatternedcrosssection,andbecomesofter,sweeter,andmorearomaticastheyripen.Kiwi fruits contain oxalate crystals that irritate the throatwhen thefruitsarejuiced,pureed,ordried.Rawkiwisliquefygelatinjellies.Mangoes are shipped unripe from several tropical regions of theworld and can improve in sweetness and aroma in the kitchen. Theycome in many different varieties, some very fibrous, others almostcustardlikeintexture.Don’t refrigerate these tropical fruits until they’ve fully ripened atroomtemperature.Melons(notincludingwatermelons)fallintotwogroups:

Winter melons (honeydew, casaba, canary, crenshaw) usually havewhiteorgreenfleshandcankeepformorethanamonthatcoolroomtemperature.Summer melons (cantaloupe, musk, Persian) usually have orangeflesh,areespeciallyaromatic,andkeepforuptotwoweeks.Choose melons that are heavy, with little or no green color in theskin, and that give slightly when pressed at the stem end and flowerends.Summermelonsshouldhaveapleasantaroma,butwintermelonswillhavelittleornone.Wash melons in warm, soapy water before cutting, and minimizecontactbetween fleshandskinasyouhandle them.Theygrowon thegroundandcancarrymicrobesontheirsurface.Nectarines are a fuzzless version of the peach, less susceptible tomoldsandbruises,andwithafirmertextureandmoreintenseflavor.Buy nectarines in season from local producers. Cold storage beforethey’reripeproducesadry,mealytexture.Choosenectarines that feel heavy, and refrigerate only after they’veripened.Papayasaretropicalfruits,andcomeintwotypes:smallandyellow-fleshed,andlargerandsalmon-pink.Unripepapayasareblandbutcrisp,shredded for salads in Thai cooking. Ripe ones are soft and aromatic.Rawpapayasliquefygelatinjellies.Choosepapayaswith littleornogreen in theskinandwithevidentsoftspots,whichoftendevelopbeforetheinnerfleshisfullyripe.Storepapayasatroomtemperature.Refrigerateonlyaftercuttingup.Papaya seeds taste likenasturtium flowersandcanbeused for theirmildpepperiness.Peachesareamongthemostfragiletreefruits;theybruiseandmoldeasily.Handlethemgently,anddon’tpileinthefruitbowl.Buy peaches in season from local producers. Cold storage beforethey’reripeproducesadry,mealytexture.Choose peaches that feel heavy, and refrigerate only after they’veripened.

Pears are best when harvested hard and ripened at a cool roomtemperature.Whenharvestedafterripeningbegins,theybecomemealy.Buypearsinseasonfromlocalproducers.Coldstoragebeforethey’veripenedturnsthembrownandmushyatthecore.Ripen hard pears at cool room temperature. Warmth makes themmealy.Refrigerateonlyafterthey’veripened,andkeepthemforanotherdayortwo;ripepearsdeterioratequickly.Persimmonshaveamildflavorandcomeintwoverydifferenttypes.Pointed-bottom Hachiya types are inedibly astringent until the fruitbecomesverysoft.Flat-bottomFuyutypesarenotastringentandcanbeeatencrisp.Toremoveastringency fromfirmHachiyapersimmons,vacuum-packthefruitsandkeepthemwarm,atabout100°F/40°C,for24hours.Tomakeatraditionaldarkpersimmonpudding, leavenwithbakingsoda and cook for hours. For an orange pudding, leaven with bakingpowderandcookjustuntildone.Pineapples are tropical fruits, harvested before their prime andshippedlongdistances.Theycontinuetosofteninthekitchenbutdon’tbecomemoreflavorful.Differentpartsofthefruithavedifferentflavorbalances.Thebottomisthesweetest,andtheouterlayersarethetartest.Choosepineappleswithyellowskinandevidentaroma,andnosignsofmoldinessonthebottom,thefirstpartofthefruittoripen.Don’t use fresh pineapple in dishes that include gelatin or milkproducts.Its enzymes prevent gelatin from setting and make milk productsbitter.Cookingeliminatestheenzymeactivity.Plums come in two families. Japanese varieties are usually round,very moist, and tart-skinned. European varieties are elongated, dryer,andsweeter.Pluotsaremeaty,largeplum-apricothybrids.UseEuropeanplumsinbaking.Japanesevarietiesaretoowatery.Beware of eating too many plums or prunes at one sitting. Theycontainlaxativesugars.

Pomegranateshavealeatheryskinenclosingdozensofsmall,delicatefruitlets,eachcontainingredjuiceandaseed.To extract pomegranate fruitletswithminimalmess, score the skin

withaknife,thenholdthewholefruitunderwater,peeltheskinaway,andgentlypushfruitletsofftheinnermembranes.Quincesarefragrantrelativesoftheappleandpear,withafleshthat

stayshardandastringentuntilheated,andcooksdownintoafirmslice-ablemass(Italiancotognata,Spanishmembrillo).Todeepenquinceflavor,includethepeelinthedish,andstrainoutif

desired.To develop a translucent ruby-red color in off-white quince slices,

cookthemgentlyforhoursinalightsugarsyrup.Rhubarbisnotatruefruit,butthetart,fibrous,celerylikestalkofa

large-leaved bush. Some varieties are red, others green. Store it likeothervegetables,intherefrigerator.Choose firm, thin stalks with small fibers. Strip tough fibers from

largerstalks.Keepredrhubarbintenselycoloredandallrhubarbneatlyintactby

minimizing cooking liquid and cooking time. Rhubarb starts todisintegratewhencookedformorethanafewminutes.Watermelons now come in various flesh colors, with and without

developed seeds. Even “seedless” watermelons have small, immatureseeds.Watermelonsdon’tdevelopmoreflavorafterharvest.Choosewatermelons that are heavy for their size and have a light

yellowbackgroundskincolor,anindicationoffruitmaturity.Washwatermelons inwarm soapywater before cutting. They grow

onthegroundandcancarrymicrobesontheirsurface.Don’tstorewatermelonsintherefrigeratorformorethanafewdays.

They’reawarm-climatefruitandwillsoften.

V

8

VEGETABLESANDFRESHHERBS

egetablesaren’t sweetandsoftandeasy to lovethewayfruitsare. It takesacook tomake tubers, stalks,and leaves lovable.That’sbecauseplantsnotonlydidn’tdesignthemtobedelicious

astheydidfruits,manytriedtheirbesttoprotectthembymakingthemreallyunpleasant.Theflavorsofmostvegetables—andofthefreshherbsthatweuseto

add flavor to dishes—are actually there to serve as chemicalwarningsandweapons and deter insects and other creatures from eating them.Thisismoreobviousforsuchstrong-flavoredfoodsasgarlicandonionsandtheirrelatives,bitterchicories,mustardgreensandradishesandtheothermembersofthecabbagefamily,andchillis.Buteventhe“green”flavorsoflettucesandspinachandartichokes,andtheearthyaromasofmushroomsandbeets,comefromchemicals that irritateandrepel.Wecanenjoyallthesefoodsbecausecookingaltersanddisarmsordisguisestheirweaponry, or in the caseofherbs, becausewe eat them in smallquantitiesasaccentsratherthanamaincourse.Apartfromseed-carryingfruitsthatwetreatasvegetables,notablythe

tomato, most vegetables don’t ripen the way fruits do. They’re ediblewhen they’re a freshly sprouted seed and remain edible until they’vebecome too fibrous to chew.Much of the producewe see inmarkets,farmer’smarketsincluded,hasbeenharvestedlateinitsediblelife,formaximum mass and durability. Until I had a chance to grow somevegetables myself and chew on them every day or two through theseason, I hadn’t noticed that big romaine lettuce leaves often tasterubbery, or realized how unlike their usual oversize versions midsizechard and collards are, tender and sweet and mild after just a fewminutesofcooking.Soitpaystobejustaspickywithvegetablesaswithfruitsifyouwant

tomakethemostoftheirwonderfullyvariousflavors,textures,shapes,colors,andpossibilitiesforcookingandserving.

VEGETABLEANDHERBSAFETY

Themain hazards from vegetables and herbs aremicrobes,which canenduponandembeddedinvegetablesandherbsduringgrowthinthefield,harvest,washing,packing,andsale.Vegetablesandherbscarryingharmfulbacteriacauseoutbreaksofillnesseveryyear.Youcan’talwaysrecognizecontaminatedvegetablesorherbsbytheir appearance or smell, or by their apparent cleanness, even inprepackedbags.Washingcan’teliminateallmicrobesfromvegetablesandherbs.Theonlywaytoguaranteetheirsafetyistocookthem.Don’tserverawvegetablesorherbs,includingsalads,topeoplewhoareespeciallyvulnerabletoillness.Prepare and serve raw vegetables and herbs with care. Trim awaymoldyordiscoloredpartswithawidemarginandrinsethemthoroughlyincopiouswater.Keeppreparedrawvegetableschilleduntilyouservethem,includingpackagedprecutvegetables.Minimizecontactbetweenherbleavesandtheircutends,especiallyiftheendshavebeenkeptwetandhospitabletomicrobes.Cutortwistoffthestemsbeforewashingandchoppingtheleaves.Washhands,knives,andcuttingboardswithwarm,soapywaterafterhandlingrawvegetablesandherbs.Potatoes accumulate toxic compounds in response to light, andceleryinresponsetostress.Don’tusepotatoesthathaveturnedgreenwithoutfirstpeelingdeeplytoremove toxicalkaloidsnear thesurface.Don’tusegreenpotatoes tomakestuffedpotatoskins.Discardbadlywiltedcelery,whichmaycontaincompoundsthatcauseskinrash.

SHOPPINGFORVEGETABLESANDHERBS

Fresh vegetables and herbs are alive and breathing, and any thatgrowabovethegroundshouldlooklikeit.(Rootvegetablesandonionslook dormant and are.) The best-quality fresh vegetables are themostrecentlyharvestedandmostcarefullyhandled.Extra-large vegetables are usually the most mature, and can becoarseintextureandflavor.Tiny “baby” or “micro” vegetables are immature, mild in flavor,andexpensive.Choosevegetablesandherbswithdeepcolors,afirm,fullappearance,andfreshlycutstems.Freshbutslightlywiltedleafyvegetablescanbeagood choice because they’remore flexible and less easily cracked anddamagedduringhandlingthanstiffleaves.They’reeasilyrehydratedbysoakinginwater.Avoidvegetablesandherbsthatlookdull,wrinkled,dented,bruised,slimy,moldy,orthathavebrown,drycutstems,orthathavestartedtosprout.Atfarmer’smarkets,avoidvegetablesandherbsthathavebeensittinginfullsunandarehottothetouch.Precutvegetablesareconvenientbutmorevulnerabletospoilagethan intact vegetables, and are often wilted. Refresh them in ice-coldwaterbeforeusing.Frozenvegetablescanequalorbetterthequalityoffresh,especiallyvegetables that lose flavor and tenderness rapidly after harvest. Theseincludegreenpeasandlimabeans,andsweetcorn.Choosepackagesoffrozenvegetablesfromthecoldestcornersofthemarketfreezer,andjustbeforeyoucheckout.Bagfrozenfoodstogether,andtransportthemhomeinacooler.Repeatedthawingandrefreezingdamagesthequalityoffrozenfoods.

STORINGFRESHVEGETABLESANDHERBS

Freshvegetablesandherbsgraduallydeteriorateastheyuseuptheirlimitedwaterandfoodreserves.Theaiminstoringthemistoslowtheirdeteriorationbyslowingtheirmetabolismandmoistureloss.

Tomatoesandavocadosarefruitsandneedtoripenbeforeweslowtheirmetabolism.Speedtheirripeningbyenclosingtheminapaperbagto concentrate the ripening gas, ethylene, and keeping it in a warmplace.Keep most vegetables and herbs in the refrigerator, enclosed in a

producedrawerorplasticbag topreventmoisture loss.Before storing,remove damaged portions and rubber bands or ties. Remove moreperishable and nutrient-consuming green tops from root vegetables.Partly inflate plastic bags to minimize direct contact with produce,whichtrapsitsexhaledmoistureandcauseslocalwaterlogging.Produceshouldbemoistbutnotwet.Keepcold-sensitivevegetablesandherbsatcoolroomtemperatureto

preventdamageorsprouting.Theseincludetomatoes,unripeavocados,onionsandgarlic,basil,andpotatoestobeusedforfrying,whichwhenchilledaccumulatesugarsthatcausethemtobrowntooquickly.Tostoreherbswithfleshystems,includingparsley,cilantro,anddill,

removemetalorrubberbands,cutoff the lowerstems,wash, roll inamoistpapertowel,andrefrigerateinaplasticbag.Orstripoffthelowerleaves, recut the stems to make a fresh surface for absorbing water,immersethestemsinwaterinaglass,andenclosetheglassandherbsinapartlyinflatedplasticproducebag.Keep most herbs in the refrigerator, cold-sensitive basil at room

temperature.Tokeepdry-climateherbs, includingbay leaves,oregano, rosemary,

sage, and thyme, rinse themwell, then spread themon a plate to dryover a few days at room temperature. To dry them faster in a humidclimate,usealowovenordehydrator.To freeze vegetables, blanch them first to inactivate plant enzymes

that cause off flavors, colors, and vitamin loss. Wash them, cut intopiecesthatwillheatthroughquicklyandevenly,anddropintoboilingwater for2 to3minutes.Chill immediately in icewater, thenpatdryand freeze.Store thepieceswrapped tightly inplasticwrap topreventoffflavorsfromfreezerburnorfromthefreezeritself.To freeze fleshy herbs, rinse and pat them dry, freeze quickly on a

plate or baking sheet, then wrap them tightly in plastic wrap. This

preservesflavorreasonablywell,but theherbswill turndarkandlimpandwetwhenthawed.To preserve herbs under oil or flavor oil with herbs, be careful toguardagainst thegrowthofbotulismbacteria,which thrive inair-freeconditions. Rinse herbs thoroughly and dry them. Premarinate garlicclovesinvinegar.Keepthecontainersinacoldcorneroftherefrigeratorthatstaysbelow40°F/4°C.Useherbsandoilswithinafewweeks.

SPROUTSANDMICROGREENS

Sproutsandmicrogreensareveryyoungvegetables,onlyafewdaysold.They’re milder in flavor than mature vegetables, delicately crisp, andusuallyeatenraw.Sproutsareacommoncauseoffoodborneillness.Bacteriareadilygrowonthemoistsurfacesofgerminatingseeds.Don’tserverawsproutstopeoplewhoarevulnerabletoillness.Tomakesproutsormicrogreens:

Buyseedsintendedforsproutingandeating,notplanting.Gardenseedsmaybetreatedwithtoxicprotectivechemicals.Soaktheseedsinwaterforseveralhours,thenrinseanddrain.Keeptheseedsinasproutingjar,coolandshieldedfromlight,untilthey’rereadyinseveraldays.Rinseanddraintheseedsseveraltimesadaytopreventtheaccumulationofmicrobes.

Eatsproutsandmicrogreenspromptly,orstoreinthecoldestcorneroftherefrigeratorandcookthoroughlybeforeeating.

RAWSALADS

Raw salads are simple to make but reward attention to details withbettertexture.Wash salad leaves, fresh herbs, and other ingredients in severalchanges of water until the water remains clear and gritless. Trim ordiscarddamagedleaves.

Reduce leaf size by tearing gently or using a sharp knife. Avoidsqueezinganddullknives,whichdamageleavesandproducedarkedgesandpatches.Cutothervegetablesintobite-sizepieces.Crisp leaves and other ingredients by immersing them for up to 15

minutesinicewater.Bothwaterandcoldincreaseplanttissuestiffness.Chill the dressing in the refrigerator or freezer to thicken its

consistency and help it cling to the leaves. Chill the bowl to keep thesaladcoldasit’spreparedandserved.Dryleavesthoroughlyusingaspinnerand/ortowel.Applythedressingjustbeforeserving,andusejustenoughtocoatthe

ingredientslightly.To dress a salad that will be served over a long period, use a

mayonnaiseorotherwater-baseddressing,whichwiltsanddarkenstheleavesmoreslowlythanoil-basedvinaigrettes.Todistribute just enoughdressingquicklyand evenly, feel and toss

theleaveswithyourfingers(afterwashingyourhandswithwarm,soapywater).

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGVEGETABLESANDHERBS

Cooking generally softens vegetable texture, deepens flavor, increasestheavailabilityofsomenutrientswhilereducingthelevelsofothers,andeliminatesmicrobes.Hightemperaturesandminimalcookingtimesusuallyproducethe

best results.Vegetable tissues soften slowlyataround190°F/85°C,andfaster at the boil. Overcooking turns most vegetables mushy andunpleasantlyaromatic.Thinleavesaredoneinjustaminuteortwo.Somevegetablesareslowtosoftenornevergetcompletelysoftwhen

cooked. Beets, water chestnuts, bamboo shoots, lotus root, and manymushrooms remain firmnaturally. Potatoes and someother vegetablescan be usefullymade to do so by holding themat around140°F/60°Cbeforeboilingthem.Acidcookingliquidswillalsoslowthesofteningofmostvegetables.Tocookvegetableswell, tastethemfrequently,andstopthecooking

assoonastheyreachthedesiredtexture.Cut vegetables to roughly the same size so that pieces will cook

throughatthesametime.Toslowdiscolorationofcutorpeeledvegetablespronetobrowning,

including potatoes and artichokes, drop the pieces into ice watercontainingdissolvedantioxidantvitaminC(250milligramspercup/250milliliters), or acidulated with lemon juice or citric acid (1tablespoon/15 grams juice or 1 gram acid per cup/250milliliters).OrtosswithpowderedvitaminC,lemonjuice,orcitricacid.Cutgreenvegetablesintopiecesthatwillcookthroughin5minutes

orless.Thechlorophyllpigments turndull ifcookedmuch longer.Cutmature leaves from their thick stalks andmidribs so that they can becookedseparatelyandmorebriefly.“Shocking” green vegetables in cold water right after cooking

isn’t necessary to “set the color.” It’s a restaurant method thatprevents the continued cookingand colordulling that canoccurwhenhotvegetablesaresimplypiledinacolanderafterboilingorsteaming.Shockedvegetableshavetobereheatedtoservethemhot,andreheatingcandullcolortoo.At home, cool just-cooked vegetables to nondulling serving

temperatureby transferring them to the servingdishand tossing themwithanyotheringredients.Acids of any kind dull green chlorophyll. Dress green vegetables

with acidic ingredients (vinegar, tomatoes, or lemon or other fruitjuices)atthelastminute.Topreventawrinkledsurfaceonmanycookedvegetables,including

asparagus,greenbeans,carrots,andcorn,coatthemrightaftercookingwith a little oil or butter. This prevents the hot vegetable from losingevaporatedmoistureandshrinking.Cookmostfrozenvegetableswithoutthawing.Forspinachandother

delicate leaves that cook very quickly, thaw just enough to break theblockapartintosmallpieces.Herbsareseldomcookedontheirown,eitherbecausetheirflavors

aretoostrongorthey’retooeasilylostincooking.

Purees of parsley retain their colors and flavor well, while cilantrolosesitsaromaandbasildarkens.Blanchingforafewsecondsinboilingwaterhelpsretaingreencolors,andcilantroaroma,butdiminishesbasilaroma.Brieffryingcrispsmostherbleavesandleavesthemtranslucentwhiletaming the pungency of sage and oregano and retaining some nativearoma in basil and parsley. A few seconds in oil at 350°F/175°C isenough for most leaves. Avoid pressing the leaves against the panbottom,whichbrownsthem.

BOILINGVEGETABLES

Boiling cooks vegetables by direct contact with water at about212°F/100°C. The boiling point ofwater decreases, and cooking timesincrease,atelevationsmuchabovesealevel.Theadvantageofboiling is that it cooksvegetablesquickly,whichhelpspreservevitaminCandthebrightgreencolorofchlorophyll.The disadvantages of boiling are the time and energy it takes tobringalargepotofwatertotheboil,andthelossofnutrientsleachedoutbythecookingwater.Don’t cut vegetables too finely before boiling. Cut surfaces releasemoreflavorandnutrientstothewater.Startwithalargevolumeofwatersothatitstemperaturewon’tdroptoofarwhenthevegetablesareadded.Sixquartsorlitersareenoughfor1to2pounds/0.5to1kilogramofvegetables.Add salt to the cookingwater, asmuch as 2 tablespoons/30 gramsgranulated or 4 tablespoons flake per quart or liter, to reduce theleachingoutofvegetablecomponentsandspeed the softeningofplantcell walls. Salt does not raise the boiling temperature significantly ortoughenvegetables.Bringthewatertoahardboilfirstandbringitbacktotheboilasfastaspossibleafteraddingthevegetables,toinactivatedamagingenzymesquickly. Partly cover the pot to reduce cooling caused by evaporationandreducetheheattomaintainasteadyboil.

Checkthevegetablesoftenbyprobingwithaknifetiportasting,andremovethemassoonasthey’resoftenough.Tokeepgreenvegetables lookingvibrant,boil themfor less than10minutes.Ifnecessary,cutthemintosmallpiecesthatcookquickly.Greenvegetablesstaygreenlongerinneutraloralkalinewater.Ifyours turn dull in 5 or 10minutes, then try adding small amounts ofbakingsodatothecookingwater.Toomuchsodawillquicklyturnthemmushy.Some vegetables are best partly cooked at temperatures belowtheboilthatfirmtheirtexture.To boil potatoes and other starchy vegetables, start them in coldwater slightly acidified with lemon juice or cream of tartar, and heatthemgraduallyup to180 to190°F/80 to85°C.Thismethodhelps thevegetablesurfacesstayintactwhilethepiecescookthrough.To keep root vegetables firm and intact for tossing in a vegetablesalad, precook pieces in water at 130 to 140°F/55 to 60°C for 30minutes.Chilltheminicewaterfor30minutes,thenboiluntiltender.Freshly drained boiled vegetables lose moisture and shrink astheyreleasesteam.Tostopwrinkling,coolandtossthevegetableswithjustenoughoiltocoatthem.

STEAMINGVEGETABLES

Steaming cooks vegetables with water vapor, whose effectivetemperature is the boiling point of water. The food is held on a rackaboveboilingwaterinaclosedpot.Steaminghastwoadvantagesoverboiling.It’smuchmoreefficientbecause it requires heating only a cup or two of water instead of apotful. And it leaches fewer nutrients and flavor substances from thevegetabletissues.Steaming has two disadvantages. It takes slightly longer thanboilingbecausesteamislessdensethanliquidwater.Anditcan’tsoftensomeoldandtoughvegetablesaswellbecauseitdoesn’tdissolvetheircellwallsaseffectively.

Startwithenoughwater toavoidboiling italloffandscorching thepot bottom. If cooking takes more than 10 minutes, check the waterleveloccasionallyandifnecessaryaddmorewaterhotfromthekettle.Bringthewatertoaboilbeforeaddingthevegetablestothesteamer.

Temperaturesbelowtheboilcausegreatervitaminlossandchlorophylldiscoloration.Don’t cram vegetable pieces into the steamer. This causes uneven

exposuretothesteamandunevencooking.Arrange vegetables loosely, in a single layer, or open pile, or on

separate stacked steaming racks, to allow the steam access to allsurfaces.Leafvegetablesquicklycollapseintoadensepile.Checkthemafteraminuteortwoandteasethemapart.Coverthepotwithatight-fittinglidtotrapthesteam.Usemoderateheattokeepasteadythreadofsteamescapingfromthe

lidedge.Highheatwon’tincreasethesteamtemperature.To check doneness safely, turn the heat off, lift the lid away from

you,andletthesteamescape.Thenuselongtongsoraprotectivemittto avoid exposing your hand to the pot interior. Steam can cause aseriousburninaninstant.Freshlysteamedhotvegetablesevaporatemoistureandwrinkle.

Tostopwrinkling,coolandtoss thevegetableswith justenoughoil tocoatthem.

MICROWAVECOOKINGVEGETABLES

Microwave ovens heatwith high-frequency radiowaves that penetratean inch or so into food. They pass mostly unabsorbed through glass,ceramic,andplastic,sovegetablescanbemicrowaveddirectlyinservingcontainers.Microwavingisaveryefficientandrapidwaytocooksmallportions

ofvegetables,andpreservestheirvitaminsandflavorbetterthanboilingorsteaming.The disadvantage of microwaving is that doneness is more

troublesometocheck.

Cutthevegetablesinpieceslessthan1inch/2.5centimetersthick,sothatthey’llcookthroughevenly.Wholeartichokesandearsofcorncanbemicrowavedintact.Toss themwith somewater and oil or butter to prevent them from

dryingoutastheycook.Placetheminasinglelayerorlooselypiledforevenexposuretothe

microwaves.Cover the dish loosely with a lid or other dish or plastic wrap to

retain thesteamcreatedduringthecooking,whichspeedsheatingandpreventsdryingout.Avoiddirectcontactbetweenplasticwrapandfoodandthepossibletransferofplasticresidues.Don’tcoverthedishairtight,orsteampressurewillbuildupandburstthecoveringoff.Cookvegetablesonhighpowertospeedheating.Useaturntableforevenheating,orstopcookingeveryfewminutes

tostirandevenoutheating.Lift the covering with caution to avoid being burned by escaping

steam.

PRESSURE-COOKINGVEGETABLES

Pressure-cooking heats vegetables with liquid water and/or steam attemperaturesfarabovetheboilingpoint,around250°F/120°C.Itsoftensvegetablesveryquicklycomparedtoothercookingmethods.Pressure-cookingworksbestwithfirmvegetablessuchasbeetsand

carrotsthat takemorethanafewminutestocook,anddishesthataremeant to be soft textured, including purees. It doesn’tworkwellwithlarge whole vegetables, whose outsides usually overcook while thecentersheatthrough.The disadvantages of pressure-cooking are the speed with which

vegetablescanovercook,andthetroubleittakestoreducethepressure,checkdoneness,andresumecookingifnecessary.Alwaysuseatimer,andstopthecooking immediatelywhen itgoes

off. To keep pieces intact, let the pot temperature and pressure fallslowly.Rapid cooling anddepressurizingwill cause internal boiling in

thefoodsandbreakthemapart.

BRAISINGANDSTEWINGVEGETABLES

Braisingandstewingcookvegetablesinflavorfulliquidsthatarepartofthedish.Thesemethodssoftenthevegetableswhile imbuingthemandtheliquidwitheachother’sflavors.Vegetablesoftencomeoutpoorlydonewhencookedwithmeat.Traditional longbraisingata simmer to tenderize themeatcan turn

vegetables mushy. Modern braising at lower temperatures can leavevegetablesunderdone.Forthebestbraisedvegetables, takeasmuchcarewiththeirtexture

aswiththemeat’s.In traditional braising near the boil, check vegetables cooked from

thebeginningoftenandremovethemwhenthey’reproperlydone,eachin turn if thereare several vegetables.Return to thebraise justbeforeserving.Oraddfreshvegetablesforthelast30minutesofcooking.Inmodernmeatbraises cookedat150 to160°F/65 to70°C, either

precookthevegetablesatasimmerbeforeaddingthemeat,orremovethemeatwhen it’s doneand raise the liquid temperature to finish thevegetables.

MASHINGANDPUREEINGVEGETABLES

Mashingandpureeingarewaystodisintegratevegetabletissuesintoamass of cell fragments and fluids, using mortars, food mills, foodprocessors, andblenders.Dependingon theproportionof fragments tofluids,theresultisasoft,lumpypastelikemashedpotatoes,orathick,evenfluidlikecauliflowerpuree.To make the smoothest paste and puree textures, cook foods until

very soft, process in ablender, andpass througha fine strainer.Don’tworry about overcooking; it’s important to break down the food’sstructurethoroughly.Don’t usemachines to process or blend potatoes and other starchy

vegetables.Theirbladesshearapartstarchgranulesandproduceathin,glueymass.Tomatoesarewateryandproducepureesthatseparateintothick

andthinportions.To make an evenly thick tomato puree, remove the excess water.

Simmeraslongasneededinanopenandwidepot,onthestovetoporinamoderateoven.Orstrainoffthewateryportion,reduceitquicklyinasmallsaucepan,andthenadditbacktothethickportion.Orhalveandpredryfreshtomatoesinalowovenbeforepureeing.Pesto is a puree of green herbs, usually fresh basil leaves, thinned

with oil and often including garlic, nuts, and cheese. Breaking leaftissuescanchangeflavorandcausediscoloration.Toretainmoreoriginalherbflavorinpesto,crushtheleavescoarsely

inamortarsothatsmallpiecesofleaftissueremainintact.To reduce discoloration in pesto, use leaves only, not stems.

Blanching the leaves for a few seconds in boiling water will reducediscolorationbutalsomutesbasilflavor.

FRYING,SAUTÉING,SWEATING,GLAZING,ANDWILTINGVEGETABLES

Frying, sautéing, sweating,glazing,andwiltingareallwaysofheatingvegetablesinametalpanwithasmallamountoffatoroil.Frying and sautéing cook vegetables in an uncovered pan at

temperatures high enough to vaporize theirmoisture instantly, so thattheir surfaces dry out, turn brown, and develop characteristic friedflavors. In sautéing, smallpiecesarekeptmoving tocook themevenlyandquickly.Frying vegetables evenly requires close attention. As they cook they

releasesugaryjuicesthatcanquicklyscorch.Stir-frying is sautéing done very quickly at very high temperatures,

whichcreatedistinctiveflavors.Sweating softens vegetables at low pan temperatures so that their

surfacesremainmoistandunbrowned.

Glazingcooksvegetablesintwostages:firstinacoveredmoderatelyhot panwith some oil or fat but little or no added liquid, essentiallysteamingthemsoftwiththeirownmoisture;thenuncovered,toboiloffmost of themoisture and leave themwith a creamy clinging layer ofemulsifiedmoistureandoil.Wilting tender leafy greens softens and collapses them and reduces

theirvolumebyhalformorebyheatingthembrieflyinahotoiledpan.Don’t worry about heaping them high in the pan; they quickly cookdown.There are two ways to fry vegetables. One is to keep the pan

temperature high, not crowd the pan, and make sure that no liquidaccumulates.Theother,oftenwarnedagainstincookbooks,istocrowdthe pan, let the vegetable fill itwith liquid, thenheat until the liquidevaporatesandthevegetables fry in theoil.Thesecondmethodworkswellwithnotoriouslyleakymushroomsandeggplant,whichabsorblessoilthantheydoiffriedcompletelydry.Tofryorsautévegetablesdry:

Drythevegetablesofexcesssurfacemoisture.Preheatthepanaloneto400°F/200°C,andaddoilandthenthevegetables.Startwiththeburneronhigh,andadjusttokeepthesizzleofrapidwatervaporizingconstant.Leavethepanuncovered,oruseaperforatedspatterguard,oradjustthelidsothatwatervaporcanescape.Turnorstirthevegetablesfrequentlytocookthemonallsides.

Tofryvegetablesinminimaloil:

Addasmallamountofoilalongwiththevegetablestothecoldpan,cover,andturnontheheattomedium.Whenliquidaccumulates,uncoverandincreasetheheattoboilthewateroff.Whenyouheartheoilsizzling,turntheheatbackdownandstiruntilevenlybrowned.

Tostir-fryvegetables:

Useanuncoatedmetalwok,whichcantoleratehightemperaturesandiswellshapedtokeepthefoodmovingconstantly.Mostnonsticksurfacesshouldn’tbeheatedtostir-fryingtemperatures.Preheatthewokorpanonhighheatto450to500°F/230to260°C,sothatatestdropofoilimmediatelybeginstosmoke.Addoil,thenvegetablescutsmallenoughtocookinaminuteortwo.Stirthevegetablesconstantlyuntilthey’recookedthrough.

DEEP-ANDSHALLOW-FRYINGVEGETABLESANDHERBS

Deep-and shallow-frying cook vegetables at moisture-vaporizing,browningtemperaturesinenoughoiltoimmersethemcompletely,ortocomepartwayup thesides.Theyproduceacrispcrustaroundamoistinteriorifthevegetablesurfaceisporousenoughtodryoutandharden,orifit’scoatedwithabatterorbreading.Thekeytogoodfryingistoadjusttheoiltemperaturetothepiecesizeandthetimeittakestocookthrough.Fryat350to375°F/175to190°Cforsmallpiecesthatcookthroughinafewsecondsorminutes,325to340°F/160to170°Cforlarger,slowerpieces.Fry in fresh neutral-flavored oil for the best flavor and least oilycrust.Useafryerorpotlargeenoughthattheoilwon’tbubbleoverwhenthefoodisadded.Don’t crowd the pot with vegetables, which will drop the oiltemperaturetoofar,slowthefrying,andproduceanoilyresult.Fryinsmallbatches.Checktheoiltemperatureoftenandadjusttheheattomaintainitatthe desired temperature. The early cooking of a given batch requiresmoreheat tomaintain the temperature than later stages.Laterbatchesfry faster than early batches cooked at the same temperature;accumulatingimpuritiestransferheattothefoodmoreefficiently.Tominimizeoilinessonthevegetablecrust,usefreshoil,shakeeachfinishedpieceasyouremoveitfromtheoil,andblotitonpapertowelsimmediately.Thefoodabsorbsmostoftheoilasitbeginstocool.

Breadings and batters coat vegetables and provide a brown, crispcrust.To help any coating adhere tomoist vegetables, dust the vegetablesurfaceswithflour.Tohelpdrybreadingsadheretovegetables,diptheflouredpiecesintowetmilkorstickyeggs,thenintothebreading.Togetacrisper,lighterbattercrust:

Replacesomewheatflourinthebatterwithriceorcornflour,toreducetheformationofcrust-tougheninggluten.Includesomedouble-actingbakingpowder,tocreatebubblesduringthefryingandamoreporoussurface.Replaceuptohalftheliquidwithvodka,whosealcoholreducesglutenformationandboilsoffquicklytodrythecrust.

To get an irregular tempuralike crust, barely stir together ice-coldwater,egg,andflour,andusethisbatterimmediately.Whenitgetstoothick,makeafreshbatch.

BAKINGOROVENROASTINGVEGETABLES

Heatingvegetables in theovencooks themrelativelyslowly,bymeansofhotairandradiationfromtheovensurfaces,attemperaturesrangingfrom 200 to 500°F/90 to 260°C. Low temperatures dry out andconcentrateflavor;hightemperaturesproduceabrown,flavorfulsurfaceenclosingamoistinterior.Thekeytogoodbakingistoadjusttheoventemperaturetothepiecesizeandthetimeittakestocookthrough.Coat the vegetable pieces with oil or fat, which speeds cooking,surfacecrisping,and flavordevelopment.Withoutoil, surfaceswillgetleatheryandsticktothepan.Place thevegetables inashallowpan toheat themevenly from thetop and sides. Bottom surfaces will essentially fry in contact with thepan,andbrownfasterthanthetopandsides.Turnthepiecesoccasionallytoevenouttheirbrowning.

Use high oven temperatures with care. Many vegetables containenoughsugarstoscorchontheedgeorbottomwheretheycontactthebakingpanorabsorbheatblastsfromthecyclingheatingelements.Todryandconcentratevegetableflavorratherthanbrown,uselowoven temperatures, 200 to 250°F/90 to 120°C, or a dehydrator. Slicevegetablesverythinonamandolinetomakecrispbakedchips.

GRILLINGANDBROILINGVEGETABLES

Grillingandbroilingexposevegetables toveryhightemperatures fromflamesorcoals.Theheatsource isbelowingrilling,aboveinbroiling.Thesemethodscreateaflavorful,darkbrownorslightlycharredsurface.Charringproducescarcinogensaswellasflavor,soit’sbesttolimititandtrimawayburnedareasbeforeeating.Coat thevegetables lightlywithoil toproduceacrispsurface,notaleatheryone.For maximum control in grilling, have one area very hot forbrowning,andasecondmoderatelyhot forcookingthrough.Colorthevegetablesasdesiredovertheveryhotarea,thenfinishcookingoverthemoderatearea.For maximum control in broiling, start the vegetables close to theheat source and watch carefully; as soon as they color, turn them,repeat, and then lower away from the heat to cook through, or finishcookingintheoven.Cooking timesareunpredictable. Theydependon the intensity ofthe heat source, the distance between source and vegetable, andvegetablethickness.Cutvegetablesinthickpieces formoreflexibility inbalancingflavorand moistness. Thin cuts, 1/2 inch/1 centimeter or less, will cookthroughveryquickly,sometimesbeforethesurfaceisbrowned.Topreventvegetablesfromstickingtothegrill,keep thegrillclean,preheat well before cooking, oil the vegetable surface, and let thevegetablesbrownthoroughlybeforetryingtoturnthem.Cook vegetables in husks, skins, or wrapped in foil to retainmore

moistureandreducescorchingwhilestillpickingupthearomaoffire.

CANNINGVEGETABLES

Canning cooks and preserves vegetables indefinitely by isolating themcompletelyandheatingthemhotand longenoughtokillallmicrobes.Becausemost vegetables are less acidic thanmost fruits, they requirehigh-temperaturecanninginapressurecooker.Improperly canned vegetables deteriorate quickly and can bedangerous.Iftheheattreatmentisinsufficientorthehandlingcareless,itcanencouragethegrowthofpotentiallyfatalbotulismbacteria.Follow well-established guidelines carefully. Consult the U.S.Department of Agriculture’s Complete Guide to Home Canning andPreserving,inprintoronlineatwww.usda.gov,ormakesureyourrecipeincludesthesesteps:

Preparethejarsandlidsinboilingwater.Heatthevegetablepreparationortheliquidportionofittoaboil.Sealthehotvegetablepreparationinthehotjarsairtight.Heatthejarsinapressurecanner.Timingsvarydependingonthejarsizeandkitchenaltitude.Checkthecooledjarstomakesurethelidsarebowedinthecenterandthesealremainsairtight.

Toeliminateworriesaboutbotulisminhome-cannedvegetables,boilthe vegetables for 10minutes before serving todestroy any toxin thatmightbepresent.

QUICK-PICKLINGVEGETABLES

Quick-picklingisanacceleratedalternativetopicklingbyfermentation,whichtakesweeks.Quick-picklingflavorsvegetableswithaddedsaltorsugar, the acid in vinegar, or the alcohol and acid in wine. It makesvegetablesthatretainsomeofthecrunchinessofrawvegetables,butaremoretenderandkeeplonger.

Thepicklingprocesscanbeasshortasanhourforshreddedorthin-slicedvegetables,orgoonfordaysforthickerpieces.Vegetablesmaybepickledraworcooked,atroomtemperatureorintherefrigerator.Cleanvegetablesthoroughlybeforepickling.Presalt watery vegetables and squeeze out excess moisture before

pickling,toreducedilutionofthevinegarorwine.Blanch thick pieces in boiling water to soften them and speed

penetrationofthepickle.Useunrefinedseasalt,whosemineralshelppreservecrispness,asdo

alumandpicklinglime.Storefinishedpicklesintherefrigerator.Tokeeppickled vegetables formore thana fewdays, heat them to

185°F/85°C for 30minutes, then cool and store tightly covered in therefrigerator.Acid-pickledvegetablesdon’tsoftennormallywhenheated.When

cookingwiththem,anticipatethatthey’llretainsomecrispness.

FERMENTINGVEGETABLES

Fermentation,theoriginalslowmethodofpickling,preservesvegetableswith the acid produced by microbes that grow in a salt brine over aperiodofweeks. It producespleasantly sour, softly crunchyvegetableswith a characteristic fermented aroma. Whole cucumbers (traditionalpickles) and cabbage (sauerkraut, kimchi) are commonly fermentedvegetables.Thekey togoodpicklesandsauerkraut is torecruitonly thecorrect

fermentation microbes. The wrong microbes produce bad flavors andturnthevegetablessoftandslimy.Useunreactiveplastic,ceramic,orenamelcontainers.Washthevegetablesandcontainersthoroughlytoremoveundesirable

microbes.Scrapeaway the flowerendsofcucumbers,whichcancauseundesirablesofteningifleftintact.Measure out the salt and water for the brine carefully. The brine

strengthdetermineswhichmicrobeswillgrowinit.Mostpicklingbrinesare 5 to 8 percent salt by weight. If adding salt directly to shreddedvegetablestoproduceabrinefromtheirjuices,aimfor1to3percentofthevegetableweight.Use pickling or kosher salt to avoid a cloudy brine. Anticaking

powdersintablesaltsdon’tdissolve.Keep the vegetables completely covered by the brine, shielded from

theairanditsmicrobes.Weighthemdownwithaplate,orrestraintheminaperforatedplasticstoragebag.Keep thebrine surfaceprotected from theair.Pressplasticwrapor

someothershielddirectlyontothefermentingsurface.Moldscangrowonunprotectedbrinesurfacesandcausespoilage.Keep the fermentingcontaineratcoolroomtemperature, ideally60

to 65°F/15 to 18°C. Warm temperatures tend to speed acid but notaromaproduction,andincreasethechanceforspoilage.Check the liquid regularly for surfacecontamination, and scoopoff

anymoldgrowth.Discard the fermentation if it develops off flavors or the liquid

becomesverycloudy.Somecloudinessisnormal.Storefinishedpicklesintherefrigerator.

COMMONVEGETABLES:ARTICHOKESTOTURNIPS

Artichokesaretheflowerbudsofathistle,withadense,fleshy“heart”surrounded by scalelike leaves. They require trimming, and the cutsurfaces quicklydiscolor unless they’re immersed in coldwaterwith adissolvedtabletofvitaminCorplentyoflemonjuice.Tospeedthesteamingofwholeartichokes,cutacrossthetopofthe

leafclustertoexposetheinnerleaves.Artichokesalsocookquicklyinapressurecookerormicrowaveoven.Arugula, or rocket, is a small-leafed cabbage relative whose flavor

rangesfrommildtohot-mustardpungent.Cookingconvertsthepungentsubstancesintobitterones.Saltyseasoningsreducebitterness.Asparagusspearsareveryactive-growingplantshoots.Afterharvest

theyquickly lose their sweetnessand tendernessanddevelopa fibroussheathfromthecutend.Whiteasparagushasamilderflavorthangreenandtoughensfaster.Buyasparagusasfreshaspossiblefromthefield,andstoreitinthe

coldestpartoftherefrigerator.Choose thick spears for the highest proportion of tender flesh to

fibroussheath.To restore some sweetness, soak asparagus for 1 hour in coldwater

with 1 to 2 teaspoons sugar per cup water/5 to 10 grams per 250milliliters.Tominimizetoughness,cutofffibrousbottomsbeforecooking,orpeel

thebottomhalfdeeply.Alwayspeelwhiteasparagus.Snappingisnotareliable way of separating fibrous from tender portions, and wastes asignificantamount.Tomakeuseoftrimmedbottoms,sliceinto1-millimeterthinrounds

andserveraworaddedatthelastminutetoasouporstir-fry.Avocadosaresemitropical,chilling-sensitivefruitsthatareharvested

hardandripenoffthetree.Somevarietiesaresoftandrichinoil;othersfirmandlean,betterforslicingthanmashing.Chooseavocadosthatfilltheirskinandareeitherfirmandunripeor

giveslightlytopressure,intheearlystagesofripening.Avoidoverripesoftfruitswithlooseareasofskin.Let avocados ripen fully at room temperature before refrigerating,

whichwoulddamagetheirripeningsystems.Speedripeningbyputtingavocadosinapaperbagwitharipebanana.Prevent avocado purees like guacamole from turning brown and

developingoff flavorsbypressingwaxpaperoraluminumfoil intothesurface.Scrapeanydiscoloredpatchesfromthesurfacebeforeusing.Fresh beans come in many types in addition to the familiar

supermarketgreenbeans.Purplebeansturngreenwhencooked.Flatorromano beans have a distinctive flavor and creamy cooked texture.Asian yard-long beans are an entirely different species, drier andmeatier. Fresh fava beans and edamame are immature fava and soyseeds, moist when briefly cooked. Fresh shelling beans are like their

driedolderversionsbutcookmorequickly.Buydeep-colored,firmbeansandusethemquickly.Theirsweetness

andtendernessdeclinequicklyduringstorage.Cookbeanslessthan10minutestoretaintheirbrightgreencolor.Beetsaredeeplypigmentedrootsthatstaysomewhatfirmnomatter

howlongthey’recooked.Topreservethecolorpatternsofvariegatedbeets, serve in thinraw

slices.Cookingdamagescellsandspreadspigments.Saveandcookbeetgreensseparately.They’reverymuchlikechard,

tender and nutritious, but are more perishable than the roots andconsumetheirnutrients.Cookbeetswithskinson to reduce lossofpigments.Peel soonafter

cookingwhentheskiniseasiertoremove.Don’t worry about bloodlike redness in the toilet for a day or two

after eating beets; the body passes a portion of the beet pigmentsunchanged.Bitter greens include broccoli rabe, brussels sprouts, collards,

dandelion greens, escarole, kale, and mustard greens. Their bittercomponentsareapparentlyhealthfulphytochemicals.Lessenthebitternessofbittergreensbyboilingthemincopiouswater

and dressing them with salt or salty ingredients (soy sauce, anchovypaste),whichmaskourperceptionofbitterness.Broccoliandbroccolirabearerelativesofcabbagethatformmasses

of flowerbuds.Broccoli rabe ismorebitter thanbroccoli,withslenderstalksandsmallerbudclusters.Choose firm, tight, dark green broccoli heads. Avoid woody-edged

stalks.Peelthestalksiftheirskinistough.Cook broccoli and broccoli rabe just long enough to make them

tender, 10minutes or less. Prolonged cooking turns thedelicate greenbuds mushy and produces an increasingly strong and unpleasantsulfurousaroma.Tominimizecookingtimefortougherbroccoliandtocookbudsand

stalks evenly, separate the bud shoots from the main stalk. Cook the

stalkseparately,orcutintosmall,quicklycookedpieces.Brussels sprouts are a relative of cabbage that form miniature

cabbage-headleafclusters.Choose tight, compact, dense sprouts with a stem end that looks

freshlycut.Avoidloose,light-feelingsprouts.Cook brussels sprouts just long enough to make them tender.

Prolongedcookingproducesanincreasinglystrongandunpleasantsulfuraroma.Tospeedcooking, cutadeepX into the stemend,or cut inhalf,or

pullapartintoseparateleaflets.Tominimize thebitternessofsprouts, cut them inhalforpull them

apartandthenboil to leachoutbittercompounds(andotherhealthfulsubstances).Cabbagecomesinseveralforms,fromdensegreenorpurpleheads,to

pale and light Asian napa. The deeper the pigmentation, the morenutrient-richthecabbage.Cookcabbagejustlongenoughtomakeittender;prolongedcooking

makesitssulfurousaromaincreasinglystrongandunpleasant.Tospeedcooking,cutheadsintohalvesorquarters,orchoporshred.Tokeepredorpurplecabbagefromturningblue,cookwithanacidic

ingredientsuchaswine,vinegar,orapples.Tomakeacrispsaladofrawcabbage,soakthechoppedorshredded

leavesinicewaterbeforedressingthem.Carrotsarerootsthathaveasnappybitewhenraw,andcookintoa

very smooth puree. The outer regions aremore concentrated in flavorandhealthfulcarotenepigmentthanthewater-carryingcore,whichcanbefibrousinoldcarrots.Choosethin,uncrackedcarrotsforthebestflavor.Carrotswiththeir

greensstillattachedarefresherthanothersbutshouldbetrimmedofthegreensbeforestoring.Prepared“baby”carrotsarecutfromlargecarrots.Theirwhitesurfacefuzzconsistsofharmlessdriedcelllayers.Peel carrots, even if they look clean. The outer layers can be bitter

andcarryoffflavors.

Cauliflower is a cabbage relative that forms masses of immatureflowertissuethatmaybewhite,orange,orpurple.Cookeduntilsoft,itmakesaverysmoothpuree.Choosedense,evenlycoloredheadswithnodarkenedareas.To serve cauliflower pieces intact, break into pieces first and then

cook them just long enough tomake them tender. Prolonged cookingturns cauliflower fragile and makes the sulfurous aroma increasinglystrongandunpleasant.Tomakea smoothpuree, cook a fewminutes longeruntil soft, and

processinablender.Celeryisaclusterofcrunchyleafstalks.Choosecelerybunchesthatarefirmandundamaged.Discardcracked

orbruisedouterstalks.Stressduringgrowthandhandlingcausesceleryto accumulate chemicals that can blister the skin when exposed tosunlight.To maximize the crispness of raw celery sticks, soak them in ice

water.Toremovethestringinessofcelerystalks,useapeelertoremovethe

ridgesontheouterstalksurface.Celery root is the swollen underground stem of a celery relative,

gnarledwithsmallroots.Serveitshreddedrawandcrunchy,roastedinpieces,orcookedtoasmoothpuree.Choose celery roots that feel heavy for their size, with smooth

surfacesthatwillrequiretheleastpeeling.Peelceleryrootdeeplytoremovefibrousroots.Keep cut pieces inwater acidulatedwith vitamin C or lemon juice

untilthey’recooked.Celeryrootdiscolorseasily.Chard isa large leafvegetablefromrelativesof thebeet. It’srichin

oxalates, which can exacerbate kidney stones. Some varieties havecoloredstalksandveinsthatleaktheirpigmentswhencooked.Choosechardleavesthataren’tcrackedanddon’thavebrownedges.

Chardisoftensoldovermatureandinneedofserioustrimming.Cook young chard very briefly, for just a minute or two. It’s very

tender.To remove some oxalates, boil chard rather than steaming or stir-

frying.To maintain and contain the colors of colored chards, cook them

separatelyandcombinewithotheringredientsatthelastminute.Collards are the large, open, somewhat bitter leaves of a cabbage

relative.Choose collard leaves that don’t have prominent white veins or

cracks.Collards are often sold overmature, with tough veins that require

overcookingtherestoftheleaf.Cook collards just long enough to make them tender. Prolonged

cookingmakesthesulfurousaromaincreasinglystrong.Traditionallong-cookedcollardsbenefitfromthebalancingstrongflavorofsmokedham.To reduce the cooking time for collards, remove toughwhite stalks

and veins and use only the green leaf, or shred whole leaves beforecooking. Or cook until the green portion is tender and the stalks stillcrisp,thenrollleavestogetherandcutcrosswiseintothinshreds.Corn is themassed immature seeds of themaize plant. The kernels

maybewhite,yellow,orred-purple.Buycornasfreshaspossible,keepitrefrigerated,anduseitquickly.

Modernvarietiesdon’tlosetheirsweetnessasfastasearlierones,butdostilltoughenduringstorage.Chooseyoungcornwithsmallkernelsfortenderness,oldercornwith

tougherkernelsformoreflavor.Cookcornonthecoblongenoughtoheattheouterkernelstoclose

to the boil. A pot of boilingwater is the usualmethod. Steaming andmicrowavingalsoworkwellandaremoreefficient.Microwaveorgrillinthehusktoretainmoisture,heat,andflavor.Sautécornkernelsonmoderateorlowheattoavoidscorchingtheir

sugaryjuices.Usecorncobstoflavorstocksorsoups.Cucumbersaremelonrelatives,refreshinglymoistandcrisp,usually

addedtosaladsbutalsogoodwhenbrieflysautéed.StandardAmerican cucumbers are short and thick,with large seeds,

some bitterness, tough-skinned and often waxed to extend shelf life.Americanpicklingvarietiesaresmall,short,thin-skinned,andunwaxed.“European” or hothouse varieties are long and thin, have a thin

unwaxed skin, small seed rudiments, andnobitterness.Middle-EasternandAsiantypesaresimilarlyelongatedbutsmaller.Choosecucumbersthatarefirmanddense,withnoshrunkenareas.

Toservewiththedarkgreenskin,buyunwaxedcucumbers.Dandeliongreensinmarketsareusuallyabitterlettucerelative,not

truedandelions.Toreducethebitternessofdandeliongreens,boiltheminalargepot

of water. They usually soften very quickly. Season them with salt toreducetheperceptionofbitterness.Eggplantsarespongy-fleshedfruitsrelatedtotomatoesandpotatoes.

Long, thin Asian varieties are tender; standard large purple varietieshavemorelargeseedsandarepronetodevelopingbrownareas.Bitternessisnotcommoninmoderneggplants,withtheexceptionof

orangeTurkishandpea-sizeThaivarietiesthatareprizedforit.Saltingdoesnotremovebitterness,butdoesmaskbittertastes.Refrigerate eggplants for only a fewdays. They’re semitropical and

don’tkeepwellincoldstorage.Toprevent spongyeggplant flesh fromabsorbinga lotofoil during

frying or baking, compact it by precooking briefly in microwave, orsaltingslicesinacolanderuntilwiltedandthenrinsingoffexcesssalt.Ifeggplantdoesabsorbalotofoil,continuetoheatslowlyuntilthe

fleshshrinksandreleasessomeofit.Endive, escarole, and frisée are lettuce relatives with dense,

crunchy,somewhatbitterleaves.Choose theyoungest, lightest-coloredheads for tenderness andmild

flavor.ChooseBelgianendivethatiscompletelywhite,andrefrigerateinan

opaque paper bag. Exposure to light causes it to become green, less

sweet,andmorebitter.Fennelisaversionoftheanise-flavoredherbplantthatformsalarge,

crunchy,swollenstem.Theleafstalksprojectingfromitarepermanentlyfibrous. It’s often served in thin raw slices or slow-cooked in largerpieces.Garlic is a pungent underground bulb, a relative of the onion. Its

pungencyvaries,dependingonvariety,season,andage.Elephantgarlicis amilder leek relative, not a true garlic. Black garlic is a processedform of garlic from Asia, nonpungent, sweet-tart and savory, with amolasseslikearoma.Chooseheavyandhardgarlicheads,withnosignsofsproutingorof

shrinkingormoldintheoutercloves.Storeinacooldarkplace.Refrigerationreducesflavor.Storedgarlic

slowlydriesoutandbrownsfasterwhencooked.Don’t store plain chopped garlic under oil. Such garlic can cause

botulism.Presoakthegarlicinvinegarorlemonjuice,covergarlicandacidwithoil,andstoreintherefrigerator.Garlic canbe eitherbitinglypungent ormilddependingonhow it’s

handled.Tomaximizepungency,crushorpureeitraw.Tominimizepungency,sliceandblanchtheclovesinboilingwateror

milk,orcookthemintact.Foramilderaroma,sautégarlicinbutterratherthaninvegetableoil.When sautéing onions and garlic, add garlic to the pan toward the

endofcooking.Garlicislessmoistthanonionandbrownsandscorchesmorequickly.Don’tworryifgarlicpreparationsturngreenorblue.Acidscausethis

harmlesscolorchange,whichisprizedinsomeChinesepickles.Kale is the large, elongated, somewhat bitter leaves of a cabbage

relative.Cook kale just long enough to make it tender. Prolonged cooking

makesthesulfurousaromaincreasinglystrong.To reduce the cooking time, remove tough stalks and use only the

green leaves, or shredwhole leaves before cooking. Or cook until thegreenportionistenderandthestalksstillcrisp,thenrollleavestogetherandcutcrosswiseintothinshreds.Kohlrabi are the swollen stems of a cabbage relative, moist andcrunchywhenraw,moistandsoftwhencookedbriefly,notstarchy.Choosesmallerkohlrabi.Largestemscanhaveatoughwoodyskin.Leeks are the pungent underground stalk and leaves of an onionrelative.Theinnerleavesandrootendhavethestrongestflavor.Cookedleeksandespeciallytheirtopsexudeathickslipperyfluidthatgelswhenchilled,andcanhelpthickensoupsandstews.Chooseleekswiththelargestproportionofwhitestalk.Cut andwash lower leek stalks thoroughly. Theirmany layers trapgritwhensoilisheapedaroundthemtokeepthestalkwhite.Use the tougher, stronger-flavored tops as a green vegetable, slicedthinandcookedbriefly.Lettucesareclustersofmildtenderleaves,bestsuitedtoservingrawinsalads.Theycomeinmanyvarieties.Darkopen-headleavesaremorenutritious thanpaleclosed-head leaves.Thosewith redcoloraremoreastringent.Chooselettuceswithfresh-looking,moderate-sizeleaves,andfeworno blackened areas or brown edges. Avoid badly wilted heads andovermature,coarseleaves.Refrigeratelettuceandothersaladgreenscloseto32°F/0°C,enclosedinaplasticbagtominimizemoistureloss.Wash lettuce leaves in several changes ofwater before using. Theygrowlowtothegroundandcanbegritty.Tocrisplettuceleaves,immersethemfor15minutesinicewater.Mushrooms are structures thatbear the tiny seedlike sporesof soil-dwelling funguses. There are many different species with distinctive,oftenmeaty flavors, including chanterelles,morels, oystermushrooms,porcini,andshiitakes.Dried mushrooms have intense, concentrated flavors, especially thesavorytastecalledumami,andareausefulpantryingredient.

Common white and brown mushrooms are variants of the samespecies, and are sold at several different ages and sizes, from small“buttons”tohand-size“portobellos.”Thelargerandmoreprominentthebrowngillsareunderthecap,themoreflavorfulthemushrooms.Mushrooms aren’t made from the same structuralmaterials asmostvegetables, and behave differently in the kitchen. When heated, theyreleasecopiousamountsofwaterthatcanslowcookingtoacrawl.Andmost mushrooms retain some chewiness no matter how long they’recooked.Choosemushroomsthathavebeenleastdamagedinhandling.Forthemostflavor,chooseoldmushroomsthatarebeginningtodeteriorateandtrimdamagedareas.Use mushrooms promptly; they have a rapid metabolism anddeterioratequickly.Refrigerate mushrooms close to 32°F/0°C in a paper bag or towelloosely wrapped in a plastic bag, to retain but absorb the copiousmoisturetheyexhale.Washdirtymushroomsjustbeforecooking.Briefimmersioninwaterwon’tremoveflavororwaterlogthem.Remove older fibrous stems and cook them separately in stocks, orchopfinelyforastuffing.To sautémushrooms, either don’t crowd the pan, so that the juicesinstantlyvaporizeand themushroomsbrownquickly;ordocrowd thepan so that the mushrooms exude and cook in their juices beforebrowning.Juice-cookedmushroomsneedlessoiltocoattheirshrunkensurfaces,andabsorblessoilwhentheybrown.Tocookwithdriedmushrooms,rehydratetheminenoughhotwaterto cover, until moist and soft throughout. Strain the flavorful soakingliquidofanygritanduseittoo.Mustard greens are the large, open, pungent leaves of a cabbagerelative.Raw,theyhaveamustardlikeheat.Cooked,theyareheat-freebutbitter.Cook mustard greens just long enough to make them tender.Prolongedcookingmakestheirsulfurousaromaincreasinglystrong.

Tomakemustardgreenslessbitter,boilincopiousamountsofwaterratherthansteamorstir-fry,andsaltgenerously.Okra is a hollow seed-bearing semitropical fruit. It accumulates awater-retainingmucilage that gives a slippery, slimy consistency to itsjuices.Choosesmallokrathatfeelflexible.Largefruitsareusuallystiffandunalterablyfibrous.Storeokrainarelativelywarmpartoftherefrigerator.Tominimizeokrasliminess,cookthemwhole,fryorbakethem,anduseindisheswithlittleornoaddedliquid.Totakeadvantageofokramucilage,includeslicedokratogivebodytosoupsandstews.Olivesarethesmall fruitsofaMediterraneantree.Theyaccumulateoil, are intenselybitterandastringentwhen raw,andareprocessed inseveraldifferentwaystomakethempalatable.Canned black olives are treated with lye and heated, and have aslipperyconsistencyanddistinctiveflavor.Curedblackandgreenoliveshaveusuallybeenfermentedinabrine,andaresaltyandtart.Usecuredoliveswithinadayortwo,orrefrigerateforuptoaweek.Yeasts grow on refrigerated olives and limit their shelf life. To keepoliveslonger,refrigeratethemimmersedinbrineoroil.Onions arepungentdormantbulbs, relativesofgarlic.Greenonionsare the stem and leaves of actively growing plants. There are manyvarieties. “Sweet” onions aren’t especially sugary, but are much lesspungentthanotheronionsandgoodforeatingraw.Cookingandpicklingreduceonionpungency.Choose brown-skinned storage onions for long keeping and strongflavor.White-skinnedSpanishonionsandredonionsaremoreperishablethanstorageonions.To minimize eye-watering pungency during cutting and chopping,chill onions for 30 minutes in ice water, or several hours in therefrigerator. Work quickly and clear the cutting board often; the

choppedpiecesquicklywarmupagain.Tominimizeharshnessinrawslicedorchoppedonion,andinsalsasmade with them, soak or rinse the pieces in cold water to wash outdamagedsurfacecells.Tocaramelizeonions,cookthempartlycoveredonlowheatinfatoroilforalongtime,stirringfrequently,occasionallyaddingwaterorwineor stock to lift stuck juices back onto the onion pieces. Onion juicescontainsugarandreadilybrownandscorch.Becarefultostirconstantlyifusinghigherheattospeedthecooking.Parsnipsareacarrotrelative,alsoarootbutpaleandlessdense.Choosemedium-sizeparsnipswithoutdarkenedspotsorcracks.Largeparsnipscanhavealarge,woodycore.Storeparsnipsintherefrigerator.Count on cooking parsnips more briefly than carrots and othervegetables.Theysoftenandbrownfaster,andaremorepronetodryingout.Peasareimmaturegreenseedsandpodsofthepeaplant.Englishpeashave a stringy pod and only the seeds are eaten. Snowpeas and snappeasareediblepodsanddon’trequireshelling.ChooseEnglishpeasofmediumsizeincrisp,brittlepods.Largepeasfrommaturepodsarestarchyandcoarse.Refrigerateandusepromptly;theyloseflavorwithtime.Frozen peas are a convenient, good-quality alternative tounpredictablefreshpeas.Choose snowandsnappeaswithdeepgreen, firm,uncrackedpods.Refrigerate.Cook all peas briefly, just long enough to brighten their color andsoftenthem.Peppers, bell and chilli, come in many varieties, both fresh anddried. Some are pungent to varying degrees, some not pungent at all(“sweet”).Individualchillisofthesamevarietyalsovaryinpungency.Choosefreshchillisthatareuncracked,unwilted,anddeepcolored.Store fresh chillis in a warm part of the refrigerator, enclosed in a

plasticbagtoretainmoisture.To reduce the pungency of hot chillis, carefully cut them open andremove the inner pith supporting the seeds. The pungent chemicalcapsaicinisconcentratedthere,andeasilyspreadsontonearbysurfaces.Washhandsandutensilsthoroughlywithsoapywaterafterhandlingpungent peppers. Start washing with cold water to avoid launchingcapsaicin into theair, thenfinishwithhot.Avoidtouchingtheeyesorothersensitiveareasforsometime.Capsaicinispersistent.To relieveamouthburning fromhot chillis, cool themouthwith acoldnoncarbonateddrink.Youcan’tremovecapsaicinfromthetongueonce it has gotten into the cells; you can only relieve the symptoms.Theyfadeinafewminutes.Toremovethetoughskinsoffreshchillipeppers,baketheminahotoven to soften the flesh and then pull away the skins; or scorch theirskinsoveragasburnerorahotgrill,letthemfinishsofteningenclosedinaplasticbagorsqueezedtogetherbetweentwoplates,andscrapeorrinseawaythesurfaces.Rinsingcausessomeflavorlossbutiseffectiveatremovingunhealthfulcharredresidues.To reconstitute dried chillis, rinse off dust, dry them, toast thembrieflytodevelopflavor,eitherinadryfryingpanonmediumheatorinahotoven,thenbarelycoverwithhotwaterandkeepsubmergeduntilsoft.Potatoesarestarchystoragetubers.Therearemanyvarieties,mostofwhich keepwell forweeks at cool room temperature. “New potatoes”are harvested before they’re mature, and should be used promptly orrefrigerated.Choose “mealy” varieties—russets, blue and purple types—if youwantadry,crumbly,orfluffytexture,forfrenchfriesorforbakedandpureedpotatoesthatwillabsorbflavorfulliquidsorfats.Choose “waxy” varieties—with red, white, or yellow skins—if youwantafirm,dense,moisttextureforpiecestobeservedintact,insaladsorgratins.Choosefirm,unblemishedpotatoes,withoutbruisesorcutmarks.Avoid potatoes with any green color. Green surfaces and sprouts

containbitterandtoxicalkaloids.Storepotatoesatcoolroomtemperatureandinthedark,topreventgreening.Atwarmroomtemperatures,potatoeswill sproutanddecay.At refrigerator temperatures below about 45°F/7°C, they convert somestarchintosugar,andcanbrowntooquicklyandscorchwhenfried.Trimaway greenareasand cut out internal black spots,whicharebruisesfromroughhandlingandoftenbitter.To cook potato chunks thatwill stay intactwhen tossed for potatosalad,firmtheirtexturewithapreheatingtreatment.Holdthemfor30minutesinhotwaterat130to140°F/55to60°C,thenchilltheminicewaterfor30minutes.Thenboilthemasusualuntilthey’retender.Allowthem to cool before tossing with dressing; hot potato flesh is morefragile.To make baked potatoes with a crisp skin, oil or butter potatoesbefore baking unwrapped in a hot oven, 425 to 450°F /220 to 230°C.Bakingwithoutoilorinfoilproducesaleatheryskin.To make crunchy oven-roasted potatoes, peel or cut potatoes intopieces,boilorsteamthemuntildone,thendrythem,coatwithfatoroil,andfinishtheminahotoven,450°F/230°C.To make a smooth potato puree, press cooked potatoes through apotato ricer or food mill, add other ingredients, and stir together byhand.Use solid chunks of butter,whichdispersemore evenly into thepotatoesthanpremeltedbutter.Whipwithawhisktoaerateandlighten.Don’t use a food processor or blender, which break starch grains andproduceathin,glueyresult.Tomakecrispfrenchfries,cooktheminseparatestages:onetosoftenthem, and one or more to crisp and brown their surfaces. Don’t usepotatoes that have been refrigerated; theywill brown too quickly anddeeply.

Tocookfrenchfriesintwostages,cutthepotatoesintostrips,soaktheminicewaterfor30minutes,thenblotdryandfrytwice:firstat250to325°F/120to163°Cuntillimp,thenat350to375°F/175to190°Cuntilbrown.Forfrenchfriesthatremaincrisplonger,cooktheminthreestages.Cook

thepotatostripsinsimmeringsaltedwateruntillimp,allowthemtocoolanddryuntilthey’retackytothetouch,thenfrytwice:firstat340°F/170°Cuntiltheyjustbegintocolor,thenat365to375°F/185to190°Cuntilbrown.

Radicchio is a red-leaved lettuce relative, somewhat bitter and alsoastringentthankstotheredpigment.Chooseheadsthatfeelheavyfortheirsize.Radishesarepungentstoragerootsofacabbagerelative.Theycomeinawiderangeofsizes,colors,anddegreesofpungency.Chooseradishesthatareunbruisedandheavyfortheirsize.Removetheirspoilage-pronegreentopsbeforerefrigerating.Scrubandrinsewellbeforeservingraw.To make overpungent radishes more palatable, remove the peel,which contains much of the responsible enzyme. Cooking eliminatestheirpungency.Rutabagasaretheswollenstemsofacabbagerelative,notasstarchyasapotatobutusuallyboiledandmashed.Peelrutabagasdeeplybeforecooking.They’reoftencoatedwithwaxtoimproveshelflife.Shallotsareapungent,purplevarietyofonion that’s smalland finestructured.Handleasyouwouldotheronions.Spinachisabeetrelativewithsmall,mild,andusuallytenderleaves.Itcontainsoxalates,whichkidney-stonesufferersavoid.Choose small, flat, fresh-looking leaves. Avoid thick leaves withprominentribsandveinsunlessyou’llbecookingthem;thesevarietiesaretoochewyforsalads.Wash spinach leaves thoroughly, several times if necessary, toremoveallofthesandthatit’susuallygrownin.Tocrispforrawsalads,immersespinachinicewaterfor15minutes.Always cook more spinach than you think you’ll need. Cookingreducesthevolumeofitspackedleavesbythree-quarters.Cook spinach very briefly, a minute or less, just until collapsed.

Squeezethecollapsedmasstodrainawayexcesswaterthatwouldbleedontotheplateordiluteasauce.To remove some oxalates, boil spinach in unsaltedwater instead ofwilting,stir-frying,orsteaming.Sprouts are few-day-old seedlings,usuallyofmungbeans, soybeans,and alfalfa.Warm, moist sprouting conditions encourage microbes, sorawsproutscarryariskofcausingillness.Choosesprouts that lookandsmell fresh,with fewbrownorwiltedareas.Use sproutspromptly or keep in the coldestpart of the refrigerator.Washanddrainthemthoroughly.Don’tserverawsproutstoanyoneespeciallyvulnerabletoillness.Squashes are seedy cucumber relatives. Fresh summer squashesinclude zucchini and are moist and perishable. Dry winter squashesincludepumpkinsandkeepformonthsunrefrigerated.Choosesmallsummersquashestoavoidcoarsefleshandlargeseeds.Store summer squashes in awarmpart of the refrigerator, near thedoor;coldertemperaturescandamagethem.Choosewintersquashesthatfeeldenseandhavenosoftspots.Forthesweetestflavor,buyandservewintersquashessoonafterthefallharvest.Storewintersquashesatcoolroomtemperature.Cutwintersquashescarefullyonasolid,opensurface.Theirfleshishardandcancatchandreleaseaknifebladeunpredictably.Tocookdensesquashquicklyforpurees,cuttheminhalf,scrapeoutseedsandstrings,placethemcutsidedownonaplate,andmicrowaveuntilsoft.SunchokesorJerusalemartichokesaretubersofasunflowerrelative.They’re crisp and moist, not starchy, and rich in an indigestible buthealthfulcarbohydratecalledinulin.Don’t serve or eat large quantities of sunchokes at one meal. Toomuchinulincancausegassydiscomfort.Choose sunchokes that are firm and unbruised, and store in the

refrigerator.To turn inulin into sugars and sunchokes sweet and brown, bakesunchokesinalow200°F/93°Covenfor8to10hours.Sweet potatoes are the starchy tubers of a semitropical vine, norelationtothestandardpotato.Orange-fleshedvarietiesareverysweetandrichinvitaminA.White-andpurple-fleshedtypesarelesssweetandcontainlittlevitaminA.Choosefirmunbruisedsweetpotatoes.Storesweetpotatoesatcoolroomtemperature,55to60°F/13to15°C.Don’trefrigerate,whichcausesdevelopmentofahardcorethatcookingcan’tsoften.Tomakesweetpotatoesespeciallysweet,bakeslowly ina lowoventogivesugar-producingenzymesachancetowork.To minimize the sweetness of sweet potatoes, heat them throughquicklybymicrowaving,pressure-cooking,boiling,orsteaming.Tomatoesaresavoryfruitsthatarerichestinflavorandnourishmentwhenfullyripened.Unripetomatoesaretastyandnutritiousindifferentways,enjoyableasacrispvegetableraw,pickled,orcooked.Choosetomatoes that aredeeply colored for their variety (somearepaleorgreenwhenripe),andslightlysoft,withoutverysoftordamagedspots.Avoidtomatoesinrefrigeratedproducecases.Store tomatoes at cool room temperature. Don’t refrigerate, whichremovesmuchoftheiraroma.Iftomatoeshavebeenrefrigerated,leavethematroomtemperatureaslongaspossiblebeforeusingthem.Don’tdiscardthejellysurroundingtheseeds,whichisthepartmostconcentrated in savory and tart flavor. When cooking with tomatoes,strainouttheseedsaftercooking,notbefore.Topeelatomato,useaknifetocutasmallXatitsbottom,immerseitbriefly in simmering water until the corners of the cut curl up, thenremoveitandpullontheskincorners.Intensifytheflavoroftomatopureebyaddingsmallamountsofacidandsugar,andbyaddingafewfreshtomatoleavesandcookingbrieflyjustbeforeserving.Despitetheirreputation,tomatoleavesarenottoxic.

Tomake the smoothest sauce fromcanned tomatoes,choosebrandswhose ingredient list doesn’t include calcium,which firms texture. Forpersistentchunkiness,choosetomatoeswithcalciumadded.Truffles are expensive mushroom relatives, usually cooked very

briefly or just warmed to preserve their unique aromas. Black trufflessmellearthy,whilewhitetruffleshavegarlickynotes.Choosefirm,dense,pleasantlyaromatictruffles,orpremiumcanned

truffles,fromareputablesource.Thereareanumberoftrufflespecies,andmostarefarlessflavorfulthantheblackwintertrufflesfromFranceandwhitetrufflesfromItaly.Storetrufflesrefrigerated,enclosedinanairtightcontaineralone,or

withrice,eggs,orotheringredientsthatcanabsorbtheiraroma.Avoidshavingtrufflesintoverythinshredsonaplanegrater,which

immediately releasesmostof their aroma to theair. Invest ina truffleshaverthatproduceslargershavings.Bewaryofexpensivetruffleoils,readtheirlabels,andusesparingly.

Most are strengthenedwith artificial flavors and can overwhelmotheringredients.Turnipsaremoist,nonstarchyrootsfromacabbagerelative.Choose smaller turnips that are firm and smooth skinned. Large

turnipscanbecoarsefleshedandwoody.Removeandkeepanygreensseparately,andstoreturnipsintherefrigerator.Forthemildestflavor,cookturnipsbriefly.Longcookingproducesa

strongsulfurousaroma.

M

9

MILKANDDAIRYPRODUCTS

ilkisthefirstfoodwetasteasnewborns,sweetandmildandwarm. The milks and milk products that we cook with areprimal in another way. They bring together basic food

materials,sugarsandproteinsandfats,inaminimallystructuredform.Andthatallowsustousethemforallkindsofconstructionprojectsofourown.Wecanenjoymilkasis,orcookitintosauces,orfoamittomakea

cappuccino.We can thicken its proteinswith acid from friendly lacticbacteriatomakeyogurtandbuttermilk,orusejustasqueezeoflemonjuice and some heat tomake fresh cheese.When its fat droplets havebeen concentrated into cream, we can make crème fraîche or creamsaucesoricecream,orwhipthecreamgentlyintoalightfoam,orwhipithardtobreakopenthe fatdropletsandmakedense,richbutter.Wecancookcreamorbutterwithsugaruntilthemixturnsintocaramelorbutterscotch.Milk andmilk products are remarkable stuff, but often the stuffwe

buy in stores isn’t what it could be. Low-fat milks are modified toreplace fat with protein concentrates; creams are stabilized with veryhigh heat and homogenization and added gums; butters are flavoredinstantlywithanapproximationofthearomascreatedbylacticbacteria.Likemanypeople, I toogot in thehabitofdrinking low-fatprotein-

added milk, and I used the same milk when I started making yogurtregularly. At some point I bought whole milk for a change, and wassurprisedbyhowmuchbettertheyogurttasted.Themilktoo.NolongerweretheyfoodsthatIconsumedoutofhabitandtheideathattheyweregoodforme, thecolderandless flavorful thebetter.Theyhadbecomedeliciousintheirownright.

Milk anddairyproducts areworth shopping for thewaywedo anyfoodwereallycareabout:byfindingandbuyingtheonesthattastebest.Andtheirproteannatureiseasyandrewardingtoplaywith.Makeyourownyogurtorbutterjustonceandyou’llenjoythemasneverbefore.

DAIRYPRODUCTSAFETY

Freshdairyproductsarehighlyperishable.Spoilagebacteriareadilygrow in them, sour and curdle them, and produce unpleasant flavors.Careless handling at any stage can contaminate them with variousdiseasebacteria,includingsalmonella,listeria,andE.coli.Keepallfreshdairyproductsrefrigeratedtominimizethegrowthofdiseaseandspoilagebacteria.Pasteurized milk has been cooked to 145 to 171°F/63 to 77°C toeffectivelyeliminatediseasebacteriaandgreatlyreducethenumbersofspoilage bacteria. Pasteurization is no guarantee of safety. Pasteurizedmilkcanbecomecontaminatedwhenit’scooled,packaged,orprocessedintootherdairyproducts.Rawmilk has not been heated to kill disease bacteria. It is heavilyregulated and generally safe, but does carry some risk of foodborneillness.Fresh-fermented dairy products, including yogurt, buttermilk,sour cream, and crème fraîche, aremore resistant to contaminationthankstoacidsproducedbyhealthfulbacteriathatfermentthem.UHT (ultrahigh temperature) and sterilized milks are stabilizeddairy products, not fresh. They have been heated to very hightemperaturestokillnearlyallbacteria,andhaveastrongcookedflavor.Some UHT and sterilized milks are specially packaged to avoidcontaminationandkeepformonthsatroomtemperature.Cheeses vary widely in their resistance to contamination and theirsafety records. Freshand soft cheeses aremoist enough to support thegrowth of disease and spoilage bacteria. Drier hard cheeses resistbacterial growth thanks to concentrated salt and acid, butmay rarelybecomeinfectedbytoxin-producingmolds.

Avoidservingfreshorsoftcheesestotheveryold,veryyoung,ortheill.Ifnewmoldbeginstogrowonanycheese, trimthatareadeeply,ordiscardthewholepiece.Lactoseintoleranceistheinabilitytodigestlactose,thesugarfoundinmilk.It’softenmistakenforanallergytomilk.Manypeopleoutgrowthe ability to digest lactose, and may suffer abdominal cramps anddiarrheaiftheyingestmorethanasmallamount.Mostpeoplewhoarelactoseintolerantcandrinkabout1cup/250millilitersofmilkwithoutsymptoms,andeatlargerquantitiesoffermenteddairyproductswhosemicrobesconsumelactose.Somemilkbrandsincludealactose-digestingenzymeandcanbedrunkinlargeramounts.True milk allergy is much rarer and more serious than lactoseintolerance.Peoplewhohaveamilkallergydevelopanimmunereactionto milk proteins, and may suffer a wide range of symptoms afterconsumingeventraceamountsofanydairyproduct.Goatandsheepmilksarenotreliablealternativestocowmilkforpeople with milk sensitivities. They contain similar lactose levels andtheirproteinsarecapableofcausingsimilarallergicresponses.

SHOPPINGFORMILKANDFRESHDAIRYPRODUCTS

Freshdairyproductsvarywidelyinquality,flavor,andprice.Thesecanall be affected by animal breed and feed, collection and pasteurizingprocedures,separationandblendingprocesses,packagingmaterials,anddistribution. Dairy producers also vary in the size and nature of theirbusiness—some are huge, some family farms—and their approach tosuch issues as animal welfare and sustainability. Try different brands,lookintothem,andchoosetheonesthattaste,last,andfeelbest.Freshdairyproductsareperishable,andsensitivetotemperatureandto light. Fermented milks and creams keep longer than fresh becausedesirablemicrobes have already soured and thickened them, but theywillstilleventuallyspoil.Checksell-bydatesanddon’tbuyanythingabouttoexpire.

Chooseopaquecontainerstominimizeoffflavorscausedbyexposuretolight.Choosethecoldestcontainersfromthebackofthedisplaycase,and

speedthemhometotherefrigerator,ideallyinapicniccooler.

STORINGDAIRYPRODUCTS

Keepmostdairyproductsrefrigeratedbelow40°F/5°C,inthecoldrearof the refrigerator rather than the warmer door. Don’t leave a milkcontaineroutatroomtemperatureformorethanafewminutes.Warmthgreatlyspeedsstalingandspoilage.Many aged cheeses can be kept at cool room temperature for a few

days,coveredwithacheesedomeorlooselywrapped.Keep clear and translucent containers in the dark as much as

possible.Brightlightcausesoffflavorsindairyproducts.Smellandtastedairyproductsbeforeusingthem to judgefreshness.

Milksandcreamssmell likecardboardwhenstale,andaresour,bitter,orrancidwhenspoiled.Don’t freeze fresh or culturedmilks or creams,whichwill separate

andcurdle.To store butter and hard cheeses for months, freeze them after

thoroughwrappinginwaxpaperandthenseverallayersofplasticwraptoexcludeoffflavors.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGWITHDAIRYPRODUCTS

Milkandotherdairyproductsareusuallyonecomponentinacomplexmixture of ingredients. They provide their own characteristic flavors,and they help deepen flavor by providing proteins and sugars forbrowningreactions.Cookingwithdairyproductscanthickenandenrichdishes.Itcanalso

makethemcurdledorgreasy.Milkisamassofwaterwithfree-floatingparticlesofproteinand

dropletsof fat. If the proteinparticles begin to stick to eachother in

large, loose arrays, themilk thickens. If they stick too tightly to eachother, they form compact solid curds that separate from the waterywhey. And if the fat droplets begin to stick to each other andmerge,theyformgreasypatchesthateventuallymergeintoclumpsofbutter.Several kinds of ingredients thicken or curdle milk by causingmilkproteinstosticktoeachother.Themostcommononesaretheacidsproducedbybacteria.Acids,tannins,andsolidparticlesareresponsibleforthethickeningandcurdlingcausedbyfruitsandvegetables,coffee,tea,andwine.Heatspeedsandincreasesthethickeningandcurdlingcausedbyacidsandotheringredients.To control thickening andminimize curdling, cookwith fresh dairyproductsandheatgraduallyandgently.Olderdairyproductshavebeenmademore acidic by the inevitable growth of bacteria, and aremorelikelytocurdle.To rescue a curdled dish, drain off the separated fluid, then whiskvigorouslyorblendtobreakupthecurdsandremixtheproteinsintothewater.Curdleddishesusuallytastefineandcanbedelicious.TheEasternEuropean cold soup chlodnik and Italian pork braised in milk areintentionallycurdled.Milk fat droplets stick to each other and separate mainly whenthey’recrowdedtogetherinunhomogenizedmilksandcreams.Tominimizedairygreasinessincooking,avoidusingmilksorcreamsthat have developed a thickened plug or surface layer of cream. Usethesetomakefreshbutter,whichisintentionallyseparatedmilkfatanddeliciousinitsownway.

FRESHMILKS

Freshmilkscomeinseveraldifferentforms.Pasteurizedmilkshavebeenheatedto140°F/60°Candabovetokillbacteriaandextendshelflife.Homogenizedmilks have had their fat droplets broken down to a

uniformsmallsizethatpreventsthemfromrisinginthecontainer(fatislighter thanwater) and collecting into a cream layer at the top. Theirflavorisusuallymoreblandthanunhomogenizedmilk.Pasteurizedhomogenizedmilkhasbeenheatedandhomogenized.It

has a slightly cooked flavor, and its fat remains evenly mixedthroughout.Rawmilk has not been heated or homogenized. It has a distinctive

flavor,andeventuallydevelopsaconcentratedthickplugofcreamatthetopthatisdifficulttostirbackinevenly.Ithastheshortestshelflifeofanydairyproduct.Keepitinthecoldestpartoftherefrigerator.Pasteurizedcream-topmilkhasbeenheatedbutnothomogenized.It

hasaslightlycookedflavor,anddevelopsaconcentratedthickplugofcreamatthetop.Low-fat,nonfat,andskimmilkshavebeenheated,andanyfathas

been homogenized. They contain 0 to 2 percent fat instead of regularmilk’s3.5to4percent.Becausetheylookandfeelthinnerthanregular-fat milk, low-fat milks are usually given more body with added milkproteins.Thesecanimpartacardboardoffflavor.Low-lactose milks include a microbial enzyme that digests lactose

(milksugar),sothatpeoplewhoareintolerantoflactosecandrinkmoreofitwithoutdigestivedisturbances.Acidophilusmilksincludeapotentiallybeneficialbacteriumthatcan

surviveinthedigestivesystem.Goat’s milk has a distinctive flavor and smaller fat globules than

cow’s milk, but is otherwise similar. Despite its reputation as anonallergenic alternative to cow’s milk, it can also cause reactions inpeoplewithcow’s-milkallergies.

STABILIZEDANDCONCENTRATEDMILKS

Stabilized and concentratedmilks have strong flavors, and are bestsuitedtobakingandasemergencysupplies.UHTmilk hasbeenhomogenizedandheatedbriefly above theboil,

an“ultrahightemperature”formilk,thenpackedinsterileconditions.It

keeps for months unrefrigerated until the carton is opened. It has astrongcookedflavor,andcanbecomebitterduringstorage.Sterilizedmilk has been canned and severely cooked, tastes like it,

andkeepsunrefrigeratedindefinitely.Condensed or evaporated milk has been concentrated,

homogenized, and sterilized. It has about double the fat, protein, andsugarofregularmilk,acreamyconsistency,tancolor,andstrongcookedmilk-caramelflavor.Sweetened condensed milk has been concentrated, homogenized,

sweetened with enough table sugar to discourage microbes, andpasteurized. It is sweeter, lighter colored, and milder in flavor thancondensedmilk,and isused tomakeSoutheastAsiancoffeesand teas,LatinAmericansweetsandcakes,andkeylimepie.Powderedmilk has been pasteurized and dried so that it is a solid

mixtureofprotein,sugar,minerals,andsomefat.Ithasacharacteristicmild cardboard aroma, and is used in baking and to smooth theconsistencyoficecreams.

COOKINGWITHMILKS

Milkisseldomcookedonitsown,butcanquicklycreateamesswhenitis.Simplyheatingitinapotcancausetheproteinstoscorchonthepanbottom,developaskinatthesurface,andfoamupandboilover.Toavoidproblemswhencookingwithmilk,usevery freshmilkand

gentle heat, and check frequently. Even slight acidity can encouragecurdling.To avoid sticking and scorching, wet the pan with water before

adding themilk, anduse lowdirect heat.Or heat the pan in a pot ofsimmeringwater,orusethemicrowaveoven.Toavoidsurfaceskinformation,covermostofthepanwiththelid,

orstirthesurface,tokeeptheproteinstherefromdryingout.Toavoidboilovers,turntheheatdownasyouapproachtheboil,and

keepthepanlidajartoreleasesteam.Tocookmilkdowntomakedulcedelecheorcajeta,combinemilk

and sugar and cook at a gentle simmer for an hour ormore until themixture thickens and browns. Include some alkaline baking soda toneutralize the acidity created by browning and produce a smootherresult.Be cautious when heating unopened cans of sweetened condensedmilk. The contents expandwith heat, and if allowed to boil they cancausethecantoburst.Heatonlyinasimmeringwaterbath(plainwaterboilsatalowertemperaturethanthesweetenedmilk),anddon’tletthewaterbathrundry.Milkfoamsatopcoffeeorchocolatedrinksprovideflavorandavisualcontrast that an adept barista canwork into a beautiful pattern. Theyalso insulate andhelpkeepdrinkswarm.Foamsaremadeby creatingsteamorairbubbles inthemilk,andheatingsothatthemilkproteinswillsticktogetherandreinforcethebubblewalls.Low-fatmilksproduceafirm,dryfoam;full-fatmilkasofter,richer-flavoredone.To make a milk foam with the steaming wand on an espressomachine,useawell-chilledmetalpitcherfilledhalfwaywithveryfresh,well-chilledmilk, at least 2/ cup/150milliliters. Immerse the steamernozzle, turnon thesteam,andmove thepitcherdowntomaintain thenozzle just below themilk surfacenear thepitcherwall,where itwillkeepthemilkcirculating.Stopwhenthemilkreachesabout150°F/65°C,toavoidastrongcookedflavor.Tomakeaquickmilkfoamwithoutasteamingwand,putfreshcoldmilkintoajarwithplentyofextraroom,cover,andshakeuntilitfoamsto fill double its original volume.Then remove the lid andmicrowavethejaronhighheatuntilthefoamrisestothetop.

CREAMS

Creamsarecreamy because they containmore fat droplets thanmilkdoes.Exactlyhowmuchfattheycontaindetermineswhatthey’regoodforinthekitchen.Readcreamcartonlabelscarefully.Fatcontentisimportantformanyrecipes.Mostcreamscontaingummystabilizingadditivesandhavebeenultrapasteurized at a high temperature to prolong shelf life. They’re

adequate to most tasks, but if it’s available, fresh, plain pasteurizedcreamusuallyworksandalwaystastesbetter.Half-and-halfisabout12percentfatandisusuallyservedwithcoffeeandfreshfruits.Lightcreamisabout20percentfat,richertastingthanhalf-and-halfbutnotcapableofmakingstablewhippedcream.Lightwhippingcreamisabout30percentfat,enoughthatitcanbewhippedintoastablefoam.Whippingandheavywhippingcreamsareabout35percentfatandatleast38percentrespectively,thickandquicklywhippedintoafoam.Freshpasteurizedcreamhasbeentreatedwithmoderateheatandisnothomogenized.Itslargefatdropletsaredesirableforwhippingcream,but in the carton they can rise and separate into a thick surface layerthatcausesgreasiness.Manyfreshcreamscontainstabilizinggumsthatslowthisseparation.Ultrapasteurizedcreamshavebeenhomogenizedandpasteurizedata high temperature, but not sterile packed. They keep refrigerated forseveralweekswithout separating.Theyhave a cooked flavor and takelonger to whip than fresh cream. Some ultrapasteurized creams alsocontainstabilizinggums.Turncontainersofunhomogenizedcreamgentlyafewtimesadaytoslowtherisingandseparationofmilkfatatthecartontop.

COOKINGWITHCREAM

The fat content of creams determines how they behavewhen cooked.Thehigherthefatcontent,themorestablethecreamistocurdling.Lightcreams,uptoabout20percentfat,cancurdlewhenmixedwith acid ingredients and heated. They’re best used as an uncookedtoppingforfruitsorpastries,toenrichcoffee,tea,orhotchocolate,ortomakeintentionallycurdledmascarpone.Tomakemascarpone,atart,thickenedcream,heatlightcreamto180to190°F/80to85°C,stirincreamoftartarorlemonjuice,allowtocooland set, then refrigerate in a fine strainer or colander lined with

cheeseclothtodrainwaterywheyovernight.Heavyandwhippingcreamswillnotcurdlewhenmixedwithacid

ingredients and heated, because they contain so little protein. They’reexcellentforenrichingpansauces.Soiscrèmefraîche,afreshfermentedcream,whenit’smadefromheavycream.Tomakeaquickcreamsauceformeatsorfishcookedonthestove

top,simplyaddheavycreamtothedeglazedpanjuicesandsimmeruntilthemixtureisasthickasdesired.Whipped cream is dense, velvety cream lightenedwith air bubbles

intoadelicatefoam.Thebubblyliquidisheldtogetherbysolidmilkfatdropletsthatthewhippingcausestosticktoeachother—butjustbarely.If the fatdropletsget toowarmandsoftandsticky, theyseparate intomassesofbutter,andthedelicatefoamturnswateryandgreasy.Tomakewhippedcream:

Usewhippingorheavycreamwithenoughfatdropletstomakeastablefoam,30percentormore.Forasweetwhippedcream,usesuperfinesugarthatdissolvesquickly.Thickcrèmefraîchecanalsobewhippedintoadensefoam.Refrigeratethecreamforatleast12hourstogetthefatdropletstostickbetter.Chillthecream,whiskorbeaters,andbowlinthefreezerfor10to15minutes,butnotlongenoughforthecreamtobeginfreezing.Toproducethelightestfoam,useahandballoonwhisk,whichcanworkinmoreairthanelectricbeaters.Animmersionblenderorfoodprocessorcanmakedensewhippedcreammorequicklythanawhiskorbeaters,butafewsecondstoomanywillturnthefoamintobutter.Whiskorbeatwithoutstoppinguntilthefoamreachesthedesiredconsistency,addinganysugaronceitbeginstothicken.Prolongedbeatingwillwarmthecreamandchurnittobutter.Ifcreambeginstolookgrainyorlumpy,ithasgottentoowarmandisturningtobutter.Startoverwithafreshcontainerofcream.

Refrigeratewhippedcreamifyou’renotgoingtouseitrightaway,ina covered container to protect it from off odors. Make sure it’s cold

before piping or other manipulation that could warm it and begin toformgrainsofbutter.Once made, whipped cream will slowly drain a small amount of

wateryliquidthatcanbepouredofforgentlyfoldedbackintothefoam.To avoid watery drainage and make a stiffer foam, prepare some

gelatindissolvedinasmallamountofwarmwaterandbeatitinasthecreambeginstothicken.

BUTTERSANDOTHERDAIRYSPREADS

Butterisaflavorfulspreadandversatilecookingfat,especiallyvaluableincakesandpastries.It’smadebychurningcreamsothatitsfatdropletsstick together in largemasses. Butter is about 80 percent fat, the restwater,milk proteins, sugar, and emulsifiers that coat the fat droplets.Whenmelted, butter separates into golden fat above, themilkywatersolutionbelow.Buttercomesinseveraldifferentforms.Readlabelstomakesurewhat

you’rebuying.Salted butter contains between 1 and 2 percent salt, which helps

prevent spoilage by bacteria, amplifies butter aroma, and contributessaltinesswhenbutterisusedasaspreadorincooking.Buttersareoftensoldinbothsaltedandunsaltedversions.Sweet cream butter is made from pasteurized cream without any

additionalflavoringsapartfromsalt,andhasthesimplestflavor.Cultured creambutter ismade from pasteurized cream and added

bacterialculturesthatgiveitatartnessandstrongerbutteraromathansweetcreambutter.Sweetcreambutterwithadded flavoringshasbeen flavoredwith

naturalorartificialchemicalstoresembleculturedbutter.“European-style” butter is sweet cream or cultured butter with a

higher fat content, 82 to 85 percent, which is especially useful formakingpastries.Whippedbutter is easier thanordinarybutter to spreadwhencold,

thanks to tinybubblesofnitrogengas thatweaken theotherwisehard

massofchilledfat.Agivenvolumemeasurecontainslessbutterthanthesamevolumeofunwhippedbutter.“Clarified”butterispurebutterfatwithallmoistureandmilksolids

removed. It can be heated to higher frying temperatures withoutscorching thanwholebutter.Ghee is clarified buttermade by heatingthebutterenoughtobrownthemilksolids,andhasanuttyaroma.Margarinesarebutterlikespreadsmadewithvegetableoilsandadded

wateranddairyflavorings.Theyhavelesssaturatedfatthanbutter,butsomecontainundesirabletransfats.Stick margarines have the same consistency as butter and can be

usedsimilarlyinbaking.Tubmargarinesaresofterandeasiertospreadthanstickmargarines,

and contain less saturated fat. They cannot substitute for butter inbakingbutcaninfrying.Low-fat and nonfat spreads replace fat with water and various

thickening agents, including proteins, starch, and gums. They cannotreplacebutterinfryingorbaking.

MAKINGANDCOOKINGWITHBUTTERANDSPREADS

Butterissimpletomakeinthekitchen.Itcantake15minutesormoreby hand, much less in a machine. The result is incomparably freshflavor. One pint/500 milliliters of heavy cream will yield about 3/4cup/170gramsofbutter.Tomakesweetcreambutter:

Placefreshunhomogenizedcreaminadeepbowlandbeatitwithawhiskorelectricbeatersoramixerbladeuntilgrainsofbutterfatformandclumptogether.Orprocessitinafoodprocessor,orshakeinalargejarwithatightlid.Partlycoveropenbowlswithwraporfoil;separatingcreamreallysplatters.Drainawaythebuttermilkandrefrigerateitforuseinbaking.Thisissweetbuttermilkanddoesn’tprovidetheacidityofcommercialbuttermilk,butcontributestofinetextureandslowsstalinginbakedgoods.

Kneadthefatclumpsintoamass,squeezingoutmoisturewhenyoucan,whilekeepingthemasscoolandclean.Useawoodorsiliconepaddleorspoon,oryourownwell-washedorglovedhands,precooledincoldwater.Toamplifyaroma,kneadin1/2teaspoon/2.5gramssaltperinitialpint/500millilitersofcream.

Tomakeculturedcreambutter, findabrandofbuttermilkwith livebacterial cultures, add 1/4 cup/60 milliliters to each quart/liter ofunhomogenized cream, keep themix at room temperature for 8 to 12hours,thenbeatandkneadasabove.Thebuttermilkwillbethinbuttartwithacidity.Usefreshlymadebutterpromptly,when its flavor isat itsbest,and

becauseitwon’tkeepaswellascommercialbutter.Store-bought butter surfaces often taste stale and rancid,

especiallyiftheylookdarkerthanafreshlycutpiece.Manywrappingsletenoughairthroughtodryoutandoxidizethefat.Forthebestflavor,scrapeawayanydarksurfaceareasbeforeusing

storedbutter.Cold butter is too hard to spread without tearing breads and

pastries.Toservespreadablebutter,letitwarmtoacoolroomtemperature,or

speeditssofteningbypoundingitafewtimeswithaheavyutensil.Orkeepitatroomtemperature,tightlywrappedfromcontactwithair,foradayor two.Ceramicbutter keepersworkby immersingone surface inwater.Changethewaterfrequently.Toclarifybutter,heatgentlyuntil themelted fat stopsbubbling,an

indicationthatthewaterhasbeencookedout.Liftofftheproteinskinatthesurfaceandpourtheyellowfatoffthewhiteproteinresidueatthepan bottom. To make ghee, or brown or black butters, continue theheatinguntiltheproteinresiduebrownslessormoredeeply.Bewareof eruptionswhenclarifyingormeltingbutter, anduse low

gentleheat.Becausewater isheavier thanfat, it sinks to thecontainerbottomasbuttermelts.Iftheheatistoohigh,eitherfromaburnerorinthemicrowave,thewatercansuddenlyboil,turntosteam,andexplodethroughthehotfataboveit.

Useclarifiedbutterorgheeformostsautéing,whenthepangetshotenoughtobrownorscorchmilkresidues.Use whole unclarified butter for gentle frying of eggs and fish. At

fryingtemperaturesunder300°F/150°C,theemulsifiersinwholebutterhelppreventthesedelicatefoodsfromstickingtothepan.Mixing whole butter with cooking oil does not raise the

temperatureatwhichthemilksolidsbrownorscorch.Thisisaverycommonmisconception.

CULTUREDYOGURT,BUTTERMILK,SOURCREAM,ANDCRÈMEFRAÎCHE

Cultured dairy products are thick and creamy, pleasantly acidic andaromatic, thanks to the growth of helpful bacteria. Nonculturedimitationsareinstantlyacidifiedandflavoredwithoutbacteria.Low-fat,nonfat, and low-price versions are thickenedwith addedmilk protein,starches,andgums.Check labels and choose products with “live cultures” and without

additives. They’re themost flavorful and delicately creamy. Don’t buyproductsclosetothesell-bydate.Cultured milks and creams slowly become more acid in the

refrigerator, but resist spoilage and keep longer than fresh milk andcream.Heat cultured milks and creams gently. Most cannot be cooked

without curdling. If creaminess is important in the finished dish, addthemjustbeforeserving.Yogurts are milks cultured with particular bacteria that produce a

verytarttasteandfresh,applelikearoma.“Natural”yogurtswith no stabilizing additives tend to leakwatery

whey,butit’seasilystrainedofforstirredbackin.Greek-styleyogurtsaremadeespecially thickbydrainingawaythe

waterywhey,andsometimesbyfortifyingthemilkwithaddedprotein,whichcanresultinaharshflavor.Probioticyogurtscontainliveculturesofbacteriathatcansurvivein

thedigestivesystemandmayhaveseveralbeneficialinfluences.Frozen yogurt is a low-fat ice cream with only about 20 percentaddedyogurt.Yogurt cannot be cooked without curdling it and killing itsbacteria.Ifcreaminessorlivebacteriaareimportant,stiritintoacookeddishjustbeforeserving,whenit’swarmbutnothot(lowerthan120°F/50°C).True buttermilk is the low-fat, sweet or tart, milky by-product ofmaking sweet or cultured butter, full of emulsifiers and flavor, andexcellentforbaking.Sweetbuttermilkcan’tcombinewithbakingsodatoleaven cakes and quick breads. To substitute it for commercialbuttermilk,usebakingpowderinsteadofsoda,orbalancethesodawithanotheracidingredient.Commercialbuttermilk is low-fatmilk, thickenedandgiven a tart,buttery flavor by the bacteria used tomake cultured butter, or by thesimpleadditionofthickenersandflavors.It’snotashelpfulinbakingastrue buttermilk, but contributes to leavening when combined withbakingsoda.Bulgarian buttermilk is a commercial cultured buttermilk madeespeciallytartandthickwiththebacteriausedtomakeyogurt.Cultured sour cream is cream with 20 percent fat, homogenizedtwice for extrabody, thickenedandgivena tart,buttery flavorby thebacteriausedtoculturebutter.Acidified sour cream is an approximation of cultured sour cream,thickenedandflavoredbythedirectadditionofacidandflavorings.Crèmefraîche,themostversatilecultureddairyproduct,iscreamthickenedandgivenatart,butteryflavorbythebacteriausedtoculturebutter.Itcanbewhiskedintoadensewhippedcream,andifmadefromheavy cream so that it contains about 38 percent fat, it can be boiledwithoutcurdling.Brandsmadewithhomogenizedcreamarelesspronetoleakingfreebutterfatwhenheated.Use crème fraîche to flavor and thicken deglazed pan juices into arich sauce. For the best results, use full-fat brands made from heavycream,not“low-fat”versions.

MAKINGYOGURTANDCRÈMEFRAÎCHE

Yogurt and crème fraîche are easy to make in the kitchen usingcommercial products as starters, an instant-read thermometer, and jarsor plastic storage containers. Start with a cultured brand of yogurt orplainbuttermilk(notBulgarian)whoseflavorandconsistencyyoulike.Don’tuseacommercialcrèmefraîche;plainbuttermilkcontainsahigherconcentrationofthesamebacteriaandworksmorereliably.Tomakeyogurt:

Heatmilkto180°F/80°C,eitheronthestoveorinthemicrowaveoven,andletitcoolslowlyinthecontainerto115°F/46°C.Stirinyogurt,eithercommercialorsomeofyourpreviousbatch,2tablespoons/30millilitersforeachquartorliterofmilk.Wrapthecoveredcontainerinkitchentowelsandkeepitundisturbedfor2to4hours,untiltheyogurtissetasyouwantit.Itsconsistencywillfirmasitchillsintherefrigeratorandthenslowlycontinuestoacidify.

Milktemperatureshigherthan115°F/46°C thickenyogurtmorequicklybutwillcausemoreseparationofwaterywhey.Lowertemperaturestakelongerandproduceasofterconsistency.To make thick “yogurt cheese” or “Greek-style” yogurt, spoon theyogurt into a fine strainer or colander linedwith cheesecloth, and letwaterywheydrainoffforseveralhoursintherefrigerator.Tomakecrèmefraîche:

Heatheavycreamto180°F/80°C,eitheronthestoveorinthemicrowaveoven,andletitcoolslowlyinthecontainerto115°F/46°C.Stirplainbuttermilkintothecream,1tablespoonpercup/15millilitersper250milliliters.Coverthecontainer,wrapitinkitchentowels,andkeepitundisturbedfor2to4hours,untilthecreamissetasyouwantit.Tomakecrèmefraîchemorecasuallybutlesspredictably,simplystirbuttermilkandunheatedcreamtogetherinthecontainer,coverit,andletitstandatcoolroomtemperatureovernight,oruntilthick.

Foramoreevenconsistencybutablanderflavor,usehomogenizedcream.Unhomogenizedcreamswilldevelopathickupperlayerduringthefermentation.Whenthishappens,gentlymixthelayersbacktogetherbeforerefrigerating.

CHEESES

Cheesesaresolidversionsofmilk,madebycurdlingtheproteinswithanenzymeandremovingmuchofthewatertoconcentratetheproteinandfat.Mostcheeseshavealsobeensaltedandmademoreorlessacidby helpful bacteria. Many are given additional flavor by bacteria ormoldsthat“ripen”themoverthecourseofweeksormonths.Fresh cheeses, including cottage cheese, quarg, cream cheese,mozzarella, and ricotta, are moist and perishable. Check expirationdatesandkeepthemcold.Cheeseswithoutstabilizinggumshaveamoredelicateconsistency.Agedcheeses,includingBrieandCamembert,cheddar,blue,andParmesan, are salted, lessmoist, and less perishable.Quality versionsmaybeseveraltimesthepriceofmass-marketbrands.Processcheeseandcheesespreadsaremadefromamixtureofnewand aged cheeses, blended together with emulsifying additives. Theyhaveagenericcheeseflavor,areconvenientlypackaged,andmeltwell.Low-fat and nonfat cheeses are imitations filled out with starch,gums,andproteins.Insteadofmelting,theyjustdryout.Traditionally made cheeses are some of themost flavorful anddiverse foods there are. Mass-market approximations with the samenameshavebeenmadequicklyandarenotasgood.You get the cheese you pay for. The best cheeses are the mostexpensive.Ifyoulikecheese,besuretotrytheimportedFrench,Italian,andEnglishoriginals,aswellasartisanalAmericancheeses.Buycheesecuttoorderfromastorewhereyoucantryataste.Precutcheese quickly loses its flavor and develops off flavors. Avoid cheeseswith brown discoloration, separating fluid, or mold growing on cutinteriorsurfaces.

Scrapeawaythesurfaceofprecutcheesetoremoveoffflavors.Avoidgratedcheese,whichquicklylosesitsaroma.BuyParmesanandothergratingcheesesinwholepiecesandgratejustbeforeusing.Keepperishablefreshcheesestightlywrappedandverycold.Keepunripesoftcheesesat50to60°F/10to15°C, looselywrappedin wax paper, so that they can finish ripening. Full refrigerationsuspendstheripeningactionofmicrobesandenzymes.Keepwell-ripenedcheesescooltocold,looselywrappedinwaxpaperorunderacheesedomeorinvertedbowl.Servecheesesatroomtemperature,not rightoutof the refrigerator.Thetextureofcoldcheeseiscongealedandhard,theflavormuted.

COOKINGWITHCHEESES

Heataffectsdifferentcheesesdifferently.Melting cheeses soften into a thick liquid and spread. Theseinclude Camembert, Brie, Colby, blue cheeses, and process cheeseproducts.Stringycheesesformcohesive,stickystrandswhenpulled.Theseinclude mozzarella, Emmental (Swiss with holes), and most cheddarcheeses.Nonmeltingcheesessoftenandthendryoutwithoutspreading.These includemost fresh goat cheeses, queso blanco, Indian paneer,feta and halloumi, ricotta, and dry grating cheeses such as Parmesan.Dry grated cheeses can be spread on a pan and heated tomake thin,crispwafers.Make cheese sauces and soups with either dry grating cheeses ormeltingcheeses,whichdisperseeasilyinwater.Topreventcheeseinsaucesandsoupsfromturninglumpyandoily:

Gratethecheesefinely.Addthecheesetohotbutnotboilingliquid,attheendofthecooking.Stiraslittleaspossibletoavoiddevelopingstringiness.Includeflourandstarchestopreventproteinclumpingandfat

puddling.

Cheese fondue is a cheese-based dip keptwarm andmolten over alowflame,thinnedwithwineandotherliquids.Itcanbecomestringyortoothick.Besure to include tartwhitewineand/or lemon juice.Tartaricand

citric acids prevent stringiness, as does the inclusion of some flour orcornstarch.To remedy thickening as the fondue moisture evaporates, stir in

splashesofwhitewine.

E

10

EGGS

ggsareascommonafoodaswe’vegot,butthat’sbecausethey’realso one of the most extraordinary. What other food comespackaged by nature to keep for weeks, makes a satisfying and

nutritiousmaincourseinminutes,andcostspennies?I’mhappytopayapremium for eggs from hens that are kept humanely; even at severaltimes the supermarket price they’re a bargain. But a high price andwordsonacartondon’tguaranteehumaneproduction.Ifyouwanttobesure,checkuponthefarmthatproducesthem.Like milk, eggs contain all the ingredients needed to grow a new

creature.Unlikemilk,eggspackageandconcentratethoseingredientsinhandyamounts,andsegregatethemsothatwecanusethemtogetherorseparately. And how we can use them! In the shell or out, intact ormixed, alone or enveloping other ingredients or weaving through andholding them together. The protein-rich white can lend either densestructureorfoamylightnesstobakedgoods,theyolkfatsandproteinsacombinationof richness and solidity to cakesandcustards and creamsandsauces.InJapanesecooking,raweggyolkitselfisservedasasauce.Redbeansledmetodiscovertheinsightsofmodernfoodscience(this

page), but eggs opened my eyes to the accumulated wisdom oftraditionalcooking.EarlyonIreadinJuliaChild’sMastering theArtofFrench Cooking that it’s best to whip egg whites in a copper bowl,because coppermakes an egg foammore acidic and somore stable. Iknew that the chemical explanation was incorrect, so I assumed thewhole ideawas just an old cooks’ tale.Months later I came across anannotated engraving of a French kitchen that showed a boywhippingeggwhitesinacopperbowl—in1771.Anoldtaleindeed!Iimmediatelydida side-by-side testof copperandglassbowls,and thecopper foamwasmuchmorestableandvelvety.SoIstoppedassuming.Traditionally

schooledcooksmaynotknowchemistry,buttheyknowcooking,andinthekitchenthat’stheknowledgethatcounts.

EGGSAFETY

Eggsarerichlynourishingforchicks,forus,andalsoformicrobes.Avarietyofharmfulbacteriareadilygrowineggsandeggdishes.Carelesshandlingatanystagecancontaminateeggsandcauseillness.Intact,cleanraweggscancarrysalmonellabacteriainsidethem.Salmonellacauseillnessthatcanbelifethreateningfortheveryyoung,theelderly,andpeoplewhoarealreadyill.Theriskofexposuretosalmonellaisverysmallfromoneortwoeggscookedinahomekitchenandservedrightaway.It’smuchgreaterwhendozens of eggs are combined in food service and prepared, held, andservedoveraperiodofhours.When preparing eggs for people who are especially vulnerable toillness, cook them thoroughly, to 160°F/70°C or above, or usepasteurizedeggs.Toreducetheriskofillnessfromeggsandeggdishes:

Buyfresh,clean,refrigeratedeggs.Keepraweggsrefrigerateduntiljustbeforecooking.Discardraweggswithcrackedshells.Holdlightlycookedeggsfor30minutesinwaterat140°F/60°Cbeforeserving.Thiseffectivelypasteurizessoft-boiledorpoachedeggswithouthardeningcreamyyolks.Serveeggdishespromptly.

SHOPPINGFOREGGS

There’s little practical difference among the various kinds ofchickeneggssoldinsupermarkets.Breed,shellcolor,fertilization,hens’livingconditions and diet generally don’t affect egg flavor or function

significantly.There are largedifferences among eggproducers, in the scale oftheiroperations, theirapproaches toanimalwelfareand sustainability,andthepriceoftheireggs.Commodityeggsareamongthecheapestofourmajor foods. Take an occasional look at the information on somepricier cartons, and consider whether it might be worth paying apremiumtosupportotherapproachestoeggproduction.Backyard and small-farm hens that forage and eat kitchen scrapshave a more varied diet than commercial hens and produce deepercoloredyolks.Quail eggs and duck eggs are alternatives to chicken eggs andincreasingly easy to find.Quail eggshave the appeal of their speckledshellsanddiminutivesize,largeduckeggstheirdeeporangeyolksandrichflavor.Egggrades indicate initialqualitywhen the eggswerepacked forshipping. Grade AA eggs start out with firmer yolks and whites thangrade A or grade B eggs, qualities mainly important for eggs cookedwhole(poached,fried,soft-orhard-cooked).Packing or sell-by dates indicate the likely quality when youactuallybuyeggs.Packingdatesaregivenasthenumericaldayoftheyear(1to365).Inanygivengrade,themostrecentlypackedeggswillhavethefirmestyolksandwhites,andwillkeeplongest.NewergradeAeggsmaybefirmerthanoldergradeAA.Eggsizesvaryandarenotalways interchangeable.ThecommonU.S. sizes and liquid weights per egg are medium (1.75 ounces/49grams),large(2ounces/56grams),extra-large(2.25ounces/63grams),andjumbo(2.5ounces/70grams).Largereggstakelongertocook.Forbaking,besure touse thesizespecified in recipes,usually large,or toadjustproportionsfordifferentsizes.Whenbuyingeggs,choosecartonswiththelatestsell-bydate,andthesizecalledfor inyourfavoriterecipes.Openthecartonandcheckthatalltheeggsareintact.Pasteurizedeggsareavailableintheshell,inliquidform,anddried.These products eliminate worries about salmonella-infected eggs, butdon’t do quite as good a job as raw eggs at foaming or emulsifying

sauces.Theycanhaveapronouncedcookedflavor.

STORINGEGGS

Store eggs in the refrigerator, ideally in an airtight container to slowmoisturelossandodorpickup.Eggsofgoodqualitywillkeepforseveralweekspasttheirsell-bydate.Eggsseldomspoil,buttheircontentsshrinkanddeteriorate.The

normallythickwhiteandyolkbecomerunnierandtheyolkmembranemorelikelytobreak.To estimate the quality of stored eggswithout cracking themopen,

placeoneinabowlandaddwater.Afresheggwilllieflat,anoldereggwillliftitsbluntendtowardthesurface,andaveryoldeggwillfloat.Totellwhetheraneggintherefrigeratorisraworcooked,spiniton

itsside.Araweggwillspinsluggishly,acookedeggrapidly.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGWITHEGGS

Eggshavetwoverydifferentparts,thewhiteandtheyolk.Egg white is a cloudy to clear, colorless, viscous fluid that’s 90

percentwaterand10percentprotein.Theproteinmoleculesarelooselytangledupwitheachotherandgivethewhiteitsthickness.There are three zones of egg white with different consistencies: a

runnyouter layer,a thicker,cohesive inner layer,andtwodensecordsthatanchortheyolktotheshell.Heatsolidifieseggwhitebycoagulatingitsproteins.Heatcauses

theegg-whiteproteinstostickmoreandmoretightlytoeachotherandformanetworkthroughoutthefluid.Thisprocessturnstheliquidwhiteintoamoist,opaquesolid.Thehighertheheat,thetightertheproteinsstick together, and the harder and more rubbery the solid whitebecomes.Airbubblesalsocoagulateegg-whiteproteins.Whiskingeggwhites

traps air bubbles in the fluid.Air bubbles pull egg proteins onto theirsurfacesandcausethemtosticktogetherandformasolidnetwork.That

network holds the bubbles together in a stable foam for makingmeringuesandsoufflés.Themoretheeggsarewhisked,thetightertheproteins stick together. When overwhisked, the proteins separate intocompact clumps, and the foam collapses into a curdled mix of solidclumpsandrunnyfluid.Theeggyolk isaballofcreamyyellowliquidsurroundedbyathinmembrane. The yolk is 50 percent water, 30 percent fat and fatlikeemulsifiers and pigments, and 20 percent protein. Its fatty materialsprovidemuchoftheegg’scolor,flavor,andrichness.Heat solidifies egg yolk by coagulating its proteins. The yolkcontainslesswaterthanthewhite,anditsfatandmuchofitsproteinarecontained in tiny spheres.Whenheat causes the yolk proteins to sticktogether,thenetworktheyformcausestheyolktothicken,thenformacrumblymass of solidified spheres. The higher the heat, the drier thecrumblyyolkbecomes.Thekeytomostgoodeggdishesistemperaturecontrol.Justtheright levelofheatandproteinbondingproducesamoist, tenderwhiteandacreamyyolk.Toomuchheatproducesahard,rubberywhiteanddry, crumbly yolk. In custards and creams, too much heat causescurdlingandseparation.For a tender, even consistency, heat eggs and egg dishes just untiltheysolidify.Eggswhitesbegintosolidifyaround140°F/60°C,eggyolksaround145°F/63°C,andmixturesofeggswithotheringredientsusuallybetween160and180°F/70and80°C.Separatedyolksandwhitesprovidedifferentqualities to cookeddishes.Bothhelpthickenandsetliquidswiththeirproteins.Eggwhitescreateaslick,slightlyelasticfirmness;eggyolksatender,softfirmnesscombinedwithcreaminess.Toseparateyolksandwhites,usetwobowls.Cracktheeggintotwohalf-shellsand let thewhite flowintoonebowlwhilepassing theyolkbetween the shellhalves,using the shell edges to cut the clingywhitefrom the yolk. Or crack the egg into yourwell-washed hand, and useyour fingers to strain the white from the yolk. Put the yolk into thesecondbowl.Iftheyolkbreaksandsomeendsupinthewhite,scooptheyolkout

with a spoonbeforeproceeding to thenext egg, especially if you’ll bewhipping thewhites. Yolk interfereswith foaming, though not fatally.Don’tworryaboutasmallresidue.

SOFT-ANDHARD-COOKINGEGGSINTHESHELL

Soft-cookedeggshaveasoftorcreamyyolkandatenderwhite.Hard-cookedeggshaveamostlysolidyolkandawhitefirmenoughtohavetheshellpeeledfromitcleanly.Bothareusuallycookedinapotofhotwater, fully immersed, but they can also be steamed. Steaming takesslightlylonger.Don’tboileggs.Boilingwateristurbulentandtoohot.Itbreaksshells

andtoughensproteins,intensifiescooked-eggflavor,andhelpsturntheyolk surface green. Soft-cook eggs in water or steam just below theboiling point. Hard-cook eggs well below the boiling point, at 180 to190°F/80to85°C.For consistent results, develop a consistent method. Exact cooking

times depend on the desired doneness, the egg size and startingtemperature,and thecookingmethod.Use the sameegg sizeand startthemfreshfromtherefrigerator.Usethesamepotandvolumeofwater.Cookatleastonemoreeggthanyouneed,andcheckitsdonenessearly.Tomake soft-cookedeggs, gently lower the eggs into copiouswater

thathasfallenjustbelowtheboil.Keeptheheatonlowandcook2to4minutes for mostly liquid oeufs à la coque, 3 to 6 minutes for soft-cookedeggs toeat from the shell, and5 to7minutes formollet eggs,soft-cookedeggsthatcanberemovedwholefromtheshell.To make very tender mollet eggs that slide out of the shell when

they’recrackedandhavebarely setwhites,hold theeggs for30 to60minutesatexactly147°F/64°C.Checkandadjustthewatertemperaturefrequently,oruseanautomaticimmersioncirculatororwateroven.Forhard-cookedeggsthatarereliablyeasytoshell,useeggsthatare

aweek or two old. Very fresh eggwhites stick to the inner shell andtear.Tomakehard-cookedeggssimply,gentlylowertheeggsintocopious

water thathas fallen justbelow theboil, or in coldwater that is then

raisedquickly just to theboil.Cover thepot, turnoff theheat,and lettheeggssitfor10to12minutes.Tomake hard-cooked eggs with reliably moist, just-set yolks, hold

theeggs for30 to60minutesatexactly153°F/67°C.Checkandadjustthe water temperature frequently, or use an immersion circulator orwateroven.Chill hard-cooked eggs quickly in cold or ice water to prevent the

yolk surface from turning green, and to firm the white for easiershelling.Toshelleggscleanly, tap themallover tocrack the shell into small

fragments.Startwiththeairpocketatthewideendandcarefullypullonthemembranetobringtheshellfragmentswithit.Useorrefrigeratecookedeggspromptly.

POACHINGANDFRYINGEGGS

Poaching and frying are ways of cooking eggs free of their shells butotherwiseintact,theyolksurroundedbythewhiteandreadytobecomeitssauce.Thechallengeinmakinggoodpoachedandfriedeggsistoproducean

attractivelycompactshape,atenderwhite,andacreamyyolk.Toproduceshapelypoachedandfriedeggs,useveryfresheggswitha

strongyolkmembraneandahighproportionofthickwhitetothin.Strain each egg before cooking in a large perforated spoon to drain

awaytherunnythinwhite,oruseringsorcupstocontainthewhite.Topoacheggs:

Heatjustbelowtheboilashallowpanfilledtoadepthofatleast11/2inches/4centimeterswithsaltedwateroranothercookingliquid.Don’taddvinegartopoachingwater.It’sineffectiveatcontrollingtheshape,andflavorstheegg.Gentlyslidetheeggsintotheliquidfromashallowbowlorperforatedspoon,andcook3to5minutes.Don’tletthepoachingwaterboilandbecometurbulent.

Removetheeggswithacleanperforatedspoon,drainthewater,andblotthebottomdrywithacleantowel.Serveonaprewarmedplateoronotherwarmingredients.

Tofryeggs:

Useanonstickorawell-seasonedfryingpan.Tominimizesticking,usewholebutterratherthanoil.Wholebuttercarriesantistickingemulsifiers.Heatthepanaloneto250to300°F/120to150°C,whenaflickedwaterdropletquicklyevaporatesbutdoesn’tskateonthepan.Addenoughoilorfattocoatthesurface,andcrackorslidetheeggsintothepan.Turntheeggsafteraminuteorsowithathin-bladespatulaandcooktheuppersurfaceforafewseconds(overeasy);orbastethesurfacewithhotfat,oraddaspoonfulofwatertothepanandcoverittotrapthesteam.Slidethespatulabladedecisivelyundertheyolkandturntheeggontoaprewarmedplate.

MAKINGSCRAMBLEDEGGS,OMELETS,ANDFRITTATAS

Scrambledeggs,omelets,andfrittatasareallmadebymixingrawyolksandwhites together, thenheating themix intoamoreor less firmbutmoistandtendermass.Scrambled eggs are cooked gently in a frying pan until moist andtender throughout. Additional liquid ingredients (cream, milk, stock,water)dilutetheeggproteinsandgiveasofterresult,butalsoonemoresensitivetoovercookingandleakingwateryjuices.Tomakescrambledeggs:

Precookanyvegetablestoremoveexcesswater.Whisktogethereggs,anyotherliquids,andseasonings.Toavoidundercookedlumps,strainslow-to-setyolkcordsfromthemixture.Heatanonstickorwell-seasonedpanaloneonmediumheatto200to

225°F/93to107°C,hotenoughtomakeawaterdropletsteamandbubble.Addtheoilorbutter,andpourintheeggsandanyotheringredients.Stirandscrapeconstantlytoproduceaneven,creamyconsistency,oroccasionallytoproducelarge,tendercurds.Removepromptlywhentheeggshavebarelysetasdesired.Serveonprewarmedplates.

Omelets are cooked briskly in a frying pan tomake a thinmass ofmoist, tenderlycoagulatedeggthat is foldedonto itselfandsometimesaroundafillingofotheringredients.Tomakeanomelet:

Chooseaproperlysizedpan,eitherwellseasonedornonstick,sothattheeggswillformamedium-thinlayer(an8-inch-diameter/20-centimeterpanfor2to3eggs).Haveanyfillingingredientswarmandready.Precookvegetablestoremoveexcesswater.Whisktogethereggs,otherliquids,andseasonings.Heatthepanaloneovermoderatelyhighheatto275to300°F/135to150°C,orhotenoughtovaporizeawaterdropin1to2seconds.Coatthepanwithoilorfat,andpourintheeggs.Stirandscrapeuntilthemassjustbeginstoholdtogether.Placeanyfillingonthetop.Leavetheeggsundisturbedjustlongenoughtosetand,ifdesired,lightlybrownthebottomsurface.Foldtheomeletinhalforinthirdsandslideontoaprewarmedplate.

Frittatas and flat omelets usually include vegetables, meats, orcheese, aren’t folded onto themselves, and are made thicker to beginwith.Tomakeafrittataorflatomelet:

Chooseaproperlysizedpan,eitherwellseasonedornonstick,sothattheeggmixturewillformathicklayer.Precookmeatsandvegetablestoremoveexcesswater.Whisktogethereggs,otherliquids,andseasonings.Mixinanyother

ingredients.Heatthepanaloneovermoderatelyhighheatto275to300°F/135to150°C,orhotenoughtovaporizeawaterdropin1to2seconds.Coatthepanwithoilorfat,andpourintheeggmixture.Cookthemixturethroughuntilbarelyset,whenthecenternolongerjiggleswithashakeofthepan.Brownthetopifdesiredunderabroiler,orbyslidingthesetmixtureontoaplateandinvertingitbackintothepan.

EGGMIXTURES:CUSTARDSANDCREAMS

Custards and creams are cooked mixtures of eggs, milk, cream, andusually sugar. The egg proteins thicken and sometimes set the otherliquids. Egg whites provide firm setting power and little flavor. Yolksprovideamoredelicate,creamysetalongwitheggyflavorandrichness.The egg proteins in custards and creams are greatly diluted by the

other ingredients. A typical ratio is 1 egg per cup of liquid/250milliliters.Diluted egg proteins thicken and set at a high temperature

compared toplain eggs, at 160 to190°F/70 to85°C insteadof 140 to150°F/60to65°C.Dilutedeggproteins forma fragilestructure that iseasilybroken

byovercooking.Heat custard and creammixes slowly and gently near their setting

temperaturetoavoidshootingpastit,overcookingandcurdlingthemix.Toensureagainstcurdling, includeflour in therecipe(1tablespoon

percupofmix/8gramsper250milliliters)orcornstarch (2 teaspoonsper cup/5 grams per 250 milliliters). These starches protect the eggproteins,butproduceaslightlypuddinglikeconsistencyandflavor.Themilk and cream are quickly preheated inmost recipes, then

combinedwiththeeggssothatthemixturewillcookfaster.Alwaysaddhot liquidstoraweggs,not thereverse.Addingeggs to

thehotliquidwillcooktheeggsprematurely,coagulatingtheirproteinsandcurdlingthem.

Lemon and other fruit curds are “creams” in which the milk andcream are replaced by fruit juice and butter. Fruit acidity reduces thedangerofcurdlingbutdoesn’teliminateit.

CUSTARDSANDFLANS,CHEESECAKESANDQUICHES

Custardsandflansaresweetorsavoryeggmixturescookedintheovenwithoutstirring,sothattheysetintoamoistsolid.Custards meant to be sliced or turned out whole from their dishes

needtobefirmerthancustardsspoonedfromthedishthey’rebakedin.Whole eggs and egg whites contribute an elastic, cohesive firmness

that’sbestforslicedorturned-outdishes.Yolkscontributeasoft,creamyfirmnessbettersuitedforcustardsspoonedfromthebakingdish.Custardsareoftenbakedinawaterbath,partlyimmersedinapan

of water, which moderates the oven temperature to 190°F/85°C orlower,slowsthecooking,andhelpsavoidovercooking.Don’tcoverthewaterbath,whichwouldpreventevaporativecooling

andquicklyraisethebathtemperaturetotheboil.Toprotectthecustardsurface,coveritscontaineronly.Fillthewaterbathwithboilingwater,andmakesurethatthewater-

bath temperature remains around 190°F/85°C. Water below the boiltakestoolongtoheatupintheoven,andlowerbathtemperaturesmaynot set the egg proteins. If the bath temperature drops below190°F/85°C,turnuptheovenheat.To judge custard doneness, bump the dish to see how fluidly its

contentsmove,orprobeitscenterwiththetipofaknifeoratoothpick.Foracreamyinterior,removethepanfromtheovenwhilethecustardstilljigglesslightly,orwhensomethickenedmixclingstotheprobe.Forafirmcustard,waituntilitnolongerjigglesandthemixclingstoitselfinsteadoftheprobe,whentheproteinshavefullyset.Cheesecake isarich,tendercustardmadewithsugarandbothlow-

fat and high-fat dairy products, usually some combination of ricottacheese,creamcheese,sourcream,andcream.Topreventcurdlingandtoabsorbmoisturefromthericotta,include

someflourorcornstarch.Mix the custard ingredients gently to avoid creating bubbles,which

causeovenriseandcollapse,anuneventexture,andacrackedsurface.Avoidlumpsbyprocessingricottauntilsmooth,and/orwarmingand

softeningcreamcheesetoblenditevenlywiththeotheringredients.Bakeslowlyinagentleoven.Formoreevenheating,immersethepan

inawaterbath.Toavoidovercooking,cracking,andadryinterior,turnofftheoven

whenthecustardisstillslightlyjigglyatthecenter.Tominimizeshrinkingandcracking,removethepanfromtheoven,

runaknifealongtheoutsideedge,thenreturntotheovenandallowtocoolgraduallywiththeovendoorajar.Chill for up to a day or two to set firmly before cutting. Allow to

warmtoacoolroomtemperaturebeforeserving.Crèmecaramelisacustardwithasoftcarameltopthatisturnedout

ontoa servingplate. It requiresahighproportionofwholeeggs tobefirmenoughtostandonitsown.Tomakecrèmecaramel:

Caramelizesugaratthebottomoftheemptycustarddishwithhighheat,letthedishcool,andgreaseitsinnerwall.Cookthecustardmixinthedishuntilfirm,andchillforseveralhourstofirmfurther.Dipthedishbrieflyinhotwatertosoftenthecaramelandthecustardsurface,andturnthecustardoutontoaplate.

Crèmebrûlée,“burntcream,”isasoftcustardtoppedwithabrittle,glossysheetofcaramelizedsugar.To make the brûlée sheet, chill the cooked custard to avoid

overcooking, coatwith a generous layer of coarse sugar, and heat thesugar as quickly as possible with a torch, broiler, or preheatedsalamander(ametalplateonahandle)untilmeltedandbrown.Quiches are savory pie-shaped egg mixtures with relatively large

proportions of egg to milk or cream, and therefore a dense, firm

consistency that doesn’t require a water bath. They’re cooked in aprebakedpastrycrust.Precookmeats and vegetables for quiches so they don’t leak juices

whenthequichemixcooks.

CREAMS

Creams are egg mixtures thickened on the stove top with frequentstirring,whichpreventsthemfromsettingintoasolid.Crèmeanglaiseisaversatilepourablecreamthat’susedasasauceforfruitsandpastriesand as an ice cream base. Pastry cream is used to fill and decoratepastriesandcakes.Itandothercreamfillingsarestiffenedwithflourorstarchtoholdtheirshapeandmoisture.Pourableandstiffcreamsarecookedverydifferently.Gently heat pourable creams just until they begin to thicken to the

consistency of heavy cream, around 180°F/80°C, to avoid curdling.They’llbethickerwhencool.Bring flour-and starch-stiffened creams to a full boil. Boiling

inactivates egg-yolk enzymes thatwill otherwise digest the starch andthin the cream after it’s been cooked. Starch protects the egg proteinsfromcurdlingattheboil.Tomakecrèmeanglaise:

Heatmilkandcreamneartheboiltoextractflavorfromanysolidingredients,includingvanillabeans,andtospeedthefinalcooking.Onceextracted,strainoutthesolids.Pourthehotliquidslowlyintoblendedeggsandsugarwhilewhiskingconstantly.Returnthemixturetothepanandstove.Heatthemixwithconstantstirringuntilitthickenstothedesiredconsistency.Tominimizeminorcurdling,heatcreamsinadoubleboileroversimmeringwater.Topreventovercookingfromthepan’sheat,immediatelyplungethepanbottomintocoldwaterwhilecontinuingtostirthethickenedmix.Pourthecreamthroughastrainertoremoveanycoagulatedparticles,

andstiroccasionallyasitcools.Addanyfruitonlyafterthesaucecoolstoroomtemperature,toavoidcurdlingthecreamwiththefruit’sparticlesandacidity.Topreventtheformationofadryskin,pressplasticwrapintothecreamsurface,ordotthesurfacewithsmallpiecesofbutterandletthemmelttocoatit.

Tomakecrèmeanglaisewithoutconstantstirring,cookitinawaterbath:

Blendtheflavoredcream,eggs,andsugarandsealthemixairtightinazipperedplasticbag.Immersethebaginawaterovenorlargecoveredpotofhotwaterat185°F/85°Cfor1houroruntilithasthickened.Maintainthepottemperaturewithanimmersioncirculatororbyfrequentcheckingandadditionofboilingwater.Manipulatethebaggentlyandoccasionallytoevenoutthecreamconsistencyasitheatsandcools.

Tomakepastrycream:

Combinetheeggswiththesugarandwithflourorstarch,usually1to2tablespoonspercupofliquid/8to16gramsper250milliliters.Heatthemilktotheboilandwhiskitintotheeggmixture.Heatthemixturewithconstantstirringtotheboil.Stirthecreamonlyoccasionallyandgentlyasitcools,toavoidweakeningthestarchnetworkandthinningthecream.

Bewareofrecipesforcream-piefillingsinwhicheggyolksarebeatenoff the heat into the other hot ingredients. This makes a lighter,smoothercream,buttheeggenzymeswillsurviveandliquefythefilling.Tomakeastablecream-piefilling,heatitjusttotheboilafteradding

theyolks,ifnecessarythinningitoutwithmilk.

FOAMINGEGGS

Egg foams are lightmasses of egg and air bubbles. They’re sometimes

cookedandservedontheirown.Moreoftenthey’refoldedintocreamsandbatterstolightenthemintoairysoufflésandcakes.Egg foams are usuallymade by beating air into thewhites or yolkswithawhiskorelectricmixer.Theycanalsobemadewithasiphon,apressurizedcontainermainlyusedtowhipcream.Eggfoamsarestableanddeliciouswhentheeggproteinsbondtoeachotherjustenoughtoformasupportingnetworkaroundeachbubble.Iftheproteinsbondtootightly,theyclumptogetherandcurdlethefoam.Egg-yolk foamsneedgentleheat during thewhipping to form theproteinsupport.Toomuchheatcausesproteinclumpingandcurdling.Egg-white foamsdon’tneedheat to form.Correctwhippingaloneformstheproteinsupport.Toomuchwhippingcausesproteinclumpingandcurdling.Egg-white foams benefit fromacid ingredients or copper bowls,whichpreventcurdlingbylimitingproteinbonding.To avoid overbeating egg-white foams, add 1/8 teaspoon/0.5 gramcreamof tartaror1/2teaspoon/2milliliters lemon juiceperwhite.Oruseacopperbowl(orapinchofacopperdietarysupplement).Tomakeegg-whitefoams:

Don’tworryabouteggageortemperature,whicharenotmajorfactors.Separatethewhitesfreeofanyyolk,whichinterfereswithfoaming.Cleanthebowlthoroughlyofanyoilordetergent,whichalsointerferewithfoaming.Usealargeballoonwhiskor“planetary”standmixer(thespinningwhiskmovesaroundinthebowl)toincorporateairquicklyandthoroughly.

Egg-white foams are whipped to different consistencies fordifferentdishes.Judgetheconsistencyofeggfoamsbytheirbehaviorwhendrawnoutintopeaksinthebowlandonthewhisk.Soft peaks are droopy and form when the foam is glossy andsemiliquidand slips along thebowl surface.Theeggproteins areonlypartlybondedandcanexpandfurthertostabilizealargervolumeofair

bubbles.Stiff peaks hold their shape and formwhen the foam is glossy andclings to the bowl. The proteins are mostly bonded and can onlyaccommodateaslightadditionalexpansioninairbubbles.Drypeaksarematteratherthanglossy,whenthefoambeginstoleaksomeliquidandslipalongthebowlagain.Theproteinshavethoroughlybondedandnofurtherexpansionispossible.

FOAMEDEGGYOLKS:ZABAGLIONEANDSABAYONS

Zabaglioneandsabayonsarethick,richfoams.They’remadebyheatingamixtureofeggyolksandaflavorfulliquidwhilewhiskingairintoit.Zabaglioneandsweetsabayonsincludesugarandasweetwineorfruitjuice;savorysabayonsincludemeatorfishstocks.Theycanbepourablesaucesorthick,spoonabledesserts.Heatthemixcarefullyasyouwhisk.Theyolkproteinsbegin togeland the mix to thicken and inflate far below the boil, as low as140°F/60°Cdependingontherecipe.Toavoid forming curds at the pan bottom, cook themix in a bowloveramoderatelyhotwaterbath,notoverboilingwaterordirectheat.Astheyolkproteinsbegintoset in theheat, the liquidthickensandtrapsmoreandmoreairbubbles.To make a pourable yolk foam, heat and whisk just until the mixthickenstotheconsistencyofheavycream.Pourablefoamssteadilylosetheirbubbles.Tomakethelightestandmoststableyolkfoam,whiskandheatuntilthemixthickensenoughtoformstreaksonthepanbottom.Egg-yolk foams leak liquid if they stand for some time.Reincorporatetheliquidwithgentlestirringtoavoiddeflatingthefoam,orsimplyscoopthefoamofftheliquid.

FOAMEDEGGWHITES:MERINGUES

Meringues are egg-white foams that can be soft, chewy, or brittle,

dependingontheirsugarcontentandhowthey’recooked.Added sugar reinforces the protein support network in a meringue.Heat sets the egg proteins and removes moisture, stiffening andeventuallyhardeningthefoam.Meringue powders are a mixture of dried pasteurized egg whites,sugar, and stabilizing gums. They’re useful for making uncookedmeringueswithouttheriskofpotentiallycontaminatedeggs.Uncookedmeringueisacreamyfoamforapastrytoppingortofoldintotheingredientsforamousse,chiffon,orsoufflé.Itcanbelightandsoftordenseandfirmenoughtoshapewithapastrypipe.Tomakeasoftuncookedmeringue,whipwhitesandstabilizingacidalonetothestiff-peakstage,thengentlyfoldinanysugarwithaspatula.Tomakeafirmuncookedmeringue,whipthewhites,acid,andsugaralltogether.Use superfine or powdered sugar to make uncooked meringues.Coarser granulated sugar dissolves slowly. Powdered sugar containsstarch, which helps absorb egg moisture and prevent weeping andstickiness. Substituteweights, not volumes (there’s abouthalf asmuchpowderedsugarinacupasthereisinacupoftablesugar).Cooked,or“Swiss,”meringue isachewymeringuestiffenough topipe into shapes and stable enough to keep at room temperature fordays.Tomakeacookedmeringue,whipeggwhites,sugar,andacidoverasimmeringwaterbathuntiltheyreach170°F/75°Candformastifffoam;thenremovethemixfromtheheatandcontinuebeatinguntilit’scool.Syrup-cooked,orItalian,meringueisalight,fluffyfoamthat’sstillfirm enough to shape for decoration. Themix doesn’t get as hot as aSwissmeringuedoes,anddoesn’thaveaslongashelflife.Tomakeasyrup-cookedmeringue,boilsugarandwateronthestovetopto240to250°F/116to121°C.Separatelywhiptheeggwhitesandacidtostiffpeaks,thencontinuewhilestreamingthesyrupinalongthebowlsurface,notontothespinningheaters.Meringuesareoftenfinishedintheoventohardenandkeepthem,ortoheightentheirflavorandtexture.

Tomakehardmeringuesthatremainsnowywhite,dry themslowlyinalow200°F/93°Coven.Meringuesbrownveryeasilythankstotheirhighsugarcontent.Storetheminanairtightcontainertopreventthemfromabsorbingmoisture.To make a chewy browned meringue, heat it briefly in a mediumoven,350°F/175°C,tothedesiredcolor.Meringuessometimesweepbeadsofsugarsyrupanddon’tadhereproperly when topping a pie. They can also shrink when cooked andbreakunevenlywhencut.To make meringues easier to work with, beat the egg whites withsomedrytapiocastarchorcornstarchcookedintoathickpaste.Tapiocastarchisprecooked.To preventweeping frommeringues, take care not to underwhip oroverwhip the egg whites. Use powdered sugar and make sure that itdissolves completely. Try baking at a lower oven temperature. Toprevent slippage on pies, make the meringue with powdered sugarand/or added starch. Apply themeringue to lukewarm filling, neitherhotnorcold.Coverthefillingwithstarchycrumbsbeforeapplyingthemeringue.

SOUFFLÉS

Soufflés are egg-white foams that are flavored and given body withvarioussavoryorsweetmixtures,andinflatedandsetbyovenheat.Soufflés have the reputation for being difficult, but they’restraightforward and reliable. Even if they collapse, they can often bepartlyreinflated.Soufflésriseintheovenwhenheatturnstheirliquidwaterintosteam,and the steam inflates their air bubbles. Soufflés fall when they cooldownandtheirsteamcondensesbackintoliquidwater.Thesoufflébase is themixture of other ingredients intowhich theegg-whitefoamisfolded.Flavor soufflé bases strongly, even to the point that they tasteoversea-soned.Theirflavorwillbedilutedbytheeggwhitesandair.

Thin soufflé bases rise highest, collapsemost dramatically, andreinflatepoorly.Theirmainingredientsareyolksandsugar.Serve soufflés made with thin bases immediately, before they

collapse.Thick soufflé bases rise and fallmodestly, and can be cooked in

advance and reinflated. They’re made with flour, starchy vegetables,pureedmeat,chocolate,orcocoa,andshouldbefluidenoughtoblendeasilywiththewhippedeggwhites.To mix the soufflé base and foam with minimal loss of air and

lightness:

Coolafreshlycookedbasebrieflytoavoidsettingtheeggfoamprematurely.Allowatleastoneeggwhiteper1/2cup/125millilitersbase.Whipeggwhitestostiffbutstillglossypeaks,stillfluidenoughtoblendeasilywiththebase.Stiraquarterofthefoamintothebasethoroughlytothinit.Scrapetheremainingfoamontothebase.“Fold”thebaseandfoamtogetherwithaspatula,slowlyandgentlyscoopingupthebaseandtrailingitalongthefoam,repeatinguntilbaseandfoamarejustmixedevenly;orgentlymixwithaballoonwhisk.

Topreparethesoufflémixforbaking:

Butteroroilthesoufflédishestopreventthemixfromsticking.Sprinkleinbreadcrumbsorgratedcheeseorsugartoprovidecrunchand/orflavor.Theywon’thelpthesoufflérisehigher.Fillthedishgentlywiththemixandtapittomakesurethemixsettleswithnoemptyspaces.Runafingeraroundthedishedgetocleanitofmixthatwouldsetquicklyandrestraintherising.Refrigerateorfreezeuncookedsoufflésintheirdishesifdesired.Wraptightlyandrefrigerateforseveralhours,orfreezefordays.

Tocooksoufflés:

Preheattheoventothedesiredcookingtemperature.Chooseahightemperature,400°F/200°Candup,tobrownthesoufflésurfacewhiletheinteriorremainsmoistandcreamy.Thesouffléwillrisequicklyandhigh,andwillfallnoticeablywhenserved.Chooseamoderatetemperature,325to350°F/160to175°C,tobrownthesurfacewhilegivingtheinteriortimetocookthroughandfirm.Thesouffléwillriseandfalllessdramatically.Avoidlowoventemperatures,whichcancausethemixtoexpandandspilloutofthedishbeforeitsets.Bakemostsoufflésonarackorbakingsheetlowintheoven,tospeedbottomheatingandrising.Bakesmallramekinsinashallowwaterbath,tomoderatethebottomheatandpreventthelightmassfromrisingasawhole.Judgesoufflédonenessbybumpingthedishtoseehowfluidlyitscontentsmove,orbyinsertingthetipofaknifeortoothpickintothecenter.Foracreamyinterior,removefromtheovenwhiletheprobebringssomemixwithit.Forafirmerinterior,waituntiltheprobecomesoutclean.Don’tworryaboutopeningtheovendoortocheckondoneness.Thesoufflémayshrinkslightlyasitcoolsbriefly,butitwillgoonrisingwhenthedoorisclosedagain.

To reinflate cooked soufflés, place them in a moderate oven untilheatedthrough.

M

11

MEATS

eatsarethefleshoflandanimalsandbirds.They’reespeciallysatisfying foods: substantial, firm textured, mouthfillinglyflavorful,richinnourishingprotein.Meaty.They’reoftenthe

centerpieceofameal.Meatsarechallengingtocookwellbecausetheirprotein fabric is both fragile and stubborn. They become appealinglyjuicy in a very narrow range of internal temperatures, roughly 130 to150°F/55to65°C.Duringcooking,theycanpassthroughthatrangeandgo from juicy to dry in just a minute or two. But some tough cutsactually need prolonged high heat just to become tender enough tochew.Sotheessentialkeytocookingmeatwellisknowingwhatkindofheataparticularcutneeds,andhowtostrikeagoodbalancebetweenjuicinessandtenderness.Givenmeat’s special status,you’d think thatanyseriouscookwould

make a point of knowing how tomake the best of it. Alas, no.Manypublished recipes guarantee that meat will come out overcooked anddry.Lessthandiligentfoodauthoritiesofallkinds,fromTVpersonalitiesto trained chefs, offhandedly repeat old myths about meat thatperpetuatemisunderstandinganddisappointingresults.There are also plenty of good meat recipes out there, and

knowledgeable,reliableauthoritiesonmeatcooking.Butinordertofindthemyouhavetobeabletotellgoodfrombad.Soyouneedtobecomeyourownauthority,atleastforthebasics.It’snothard.Nomatterwhatyoureadinrecipesorhearpronounced

bypeoplewhoshouldknow,keepthesesimpletruthsinmind:

Searingmeatdoesnotsealinitsjuices,andmoistcookingmethodsdonotmakemeatsmoist.Juicinessdependsalmostentirelyonhowhotyoucookthecenterofthemeat.Ifitgetsmuch

hotterthan150°F/65°C,itwillbedry.Meatovercooksquickly.Lowheatslowscookingandgivesyouthegreatestcontroloverdoneness.Mostrecipescan’tpredictcorrectcookingtimes.There’snosubstituteforcheckingmeatdonenessyourself,earlyandoften.

Cookbythesetruthsandyou’llbereadytomakethebestofanymeatsandmeatrecipesyouchoose.

MEATSAFETY

Like dairy products and eggs,meats are a favorite haunt formicrobesthat cause spoilage and illness. Unlike dairy products and eggs,meatsare almost sure to carry significant numbers of these microbes. Somecontamination is inevitable when living animals are slaughtered andtheirbodiesarebutcheredintomeat.Microbesarealwayspresenton rawmeat surfaces,even the freshestand finest quality, and usually with no obvious smell or visible sign.They’renormallynotpresentinthemeatinterior,butmaybeifthemeathasbeencutinto,andcertainlywillbeifithasbeengroundup.Bacteriagrowwellonmeatandcanmultiplyquickly.Meats carrying harmful bacteria causemany serious cases of illnesseveryyear.Handle allmeatswith caution. Assume that any piece of rawmeatmaycarryharmfulbacteria.Keepallrawandmostpreparedmeatscold,ascloseaspossibletothefreezingpoint,32°F/0°C.Theywon’tactuallybegintofreezethemselvesuntil several degrees below this. Dry-cured sausages and hams can bekeptatcoolroomtemperature.Isolaterawmeatanditsjuicesfromcontactwithotherfoods.Wash hands, knives, and cutting boards with warm, soapy waterbeforeandafterhandlingrawmeat.Use a reliable thermometer to measure cooking and internal meattemperatures, andwash it betweenmeasurements.Meat color is not areliableindicatorofdoneness.

Avoid contaminating cooked meats with marinades or sauces thatwere applied to raw or partly cookedmeats. Reserve a portion of theliquid for serving with the cooked meat, or reheat it to at least160°F/70°C.Meatsmade safe by cooking are usually not themost deliciousmeats.Temperatureshighenough tokillharmfulbacteriaquicklyalsodry themeat out. Temperatures low enough to leavemeat juicy don’tnecessarilykillharmfulbacteria.Topreparemeatsafelyforpeoplewhoareespeciallyvulnerable,heatitssurfacestotheboilortotemperatureshighenoughtobrown,anditscenter toat least155°F/68°C,a temperature that effectivelyeliminatesharmful bacteria in 15 seconds. Prepared cold cuts and hot dogs arepotentialcarriersoflisteriabacteria;tobesafest,heatthemuntilthey’resteaminghot.Topreparejuiciermeatsandtaketheusualprecautionsandchances,keepmeatscold,handle themwithcleanhandsandutensils,andcookthemtothedonenessyouprefer.To prepare juicier meats and takemore time and trouble to makethemsaferthanusual,holdthematjuicytemperatureslongenoughforthelowerheattokillmostbacteria.For a rare interior, cook until the center reaches 130°F/55°C, andhold that temperature for 90 minutes. For medium-rare, cook to135°F/57°Candhold for40minutes.Formedium,cook to140°F/60°Candholdfor15minutes.To prepare safe raw meat dishes or quick-cooked ground meats—steak tartare, carpaccio, rare hamburgers—cut or grind your own low-microbemeat.

Startwithalarge,intactpieceofmeat,whoseinteriorislikelytobemicrobe-free.Immersethemeatcompletelyinrapidlyboilingwaterfor30to60secondstokillbacteriaonitssurfaces.Removethemeatwithcleanutensils.Plungethemeatinanice-waterbathfor1minutetostopthecooking,thenremoveitandblotitdry.

Immediatelypreparethemeatwithcleanhands,knives,cuttingboards,andgrinders.Keepthemeatverycolduntilyou’rereadytocookorserveit.

Tosaveleftovercookedmeats,refrigeratethemassoonaspossible.Don’tleavecookedmeatoutatroomtemperatureformorethan4hours,less if it’s especiallywarm. Discard anymeats or sauces inadvertentlyleft out overnight. To keep cookedmeat formore than a day or two,freezeitwrappedairtight.To serve leftover cooked meats as safely as possible, reheat them

quicklytoaninternaltemperatureof160°F/70°C,andbringsaucesandgravies to a boil. Reheat in covered containers to prevent evaporationfromcoolingtheuppersurfaces.

SHOPPINGFORMEAT

Freshmeats are available in awide rangeofquality levels andprices,from a number of different production systems, and from conveniencestores, supermarkets,gourmetmarkets,andbutcher shops. Ifyouwantto know where your meats come from and how to get the best fromthem,shoparoundandfindabutcherwho’spassionateaboutquality.Commoditymeats in supermarketscome fromstandardizedanimals

bred for productivity rather than quality, raised in crowded factoryoperations on agricultural by-products, antibiotics, and growth-stimulatinghormones.They’reinexpensive,butgenerallyhavetheleastflavorandaremostpronetobecomingdryandtoughwhencooked.Specialtymeats,includingorganic,grass-fed,andheritagemeats,

oftencomefromlesscommonbreedsthathavebeendevelopedforthequality of theirmeat, and that have been raised in smaller operationswith whole feeds and little or no manipulation of their growth rate.They’re often older and more flavorful than commodity meats. Gamemeats—venison,buffalo,ostrich—come fromundomesticatedbut farm-raised animals andusuallyhavemuch lessmuscle fat. Because they’remoreexpensive,specialtymeatsmaysit longer in thedisplaycaseandlosetheirqualityadvantage.

USDA beef grades provide an indication of potential flavor andtenderness,basedonthegeneralqualityofacarcassandontheamountof fat dispersed within the meat tissue. “Prime” is the highest grade,scarce and expensive, “choice” the more common good-quality grade,and“select”thegradeforordinaryquality.Dry-agedbeefishungunprotectedinacoldroomforseveralweeks,aperiod that evaporatesmoisture, tenderizes, and intensifies flavor, andincreases production costs and price. Wet-aged beef has been held inshrink-wrap for several weeks. It also becomes more tender andsomewhatmoreflavorful,butdoesn’tdevelopthesameintensityasdry-agedbeef.Judgeandchoosefreshmeatsbyappearance.Foragivencutofmeat,the darker the color, the more flavorful it will be. Marbling, whitestreaksoffatintheredorpinkmeat,willmakeitmoisterandricher,aswillabundantwhitefatparticlesingroundmeats.Forgoodhamburgers,lookforgroundbeefwith20percentfat.Forfreshmeatswiththebestflavor,havethemcutorgroundtoyourorder,andcookthempromptly.Largeandbone-inpieceswill lose lessmoisture when cooked than small or boned pieces with more cutsurfaces.Precut meats, either exposed in the display case or packaged in aplastic tray, have a large surface area exposed to the air, light, andbacteria,anddevelopoff flavors inadayortwo.Avoidmeatsthatarebrownattheedges,orgrayinsteadofpink,red,orpurplish.Amongpackagedandfrozenmeats,choosethosewiththelatestsell-bydate,andwithnodarkoroff-colorpatches.Vacuum-packed “primal” cuts—whole roasts, racks, legs—havebeenminimallyhandledandareenclosedinairtightplasticwrap.Theykeepforseveralweeksintherefrigerator.Theirpurplecolorwillbloomtoredwhenmeatmeetsair.Avoidvacuum-packedgroundbeefforhamburgers.Vacuumpackingtightlycompresses thebeefparticles,and thisproducesadense,pasty-texturedhamburger.Vacuum-packedgroundmeatisalsomorelikelytocomedirectlyfromapackerwhocombinesscrapsfrommanycarcasses,apracticethatraisestheriskofcontaminationwithE.coli.Grindyour

meatyourself,orhaveyourbutchergrinditforyoufresh.Preparedmeats are often lower-quality cuts dressed upwith added

flavorings.Checkingredientlists.Check the labels of “enhanced” freshmeats packaged inmarinade

and“self-basting”turkeys.You’relikelytobepayingmeatpricesforthesubstantialamountofinjectedsaltwater.Baconwithaddedwaterfrombrine-curingshrinksmuchmorewhencookedthandry-curedbacon.To make chickens with crisp skin, choose dry-processed or kosher

poultry,preferablynotshrink-wrapped.Theirskinisnoticeablythinnerandcrispsfasterbecauseithasn’tbeenplumpedwithwater.Put fresh meats in your cart just before you check out. If it takes

more than a few minutes to get back to the kitchen refrigerator,transporttheminacooler.

STORINGMEATS

Mostmeats are at their best themomentwe buy them, and graduallydeclineinqualityuntilwecookthem.Beefisanexception;itsflavorandtenderness can benefit from a week or more of aging in the homerefrigerator.Age cuts of beef in the refrigerator sealed in their plastic vacuum

pack,orexposedandlooselycoveredonaracktoallowevaporationoftheir moisture. Choose large cuts for exposed aging, to allow for thetrimmingandlossofdriedandrancidsurfacepatches.The enemies of meat quality are oxygen and light, which turn fats

rancid; microbes, which produce off flavors; and warm temperatures,whichencouragetheothertwo.Keep meats in the coldest corner of the refrigerator. Store shrink-

wrappedorfreshlywrappedcutsunopened.Forcutssoldinplastictrays,removethemandblotdrywithpapertowelsbeforerewrappingtightlyinfreshplasticwrap.Use fresh meats promptly, within a few days, and ground meats

withinadayor two.Largecutsofmeatswithhard fats—beef, lamb—keeplongest.

Freeze meats to keep them longer than a few days, but don’t waitdays before freezing them. Beef keeps for up to a year, pork for 6months,poultryfor3months.Freezing does its own damage tomeat quality. It forms ice crystals

that puncture the meat cells and cause fluid loss. Dry freezer-temperatureaircauses“freezerburn,”surfacedryingthattoughensandcreatesoffflavors.Tominimizefreezingdamage,freezefasttominimizeicecrystalsize,

andwrapmeats tightwith no air pockets. Set your freezer as cold aspossible. If possible, divide the meat into small portions that freezefaster,andsetinthefreezerunwrapped.Oncefrozen,wrapthemeatsinseveral tight layers of plasticwrap and a final opaque layer of foil orpaper.

PREPARINGMEATSFORCOOKING

The first step in preparing rawmeat is to bring it out of storage andrefreshit.Thawfrozenmeatverygraduallyandgentlyintherefrigerator—large

cutscantakeseveraldays—ormuchfasterinabowloficewater.Don’tthawinhotwateroratroomtemperature,whichfavors thegrowthofmicrobes.Meatscanbecookeddirectlyfromthefreezer,butitrequiresmore time and a low cooking temperature to avoid overcooking theoutsidewhiletheinsidewarmsup.Examine the meat, and clean and trim it as necessary. Remove it

fromthepackagingandsmellit.Ifthere’sanoffsmell,rinsethesurfacethoroughly, or briefly blanch it in boiling water. Scrape or cut awaypatchesdiscoloredbylongexposuretoair.Blotthesurfacedry.Rinsepoultry thoroughly, especially the body cavity ofwhole birds,

andblotdry.Oncemeatiscleaned,it’softenpretreatedbeforecookingtoimprove

itsflavorortexture.Warming meat to room temperature and even higher reduces the

cookingtimeandhelpscookmoreevenly.Givesteaksandchopsanhour

onthecountertop,largercutsmoretime.Flavoringwithspicerubsandpastesimbuesthemeatsurfacewithintenseflavors.Leave only sparing amounts of rubs and pastes on meats duringcooking, except in low-temperature, long-time cooking or Cajun-styleblackening. Herbs and spices scorch at roasting and grillingtemperatures. To prevent pastes from simply drying out on lean cuts,includesomeoilorfat.Saltingisthesimpleapplicationofsalttomeatsurfaces.Atfirstsaltdraws some moisture out, but then it diffuses into the meat interior,seasoningitandimprovingitsabilitytoretainmoistureandtendernesswhencooked.Saltdiffusionisveryslow,andcantakedaystoreachthecenter of a roast. Even when smaller cuts are salted many hours inadvanceofcooking,thesurfaceportionswillbesaltierthantheinterior.Briningistheimmersionofmeatinaweaksolutionofsaltandwater,with or without other flavorings, for hours to days before cooking.Injecting brine into the meat interior speeds the process. The saltpenetrates the meat, seasons it, and improves its ability to retainmoistureandtenderness.Brinesofacertainstrength,5to10percentsaltbyweight,alsocausethemeatproteinstoabsorbextrawaterfromthebrine,makingthemeatseemexceptionally juicywhencooked.Very leanpoultryandporkcanbenefitfromthisextramoisture,especiallywhenthey’reovercooked.Brineselectively.Brineshavedrawbacks: theydilute themeat’sownflavorfuljuiceswithtapwater,andusuallymakethepanjuicestoosaltyfordeglazingintoasauce.Marinading is the immersion of meat in acidic liquids, often winebased,toflavorandtenderizeit.Marinadespenetratemeatveryslowly,so their effects are usually limited to the surface layers unless they’reinjecteddeeper into themeat.Acidsdoweakenmeatproteins,but theresultisoftenmealyratherthantender.Morehelpfully,theyreducetheformationofcarcinogenicsubstancesonthemeatsurfaceduringroastingandgrilling.To make a wine marinade, simmer the wine for a few minutes toreducethealcohol,whichhasadryingeffectonmeat.Letthemarinade

coolbeforeaddingthemeat.Tenderizing is amethod thatweakens the protein structures of themeat and makes it easier to cut and chew when it’s cooked.“Tenderizers”areprotein-digestingenzymesfromvariousplants,whichbreak the long proteinmolecules into smaller pieces, and canweakenboth muscle fibers and tough connective tissue. They’re sold inpowdered form, but are also present in fresh pineapple, ginger, kiwifruit,andfigs.Don’t relyon tenderizers to tenderize toughmeat, especiallybeforecooking. They don’t penetrate meat on their own, so they work veryunevenly, just at the surface or where they’re injected. They’re mostactive as the meat heats up during cooking, and stop working attemperaturesaboveabout160°F/70°C.Totenderizemeatmosteffectively,breakupitsstructurephysically.Poundthincutsgentlywithamalletorpanbottom.CutthefibersinathickercutwithaJaccard,adevicewithanarrayofsmall,sharpblades.Grindingisamethodthatbreaksthemeatdownintotinypiecesthatcanbepressedbacktogetherintoamoretendermass.Togrindmeatsforsausages,hamburgers,andsimilarfoods:

Useameatgrinderor,ifnecessary,afoodprocessor.Prechillthemeats,grinderorprocessorblade,andbowlinthefreezertopreventthemeatandfatfromsofteningintoapaste.Processthemeatinshortpulses,stoppingeveryfewtoscrapedownthesidesofthebowl.Foramoist-cookedsausageorhamburger,includepiecesoffattomakeatotalofabout20percentfatinthemix,about3to4ouncesperpound/200gramsperkilogram.

TENDERMEATANDTOUGHMEAT

To cookmeatwell, it helps to knowwhy somemeats start out tenderandotherstough,andwhatkindofcookingisbestforeach.Standardroasts, steaks,andchopscomefrommuscles thatmovetheanimal.“Varietymeats,”oroffal,areitsinternalorgansandskin.

Tendernessandtoughnessaretexturescreatedbythemeatfibersandconnectivetissue.Meat fibers are the long, threadlike bundles of meat cells whose

proteinsmakethebodymove.They’reaboutone-thirdproteinandtwo-thirdswater.Raw meat fibers are chewy and mushy. Moderate heat firms their

proteins,whichmakes themeasier tochewandreleases theirwater tomakethemjuicy.Highheathardenstheproteinsanddriesthem.Connectivetissueisthephysicalharnessthatsurroundsandconnects

individual cells, cell bundles, and wholemuscles. Connective tissue istough collagen protein, especially tough in beef, which comes fromolder,largeranimalsthanvealorlamborporkorchicken.Rawconnectivetissueischewyandtough.Moderateheatsoftensand

partlydissolvesitintogelatinoverthecourseofmanyhours.Highheatsoftensanddissolvesitinanhourortwo.Fat tissue, the light patches interspersed among the meat fibers,

contributestotheirapparenttendernessandmoistness.Therearetwogeneralcategoriesofmeats:tenderandtough.Tendermeatshavelittleconnectivetissue,andcomefrommuscles

thatdon’tgetusedverymuch,along thebackandsides.They includethe loins of cattle, pigs, and lambs and the breasts of birds. Liver is atenderoffalmeat.Tough meats have a lot of connective tissue and come from

hardworkingmuscles,especiallylegsandshoulders.Tripe(stomach)andtonguearetoughoffalmeats.Tender meats are best cooked just to a moderate temperature at

whichthey’rejuicyandtender.Tough meats are best cooked long enough to dissolve their

connective tissueandmake them tender.This can takea fewhours athighfiber-dryingtemperatures,afulldayatmoist-fibertemperatures.

MEATDONENESS

Meatdonenessisasetofqualitiesbywhichwedefinedifferentstagesof

cooking. It’s a combination ofmoistness and, in redmeats, chewinessand color. Each of these qualities is caused by the meat’s sensitivemolecules,thefiberproteins.Asthefibersheatup,theirproteinssticktoeach other tighter and tighter, become firmer and firmer, and releasemoreandmoremoistureuntilthemoisturerunsout.In tough meats, chewiness also depends on the connective tissue

proteins.Thefollowingdescriptionsapplymostdirectlytotendersteaks,chops,androasts.Rawmeatissoftbutchewy,andthemoistureistrappedinthefibers

andpasty.Raremeatisfirmerandeasiertochew,andthemoistureisfreeand

juicy.Mediummeatisevenfirmerbutstilleasytochew,andthemoisture

isstillfreeandjuicy.Well-done meat is very firm, becoming hard, and the moisture is

gone.Ittakesonlyafewdegreestogofromfirmandjuicytohardanddry,

atransitionthatbeginsataround150°F/65°C.Whenmeatiscooking,itsinnertemperaturemayberisingseveraldegreeseveryminute.Togetthemeatdonenessyouwant,checkitearlyandoften.

DONENESSANDCOOKEDQUALITIESOFTENDERMEATCUTS

Judge doneness by cutting into the meat to check the color; byinsertingathermometerintothemeattomeasureitstemperatureatthecenter;orbypressingonthemeattocheckitsfirmness,whichincreaseswithdoneness.Judgingbytouchtakespractice.Agoodmodelforrare,medium,andwelldoneisthefirmnessofthemuscleonthebackofthehandbetweenthethumbandthefirstfingerwhenit’srelaxed,extended,andclenched.Don’t judgedonenessbycoloralone.Well-donebirdsaresometimes

persistentlypink-fleshedandredat thebone,underdonegroundmeatsaresometimesbrownish,andvacuum-packedmeatsslowlychangecolorwhenthey’recutandexposedtooxygen.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGMEATS

The keys to cooking meats well are attentiveness and carefultemperaturecontrol.Meatscanovercookanddryoutinminutes.Don’trelyonrecipecookingtimesorsimpleformulastoguaranteea

good result. Recipes can’t account for significant changes in cookingtimecausedbysmallvariationsinmeatthickness,temperature,andthetemperatureofgrillsandovensandpans.

Bring most meats to room temperature or even warmer beforecooking.Thisreducescookingtimesandtheusualsurfaceovercookingwhile the inside heats through. But cook thin cuts directly from therefrigerator,togivethesurfacetimetobrown.Cook meats in large pieces and on the bone to retain the most

moistureandflavor.Themoremeatiscutup,themoresurfacesithasthroughwhichjuiceswillgetsqueezedout.Cookmostmeatsintwostages.Aninitialdoseofveryhighheatkills

surface bacteria and browns and flavors themeat surface. A finishingperiodof low,carefullycontrolledheatcooks themeat throughslowlyand gently while preserving its moistness and tenderness. Keep thefinishingcook-throughascloseaspossibletothefinalinnertemperatureyouwant.Checkmeatdonenessearlyandoften.Ifyou’reusingathermometer,

checkitsaccuracybeforehand.Whencookingathigh temperatures, stopwhenmeat is still slightly

underdone,by5to10°F/3to5°Cforsteaksandchops,15to20°F/7to10°Cfor largeroasts.Thehotsurfacewillcontinuetoheatthe interiorforsometime.To cook tender cuts so that they’re juicy, heat them to rare or

medium rare, an inner temperature between 125 and 140°F/52 and60°C.Loin roasts, most steaks and chops, poultry breasts, including duck

and squab, and ground meats are tender cuts. Chicken and turkeybreastsarelessjuicybutmorepleasingatslightlyhighertemperatures,around150°F/65°C.Tocooktoughcutsrelativelyquickly,sothatthey’retenderbutdry

andfibrous,heat themtoan inner temperatureof180 to200°F/80 to93°C.This commonmethodwill dissolve connective tissue intogelatinand produce tender meat in 2 to 12 hours, depending on thetemperatureandthecut.Itworksbestwithcutsrichingelatinandfat,which can lend moistness to the dry meat fibers. These include porkshoulders,chuckroasts,andporkandbeefcheeks.Tocooktoughcutssothatthey’retenderandtheirfibersretainsome

juiciness, heat them to an internal temperature of 140 to 160°F/60 to

70°C. Thismodernmethodwill require cooking for 12 to 24 hours ormoretodissolveconnectivetissueintogelatinandproducetendermeat.Cook ground meats, pâtés and terrines, and fresh sausages in the

samemannerastendermeats,brieflyandmoderatelytoretainjuiciness.Tomakesurebacteriaarekilledthroughoutfreshsausages,poachthemtoaninternaltemperatureof140°F/60°C,holdthattemperaturefor30minutes, thencool thembrieflyand flavor their surfacequicklyon thehighheatofthegrillorfryingpan.Cookingisn’tnecessaryforcuredorprecookedsausages,orforpreparedpâtésorterrines.See the pages listed below for cookingmethods inwhichmeats are

treatedlikeotherfoods.

SMOKING,thispage

STIR-FRYINGandDEEP-FRYING,thispageandthispage

STEAMING,thispage

MICROWAVING,thispage

GRILLINGANDBROILING

Grilling and broiling expose meat to burning heat from flames orglowing coals or electrical elements. The high temperatures deeplybrownorcharthesurfacetocreatestrong,distinctiveflavors.Formaximum flexibility in grillingandbroiling,divide the cooking

intotwostages.Firstcookthesurfacequicklywithhighheat,thencooktheinteriorthroughmoregentlywithlowheat.Onthegrill,arrangethecoalsorflamesintotwoareas,oneveryhot

and onemoderately hot. Color themeat as desired over the very hotarea,thenfinishcookingoverthemoderatearea.Makethehotareatoohottoholdyourhandjustabovethegrillformorethanasecondortwo.Thefaster itcancolor themeat, the less timethemeat interiorspendsbeingovercooked.When broiling, use the oven to finish cooking meat through. First

place the meat as close as possible to the broiler flame or electrical

elementandcolor themeatasdesiredonbothsides.Thenremove thepanfromunderthebroilerandfinishthecookinginamoderateoven.Choosethickcutsformoreflexibilityinbalancingflavorandjuiciness.Thin cuts of 1/2 inch/1 centimeter or less cook through very quickly,oftenbeforethesurfaceisbrowned.Prewarm the meat so that it will cook more quickly and lose lessmoisture.Wrapsteaksandchopswatertightandimmersetheminapotofwarm100°F/40°Cwaterfor30minutesjustbeforecooking.Drymeatsurfacesthoroughlybeforebeginningtogrillorbroilsothattheywillstarttobrownimmediately.To prevent meat from sticking to the grill, keep the grill clean,preheat it well before cooking, oil themeat surface, and let themeatbrownthoroughlybeforetryingtoturnit.Flipsteaksandchopsfrequentlytocookthemfasterandmoreevenly.Turn themeat everyminute or so, from the beginning if distinct grillmarksaren’tnecessary,otherwiseduringthelow-heatfinishing.Handlehamburgersgently tomaximize their tendernessandpreventdisintegration during cooking. Salt the groundmeat to extract proteinandhelptheparticlessticktogether.Pressthemeatintoadiskasgentlyas possible, and allow it to set and firm in the refrigerator for a fewhours.Don’tprewarmfragilepatties,anddon’tflipfrequently.Go easy on the charring. Deep browning and charring producechemicals on the meat surface that damage DNA and increase cancerrisk. To reduce carcinogen production, soak meats beforehand in anacidicmarinade.

BARBECUING

Barbecuingisalow-temperaturemethodthatheatsfoodsforhoursinanenclosed grill. The cooking is done mainly by hot, smoky air, not bydirect strong heat from the coals or gas flames. It’s essentially slowbakinginanoutdooroven.Barbecuingisusuallyappliedtolarge,toughcutsofmeat—shoulders,ribs, briskets—that benefit from many hours of heating at 170 to

200°F/75 to 90°C to dissolve their connective tissue into gelatin andproducesmoky,flavorful,falling-aparttendermeat.Keep the food as far as possible from coals or heating elements,whosedirectheatradiationcanovercookitveryquickly.Smallbackyardgrillsoftendon’thaveenoughroomtoprotect the food fromexcessiveheatradiation.Usethembrieflyatthebeginningorendtogivesmokyflavors to the food, but place it in anoven for the longhours of slowcooking.Check the cooking temperature frequently. Have a reliablethermometer to check the air temperature inside the enclosure, andmakesure that itdoesn’t risemuchabove200°F/90°C formore thanafewminutes(aswhenreplenishingcoals),orfallbelow170to180°F/75to80°C(whichwillgreatlyslowcooking).Aimfor160to170°F/70to75°Cinsidethemeat.Frequentbasting,or“mopping,”withflavorfulliquidsslowsthecookingsignificantly.Openingthegrillinterruptstheheatingprocess,the basting liquid temporarily cools the food surface, and itsmoisturecontinuestocoolthesurfaceinthegrillbyevaporating.Toward the end of cooking, bastewith fresh liquid and utensils toavoidcontaminatingthecookedmeatwithbacteriafromtherawmeat.

ROTISSERIECOOKING

Rotisserie cooking is a method of cooking meats with repeated briefperiods of heat radiation. The rotisserie is a rotating spit mechanism.Themeat is impaledonthespit,a longmetalrod,andthemechanismconstantly turns the spit next to or above flames, coals, or an electricheatingelement.Rotisserie cooking has two valuable features. It alternates a fewsecondsofexposuretohighflavor-producingheatwithlongerperiodsofcoolingdown,sothatthesurfacebrownsbutthemeatinteriorcanheatthroughgentlyandgraduallywithoutovercooking.Anditconcentratesflavorfuljuicesatthemeatsurfacebycausingthemtoclingandspreadasthefoodturns,ratherthandrippingaway.Usearotisserieintheopenairorinanovenwiththedoorleftopen.

It’smosteffectivewhenthemeatcancoolsignificantlyasitturnsawayfromtheheatsource. Inaclosedoven, themeatsimplybakesandcanquicklyovercook.Outdoorsit’sbestforthefireorcoalstobealongsidethe rotisserie rather than directly below it, to avoid flare-ups andenvelopingheatfromrisinghotair.

OVENROASTING

Oven roasting heats meats relatively slowly, by means of hot air andradiation from the oven walls, at temperatures ranging from 200 to500°F/90to260°C.It’susedmainlyforlargecutsthattake30minutesor more to heat through. The prolonged dry heat produces brown,flavorfulsurfacesonthemeatandjuicesinthepan.Choose oven temperatures according to the cut of meat and yourcookingandeatingpreferences.Ingeneralthelargertheroast,theloweryou should set the oven temperature, so that the outside doesn’tovercookwhiletheinsidecooksthrough.Low oven temperatures, below 300°F/150°C, cook roasts throughslowly and evenly, but also are slow to brown the surface and crisppoultryskin.Use low temperatures for large or tough roasts that will cook forhours,ortocookanyroastthroughafteraninitialperiodofhighheattobrownthesurface.High oven temperatures, above 400°F/200°C, brown and cookthroughquickly,butovercooktheouterportionswhilethecentergetstothepropertemperature,canquicklyovercookthecenter,andcanscorchpandrippings.Theyrequireclosemonitoring.Usehighoven temperatures for chickensandother small roasts thatcookthroughinlessthananhour,orforaninitialbrowningfollowedbylow-temperatureroastingtofinish.To stop valuable pan drippings from scorching in a hot oven,carefully pour enough water into the pan to cover the bottom andremoistenthedrippings.Repeatasnecessary.Usemoderateoventemperatures,around350°F/175°C,tobrownand

cook moderately quickly and evenly, and without the close attentionrequiredbyhightemperatures.Convection fans speed surface drying, browning, and cookingthrough by blowing the hot oven air onto themeat surface, and cancause scorching at ordinary oven temperatures. To avoid scorching,reducenonconvectionroasting temperaturesby25 to50°F/15 to30°C,andcheckbrowningoften.Don’t trust the timings inrecipes.Thereare toomanyunpredictablevariables for them to be reliable. Among them are these usefuladjustments:Bastingwithawater-basedliquidwillslowbrowningandcookingthrough,becauseitinterruptstheheatingandcoolstheroastsurfacebyevaporation.Prerubbing a roast with oil or butter will speed browning andcookingthrough.Fatlimitsevaporationandthecoolingitcauses.Roasting pans and tents of foil slow cooking by blocking heatradiation from oven surfaces. If the roast sits directly on the pan, notraiseduponarack,theroastbottomwillfry,andbrownfasterthantheothersurfaces.Adeeppanwillslowtheheatingoftheroastsidesunlesstherackraisestheroastabovethepanwalls.Removetheroastfromtheovenseveraldegreesearly,5to10°F/3to5°C for a small roast, 15 to 20°F/7 to 10°C for a large one, if you’recookingatmoderatetohighoventemperatures.Residualheatnearthesurfacewillcontinuetoraisethetemperatureofthecenter.Let the roast rest for at least 30 minutes before carving, andpreferablyuntilthecentertemperaturehascooledto120to130°F/50to55°C.Themeatwillretainmoreofits juiceswhencut.Covertheroastlooselywithfoiltopreventthesurfacefromgettingtoocool.Wholebirdsareachallengetoroastwell.Theirbreastmeatislowin connective tissue and best cooked to 150°F/65°C for chickens andturkeys,135°F/57°C forducksandsquab,but their legmeat ishigh inconnectivetissueandbestcookedto160°F/70°C,andtheirskin isbestcookedto350°F/175°Ctomakeitcrispandbrown.Toobtainmoistbreastandtenderlegmeats:

Don’tstuffthebodycavityorrelyonapop-upthermometer.Stuffingmustbeheatedto160°F/70°Ctokillbacteria,sothebreastmeatwillbeovercookedanddry.Pop-upindicatorspoponlywhenthebreastmeatisalreadyovercooked.Don’ttrussthelegs.Trussedlegslookneaterbuttakelongertocookthrough,andlongercookingmakesitevenmorelikelythatthebreastwillbeovercooked.Prewarmthelegs.Letthebirdandlegssitatroomtemperatureforanhourwithabagofcrushedicekeepingthebreastcold.Startthebirdbreastdownintheroastingpantoslowitscooking.Turnitandcookbreastupjustlongenoughtobrownthebreastskin.Bastethebreastwithstockoranotherwater-basedliquid,orputafoiltentlooselyoverthebreast,toslowitscooking.

Toobtainacrispskin:

Startwithakosherorhalalbirdoronelabeled“air-chilled,”whichisnotsoakedinwaterduringprocessing.Predrytheskinbycleaningthebirdthedaybeforeandleavinguncoveredonarackintherefrigerator.Oiltheskin,anddon’tbastewithawater-basedliquid.Cookinahotoven.Prebrownquail,squab,andothersmallbirdsinafryingpan,andthencookthroughintheoven.Cuttheskinfromthebirdassoonasit’sdone,toseparateitfromthesteamingmeatunderneath.

Tosalvageoverdonebreastmeat,pullitintoshredsandbatheinpanjuices.

FRYING,PANROASTING,ANDSAUTÉING

Frying and sautéing aremethods that transmit heat from ametal panthrough a thin layer of fat or oil. They can brown and flavor meatsurfacesveryquickly,inaminuteorless.Fryingisthegeneralmethodofpancookingsteaks,chops,andother

largepiecesofmeat. It’sbestsuitedtoflat tendercuts,or tobrowningtoughcutsthatwillgoontobeslowlybraised.Panroastingisaconvenientandeffectivehybridoffryingandoven

roasting. It quickly browns themeat on the stove top in a frying pan,thentransfersthepantotheoven,whichheatsthemeatthroughfromallsidesmoregraduallyandevenly.Sautéingandstir-fryingaremethodsforfryingsmallpiecesofmeat

that move the pieces frequently to color all surfaces and cook themthroughevenly.The key to effective frying and sautéing is to keep the pan hot

enoughtosizzleconstantly.Sizzlingisthesoundofthemeat’smoisturevaporizing as it hits the pan. If the pan temperature is too low, themoisturewillaccumulate,sizzlingandbrowningwillstop,andthemeatwillboil.By the time themoisturecooksawayandbrowningresumes,themeatwillbeovercooked.Tokeepthepanhotenoughtofry:

Drythemeatofexcesssurfacemoisture.Preheatthepanaloneto400to450°F/200to230°C,thenaddthefatoroil.Oilheatedupalongwiththepanismorelikelytogetgummyandcausesticking.Cookthemeatinsmall,uncrowdedbatches.Toomuchmeatwillcoolthepandown.Adjusttheheattomaintainaconstantsizzleofrapidwatervaporizing.Leavethepanuncovered,oruseaperforatedspatterguard,sothewatervaporwon’tcondensebackintothepan.

Ifsizzlingandbrowningdostop,removethemeatfromthepan,raisetheheat,andaddthemeatbackwhentheliquidhasevaporated.Tobrownfasterandmoreevenly,pressmeatwithaspatulaorweigh

it downwith aheavypanor foil-wrappedbrick, to force contactwiththepan surface.Don’tworry,pressingwon’tmake themeat less juicy.Whenyouturnthemeat,startthesecondsideonapartofthepanthathad beenunoccupied.Move themeat occasionally tomake full use ofthepansurface.

Toavoidovercooking,checkthepansideofthemeatoften.Assoonasithasbrowned,turnthemeat.Thencheckthemeatinterioroften.Assoonasit’sdone,removethemeatfromthepan.

Forthickcuts,lowertheburnerheatafterthesecondsidebrownsandthenturnfrequently,everyminuteortwo,ormovethepanintoamoderateoven,wherelessefficientheattransferwillcookgently.

POACHING,CONFITS,ANDLOW-TEMPERATURECOOKING

Poachingisamethodthatcookstendermeatsbyimmersingtheminahot liquidbelow theboilingpoint, usually between130 and180°F/55and80°C.To produce moist poached meats, cook at low temperatures. Start

withthepoachingliquidneartheboilforafewsecondstokillbacteriaon the meat surface, then quickly lower the liquid temperature andfinish cooking tender cuts at 130°F/55°C for rare, 140°F/60°C formedium,150°F/65°Cforwelldone.Ameat confit is made by presalting and seasoning a tough cut of

meatovernight,thenpoachingitforhoursinthatmeat’sfat,andstoringthemeatcoveredwith the fat.Duck legsandgizzardsareanexample.Traditional confits often call for temperatures close to theboil, 190 to200°F/85to93°C,producetenderbutfibrousmeat,andwouldbekeptformonthsatcooltemperatureswhiletheirflavordeveloped.To produce moister, less fibrous confits, poach them at 160 to

180°F/70to80°Cuntilaforkeasilypenetratesthem.Lowheatisslowertotenderize,socookingtimeswillbelonger.Tokeepaconfitforweeks,removethemeatfromitsjuicestoafresh

pot,pouroffthefatontothemeatandbringitto160°F/70°C,thencoolandrefrigerate.Low-temperature cooking heats meat at the temperature that

correspondstotheparticulardonenessyouwantinthemeat.It’scarriedoutinawaterovenorapotofwaterwhosetemperatureismaintainedeither manually by the cook, or automatically by an immersion

circulator. It produces meat that is evenly and perfectly cookedthroughout, and that remains that way for hours without any risk ofdryingoutortoughening.Low-temperature heating also makes it possible to cook shoulder

meat, brisket, short ribs, and other tough cuts as if they were tendercuts, to a juicy medium rare instead of well done. Medium-raretemperatures will dissolve the tough connective tissue if they’re heldsteadilyforafulldayortwo.The disadvantage of low-temperature cooking is that it doesn’t

createtherich,savorysurfaceflavors thathigh-temperaturefryingandgrillingdo.Togetthebestofbothlow-andhigh-temperaturecooking,heatmeats

inthewaterbathuntilthey’redone,allowthemtocoolsomewhat,andthenquickly sear themover veryhighheat just long enough to flavorthesurfacesandreheattheinterior.Tendermeatsaretypicallycookedinawaterbathat130to140°F/55

to60°Cforanhourorsobeforesearing.Toughmeats canbe cooked in awater bath at 135 to 150°F/58 to

65°Cfor48hoursormore.Understand and avoid the potential hazards of low-temperature

cooking. Lowcooking temperaturesare slower tokill thebacteria thatcause foodborne illness, and tight wrapping makes it possible forbotulism bacteria to grow. Use recipes that explain the hazards, andfollow their instructions exactly. In general, it’s simplest and safest toservefoodscookedatlowtemperaturesimmediately.Tocookmeatsatlowtemperatures:

Heatthewaterovenoralargepotofwateruptothetemperaturethatcorrespondstothedesireddoneness:130°F/55°Cforrare,140°F/60°Cformedium,andsoon.SealthemeatinaplasticZiplockstoragebag,pressingoutasmuchairaspossiblebyimmersingitinthewaterjustuptothezipperandthenzippingit;orvacuum-packusingahomevacuum-packingmachine.Immersethebaginthewaterandheatuntilthemeatiscooked

throughtothedesiredtexture.Lowtemperaturesheatslowly,soallowmoretimethanusual:anhourorsoforsteaksandchops,forexample.Makesurethatthebagremainsfullyimmersedinthecookingwaterandsurroundedbyit.Airandvaporpocketsinabagcancauseittofloat,andwaterfloworcrowdingcanpushbagsagainsteachotherorthepotsides.Ifyou’renotusingawaterovenorcirculator,stirthewaterregularly,monitorthetemperaturefrequentlywithanaccuratedigitalthermometer,andheatoraddhotwaterasnecessarytomaintainit.Beverycarefulnottoletthewaterfallbelow130°F/55°Candintothemicrobegrowthzone.Forlongunattendedcooking,especiallytoughcutsthatcookformanyhours,experimentwithyouroventofindathermostatsettingthatwillkeepthecoveredpotatthecorrecttemperature.

Sous-videcookingisarestaurantversionoflow-temperaturecookinginwhichthemeatsarevacuum-packedinplasticbags.Vacuumpackinginaprofessionalchambermachinecanspeedtheinfusionofmarinadesand other flavors intomeat, and removes all air from the package, sothat themeatheatsmoreevenlyandcanbekept longeraftercooking.Household vacuum-packaging machines don’t create a strong enoughvacuumtoinfusefoods,can’tbeusedwithliquidingredients,andleavesomeairinthepackage.

BRAISINGANDSTEWING

Braisingandstewingaremethodsthatcookmeatinawater-basedliquidthat will become its sauce. An initial frying browns the meat anddeepenstheoverallflavor.Many braise and stew recipes call for temperatures near the boiling

point, whichwill badly dry out all but the fattiest ormost gelatinouscutsofmeat.Bewareofrecipesthatcallforanoventemperatureover180°F/80°C.Neverletabraiseorstewgethotenoughtobubblewhenthemeatis

cooking.Aclosedpot inanovenatanytemperatureabovetheboiling

point will come to the boil. At oven temperatures above 180°F/80°C,leave the pot open to allow evaporative cooling and produce a lowercookingtemperature.To braise or stew tough cuts ofmeat in a few hours, heat them at

180°F/80°C.Theywilldevelopthefibroustendernessofstandardbraisesandstews.To braise or stew tender cuts quickly, or tough cuts over a day or

more to keep themmoremoist and less fibrous, heat them at 140 to150°F/60to65°C.Braise tender pieces of meat, including poultry breasts, gently and

briefly.Apieceofmeat1inch/2.5centimetersthickwillbedoneinabout15

minutesofcooking,includingbrowningtime.Ifcookingbreastsandlegs,removethebreastswhendoneandkeepwarmwhilethelegsfinish.Tobraiseorstew:

Keepthemeatinlargepiecestominimizecutsurfaces.Brownthechilledmeatquicklyinaveryhotpantoflavorthesurfaceswithoutcookingthrough.Dustthemeatinflourfirsttoprovideabrownedthickenerforthesauceifdesired.Addthecookingliquidandotheringredientsandheatslowlytothecookingtemperature.Presimmeranywinefor10minutestoboiloffsomeofitsalcohol.Braiseandstewintheovenwheneverpossible,notoveraburner.Ovenheatismoreeven.Keeptheliquidatthecookingtemperatureandcheckmeatdonenessoften.Oncethemeatisdone,stopthecooking.Iftheliquidneedstobeboileddownorthickened,orthevegetablessoftened,removethemeatfirst.Coolandstorethemeatintheliquid,someofwhichitwillreabsorb.

When reheating a braise or stew, take care not to overcook it.Removethemeat,bringtheliquidtoaboilandtossthemeatbrieflyinit, then remove from the heat and let the liquid temperature fall to140°F/60°C. Hold it at that temperature until the meat is heated

through.

SERVINGMEATS

Servingmeatsattheirbestcallsforjustasmuchcareasthecooking.Rest most meats, from steaks to large roasts, before cutting and

serving.Just-cookedmeatsaresoftandpronetolosemorejuiceswhencutimmediately.Reststeaksforafewminutes,roastsfor30minutesormore.Meats thathavebeencookedslowlyat lowtemperaturescanbeservedwithoutresting.Preheat plates to serve hot meat dishes, especially beef, veal, and

lamb.Astheycoolbelowbodytemperature,meat fatscongealandthegelatininconnectivetissuebecomessolidandrubbery.Cutmeatswitha sharpknife toavoidpressingdownandsqueezing

outjuices.Carve meats across the direction of the fibers, or grain. This

minimizes the length of the fibers in the mouth and makes the meateasiertochew.Thegrainchangesdirectioninmanysteaksandroasts,soadjustthecarvingangleaccordingly.Slicechewiercutsverythin.Shred dry, overcooked meat instead of cutting it, and moisten the

fiberswithasaucemadeintentionallythinandjuicelike.Holdcookedmeatsat130°F/55°Ctopreventthegrowthofbacteria,

especiallyifthemealwilllastformorethananhourortwo.

LEFTOVERS

Refrigerate or freeze leftovers as soon as possible after the meat isremovedfromtheheat.Dividelargequantitiesintosmallerportionsthatwillcoolfaster.Thequalityofmostcookedmeatdeterioratesintherefrigerator,

eveninasteworotherdishwhoseoverallflavormayimproveforadayortwo.Freezeleftoverstokeepthemingoodconditionformorethanafewdays.Duckandporkconfitsmayberefrigeratedforweeksbecausethe

flavorchangesduringstorageandrewarminghelpsdefinethem.Tokeepthemthatlongwithoutspoiling,besuretofreethemeatofallcookingjuicesandimmerseitcompletelyinhotfatbeforechilling.Minimizethemeat’sexposuretoair.Wrapseparatepiecestightlyin

plastic wrap, and cover braised and stewed meats with their cookingliquid.Reheatingmeat causes thedevelopmentof stale “warmed-over”

flavors, especially inpoultry.Reheatingabove140°F/60°Cdriesmeatout.Consider serving leftovermeats cold. Chicken and turkey especially

benefitfromnotbeingreheated.Rewarmleftovermeataslittleaspossibleconsistentwithsafety.Turn

it briefly in a pan of boiling liquid—the liquid portion of a stew, forexample,orsomemeatstock—tokillanybacteriaonthesurface, thenheatthemeatthroughgently.

F

12

FISHANDSHELLFISH

ishandshellfisharestrange,diverse,deliciouscreaturesfromtheearth’swaters.Weeatdozensofdifferentspeciesthatmaycomefrom halfway around the world, finger-length smelts and tunas

that weigh half a ton, rock-bound oysters and crawling crayfish androcketingsquid.HavinggrownupintheMidwestinthe1950sandknowingonlythe

samefrozenswordfishthatwefedtomypetturtles, I fell in lovewithseafood late and indiscriminately,when Imoved first toNewEnglandandthentonorthernCalifornia.Ienjoyedthelocalbountyofthecoasts,and, as the fishing industry got more sophisticated, not-so-localpleasuresfromAsianandSouthAmericanwaters.Today the first obligation of all cooks who love seafood is to

discriminate: to find outwhich species are being harvested or farmedsustainably,choosethem,andhelpgivealltherestachancetorecoverfromourravenousappreciation.The fleshof fishandshellfish isverydifferent fromanimalandbird

meatsbecauseitwasshapedbytheirhome,theearth’scoldwaters.Fishand shellfish are cold-blooded, live their lives at the equivalent ofrefrigeratortemperatures,andspoilquicklyunlessthey’rekeptaliveorice-cold. And ocean waters can carry and taint its inhabitants with avarietyoftoxinsandmicrobesthataren’tfoundonlandorinmeats.Fishandmanyshellfishareeventrickiertocookthanmeatsbecause

their cold-working muscle proteins firm and then dry out at lowertemperaturesthanmeatproteins.Fishfleshremainsmoistandtenderina lower and narrower range of internal temperatures, roughly 120 to130°F/50 to 55°C. The slow, gentle heat that works well with meatdoesn’twithmanyfish,whosemuscleenzymescanturnitunpleasantly

soft.Sothesimpletruthsofmeatcookingalsoapplytofish.Fish(andmostshellfish) overcook quickly. Recipes and the “10-minute rule” for eachinchof fish thickness can’tpredict correct cooking times.Tomake thebestoffish,checkitsdonenessyourself,earlyandoften.

FISHANDSHELLFISHSAFETY

Manypeopleenjoyeatingrawandlightlycookedfishandshellfish.Yetlikemeatsandotherprotein-richfoods,rawfishandshellfishoftencarrymicrobes that could cause illness. They also commonly carry otherhealthhazardsthatmeatsseldomorneverdo:viruses,parasites,toxinsfromalgaeandfromcertainfishthemselves,andmercury,atoxicmetal.Parasites are smallworms thatanumberof common fishand someshellfishcancarryandtransmittohumans.Theymayrequiresurgerytoremove.Toxinsarechemicalsthatdamageourbodies.Shellfishandsomefishcan carry a number of different toxins, most of themmade by oceanalgaeinwarmweather.Theycan’tbedestroyedbycooking.Mercuryisatoxicmetalthataccumulatesinlargefish,notablyshark,swordfish, king mackerel, tilefish, and albacore tuna. It’s especiallyharmfultotheunbornandtoyoungchildren.If you prepare fish or shellfish for people who are especiallyvulnerable,theill,theveryyoung,theelderly,orpregnantwomen,thentakespecialcaretominimizetheirriskofillness.

Useonlythefreshesttuna,mackerel,bluefish,sardines,andmahimahi,allofwhichcanaccumulateatoxinwhenstoredimproperly.Avoidservinganyoysters,clams,mussels,orlobsterorcraborgans(lobstertomalleyandcoral,crabbutter),whichcancarrytoxinsand/orvirusesevenwhenwellcooked.Heatallfishandshellfishthroughtoatleast160°F/70°C,atemperaturethateffectivelyeliminatesharmfulbacteriaandparasitesinafewseconds.Checkforcurrentguidanceonlow-mercuryseafoodattheU.S.Food

andDrugAdministrationsite,www.fda.gov,ifyou’recookingforpregnantornursingwomenoryoungchildren.

Whenyouprepareraworlightlycookedfishorshellfishforpeopleingood health, be aware of the potential hazards and try to minimizethem.Bacteriaarealwayspresentonandinrawfishandshellfish,evenofthebestquality,withnoobvioussmellorvisiblesign.Human stomach and hepatitis viruses may also be present inshellfishharvestednear cities, and can survive thorough cooking.Rawshellfishareamongthemostcommoncausesoffoodborneillness.Handleallfishandshellfishwithcaution.Assumethatanyrawpiecemaycarryharmfulbacteriaandviruses.Keeprawfishandshellfishcold,ascloseaspossible to the freezingpoint(32°F/0°C).Isolate fish and shellfish and their juices from contact with otherfoods.Wash hands, knives, and cutting boards with warm, soapy waterbeforeandafterhandling.Use a reliable thermometer to measure cooking and internaltemperatures.Avoidcontaminatingcookedfishwithmarinadesorsaucesthatwereappliedtotheraworpartlycookedfish.Reserveaportionoftheliquidforservingwiththecookedfish,orreheatittoatleast160°F/70°C.Tomakerawfishandshellfishassafeaspossible,buy thehighest-quality, freshest products from a reliable seafood specialist, and keepthemice-colduntilyouprepareandservethem.Toeliminateparasitesinfish,freezethefishfor7daysat-4°F/-20°C,orcookit throughto140°F/60°C.Homefreezersdon’tusuallygetcoldenoughtokillparasitesreliably.Mostfishsoldas“sushigrade”ishard-frozentoeliminateparasitesandextendshelflifeforshipping.Avoidtoxinsbybuyingshellfishfromlargeseafoodmarketsthatcanofferproductsfromthesafestwatersinagivenseason.Ifyouhavewild-harvested shellfish, check with local marine authorities for any

restrictions, including warnings against the use of toxin-accumulatingsoftorgans(lobstertomalleyandcoral,crabbutter).Topreparemoistfishandshellfishandtaketheusualchances,cook

fish to the doneness you prefer, even if the temperature is far below160°F/70°C,andserveitimmediately.Refrigerate leftover fish and shellfish as soon as possible after

serving.Don’tleavecookedfishoutatroomtemperatureformorethan4hours,lessinhotweather.Cookrawleftoversthoroughlybeforeeatingthem.

SHOPPINGFORFISH

Fish and shellfish call for especially careful shopping. They’re highlyperishable and often sold in poor condition. They can come fromanywhereintheworld,bewildorfarmed,harvestedsustainablyornot,treatedwithchemicals tocontroldiseaseorto lookmisleadinglyfresh.Theymayhavebeenfrozenandthenthawedforsale.Buy fishandshellfish froma seafoodspecialistwithhigh turnover.

Ask where the fish comes from. Check government(www.nmfs.noaa.gov/fishwatch) and aquarium(www.montereybayaquarium.org) Web sites for current informationaboutendangeredspeciesandsustainablefisheries.Takealongacoolerandicepackswhenyougoshopping,tokeepfish

ascoldaspossible.Inspectfishcarefullybeforebuying.Avoidfishthatsmellstronglyfishy,anearlysignofdeteriorationand

spoilage.Allfishshouldhaveanodoroftheseashore.Slightfishinessiscommonandwashesaway.Choosewholefishinsteadofprecutpieces,whichdevelopoffflavors

morequickly.Havethemarketcleanthefishordoityourself.Choosewhole fishwith a glossy, taut-looking skin; bright, full eyes;

and red inner gills. Avoid fish with dull, wrinkled skin; sunken orcloudedeyes;orbrowngills.Choose live fish that are active and come from clean, well-aerated

tanks.Chooseprecutpiecesthatlookmoistandshiny,withnogapsbetweenmusclelayersandnodryorbrownedges.Bewaryofcherry-redcolorsintunaortilapia,whichmaycomefromtreatmentwithspoilage-disguisingcarbonmonoxide.Have your purchase packaged in ice, and refrigerate it as soon aspossible.Fishqualitydeterioratesquickly.Frozenfishandshellfishmayofferbetterqualitythanfresh.Somefrozen products are prepared at sea within hours after the harvest.Choosepackagesfromthecoldestdepthsofthefreezercompartment.Checkthelabelsofcanned,bottled,andotherpreparedseafood.Thebest-tastingproductswillusuallybemoreexpensiveandpackedwithoutpreservatives,whichcauseoffflavors.

SHOPPINGFORSHELLFISH

Crabs, lobsters, and shrimp have very perishable flesh and areusually sold frozen, frozen-thawed, cooked, or alive. Truly fresh rawcrustaceansarerareandexpensive.InexpensiveshrimpareoftenfarmedinAsiaandtreatedwithplumpingandantibrowningchemicals.Examinecrustaceanscarefullyandavoidanythathaveanoffsmell,blackspotsorotherdiscoloration,or slime.Choosewhole lobstersandcrabs that are heavy for their size.Whole head-on shrimp spoil fasterthanshrimptails,buthavemoreflavor.Chooselivelobstersandcrabsthatlooklivelyandcomefromacleantank.Bivalvemolluscsarehardywhenkeptcoldandmoist,andareoftensoldliveintheshell.Choose liveclams,mussels,andoystersthatarekeptoniceor inashallowtank,notsubmergedinwaterorinaplasticbag.Choosepreshuckedoysterswhosesurroundingliquidisclear.Cloudyliquidindicatesdisintegrationandpossiblespoilage.Choose scallops that are off-white to slightly orange and not too

glossy. Very white, glossy pieces have been treated with moisture-retaining chemicals,weep copious fluidwhen heated, and are hard tobrownonthestove.Squidandoctopusareoftensoldfrozen-thawedorcooked.Small

sizesarerelativelytenderandcookquickly;largesizesaretougherandneedlongcooking.Choose raw squid that have sharply defined pigment spots on their

surfaces.Blurringindicatesdeterioration.

STORINGFISHANDSHELLFISH

Fish and shellfish are at their best the moment we buy them, anddeteriorateinqualityuntilweeatorcookthem.The enemies of fish quality are oxygen and light, which turn fats

rancid; microbes, which produce off flavors; the fish’s own enzymes,which soften the muscle fibers; and temperatures above the freezingpoint,32°F/0°C,whichspeedtheeffectsofalltheothers.Store fresh fish in the refrigerator or freezer, and as briefly as

possible. If you can, buy it the same day that you’ll prepare it. Leanwarm-water fish—snapper, catfish, tilapia—keep longest; fatty cold-waterfish—salmon,mackerel—theshortest.Rewrapfishtightly inplasticwrap,coveredwithanopaquelayerof

foilorpaper.Keepfishsurroundedbyfreshcrushedice,orinthecoldestcornerof

the refrigerator. Icing fish can increase its usable life by several daysoverordinaryrefrigeration.Freezefishtokeepitformorethanadayortwo.Freezing takes its own toll on fish quality. It forms ice crystals that

puncture the fish cells and cause fluid loss. It can also denature andtoughen fish fibers. Dry freezer-temperature air causes “freezer burn,”surfacedryingthattoughensandcreatesoffflavors.Tominimizefreezingdamage,freezefishfasttominimizeicecrystal

size,andprotectitfromair.Setyourfreezertoitscoldestsetting.Dividethe fish into small portions that freeze quickly, and freeze them

unwrapped.Oncethey’refrozen,wrapthemtightlyinplasticwrapandanopaquelayerofpaperorfoil.Ordipthemrepeatedlyinicewaterandrefreezetoglazethesurfacewithalayerofice.Refrigeratelivelobsters,crayfish,andcrabswrappedinamoistloose

clothfor1to2days.Storeliveclams,mussels,andoysterslooselywrappedinawetcloth

in the refrigerator, or on ice, for as much as a week. Keep oysterscupped-shell down. Don’t let live molluscs become covered in meltedice,whichhasnosaltandwillkillthem.Store preshucked bivalves, as well as fresh squid and octopus,

wrappedandburiediniceforuptoseveraldays.Refrigeraterawandfresh-cookedcrustaceansasbrieflyaspossible,

tightlywrappedandburied incrushed ice.Cleanedshrimpin theshellcan keep for a week or more.Whole shrimp with the head are moreperishable.Usefrozenshrimp,crabandlobster,andsquidandoctopuswithina

fewweeks. Theydeterioratemore rapidly in home freezers,which arenotascoldascommercialfreezers.

PREPARINGFISHFORCOOKING

Thefirststepinpreparingfishistobringitoutofstorageandcleanit.Ifyoupreparefishoften,keepafishscalerandneedle-nosepliersonhand.Thaw frozen fish gradually and gently in the refrigerator, or faster

wrapped watertight in a bowl of ice water. Don’t thaw at roomtemperature, which favors the growth of bacteria. Don’t thaw frozenbreadedfishproducts;cookthesedirectlyfromthefreezer.Prepare whole fish by scraping away scales and removing inner

organs from the belly. To prevent scales from scattering, immerse thefish inwater for scaling.Take care to avoidpopping the greenishbilesac,andcutawayanyfleshdiscoloredwithitsbittercontents.Preparefilletsandsteaksbypullingoutsmallboneswithneedle-nose

pliers.Rinse cleaned whole fish and precut pieces thoroughly in cold

running water, scraping any residual blood or organs from the bellycavity, then blot dry. Strong fishy smells come mainly from surfacedeterioration,andshouldwashaway.To purge surfaces and firm outer layers, presalt fish for 5minutesaftercleaning.Rinseorbrushsaltoffanddrythoroughlybeforecooking.Toreducefishyflavorsandtoxinformationduringgrilling,marinatefish briefly in wine or other acidic liquids. Rinse and dry thoroughlybeforecooking.Forneatindividualservings,cutpiecestosizebeforecooking.Oncecooked,fishfleshflakesanddoesn’tcutneatly.To speed heat penetration in a large whole fish and cook it moreevenly,makespacedshallowcutsinthethickareas.To obtain a crisp skin, scrape the skin repeatedly with a knife toremove moisture, then cover with salt and refrigerate for 1 hour ormore. Brush off salt and dry thoroughly before cooking. The skins ofsome fish— catfish, halibut, shark, swordfish—are too tough to beenjoyed.

PREPARINGSHELLFISHFORSERVINGORCOOKING

Thaw frozen crustaceans, squid, and octopus gradually and gently inthe refrigerator, or faster in a bowl of ice water. Don’t thaw them atroomtemperature,whichfavorsthegrowthofbacteria.Wash raw and live shellfish thoroughly in cold water. Scrub shellswithabrushtoremoveanygritandslime.Removethe“vein”inshrimpandlobstertails,actuallythedigestivetract,toeliminateitsgrittiness.Purgesandfromclamsby immersing themforseveralhours incoldwaterwith1/3cupgranulatedsaltpergallon/20gramsperliter.To help shrimp retain more moisture when cooked, brine thembriefly.Tospeedandevenoutthecookingofshrimpandlobster,“butterfly”by cutting through lengthwise and spreading two halves flat. Reservelobsterroe,liver,andshellsformakingsauces.

Toreducethereactivemovementsoflivelobsterswhenthey’reboiledorsteamed,prechillthemfor15minutesinthefreezerorincrushedice.Toservemoretenderoystersandscallops,cutawaythetoughroundplugofmuscleinoysters,orthetoughsidemuscleinscallops.

RAWFISHANDSHELLFISH:SUSHI,SASHIMI,CRUDO,ANDCEVICHE

Sushi, sashimi, and crudo are raw preparations. Ceviche is raw fishmarinated briefly in acidic citrus juice, a treatment that doesn’teliminatemicrobesorparasites.Uncooked fish and shellfish carry a significant risk of foodpoisoningorinfectionwithparasites.Buy only the highest-quality, freshest fish and shellfish for servingraw. Sushi-grade fish is relatively expensive, usually prefrozen andthawed,andmorelikelytobefreeofparasites.Keepthefishandshellfishice-cold.Clean and handle the fish and shellfish carefully to minimizecontamination.Cleanhands,knives,andcuttingboardsfrequentlywithhot,soapywateroradilutedsolutionofvinegarorchlorinebleach.Serve raw fish and shellfish immediately after preparing them, orchillthemquicklyintherefrigerator.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGFISHANDSHELLFISH

Thekeytocookingfishandshellfishwell isattentiveness.Thincutsoffish and small shellfish cookveryquickly and cango from raw todryandfibrousinaslittleas3or4minutes.Thecenterofthickercutsandwholelargecreaturescangofrommoisttooverdonejustasquickly.Don’trelyonrecipecookingtimesorsimpleformulastoguaranteeagood result. Recipes can’t account for significant changes in cookingtimecausedbysmallvariationsinfoodthickness,temperature,andthetemperatureofgrillsandovensandpans.Checkdonenessearlyandoften.Ifyou’reusingathermometer,check

itsaccuracybeforehand.Judge doneness in fish by measuring the temperature with a

thermometer, or by prying two layers of flesh apart and looking.Underdone or barely done fish will still be mainly translucent andcohesive. Cooked but moist fish has a small translucent area at thecenter andmore easily breaks apart. Overcooked fish is fully opaque,dry,andfibrous.Tomaintain moistness in fish and shellfish, aim to keep the inner

temperature between 120 and 135°F/50 and 57°C, the range inwhichthe flesh turns from translucent toopaque.Athigher temperatures thefibers lose their moisture and become progressively drier. Tuna ismoisterat110to120°F/43to50°C.If safety is paramount, cook fish to an inner temperature of

160°F/70°C.Itwillbedryandfibrous.Adjust cookingheat to the thicknessof the fish. Cook thin fillets at

hightemperaturesbriefly,forjustaminuteortwoperside.Startthicksteaksorwholefishorlobstersathightemperaturestoflavortheoutsideandkillmicrobes, thenmoderate the heat tominimize overcooking oftheoutsidewhiletheinsidecooksthrough.Arrange tapering fillets to even out the heating in a steamer or

microwave. Fold over the thin ends or interleave them so they don’tovercookwhilethethickendsheatthrough.To keep fish pieces intact, minimize handling during and after

cooking.Fishfleshhaslittleconnectivetissueandbecomesfragileasitcooks. Cut neat portions before cooking; support whole pieces on abroad spatula when moving them. Grill fish pieces held snugly in agrillingbasket.Broil thinpieceswithout turningbyplacing themonapreheatedplate.Toproducecrispskinonapieceoffish,scrapeandpresalttheskinto

removemoisture. Fry the piece overmoderate to high heat, skin sidefirsttomakesureithasenoughtimetobrownandcrisp.Servethefishskin side up to avoid steaming the skin between its hot flesh and theplate.Crustaceans in the shell areamong the fewanimals foods that are

commonlycookedbyboiling.Boilingcooksshrimp,crabs,and lobsters

veryquickly,andpreventstheirenzymesfromturningthefleshmushy,butleavesthemsomewhatdryandfibrous.To boil shellfish, keep the water temperature as high as possible

throughoutcooking.Usea largepotof saltedwater,get it toa rollingboil, add the crustaceans, and cover the pot until the water resumesboiling.Check doneness often to minimize overcooking and fibrousness, no

matterwhatcookingmethodyouuse.Formoremoistlytendercrustaceanmeat,poachitfarbelowtheboil.Molluscs are a varied group of creatures and call for several

differentcookingmethods.Cooktrimmedscallopsbrieflyonhighheatuntiljustwarmedthrough

orbarelyopaqueatthecenter.Theyarepureandtendermuscletissue,attheirbestwhenbarelycooked.Cooksquid,octopus,abalone,andgeoduckclamseitherverybriefly

or longand slowly. Theirmuscles contain abundant connective tissue,whichmakesthemcrunchywhenbarelycooked,moistlysoftwhenlongcooked, and tough in between. Tenderize the meats beforehand ifdesired by gentle pounding to break and separate muscle fibers andconnectivetissue.Cookliveoysters,clams,andmussels in theshellquicklywithhigh

heat,justuntiltheshellsopentokeepthemuscleastenderaspossible,or for severalminutes afterward to eliminatemoremicrobes from thedigestiveandreproductiveorgans.Discardanyshellsthatdon’topen.To minimize fishy cooking smells in the kitchen, cook fish and

shellfish in a covered pan or in a wrapper, and allow them to coolsomewhatbeforeuncovering.

See the pages listed below for cooking methods in which fish andshellfisharetreatedlikeotherfoods:

GRILLING,thispageSMOKING,thispage

FRYINGandDEEP-FRYING,thispageandthispage

STEAMING,thispage

MICROWAVING,thispage

COOKINGINAWRAPPER

Cookingfishinawrapperwithflavorfulherbsandvegetablesisaneatandversatilecookingmethod.Itcanbedoneonthegrillorinafryingpan,anoven,asteamer,oramicrowave.Thewrappermaybeasheetofparchmentpaper,foil,plasticwrap,or

pastry,oralargeplantleaf,fromediblecabbagetoaromaticbanana.Itprotectsthecontentsfromdirectheat,heatsthemmoregently,andtrapsaromastobeenjoyedwhenthepackageisopened.Wrappers don’t trap moisture in fish or prevent overcooking.

Oncethesheathpuffsuporemitsvapor,thefishisessentiallysteaming.Use thin pieces offish that cook through quickly, and cut the other

ingredientsfinelysothattheywilltoo.Checkthedonenessofonepacketaminuteortwoafterthewrapperpuffsup.

OVENROASTING

Oven roasting heats fish relatively slowly, by means of hot air andradiation from theoven surfaces, at temperatures ranging from200 to500°F/93to260°C.Moderateandlowtemperaturesaregoodforcookingthroughthickpiecesoffishthathavebeenquicklybrownedonthestovetoporbroiler.Chooseoventemperaturesaccordingtothefishandyourcookingand

eating preferences. In general, the thicker the piece, the lower youshould set the oven temperature, so that the outside doesn’t overcookwhiletheinsidecooksthrough.Highheatrequiresclosemonitoring,butproducesbrowned,flavorfulsurfaces.Low oven temperatures, 200 to 250°F/93 to 120°C, cook fish

throughslowlyandevenlyandcanproduceawonderfulsoft,custardliketexture,notablyinsalmon.Butthey’retoolowtobrownthesurfaceorcrispskin.

Toavoidwhiteglobsofcoagulated fluidon the surfaceduring low-temperatureroasting,presaltorbrinethefishfor5to10minutes,thenwipeawaythesaltanddrythoroughlybeforecooking.Highoventemperatures,above400°F/200°C,canovercooktheouter

portions while the center gets to the proper temperature, and canquicklyovercookthecenter.Theyrequireclosemonitoring.Convectionfansspeedbrowningandcookingthroughbyblowing

the hot oven air onto the fish surface, and can cause scorching atordinaryoven temperatures.Toavoid scorching, reducenonconvectionroasting temperatures by 25 to 50°F/15 to 30°C, and check browningoften.Checkdonenessearlyandoften,especiallyifyou’reusingahotoven.

POACHING,STEWING,ANDLOW-TEMPERATURECOOKING

Poaching and stewing are methods that heat fish in flavored liquids,usuallywater-basedbrothor stockbut sometimesoilormeltedbutter.Theliquidcanbecomeasauceorsoup.The keys to good poached or stewed fish are to start with a

flavorfulcookingliquidandcontrolitstemperaturetoavoidovercookingthefish.Prepareflavorfulbrothsorstocksinadvance,bymakingafishstock

oracourtbouillon.Theshortcookingtimesandlowtemperaturesthatfishneeddon’textractflavorwellfromvegetablesandherbs.Tomakeacourtbouillon,add theacidicwineorvinegaronlyafter

thevegetableshavesoftened,andthepepperinthelastfewminutestoavoidbitterness.Cookfishandshellfishstocks(fumets)forlessthananhourtoavoid

extracting cloudy calcium from bones or shells. Don’t include gills,whichoftencarryorcauseoffflavors.To keep fish pieces intact when cooked, cut neat portions before

cooking,cookjustuntildone,andsupportthemwhenservingonalargespoonorspatula.Don’tleavefragilefilletstocoolinthecookingliquid;they’llfallapartwiththecontinuedheat.

Toproduce themoistest fishandmost tendershellfish,add themtothe stock or bouillon at 180°F/80°C, to kill surface microbes. Thenremovefromtheheattoletthemcookthroughasthetemperaturefallsto120to140°F/50to60°C.Checkdonenessfrequently.Thinfilletsmaytake less thanaminute to cook through.Poach shrimpas is, crabandlobstermeatafterabriefinitialboiltoremoveitfromitsthickshell.If the liquidneedstobecookeddownorthickened,removethefish

andshellfishfirst.To tenderize tough squid, octopus, or abalone, simmer in liquid at

180°F/80°Cuntiltender.Don’tbotherincludingwinecorks,whichhavenoeffect.BouillabaisseisasouthernFrenchseafoodstewinwhichamixtureof

fish parts, some bony and gelatinous to provide body, is boiled in anaromaticbrothwitholiveoiltodispersetheoilintinydroplets.Tomakebouillabaisse so that the fishpiecesaremoist rather than

dry, reservethe fleshyfishparts tocookthroughoff theheatafter theliquidhasboiled.Low-temperaturecookingheatsfishandshellfishatthetemperature

that corresponds to the particular doneness youwant in the flesh. It’scarried out in a water oven or a pot of water whose temperature ismaintained either manually by the cook or automatically by animmersioncirculator. Itproduces fishandshellfishthatareevenlyandperfectlycookedthroughout.Fishandshellfisharetypicallycookedat120to140°F/50to60°Cjust

untildone.Unlikemeats,seafoodfleshtendstodeteriorateinqualityifheldatlowtemperatures.Somefishshouldnotbecookedatlowtemperaturesbecausetheir

muscle enzymes turn themmushy when heated slowly. These includeflatfish,tuna,mackerel,sardines,andtilapia.Understand and avoid the potential hazards of low-temperature

cooking. Low cooking temperatures are slow to kill the bacteria thatcause foodborne illness, and temperatures below 130°F/55°C don’t killthem at all. Tightwrappingmakes it possible for botulism bacteria togrow.Userecipesthatexplainthehazards,andfollowtheirinstructionsexactly. In general, it’s simplest and safest to serve fish and shellfish

cookedatlowtemperaturesimmediately.Tocookfishorshellfishatlowtemperatures:

Heatthewaterovenoralargepotofwateruptothetemperaturethatcorrespondstothedesireddoneness.Sealthefishinaplasticziplockstoragebag,pressingoutasmuchairaspossiblebyimmersingitinthewaterjustuptothezipperandthensealingit;orvacuum-packusingahomevacuum-packingmachine.Immersethebaginthewaterandheatuntilthefoodiscookedthroughtothedesiredtexture,typically20to30minutesforsingle-servingportions.Makesurethatthebagremainsfullyimmersedinthecookingwaterandsurroundedbyit.Airandvaporpocketsinabagcancauseittofloat,andwaterfloworcrowdingcanpushbagsagainsteachotherorthepotsides.Ifyou’renotusingawaterovenorcirculator,stirthewaterregularly,monitorthetemperaturefrequentlywithanaccuratedigitalthermometer,andheatoraddhotwaterasnecessarytomaintainit.

Sous-videcookingisarestaurantversionoflow-temperaturecookinginwhichthefisharevacuum-packedinplasticbags.Vacuumpackinginaprofessionalchambermachinecanspeedtheinfusionofmarinadesandotherflavorsintofish,andremovesallairfromthepackage,sothatthemeatheatsmoreevenlyandcanbekeptlongeraftercooking.Householdvacuum-packaging machines don’t create a strong enough vacuum toinfusefoods,can’tbeusedwithliquidingredients,andleavesomeairinthepackage.

SERVINGFISH

It’sworthtakingsometroubletoservefishandshellfishattheirbest.Prechillplatestoserverawfishandshellfish.Preheatplatestoservehotfishdishes.

Keepanyreservesofrawfishorshellfishwellchilledduringameal.

Keepanyreservesofcookedfishorshellfishat130°F/55°Corhotter,immersedinliquidorcoveredtopreventdrying.Thisisespeciallyimportantifthemealwilllastformorethananhourortwo;itpreventsthegrowthofbacteria.Tobalanceandtonedownstrong-flavoredseafood,provideacidiclemonwedges,atartmayonnaise-basedsauce,oratartwhitewine.

LEFTOVERS

Seafood leftoversaremore fragile thanmostbecause fishand shellfishflavorsquicklydeteriorateandbecomemorestronglyfishy.Minimize the exposure of cooked fish or shellfish to air. Wrapseparatepiecestightlyinplasticwrap,andcoverbraisedandstewedfishwiththeircookingliquid.Refrigerate or freeze leftovers as soon as possible after the fish isremovedfromtheheat.Dividelargequantitiesintosmallerportionsthatwillchillfaster.Freezeleftoverstokeeptheminbetterconditionformorethanafewdays.Reheatingfishandshellfishaccentuatestheirfishiness.Considerservingquicklyrefrigeratedleftoverfishandshellfishcold,rightfromtherefrigerator.Reheatleftoverfishaslittleaspossibleconsistentwithsafety.Turnitbriefly in a pan of boiling liquid—the liquid portion of a stew, forexample,orsomefishstockorsaltedwater—tokillanysurfacebacteria.Thenturntheheatdown,cooltheliquidto140°F/60°C,cover,andheatthefishthroughgently.

S

13

SAUCES,STOCKS,ANDSOUPS

aucesarepourablepleasure.Saucesanddressingsanddipsbringheightenedflavorandlingeringmoistnesstoourbasicandoftenmild foods, tomeats and fish and grains, andmake themmore

delicious. Soups are flavorful liquids served as foods themselves, oftenthinnerandlessintenseversionsofsauces.Andstocksarehandywaterextractsofmeats, fish,andvegetables thatcanprovide thebase liquidforsaucesorsoups.Thesedaysyoucanbuyalmostanysaucepremade,andgiveadishan

instantaccent inwhateverdialectofdeliciousnessyouwant, ItalianorChinese or Mexican or Indian. But many sauces take only minutes tomake, and others are usually less challenging or time-consuming toprepare than their reputations suggest.Homemadesaucescanbemoreflavorful than store-bought because they’re fresher, and you can usethemtodiscoverandsatisfyyourowntastes.Mydaughtertookoverourmayonnaisemakingwhen shewas about twelve years old so that shecouldgetasgarlickyanaiolias shewanted—andbecauseshehad funmakingitandservingit.Sauces that do take time and trouble offer their own satisfactions. I

don’tmakeabigbatchofvealorbeefstockveryoften,butwhenIdoIstillmarvelathowIcanslowlycoaxapotofmeatscrapsandbonesandwater into a golden, clear, intense, refined essence of meatiness. Andmaybe because a fraction of me comes from India, I really love theopposite, all-inapproach to saucemaking, thegatheringofadozenormore vegetables and spices and herbs and nuts, and crushing andtoasting and simmering and melding them into an Asian curry orMexicanmole.Cookbooks are awash with countless recipes for sauces and their

relatives.This chapter covers themore commonkinds, beginningwith

simpleoilsanddipsandworkinguptothemeatstocksandsaucesthatarethefoundationofclassicFrenchcooking.Forchocolateandcaramelsauces,seepages491and504.

SAUCEANDSOUPSAFETY

Manysaucesandsoupsofferidealconditionsforthegrowthofbacteriaandmolds.Meatand fishstocksareverysimilar to the jelliesused forgrowingmicrobes in laboratorypetridishes!They’rehighlyperishable,andcancausefoodborneillnessifthey’remishandled.Minimize the opportunities for bacteria to grow when making andservingsaucesandsoups.Wash hands, utensils, and ingredients thoroughly, especially whenpreparingrawdipsandsalsas.Toavoidtheveryslightriskofsalmonellawhenmakingmayonnaise,usepasteurizedeggsinsteadoftheusualraweggs.Don’tletsauces,dips,orsoupssitoutatroomtemperatureformorethan4hours.Formoreextendedserving,holdhotsaucesandsoupsat130°F/55°C or above. Keep dips on ice, or reserve a portion in therefrigerator to set out later. Thanks to their antimicrobial vinegar,vinaigrettescanbeheldsafelyatroomtemperature.Reheatleftovercookedsaucesandsoupsto165°F/73°C.Ifthiscausesthesaucetobreak,orseparate,thenusethebrokensaucetomakeanewone,ordiscardit.Eggandbuttersaucesdon’treheatwell.Reboil refrigerated meat or fish stocks every few days. They’re soperishable that they can spoil even in the refrigerator. For extendedkeeping,freezethem.

SHOPPINGFORPREPAREDSAUCESANDSOUPS

Prepared sauces,dips,broths, and soupsare sold in countlessvarietiesandforms,bothfreshandsterilizedtokeepindefinitely.Manufactured meat stocks, usually called broths or bouillons, areespeciallyconvenientbecausetheytakemanyhourstoprepare.They’re

available canned, concentrated into a hard jelly (meat glacé ordemiglace) or viscous dark syrup (meat extract), and dehydrated to asolidpowder(bouillongrainsandcubes).Theirqualityvarieswidely.Check labels and choose products with few ingredients that aren’trecognizable foods. Many manufacturers substitute special industrialingredients for more complex and expensive meats, vegetables, andherbs. They produce approximations of the original product that aregenerallynotasgood.Improve prepared products by supplementing them with freshingredients,includingherbs,goodoliveoil,orvinegar.

STORINGSAUCESANDSOUPS

Mostsauces,dips,andsoupsarehighlyperishable.Themajorexceptionisvinaigrette,butitsflavoralsodeteriorateswithtime.Refrigerateorfreezeallsauces,dips,andsoupsmadewithanykindofstockorpuree,dairyproducts,oreggs.When refrigerating a large batch of stock or soup, chill the potquicklyinice,ordividethecontentsintosmallerbatchesthatwillcoolquickly.To keep sauces, dips, and soups for more than a few days, freezethem,withalayerofplasticwrappressedintothesurfacetominimizeoffflavorsfromfreezerburn.Sauces thickenedwithbutteror eggoftenbreak after chillingorfreezing. Try to reconstitute them by separating the water and fatportionsandremakingthemwiththehelpofafresheggyolkorinitialportionofwater.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGSAUCES:FLAVOR

Saucesprovideflavor,thesensationsoftasteonthetongueandaromainthenose.Therearethousandsofdifferentaromas,butonlyahandfuloftastes: saltiness, sourness, sweetness, bitterness, and savoriness. Tasteservesasthefoundationofflavor,aromaitssuperstructure.

Besurethatasauce’stastebaseissolidandbalanced,especiallyinsalt and acid.Many cooks neglect acidity. To boost it quickly, keep ashakerofsoursalt,orcitricacid.Salt doesn’t just provide saltiness. It helps amplify aromas, even in

sweet sauces, andmasks bitterness.Use fine-grained salts in uncookedsaucemakingsothattheydissolvequickly,especiallyinmayonnaiseandotheremulsifiedsauces.Flavorsaucesintensely.Saucesarealwayseatenwithsomethingless

flavorful, so they need to be highly flavored for the combination towork.Taste sauces critically as youmake them, and adjust the flavor to

makethembothbalancedandintense.Takeenoughtospreadthesauceallaroundyourmouth,notjustinthefront;itshouldtastefullandmakeyourmouthwater.Havesomeoneelsedouble-checktheseasoning.Peoplehavedifferent

setsof tasteand smell receptorsandexperience foodsdifferently. Findoutwhetheryouareespeciallysensitiveorinsensitivetothebasictastes,and adjust your seasoning accordingly when you’re cooking for otherpeople.Don’toverthicken sauces. Starch, proteins, fat, and other thickening

ingredients tend tomute flavor.Remember that sauceswillget thickerwhenthey’reservedandbegintocool.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGSAUCES:CONSISTENCY

Theappealingconsistencyofsaucescomesfromthewaytheymoveonthefoodandfeel in themouth.Mostsaucesare thicker thanwater,sotheyclingtothefoodstheydressandprovidelingeringpleasureinthemouth.Somefoodsarenaturalsaucesbecausethey’realreadythickliquids.

They include purees, oils, egg yolks, cream, sour cream and crèmefraîche,strainedyogurt,andbutter.Wecanthickenthinbutflavorfulliquidsbyaddingingredientsthat

obstructtheliquidfrommovingeasily.

Themainsaucethickenersareflourandvariousstarches;proteinsineggs, meats, fish, and shellfish, and dairy products; and fats and oils,whichwe can emulsify, or beat intomicroscopic droplets that obstructtheflowofthesauce’swater.Whenadjustingtheconsistencyofhotsauces,keepthemthinnerthanyouwantthemtobewhenserved.Saucesgetthickerastheycool,andifoverthickenedwillcongealontheplate.Sauces usually fail by separating, or not thickening in the firstplace, so that they become an unevenmixture ofwatery, oily, and/orlumpyparts.Toavoidstarchlumps,nevermixdryflourorstarchwithahotsauce.Premixthepowderyingredientwithcoldwaterorwithfatoroil, thenaddthisslurrytothehotsauce.To avoid protein lumps, heat the sensitive protein thickeners justenough to develop the thickness, but not enough to coagulate them.“Temper”theeggyolkorotheringredientbyaddingasmallamountofmoderatelyhotsaucetoittodisperseandbegintoheatit,thencombinesauceandthickenerandheatgentlyjustuntilthickened.To avoid separation of oils or fats from water, whisk them intosaucesgradually.Addenoughwatertoprovideroomforthedropletsastheyform.Keepthesaucewarmenoughforfatstoremainliquid.Tosmoothoutseparatedsauces,passlumpyonesthroughafine-meshsieveorpulsebrieflyinablender.Strainemulsifiedsauces,skimofftheseparatedoilorfat,andreemulsifyit.

FLAVOREDOILS

Flavored oils are versatile ingredients for instantly adding aromas andrichness to a dish, often as a finishing touch. They’remade simply bysteepingvariousherbs,spices,citruspeels,orotheraromaticsintheoilandthenstrainingtheoiloff.Covering raw foods with oil can allow the growth of botulismbacteria. Botulism bacteria are common in soils, can be present onproduce surfaces, and thrivewhen protected from the air. They cause

seriousandsometimesfatalillness.Addsaltand/orsoursalt(citricacid)tomoistflavoringingredients

forsteeping,tolimitbacterialgrowth.Dryspicesanddriedcitruspeelsdon’thaveenoughwaterformicrobestogrow.Steep and store flavored oils in the refrigerator, not at room

temperature.Cold limits bacterial growth, and slows the stalingof theoilsthemselves.Useflavoredoilswithinaweekortwo.

DIPS

Dipsaresimplesaucesthatclingtopiecesoffoodtouchedtothemjustbefore eating. They include mayonnaise and sour-cream sauces,guacamoleand salsas,pureedbeansandnuts, andquicklymadeAsiandippingsaucesbasedonsoyorfishsauce.Servedipsinwaysthatminimizethegrowthofbacteriainthemand

thepossibilityofcausingillness.Don’t leavedipsoutat room temperature formore than4hours. If

thepartyormealwill last longer thanthat,divide thedip into twoormore refrigerated containers and set out one at a time, replacing asneeded.Discouragedouble-dipping, the redippingofapieceof food thathas

been partly eaten, which passes mouth microbes from one person toeveryoneelse.Servedipswithsmallone-bitechipsandvegetablepieces.

SALADDRESSINGSANDVINAIGRETTES

Most salad dressings combine the richness of oil with the tartness ofvinegar or citrus juices, buttermilk or sour cream. The simplest, amixtureofoil,vinegar,salt,andherbs,suspendsvinegardropletsinoil.Dressingsbasedonmayonnaiseorcreamsuspendoildropletsinawaterbase.Manufactured dressings are often thickened with xanthan gum and

containlessoilthanfreshlymadedressings.

Dressrawsaladsjustbeforeserving.Dressingswiltsaladgreens.To keep a green salad fresh-looking longer, choose a water-based

creamormayonnaisedressing,whichdarkensleavesmoreslowlythanavinaigrette.“Boileddressing” isanoil-freedressingforcoleslawandotherraw-

vegetablesalads.It’smadewithseasonedanddilutedvinegarthickenedwithflourandeggs.Tomakeboileddressing,cooktheingredientsgentlyandstopheating

assoonasitthickenstoavoidcurdling.Vinaigrettes are versatile oil-and-vinegar sauces, usually flavored

withherbs.They’rethesimplestdressingforsalads.Italiansalsaverde,Caribbeanmojos,andArgentinechimichurriarevinaigrettesservedwithmeats.Adjustvinaigretteproportionsandingredientstoyourowntaste.The

traditionalproportionsare1volumeofvinegarto3volumesofoil,butmanymodernrecipesareclosertoaratioof1to2.Thebalancedependsin part on vinegar strength,which can run from4 to 8 percent aceticacid. Try different ingredients: nut oils and animals fats, unusualvinegarsortartfruitjuices.Vinaigrettescanbemadebydifferentmethods.Allofthembreak

upthevinegarintotinydropletsanddispersethemintheoil.Youcanslowlywhiskthevinegarintotheoil,ordothereverse,orshakethetwoliquidsinaclosedcontainer,orblendtheminablender.Make simple vinaigrettes just before dressing the food with them.

Whiskedandshakenvinaigrettesbeginseparatingintooilyandvinegarypatcheswithinafewminutes.Orsprinkleoilandvinegardirectlyontothefoodandcombinethemcasuallybytossingthepieces.Tomakemore stablevinaigrettes, include crushedherbsormustard

(powderedorprepared),whichcoatthevinegardropletsandslowtheircoalescence, or emulsify them with a blender, which breaks up thevinegarintoverysmalldropletsthatcoalesceslowly.

MAYONNAISE

Mayonnaise isanoil-and-acid sauce thatcanbemade thickenough tospreadona sandwich. It’sessentiallya smallamountofwater,usuallydiluted lemon juice, crowded until stiff with many millions of oildroplets.Thekeyingredientiseggyolk,whoseproteinsandemulsifierscoattheoildropletsasweformandcrowdthem,andpreventthemfrommergingandpuddlingtogether.Like vinaigrettes,mayonnaise can bemadewithmany different oilsand fats, tart liquids, and flavorings. Aioli is a popular mayonnaiseflavoredwith garlic.Mayonnaise can bemade by handwith awhisk,withastickblender,orinablenderorfoodprocessor.To eliminate the very slight risk of salmonella contamination fromraw egg yolk, use pasteurized eggs, or pasteurize the yolk yourself.Combine1yolkinasmallbowlwith1tablespoon/15milliliterseachoflemon juiceandwater, andmicrowave themixonhighpoweruntil itheavesclosetotheboil.Removethebowl,stirbrisklywithacleanfork,and repeat the heating. Remove and stir againwith a clean fork untillukewarm.Thenstartwhiskinginoiltomakethesauce.Don’tworryabouttheproportionsofeggyolkandoil.Oneyolkcancoatthedropletsfrommanycupsofoil.Do be careful about the proportions of liquid and oil. As youincorporateoilintotheeggbase,besuretoadd1teaspoon/5millilitersoflemonjuiceorwaterwheneverthesaucegetsstiff,asignthattheoildropletsareverycrowdedandneedmoreroom.Dobecarefulwhenyoumakeamayonnaisewitholiveoil.Olive-oilmayonnaiseoftenseparatesafterafewhours,becausethisunrefinedoilcontains substances that slowly push the stabilizing coats off the oildroplets. For a more stable sauce, make it mostly with a refinedvegetableoil,andfinishwitholiveoiltotaste.Startthesaucemakingslowly tobesurethattheoilgetsbrokenupintotheyolkbase,andnottheotherwayaround.Mixtheyolkinabowlwithsaltand1to2teaspoons/5to10milliliterswater,thenaddtheoiljustafewdropsatatime,whiskinguntilthedropsdisappear,untilthemix stiffens. Thin it with a few drops of lemon juice or water, andcontinue,addingtheoilinlargerdosesasthevolumeofsauceincreases.Ifthesaucethinswhileyou’readdingoil, ithasprobablyseparated.

Stopandletdropsofwaterandoilfallontothesurface.Iftheoildropsquickly,disappears,andthewaterdoesn’t,thesaucehasseparated.Startagainwithafreshyolk,andslowlywhisktheseparatedsauceintoit.Ifyouuseablenderorfoodprocessor,becarefulnottooverworkthesauce,whichwillbreakit.Stopthemotorassoonasthelastoilhasbeenadded. Recipes formachinemayonnaise usually include the eggwhiteandmustardtoprovidemoredroplet-coatingmaterial.To rescue a broken mayonnaise, start with a fresh egg yolk andcarefullyworkthebrokensauceintoit.

FRESHSALSAS,PESTOS,ANDPUREES

Many popular sauces aremade simply by breaking up solid vegetableand fruit tissues andmixing the broken-up solids and juices together.When the solids are coarsely chopped,weoften call the saucea salsa.Coarsly crushed herbs make a pesto. Smoothly integrated mixes arecalledpurees.Different tools for breaking up foods produce different texturesand flavors. Themore thoroughly they pulverize, the finer the saucetexture,andthemoreitsflavorisaffectedbythefood’sactiveenzymesandexposuretotheair.To retain more fresh flavor of the ingredients in pestos and otherfreshherb sauces, chop coarsely or grind the ingredients coarsely in amortarratherthanablender,sothatsomeofthetissueremainsintact.Fortomatosalsasandsauces,besuretoincludetheseeds,orstrainouttheseedswhilepressingthethickjellythatsurroundsthemintothesauce.Thejellyisthemostflavorfulpartofthetomato.Rinse chopped onions or garlic in copious water to remove harshflavorsfromthecutsurfaces.Uncookedsalsas,pestos,andpureesaremorefragileinflavorandconsistencythancookedsauces.Make fresh sauces just before serving. Oxygen and uncontrolledenzymesbegin tochange flavorandcausebrowndiscolorationassoonastheplanttissuesaredamaged.

Ifyoumakefreshsaucesahead,store themin therefrigeratorwithwaxedpaperpressedontothesurface.Mostplasticwrapsallowsomeairtopassthrough;they’relesseffectiveairbarriers.Ifthesaucediscolors,scrapethesurfacelayeroffbeforeserving.To prevent theweeping ofwatery fluid fromafresh puree or juice,

supplementwithasmallquantityofxanthangum,aningredientusedingluten-free baking. Lightly dust the puree surface with xanthan gumpowder, allow to absorbmoisture until surface looks like a jelly, thenwhiskorblendvigorouslyandallowtostand.

COOKEDPUREES,APPLESAUCEANDTOMATOSAUCE,ANDCURRIESANDMOLES

Cooked purees are made by heating the ingredients before they’repureed,oraspartof thepureeingprocess.Heatsoftens firmfruitsandvegetables,releasestheirjuices,developsflavor,andthickensthepureeconsistencybycookingoffexcessmoisture.Tomakecarrot,cauliflower,sweetpepper,andothersolidvegetable

purees:

Precookthecleanedvegetableuntilsoft.Boiling,steaming,andmicrowavingarefastandchangetheflavorleast;sweatinginbutteroroiladdsflavorandrichness;ovenroastingaddsbrownedflavors.Pureethevegetable,andstrainifnecessary.Standblendersproducesilkierpureesthanthefoodprocessororfoodmill.Blendhotliquidswithcaretoavoideruptionsofscalding-hotliquid.Blendinsmallbatches,fillingtheblenderjarnomorethanhalfway,leavingthelidslightlyajartoallowsteamtoescapeatthebeginning,andpulsingbrieflytostart.Tothickentheconsistencyfurther,heatgently,inabroadpantoevaporatefromalargesurfacearea,withfrequentstirringandscrapingtoavoidscorchingonthepanbottom.

Applesandtomatoesaresoftenoughtobreakdownintoapureeastheycook.Tomakepureesfromsoft-texturedapplesortomatoes:

Cookbothwiththeirskinandseeds,whichcontributesignificantlytotheflavor.Cutthemuptospeedthesofteningandeasestirring.Puttomatoesinawideskilletorpotwithalargeareaforevaporation.Addathinlayerofwatertothepotandheatcarefullytoavoidscorchingonthepanbottom.Whenthewaterreachestheboil,coverthepotandcookongentleheatuntilthefoodhassoftenedenoughtocrush.Mashapplepiecesintoacoarsemass,andcontinuetocookgentlyuntilit’suniformlysoft.Passthepureethroughafoodmilltostrainouttheskinsandseeds.Continuecookingtomatoestoremoveexcessmoisture.Stiroftentopreventsettlingandscorchingonthebottomandtocooktheentiremassevenly,orplacethepotinamoderateovenandstiroccasionally.Toshortenoreliminatethecooking-down,predrythecuttomatoesinamoderateoven.

Indian and Thai curries and Mexican moles owe their complexflavorstowetpureesthatarecookeddownenoughtofryintheirownoil. Common curry ingredients are onions, fresh herbs and spices, andfreshcoconut.Manymolesincluderehydrateddriedchillis.Todevelopthefull flavorofcurriesandmoles,carefullyreducethe

purees until you see oil separating and rising to the top. Continue onmoderateheatwithconstantstirringandscrapinguntilthecolordarkensandthetasteisrichandfull.Do the cooking-down and frying on an outdoor grill or burner if

possible, so that pungent vapors and spatter won’t be a deterrent tothoroughflavordevelopment.

CREAMANDMILKSAUCES

Creamisasauceinitsownrightthankstotherichflavorandfullbodyprovided by its tiny butterfat droplets. When added in significantamountstopureesorstarch-thickenedliquids,itmakesacreamsauce.Itcanalsobealast-minute,minorbutvaluableenrichmenttomanyothersauces. Fresh cream and its acid-thickened products, sour cream and

crèmefraîche,gowellwithmanyseasoningsandfoods,bothsavoryandsweet.Whencookedinsauces,creamcanformcurdledparticlesorleak

butterfat.To avoid curdling, either use high-fat creams, 38 to 40 percent

butterfat,oravoidexposingthecreamtohighheat.Addsourcreamandother lower-fat typesat the lastminute,after the restof the saucehasbeencooked.To avoid fat separation and greasiness, use very fresh cream, or

homogenizedcreamorcrèmefraîche.Ifaplugofbutterfathasrisentothetopofthecarton,useonlytheremainingliquid;theplugwillbehavemorelikebutter.Milk is too thin to be a sauce, so it’s thickenedwith starch to

make béchamel sauce (Italian balsamella), used mainly to providemoistness and a readily browned surface in casserolelikemixtures. It’salso a binding for soufflés and croquettes, and a leaner thickeningalternativetocream,velvetyratherthancreamy.To make béchamel sauce, cook flour in butter very gently until

bubblingstopsandmixturegivesapleasantaroma.Slowlyaddmilktothe pan and simmer for 15 minutes, longer for a thinner, finerconsistency.

CHEESESAUCESANDFONDUE

Cheesesaucesaremadebymeltinganddispersingsolidcheeseintohotliquid.Thecheeseaddsbothflavorandbodythankstoitsconcentratedproteins and fats, but these can also cause stringiness, lumping, andgreasiness.Tomakecheese saucesand soups,useeitherdrygratingcheesesor

moist cheeses, which disperse more easily in water than cheddar orSwisscheeses.To prevent cheese in sauces and soups from turning lumpy and

greasy, grate the cheese finely. Add the cheese to hot but not boilingliquid.Stiraslittleaspossibletoavoidformingproteinstrings.Include

someflourorstarchtopreventproteinclumpingandfatpuddling.Cheese fondue is a cheese-based dip keptwarm andmolten over a

lowflame,thinnedwithwineandotherliquids.Itcanbecomestringyortoothick.Be sure to include tart white wine and/or lemon juice. Acidity

preventsstringiness,asdoestheinclusionofsomeflourorstarch.Toremedythickeningasthefonduelosesmoisture,stirinsplashesof

whitewine.

BUTTERSAUCES

Butter makes a rich, flavorful spread or sauce on its own, or mixedsimplywith other ingredients into compound andwhipped butters, oremulsifiedwitheggyolk.Butter and butter sauce consistencies are sensitive to

temperature. Butterfat is hard enough at refrigerator temperatures totear bread and break crackers, but soft and spreadable at roomtemperature, and liquid at body temperature and above. Liquid buttersaucescongealandbreakunlessthey’rekeptwarm.Tokeepmeltedbuttersaucesfromcongealingquickly,preheatplates

andservefoodpipinghot.Beurreblanc isasauceofbutterfatdropletsemulsifiedinamixture

of wine and vinegar or lemon juice, the equivalent of a tart-flavoredcreamwithdoublethebutterfatofheavycream.To make beurre blanc, start with a small amount of the liquid

ingredients,holdover lowheat,andslowlymeltchunksofcoldbutterintoitwhilestirringconstantly.Don’t worry about proportions. You can add butter chunks

indefinitelybecausetheyreleaseenoughmoisturetokeepthebutterfatdropletsseparated.Keepfinishedbeurreblancstablebyholdingitat110to120°F/45to

50°C, either covered or with occasional spoonfuls of added cream orwatertocompensateforevaporation.Beurre monté, or emulsified butter, is beurre blanc without the

acidity, a prepared cream with double the butterfat of heavy cream,madeinthesamewayasbeurreblancbutstartingwithplainwater.Emulsified butter is a useful alternative form for butter inwhich to

poachdelicatefoodsortosscookedvegetables.Itprovidesbutter’sflavorinacreamyconsistencyinsteadofanoilyone.Hollandaise, béarnaise, and their variations are also sauces of

butterfat droplets emulsified inwater, but thewater base is thickenedwithegg-yolkproteins.Thetrickythingaboutthesesaucesisthattheyneed to be cooked carefully, enough to thicken the proteins but notenoughtohardenandcurdlethem.Tomakeahollandaiseorbéarnaisesauce:

Heattheegg-yolkbaseonlytothepointthatitbeginstothicken,around140to150°F/60to65°Cdependingontherecipe.Beverycarefulwithrecipesthatheattheyolksbeforeaddingclarifiedbutter.Theyolksareeasilycurdled.Eitherworkoverindirectheat,inapotsetoverapanofsimmeringwater,orworkonaverylowburner,andmovethepanonandofftheburnertopreventovercooking.Forasimpler,nearlyfoolproofhollandaiseorbéarnaise,precooktheflavorfulliquidportionifnecessary,thenplaceitandallotheringredientstogetherinacoldsaucepan,thebuttercoldandcutintosmallchunks.Setthepanonlowheatandstartstirring.Themixturewillbecomethinasthebuttermelts.Keepheatingandstirringuntilthesaucethickensandreachesthedesiredconsistency.

Keep finished egg-butter sauces stable by holding them at 130°F/55°C, either covered or with occasional spoonfuls of cream or wateraddedtocompensateforevaporation.Torescueacurdledegg-buttersauce,strainthesolidproteinparticles

fromthesauce, thenwhiskslowly intoa fresheggyolkover lowheat.Orplaceinaprewarmedblenderwithasmallamountofwarmwateroreggyolk,pulsebriefly,thenstrainbackintoawarmedbowl.

EGG-YOLKSAUCES:ZABAGLIONEANDSABAYONS

Egg yolks have a saucelike creamy consistency on their own, and areusedaloneasadippingsauceinsomeJapanesedishes.Zabaglioneandsabayons are foamybut rich sauces. They’remadebyheatingamixtureofeggyolksandaflavorfulliquidwhilewhiskingair into it. Zabaglione and sweet sabayons include sugar and a sweetwineorfruitjuice,savorysabayonsmeatorfishstocks.Heatthemixcarefullyasyouwhisk.Theyolkproteinsbegin togelandthemixtothickenandinflatefarbelowtheboil,aslowas140°F/60°Cdependingontherecipe.Toavoid forming curds at the pan bottom, cook themix in a bowloveramoderatelyhotwaterbath,notoverboilingwaterordirectheat.Tomakeapourablesauce,heatandwhiskjustuntilthemixthickenstotheconsistencyofheavycream.Pourablesabayonssteadilylosetheirbubblesandarebestservedimmediately.To make the most stable yolk foam, whisk and heat until the mixthickensenoughtoformstreaksonthepanbottom.Egg-yolkfoamsleakliquidiftheystandforsometime.Reincorporatethe liquid with gentle stirring to avoid deflating the foam, or simplyscoopthefoamofftheliquid.

PANSAUCES

Pan sauces are made in the frying or roasting pan immediately aftermeatsandfishhavebeencooked,usingthejuicesthatthey’vereleasedand that have beendried and brownedby the panheat.Added liquiddissolves, or deglazes, the browned juices and contributes flavor. Pansauces can be served as thin as the original juices, or thickened withaddedfat,orwithgelatinfromaddedstock.Tomakeapansauce:

Pouroffjuicesandfatfromthepan.Removethefatfromthejuicesbylettingfatrisetothetopofthecontainer,thenscoopingitoff.Ifthickeningwithflourorotherstarch,addthethickenertothepanandcookgentlyinresidualfatuntilitsmellstoasty.Fordeepercolorandflavor,cookuntilthethickenerbrowns.

Deglazewithsuchliquidsaswineorbeer,stock,water,andthedefattedcookingjuicestodissolveflavorfulbrownedsolidsfromthepanbottom.Winebringstartnessandsavoriness,stockssavorinessandthebodycreatedbygelatin.Intensifythesequalitiesbyrepeatedlyaddingliquidandboilingitdown.Adjusttheamountandconsistencyofthesaucebyboilingitdown,orbyaddingotheringredientstomakealargerquantityofthickened,enrichedsauce.Usebutterorcreamstoaugment,enrich,andthickenpansauces.Takethepanofftheheattocoolsomewhat,thenswirlandmeltinchunksofbuttertomakeapanversionofbeurreblanc,orstirinsourcream.High-fatheavycreamandcrèmefraîchemadefromitcantolerateboilingheatwithoutseparating.Saltpansaucesattheveryend,afteralltheotheringredientshavebeenincorporated.

Keepbutter-thickenedsauceswarmtopreventthemfromcongealingandseparating.

GRAVIESANDSTARCH-THICKENEDSAUCES

Graviesarepansaucesthatarethickenednotwithbutterorcream,butwithsomekindofstarch,eitherpureorintheformofflour.Many other sauces, including classic saucesmade frommeat stocks,arealsothickenedwithstarch.When heated in a liquid, starch granules soak up water, swell, andreleaselong,tanglystarchmolecules,allfactorsthatcausetheliquidtothicken.Different starches give the finished sauce different qualities.Flours make a sauce opaque, purified cornstarch somewhat milky,arrowrootandotherrootstarchesmoretranslucent.Potatoandtapiocafloursandstarchesproduceaslightlystringyconsistency.Differentstarcheshavedifferentthickeningpowers.Rootstarchesand flours (potato, arrowroot, tapioca) thicken at lower temperaturesthan wheat flour and cornstarch and have a milder flavor, and are

especiallygood for last-minute thickening.But saucesmadewith themthinoutmorewhenreheatedorfrozen.Tosubstituteamongfloursandstarches,replace3partsofwheatorpotatoflourwith2partsofmostpurestarches,11/2partsofpotatoortapiocastarch.Neveradddryflourorstarchdirectlytoahotsauce.Thethickenerwill clump and become almost impossible to disperse evenly. Instead,premixthethickenerwithafatorwithsomelukewarmsauceorwatertoseparatetheparticles.Togiveflouranappealingflavorbeforeaddingittoasauce,preheatitinamoderateovenuntilitturnsagoldencolor,orcookitinfatoroiltomakearoux.Tomakearoux,heatflourorstarchonthestovetopwithasimilarvolumeofbutter, oil, or fat from the roastuntil it develops the flavorand color youwant, fromdelicate andpale yellow to strong anddarkbrown.Darkrouxcanbebitter,andhasabouthalfthethickeningpowerofalightroux.To thicken a sauce with a roux, stir it directly into the sauce.Prewettingwithsomeofthesauceisn’tnecessary.Quickorlast-minuteadjustmentstosauceconsistencyaremadewithflourintheformofabutter-flourpastecalledbeurremanié,orstarchintheformofawater-starchslurry,ormanufactured“instant”flourwhosestarchisprecookedandthickensfaster.Forquickthickeningwithplainflour,rubtogetherflourandbuttertomakebeurremanié,andthenmeltpiecesofthispastedirectlyintothesauce.Forquickthickeningwithstarchorinstantflour,mixitwithenoughlukewarm sauce orwater to form a thick liquid suspension, or slurry,thenstirtheslurrydirectlyintothesauce.Toadjusttheconsistencyofasauce,bringittothesimmer,addtheroux,beurremanié,orslurry,continuetoheatuntilitthickens,andaddmorethickenerifnecessary.Prolongedcookingwillbegintobreakdownthestarchandthinthesauceagain.Forthebestflavorandservingconsistency,addaminimalamountof

thickenerandkeepsaucesthin inthesaucepan.Thickenersdull flavor.Starch-thickened sauces get thicker as they cool, and if overthickenedwillcongealontheplate.Testasauce’sservingconsistencybyspreadingaspoonfulonawarmplate.

MEATSTOCKS,REDUCTIONS,ANDSAUCES

Meatstocksarebasicpreparations fromwhichmeat saucesandsoupsaremade.They arewater extracts of the flavorful substances inmeat,togetherwithgelatin.Gelatinisaproteinthickenerthatdissolvesoutofthe connective tissue inmeat, bone, and skin, and that gives body tosaucesandsoups.Meatreductions,includingglaceanddemiglace,or“glaze”and“half-glaze,” are stocks that have been boiled down to concentrate them tosauce consistencyandeven thicker.They’re intensely flavored, containenoughgelatintosolidifyintoastiff,glasslikejellywhencooled,andareused asmeat essence, to reinforce and finish sauces, soups, and otherdishes.Meatsaucesaremadefromstocksorreductionsbycombiningthemwith aromatic vegetables andherbs,wine, often additionalmeats, andoftenastarchthickener.Thepossibilitiesandrecipesareendless, fromthequicktothelongandelaborate.Foraquickmeatsauce togowitharoast, fryscraps fromtheroasttogether with aromatic vegetables (onions, carrots, celery) until wellbrowned,thenaddsomewineand/orwater,herbsandpepper;simmerto dissolve and extract flavors; then remove the solids, boil down theliquid,andthickenitwithsomebutteroraroux.Flavorful,full-bodiedmeatstocksaremadebycookingamixtureofmeatandbonesforhours.Meatcontributesflavorbutrelativelylittlegelatin.Vealproducesa mild, generically meaty flavor; other meats are more distinctive.Maturestewinghensaremoreflavorfulthanadolescentfryers.Bones contribute abundant gelatin, but little flavor. Especiallygelatinousarecartilage-richjointsofyounganimals(vealknucklesandpigs’feet),aswellaspigandbirdskins.

Toprepareingredientsformakingstock:

Soakbonesincoldwatertoremoveblood.Washrawmeat,bones,andskintoremovesurfaceoffflavors.Cutmeatintothinpieces,andcrackbones,toincreasesurfaceareaforwaterpenetrationandextraction.Foraneutralwhitestock,blanchrawmeat,bones,andskintoremoveoffflavorsandreduceclouding.Startinapotofcoldwater,heatquicklytotheboil,thenpouroffthewaterandrinse.Forabrownstockwithroastedflavorsandcolors,brownrawmeat,bones,skin,andvegetablesinahotoven.Deglazetheroastingpanwithwaterandaddtheliquidtothestockpot.

Tomakemeatstock:

Startthepreparedmeatsandbonesinjustenoughcoldwatertocover,usuallybetween1and2quartsorlitersper2pounds/1kilogram.Excesswaterwillproduceaweak-flavoredstock.Heatuncoveredtoreachandmaintainasimmerthatneverbreaksintoaboil.Bubblingcloudsthestockwithtinyparticlesofproteinandfat;gentlymovingwaterallowstheparticlestoclusterandeitherrisetothesurfaceorfalltothebottom.Theopenpotcoolsthestocksurface,driestheproteinscum,andbeginstheconcentrationprocess.Skimscumandparticlesfromthesurface.Addaromaticvegetables,herbs,andwineinthelasthourofcooking.Carrotsandonionscontributesweetsugarsaswellasaroma.Adjustcookingtimestothemeat.Cookpoultrystocksfor1to4hours,veal,lamb,andporkfor4to8hours,beeffor6to12hours.Meatsandbonefromolderanimalstakelongertoreleasetheirgelatin.Ifnecessary,addwatertokeepsolidsbarelycovered.Tomakeafewquartsofstockinabouthalfthetime,useapressurecooker.Coolthecookerthoroughlybeforeventingandopening,toavoidboilingandcloudingthecontents.Whentheextractionisdone,strainthestockthroughcheeseclothwithoutpressingonthesolids,whichwouldcloudit.Ladlingthestockmakesiteasiertoleavemostofthesolidsinthepot.

Defatthestockbychillingit,thenscrapingcongealedfatfromthesurface.Iftimeisshort,letthestocksitforawhile,thenspoonoffliquidfatfromthesurface,orblotwithpapertowels.

Reductions are made by simmering stocks for hours until theirvolumes are reduced by half or more, often with starch thickeners tosupplementthegelatin,andotheringredientsthatcontributeflavorandcolor.Storestocksandtheirreductionsintherefrigeratororfreezer,with

plasticwrap pressed into the surface. Stocks are highly perishable. Tokeep them for aweekormore, freeze them, or reboil every fewdays.Whenfreezing,leaveroomforthestocktoexpandbyabout10percent.Freezeinicecubetraystomakeconvenientportionsfordeglazingsautépans.When thawing frozen stocks and reductions, first rinse the exposed

surfacesincoldwatertowashawayoffflavors.To freshen the flavor ofmanufactured stocks and reductions, cook

them briefly with fresh aromatic vegetables (carrots, onion, celery)and/orherbs.

FISHSTOCKSANDSAUCES

Fish stocks are water extracts of the flavorful substances in thesecreaturestogetherwiththeirgelatin,theproteinthickenerthatdissolvesoutoftheconnectivetissueinflesh,bones,andskins.Fishstocksarebestwhencookedbriefly;they’relighterinflavorand

consistencythanmeatstocks.Fish sauces may be made ahead from stocks, or from the liquid in

whichfishhasjustbeenpoachedorsteamed.Tomakefishstock,orfumet:

Chooseveryfreshfish,scraps,andgelatin-richheadswithapleasantoceanicsmell.Removethegillsandscrapethespinecleanofanyblood,bothofwhichcarryandcauseoffflavors.Soakandthenrinsecoarselychoppedrawflesh,bones,andskinin

coldwatertoremovediscoloringbloodandsurfaceoffflavors.Sautéaromaticvegetablesinfatoroiluntilsoft,sothattheycanreleasetheirflavorsduringtheshortsimmer.Thenaddfishpartsandcookuntilopaque.Addjustenoughcoldwaterandwinetocover.Moreliquidwillproduceaweak-flavoredstock.Heatuncoveredtoreachandmaintainasimmerthatneverbreaksintoaboil.Simmerforabout30minutes.Longercookingwillproduceacloudystockwithacoarserflavor.Skimscumandparticlesfromthesurface.Whentheextractionisdone,carefullypouroffthestockandstrainthroughafinestrainerorcheesecloth.

Storestocks intherefrigeratorforafewdays,orfreeze,withplasticwrappressedintothesurface.To use frozen stock, rinse exposed surfaces in cold water before

thawing,towashawayoffflavors.To make fish sauces, supplement the flavor with fresh herbs, then

thicken with a pale roux, cream, or with the proteins in a variety ofingredients,stirredinwhenthestockisatservingtemperaturetoavoidcurdling: eggyolk,or sieved lobstereggsor liver,or crab liver,or seaurchins.Dashiisaconvenientlyquick,savoryJapanesefishbrothmadefrom

driedkombuseaweedandfineshavingsofkatsuobushi,bonitofishthathas been dried, smoked, and fermented. Both ingredients are steepedcarefullyforthebestflavor,neithertoovegetalnorfishy.Tomake dashi, combine kombu and cold water in a saucepan and

bringjusttoaboil.Orformoreflavor,presoakthekombuinthewaterovernightandthenbringtoaboil,orcookthekombuat150°F/65°Cforan hour. Remove the kombu and add the katsuobushi. Steep thekatsuobushijustuntiltheshavingsfalltothebottom.Immediatelypourthefinishedbrothfromtheshavings.

VEGETABLESTOCKSANDCOURTBOUILLON

Vegetablestocksmakeaflavorfulbaseliquidforsoupsandsauces,andforcookingfish,grains,andpastas.Tomakevegetablestocks:

Includearangeofvegetables,herbs,andspicestoprovidebotharomaandabalancedtastebase.Carrots,onions,andleekscontributesweetness,celerysaltiness,mushroomssavoriness;tomatoesaresweet,savory,andtart.Wineandwinevinegarcontributetartnessandanotherlayerofaromas.Avoidstrong-flavoredvegetables,especiallysulfurouscabbageanditsrelatives(brusselssprouts,cauliflower,kale).Potatoesandotherstarchyvegetableswillcloudandthickenthestock.Cutvegetablesintosmallpiecesorthinpeelings,orchopcoarselyinthefoodprocessor,tospeedflavorextraction.Foraddedflavor,sautéthevegetablesbrieflyinbutteroroilbeforeaddingwater.Addcoldwatertothepan,andbringtoagentlesimmer.Avoidusingtoomuchwater,whichwouldmakeawaterystock.Aimforbetween1and3partswaterto1partvegetables,measuringbyweight.Onecup/250millilitersofwaterweighs250grams,alittlemorethan1/2pound/225grams.Addanywineorvinegarafter10to15minutesofsimmering.Acidsinterferewithvegetablesofteningandflavorextraction.Simmerthestockgentlyforanother30to40minutes,orpressure-cookfor10to15minutes,longerifthevegetablepiecesarelarger,untiltheflavorisgood.Prolongedcookingcandevelopanunpleasantovercooked-vegetablearoma.Strainthestockwithoutpressingonvegetablesolids,whichwouldcloudthestock.

Courtbouillon,or“quick-boiledliquid,”isavegetablestockmadefreshlyandquicklyasapoachingliquidforfishandotherdelicatefoods.Tomakecourtbouillon,choparomaticvegetables,softenifdesiredin

oilorbutteronlowheat,addcoldwaterandherbs,andbringthewaterto the simmer. Simmer for about 10 minutes, then add somecombinationofwine,vinegar,andlemonjuice,andreturntothesimmer

forabout20minutes.Thenstraintheliquidanduseimmediately.Store vegetable stocks in the refrigerator for a few days, or freeze,

withplasticwrappressedintothesurface,orinicecubetrays.To use frozen stocks, rinse exposed surfaces in cold water before

thawing,towashawayoffflavors.

WINEANDVINEGARSAUCES

Wine sauces include wine as a dominant ingredient, not a minorcontributortoflavorcomplexity.Simmer wine or the wine-sauce mixture long enough to evaporate

awaymuchof thealcohol.Alcoholhasaharsh tastewhenhot.Gentlesimmeringpreservesmoreofthewine’sflavorthanarollingboil.Choose red wines with low astringency. Concentration and heat

unpleasantlyintensifymouth-dryingastringency.Tomoderate astringency, cook redwines alongwith somemeat or

gelatinousstock.Astringentwinetanninsbindtotheproteinsandcannolongeraffectourmouthproteins.Thisbindingmaycause the sauce topaleandcloudwithmicroscopictannin-proteinparticles.Gastriqueisasweet-soursaucequicklymadebyheatingamixtureof

vinegarandeithersugarorhoney,sometimeswithafruitingredient.It’susuallyservedwithrichmeats.

SOUPS

Soups are probably the least definable, widest-open category of foodsthereis.Theycancontainprettymuchanyingredientthereis,beclearormurky, smoothorchunky, thickor thin,hotorcold.As longas it’sfluidenoughtoeatwithaspoon,itcanbeasoup.Thatunderstood,thereareafewgeneralprinciplesworthdescribing.Flavorbalanceinsoupsisimportantandinfinitelyadjustable.When

seasoning, aim for a strong taste foundation, with a balance amongsaltiness, tartness, and savoriness. Rich soups can benefit from acounterpoint of acidity. Vegetable purees can benefit from the

backgroundsavorinessofalittlebaconortomatoorParmesancheese,orsoysauceorVietnamesefishsauceorJapanesemiso.Many hot soups are thickened and enriched by sensitive

ingredients,asaremanysauces,andtheyneedtobemadewithsimilarcare.To thicken with egg yolk or other uncooked animal protein

(crustacean livers, sea urchin, pureed liver, blood), take care not tooverheat and curdle the protein. Start with the soup well below theboilingpoint.Addsmallamountsofhotsoupgraduallytothethickenertodiluteandwarmitgradually,thenmixalltogetherandheatslowly,just to the point that the soup begins to thicken. Reheat leftovers to160°F/70°C,nottotheboil.Tothickenorenrichwithcream,useheavywhippingcreamorhigh-

fat crème fraîche, which contain too little milk protein to formnoticeable curds even at the boil. If you use light cream, sour cream,yogurt, or butter, or a swirl of flavored or olive oil, add at the lastminute and keep temperaturewell below the boil. Reheat leftovers to160°F/70°C,nottotheboil.Toreduce theriskofcurdling, choose recipes that include starchor

flour, which help protect proteins from coagulating and creams fromleakingfat.To thicken soups with flour or starch, always predisperse the

thickener ina roux,beurremanié,or slurry toprevent lumpiness.Addthe thickener and then simmer just until the soup develops the rightconsistency.Add uncooked ingredients in stages to a simmering soup to avoid

over-or undercooking them. First addwhole grains, or firm carrots orcelery,thenmoretenderonionsorcauliflower,piecesofchickenbreast,orwhitericeorpasta;atthelastminute,delicatespinachleaves,fishorshellfish. Alternatively, cook each ingredient separately in the soupliquid,andthencombinethemjustbeforeserving.While serving soup, keep the pot covered and warm, around

140°F/60°C.Refrigerateleftoverswithin4hoursofturningofftheheat.To serve leftovers, reheat to at least 160°F/70°C, being especially

carefulwithprotein-thickenedsoupstoavoidcurdling.

CONSOMMÉSANDASPICS

Consommé isacrystal-clearsouppreparedfrommeatstock. It’smadeunusually clear by one of twomethods, the traditional one quick butlaborious,themodernonelongerbutsimpler.To clarify consommé in the traditionalway, use eggwhites to trap

impurities,andaddleanmeatandvegetablestoreplacetheflavorsandgelatinlostwithimpurities.

Finelychopmeatandvegetablestomaximizeextractablesurfacearea.Mixwitheggwhites,lightlywhiskedtobreakupthickwhite.Stirthemixintocoldstock,heatgently,andgentlysimmerwithoutboilingforanhour.Pushasidetheraftofeggwhitethathasformedandladleoutthestock.Strainthroughafinestrainerorcheesecloth.

Toclarifyconsomméinthemodernway,usethestock’sowngelatintotrapimpurities.Theresultisarelativelysmallyieldofsparkling-clearandgelatin-freeconsommé.

Freezestocksolidovernight.Removethefrozenmassfromthecontainer.Placeitinacolandersuspendedoverapotorbowl,andleaveintherefrigeratorfor24hours.Collectthestockliquidthatmeltedanddrippedoutoftheintactgelatinnetwork,leavingfatandproteinparticlesbehind.Torestoresomebody,addasmallamountofgelatinorxanthangum,astarchlikethickenerusedingluten-freebaking.

Aspicsaresolidmeatorfishconsommés,orotherflavorfulfluidsthatcontainenoughgelatintosolidifyandholdtheirshapeuntileaten,whentheyliterallymeltinthemouth.The key to an ideal aspic is the right concentration of gelatin to

produceaservingconsistencythat’ssolidbutnotrubbery.Stocks contain varying amounts of gelatin, and clarification removes

some gelatin. Fish gelatins form weak gels, and often need to be

supplementedwithpreparedgelatin.To make sure that a consommé for aspic will set, test it: cool a

spoonfulquicklyintherefrigerator.Supplement the consommé with prepared gelatin if necessary. The

gelatin concentration required for a delicate aspic is around 2tablespoons/20gramsperquartor literof liquid; ifa stockwon’t set,add1teaspoon/5 grams per liter or quart, retest, and repeat if necessary. The

concentration necessary to coat a terrine, pieces of meat, or to bindchoppedmeat together is 10 to 15 tablespoons/100 to 150 grams perquartorliterofliquid.Alwaysmoistenmanufactured gelatins in coldwater beforemixing

with hot liquids. Hot liquid alone will cause clumping and delay thedissolvingprocess.Avoid boiling or prolonged heating of the consommé,which breaks

downgelatinandcanpreventtheaspicfromsetting.

R

14

DRYGRAINS,PASTAS,NOODLES,ANDPUDDINGS

ice, wheat, and corn fueled the birth of civilization, and theycontinue to nourishmore people in the world than any otherfoods. These and the other grains are seeds, concentrated

packagesofnourishmentfortheembryonicplanttheycontain,dormantwhile dry and easily stored for months. Grains are inexpensive andsatisfyingly substantial, and their mild flavors make them an idealpartnerformoreassertiveingredients.Wecanmakethemintofinemainorsidedishesanddessertpuddingswithlittlemorethanheatandsomeflavorfulliquid,oftenjustsaltedwater.Andwecanpreparethemmuchfaster thanmany recipes say, simplyby soaking them first. They can’tcook themselves, but they know how to absorb the right amount ofwaterwithoutoursupervision.Pastas and noodles are grains that have been ground up,moistened

into a dough, and re-formed into a host of different shapes that cookthroughquickly inhotwater.Manufacturedpastasandnoodlescanbeexcellent, but it’s also enjoyable and not that much trouble to makethembyhand.Inmypantry,onlythespiceshelvesaremorecrowdedthanmygrain

gallery. Itwasn’t somanyyears ago that farro from Italy and red ricefromBhutanwereexoticdiscoveries,butnowyoucanfindthemeasily,alongwithspeltandmilletandpurplebarleyandblackriceandteffandmanyothergrains.Besuretobranchoutfrompastasandwhitericeandpolenta,wonderfulastheyare.Theworldhascastupmanyotherseedsfortastyandnourishingdishes.

GRAINSAFETY

Mostgrainsandgrainproductsstartoutdryandarecookedthoroughlyinboilingwater,sotheypresentlittlehealthhazardinthemselves.Discard discolored or musty-smelling batches of grains or grainproducts.Thesearesignsofmoldcontamination.Don’tkeepcookedgraindishesatroomtemperatureformorethan4hours.Eitherholdthemat130°F/55°Corabove,orrefrigerateorfreezethempromptly.Reheatleftoversto165°F/73°Corabove.If you leavea graindish out overnight or longer, discard it. Grainscommonlycarrybacterialsporesthatcansurvivecooking,germinateinthewarmcookedfood,andproducetoxinsthatreheatingwon’tdestroy.To serve cooked rice safely over several hours, keep it hot, at130°F/55°Corhigher;orchillbatchesandreheatthembeforeserving;oracidifythefreshlycookedricewhileit’sstillhot.Sushiricecanbeheldandservedatroomtemperaturebecauseit’ssprinkledwithricevinegar,whichsuppressesbacterialgrowth.Celiac disease is a serious illness provoked by particular grainproteinsinpeoplewhohaveanextremesensitivitytothem.Don’tserveceliacswheat,barley,rye,oats,oranyancestorsorcloserelativesofmodernwheat,includingeinkorn,emmer,kamut,orspelt.

SHOPPINGFORGRAINSANDGRAINPRODUCTS

Supermarketsnowsellmoredifferentkindsofgrainsandgrainproductsthanever,fromawiderangeofproducersandfromallovertheworld,often in small packages ideal for trying something new.Many health-food stores andorganic groceries sell grainproducts in bulk, andmaytakethecaretorefrigeratethem.Andtherearenowfarmersandmillerswho sell heirloom grains online, mill them to order, and ship themfrozenforunparalleledfreshness.Most grains are sold andmade into grainproducts in several forms:whole, refined to remove their seed coat and germ (embryo), and ascoarse-orfine-milledpieces.Wholeintactgrains—wheatberries,brownrice—aremore flavorfuland nutritious than refined grains, and take longer to cook. The outer

bran coat and the germ are rich in vitamins, oil, fiber, and valuablephytochemicals,butthebrancoatslowswaterabsorption,andtheiroilmakesthemmorevulnerabletostaling.Theycookin40to60minutes.Refined or polished grains—pearled barley, white rice—containfewernutrientsthanwholegrains,stalemoreslowly,andcookin15to30minutes.Milled grains—flours, rolled oats, flaked barley, cornmeal—may bemoreorlessrefined.Stone-groundgrainsincludemoreofthebranandgermandaremore flavorful andnutritious than conventionallymilledgrains,butstalefaster.“Instant” and “minute” grain products have been precooked anddriedor freeze-dried,andreconstitutequickly inhotwater.Theyoftenhaveoffflavors.Check sell-by dates, and look for sturdy plastic packages. All grainproducts develop stale flavors with time, and paper and cardboardpackaging offer little protection. But some Asian and Italian rices areintentionallyagedtodevelopdistinctiveflavors.Buywhole and less refined products in small quantities, since theyquicklygostaleinstorage.For the freshest-tasting whole-grain flours, buy whole grains andgrindthemyourselfasneeded.Usethegrainmillattachmentforstandmixers,oranelectricorhand-crankedmill.Breakfastcerealsandgrainsnacks,includingwhole-graingranolas,areoftenloadedwithsugarsandfats.Checklabels.Pastasandnoodlesareavailable inbroadqualityandprice ranges.Inexpensiveonesaremadefromlesserflours,anddriedeggsratherthanfresh.Theywon’tbeasflavorfulastheycouldbe,andwhencookedaremorelikelytobesoftandstickyandbreakupeasily.When buying non-egg pastas, check the label to make sure they’remadefromdurumwheat,ahigh-proteintypethat isstandardforgoodItalianpastasandmakesfirmnoodles.

STORINGGRAINS

Grains and their products can be kept in the pantry for yearswithoutspoiling,buttheirflavorcandeteriorateinjustdaysifthey’renottakengoodcareof.Store grains and grain products tightly sealed in a dry, cool, dark

place. If they’re packaged in air-permeable paper or cardboard,overwraptheminheavyplasticorplacetheminhardcontainers.Store grains and flours from bulk market bins in separate sealed

containers of glass or plastic. Flimsy storage encourages infestation bythe Indianmealmoth,whose small larvae eat through paper and thinplasticbagsandspoilthecontents.Freeze grains or flours that may have been exposed to infested

products,tokillanyinsecteggsorlarvae.Beforeusinganopenedpackageofgrainorflour,examineandsmell

the contents. Off odors or clumping are signs of staleness and/orinfestation.Storewholegrainsandtheirmealsandflours in therefrigeratoror

freezer, tightly wrapped to exclude moisture and other odors. Theseproducts, as well as refined but stone-ground products, containpolyunsaturatedoilsthatquicklygorancidandcausestalearomasandbitterness. Warm the closed package to room temperature beforeopening,topreventmoisturefromcondensingonthecoldgrain.Store cooked grain products in the refrigerator or freezer, tightly

wrapped toexcludeotherodors.Theywillget less firm in the freezer;refrigeratortemperaturesspeedthehardeningoftheirstarch.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGGRAINS

Most grain cooking consists of two different processes: gettingmoistureintothedrygrainforitscellsandstarchtoabsorb,andheatingthemoistgraintosoftenthestarchandcellwalls.Cookscansavesometimeandtroublebyhandlingthemseparately.Theycansavethetroubleof monitoring the cooking by using electric rice cookers, which do agoodjobofcookingallgrainsautomatically.Whole grains are harvested and processed in huge numbers, and

requireafinalsortingandcleaninginthekitchen.Removedust,chaff,defectivegrains,andtooth-breakingpebblesbyswirlinggrainsinapotofwater.To add a toasted flavor to grains before softening them, spreadwashedgrainsonabakingsheetandheat ina350°F/175°Covenuntiltheyemitapleasantaroma.Ortoastsmallamountsinastove-topskillet.Grainsarehard,dryseeds,andusuallyneedbothwaterandheat tomake them soft enough to eatwith pleasure.Most grainswill becomepleasantlysoftwhentheyabsorbabout1.7timestheirweightinwater,orabout1.4timestheirvolume.Manyrecipescallformorewaterthanthis, to allow for water lost to evaporation, or to provide a saucelikeliquid for the finished grains. Their weight and volume more thandoublewhencooked.Wholegrains take longer tocook thangrainswith their seed coatremoved,orthanflattenedormilledgrains.Cutcooking timesbyhalformore bypresoakinggrains forup to8hours. Water penetrates grains much more slowly than heat does,especiallywholegrainswithan intactprotectiveseedcoat.Grainsalsocookmuchfasterinapressurecooker.Cookgrainsinliquidinthreestages:highheattobringthewatertothesimmer;lowheattomaintainthesimmeruntilthegrainsarealmosttender;dyingheattoallowthegrainmoisturetodistributeevenlyfromoutsidetocenter.

Toavoidboiloversandstuckorburnedgrainsonthepanbottom,includeasmallamountoffoam-killingfatoroilwiththegrainandcoldwater,andcontroltheheatcarefully.Starttheheatonhighwiththelidoff,andcheckregularly.Turndowntheburnertolowwhenwaterisneartheboil,leavethelidbarelyajartomoderatetheheat,andcheckeveryfewminutes.Whenthewaterlevelhasfallenbelowthegrainsurface,coverfullywiththelidandturntheheattothelowestsetting.Whenthegrainsarealmosttender,turnofftheheatandallowtositfor10minutesoruntilfullytender.

Cook grains in flavorful liquids. As the grains absorb water intothemselves, the remaining liquid becomes more concentrated witheverything else. Milk becomes creamy; a meat or fish stock becomesgelatinous.Don’taddtomatoesorotheracidliquidsuntilthegrainsarealmostdone;acidsgreatlyslowsoftening.Toproducemore intact individualgrainsand fewer thatarebroken

or crushed, cook them in excess water, drain, and allow to dry byevaporationinawidepottoavoidexcessiveweightonthegrainsatthebottom. Or cook as usual without stirring; when the grains are done,leave the lid ajar and allow them to cool for 15 to 30minutes beforegentlyliftingandturningthemwithaspatula.Freshlycookedgrainsaresoftandfragileandeasilybroken,butfirmupastheycool.Somecookedgrainshardenunpleasantly in the refrigeratorwhen

theirstarchreorganizesitself.Thisisespeciallytrueoflong-grainrice.To soften hardened grain leftovers, reheat them to starch-

disorganizingtemperatures.Sprinklethemwithwaterandheatcoveredon high power inmicrowave, or rewarm onmediumheatwith addedwater,orfrythem.

BREAKFASTCEREALS

Dry breakfast cereals commonly prepared at home are made fromrolledorflakedgrains,whichhavebeenflattenedandsometimesflash-steamedsothey’reeasytochewwhendry,andquicklyabsorbmoisturefromcoldmilkoryogurt.Tomakemuesli, combinerawrolledoatswithdried fruitandsliced

nuts.Tomake granola, lightly oil and honey rolled oats and sliced nuts,

baketheminamediumovenuntillightlybrownedandcrisped,andadddriedfruits.Hotbreakfastcereals aregrainsheated inwaterormilkuntil very

soft and moist. Whole grains can take an hour to cook. For quicker-cooking cereals, use fragmented steel-cut oats, rolled oats and othergrains,or“instant”cereals,someofwhichareprecookedandthendried.

Precooked cereals often have flavors and antioxidant preservativesadded.Checklabels.Tospeedthecookingofwhole-orcoarse-graincereals,presoakthem

intherefrigeratorovernightinmilkorwater.Cookhotcerealsquickly in themicrowaveovenorpressurecooker.

Includeasmallamountofbutteroroiltopreventboilovers.

KINDSOFGRAINS

Adozenorsodifferentgrainsarereadilyavailableforcooking.Hereareafewwordsabouttheoneslesscommonlycookedeveryday,followedbylongerdescriptionsofrice,corn,andpastasandnoodles.Wheatcomesinahandfulofspeciesandvarieties.Hardwheatistheusualtypesoldaswholewheatberries.It’sabread

wheat,highinelasticprotein,developsaspringy,chewytexture,andisbetterforcookingwholethanmorestarchysoftwheat.Farro, the Italianname for ancient emmerwheat, is added to soups

andcookedinexcessliquidtomakeadishsimilartorisotto.Itswholeberries are often sold slightly abraded to help them absorb liquid andcookfaster.Speltandkamutaretwootherwheatspecies,andtriticaleisawheat-

ryehybrid.Kamutberriesareespeciallylargeandcreamcolored.Crackedwheat has beenmilled into bran-free pieces that have less

flavor than whole berries, but cookmuch faster. Cook coarse crackedwheat in water to make ricelike dishes or porridges; use fine to addtexturetodoughsandbatters.Bulgur or burgul is cracked wheat without bran or germ that has

beenprecookedanddried.Itkeepsindefinitely,recooksquickly,andhasapersistentchewiness.CoarsebulgurismostfamiliarfromtheLebaneseparsleysaladtabbouleh.Barleyhasadistinctiveflavorandspringytexture,andissoldinthree

differentforms:whole(hulled),withseedcoat intact,sometimesrolledinto flakes; pot or Scotch, retaining adark line of seed coat and somegerm;andpearled,withnothingbutthetenderinnergrainremaining.

Ryehasanearthyflavor.Ryegrainsaresofterthanwheatandabsorbmoremoisturethankstoahighsoluble-fibercontent.It’salsorolled.Oats are more fragile seeds than wheat, easily rolled and chewed.Theyhaveadistinctiveflavorandamoist,slipperyconsistencythatsuitsthem well for hot breakfast cereal. They’re especially rich in solublefiber.Thinflakesofrolledoatshavebeenpresteamedanddried,andcanbeeatenwithoutfurthercookingingranolaandmuesli.Quick-cookingand“instant”oatshavesimplybeenrolledextremelythinsothattheyabsorbhotwater rapidly. Coarsely chopped steel-cut oats take longer to cookandarechewier.Buckwheat is a small and distinctively flavorful seed, somewhatastringent,unrelated to truewheat,withnoglutenandsafe forpeoplewith celiac disease. It’s sold both whole and as hull-less groats, andsometimes as pretoasted kasha. Groats stale more quickly than intactseeds;refrigerateorfreezethem.Smallgrains—someofthemthesizeoftheperiodattheendofthissentence—include amaranth, quinoa, millets, sorghum, and teff. Theyhave a high proportion of seed coat to starchy interior, and areespecially nutritious. They’re unrelated to wheat and safe for peoplewithceliacdisease.Theycanbepoppedinoil,andcookveryquicklyinliquid.

RICE

Ricefeedsmorepeopledirectlythananyothergrainintheworld.Thereareanumberofdifferentkindsofrice,eachcallingforitsowntreatmenttobringoutitsfinestqualities.Whiteorpolishedricehasbeenmilledtoremovetheouterbranandpartorallofthegerm,andkeepswellformonths.Brown rice retains the bran and germ, and is best stored in therefrigerator. It takes two to three times longer tocook than themilledversion of the same variety, and has a more chewy texture anddistinctivearoma. It leaks less starchduringcooking, so thegrainsgetless sticky.Brown rice includesmorevitamins,minerals, andhealthful

phytochemicalsthanwhiterice.Long-grainrice isstandardinmostChineseandIndiancookingandhasbeen thestandardrice in theUnitedStates. It requiresmorewaterandtimetocookthanothertypes,andendsupfirmerandlesssticky.Itgetsfirmasitcools,andhardwhenrefrigerated.Reheatingrestoresitssoftness.Aromaticrices,oftencalledbasmatiandjasmine,aremainlylong-grainricesthatcarryadistinctivearomaalsofoundinpopcorn.They’reoriginally from India, Pakistan, and Thailand, and the best still comefromAsia.BrandsgrowninNorthAmericaoftenhave littleornoneofthe special aroma. Indian and Pakistani basmatis are often aged formonthstodevelopflavorandafirmcookedtexture.Medium-grainricesarestandardinItalianandSpanishcooking.Theyrequirelesscookingwaterthanlong-grainrice,andbecomemoretenderandclingy.Theydon’thardenasmuchwhenrefrigerated,andcanoftenbeeatenwithoutthoroughreheating.Short-grain rice is standard in Japanese cooking, including sushi. Itremainsbothclingyandtenderatcoolroomtemperature.TheJapaneseprizefreshlyharvested“newcrop”rice.Sticky rice is standard innorthernThaiandLaotiancooking,and incertain Japanese dishes. It’s also known as waxy, glutinous, or sweetrice.Itrequirestheleastcookingwater,andissotenderthatit’ssoakedandsteamed,notboiled.Red rice and black rice are varieties with pigmented outer brancoats, which slow their cooking. The bran coats on some brands areslightlyabradedtospeedcooking.Convertedricehasbeenpartlyprecookedanddried. It takes longertocook than rawrice,hasadistinctivearoma,avery firm, sometimescoarse texture, and little stickiness. Its great advantage, anddisadvantage,isthatitsgrainsremainfirmandslipperynomatterhowlongthey’recookedorheld.It’satraditionalformofriceinsouthIndia,andtodayisoftenusedinfoodserviceandcatering.Quick-cooking rice has been thoroughly precooked and dried, andalso fractured to speedwater penetration during the final cooking. Itsgrainseasilybreakintopieces,andoftencarryoffflavors.

WildriceisadistantNorthAmericanrelativeoftrueAsianrice,withunusually long, thingrains, adark seedcoat, anddistinctiveearthyortealike flavor from brief fermentation and then heat-drying just afterharvest. It has an especiallywater-resistant seed coat, so it can take along time to cook. Some producers abrade the seed coat to shortencooking.Tobesuretogetatasteofthewild,readlabelscarefully.Mostwild

rice is now cultivated in California rather than gathered in the upperGreat Lakes and Canada. Unevenly colored grains are more likely tohavebeengatheredthanuniformlyblackones.

CookingRice

There are two basic ways to cook rice, and countless refinements onthem.Boiling inexcesswater produces intact separategrainsbut leaches

outnutrients.Itworkswellformostlong-andmedium-grainrices.Boilinginmeasuredwater retainsnutrientsbutproducesa stickier

massandcanresultinabrownedorscorchedbottom.Saltinthewaterisoptional.To prepare rice for cooking, rinse it thoroughly to remove surface

residues.ThiswashesawayaddedvitaminsonU.S.rices;toretainthese,don’trinsetherice.Tospeedandeventhecooking,soakriceinwater,or allow to rest rinsed and wet. This is traditional for basmati andJapaneserices.Soakbasmatiricesfor30minutesandbrownricesforanhourortwo.RestrinsedJapanesericesfor30to60minutes.Tocookriceinexcesswater:

Addricetorapidlyboilingwater.Cookattheboilfor10minutesoruntilthegrainsarenotquitetender.Drainoffallthewater.Coverthepotoververylowheatforafewminutesuntilthegrainsareproperlydone,shakingeveryminuteortwotopreventsticking.

Tocookriceinmeasuredwater:

Useabroad,heavy-bottompotsothatthericeformsalayer1to2inches/2.5to5centimetersthick,forevenestheating.Measurewateraccordingtotherecipeormachineinstructions,orallowtwicethevolumeofriceforlong-grainAmericanandIndianrices,1.25timesthevolumeofriceformedium-grainItalianandSpanishrices,andthesamevolumeforwettedJapanesesushirice.Doublethesequantitiesforbrownricesunlessthey’vebeenpresoaked.Bringwaterandricetoaboiloverhighheat,withthelidofftopermitobservationandpreventboilingover.Lowertheheat,cover,andsimmergentlyfor10minutesforwhiterices,30minutesoruntiltenderforbrownrices.Turntheheatoffandallowthericetosteamuntildone.

As alternatives to stove-top cooking, use an electric rice cooker ormicrowaveoven.Allowplain rice cooked in anymanner to restwith the lid slightly

ajarfor15to30minutesafterithasfinishedsteaming.Thegrainswillfirmastheycoolandstaymoreintactwhenserved.Ifthericeatthepanbottombrowns,serveitseparatelyasthespecial

treatthatitisinmanycultures.RisottoisapopularItalianricedishinwhichstarchreleasedfromthe

ricethickensitscookingliquidintoasauce.Thetraditionalpreparationdemandsfrequentattention.Tomakerisotto:

UseItalianmedium-grainrices.Thearboriovarietytendstohaveachalkytexture,vialonenanoandcarnaroliafiner-grainedchewiness.Sautéthedryricebrieflyinoilorbuttertopreventthegrainsfromsticking,tofirmthem,andtocontributeatoastyflavor.Addwinebeforeotherliquidstoprovidetartandsavoryelementstothetastebasewhileboilingoffmostofthealcohol.Addsmallamountsatatimeofsimmeringcookingliquid,usuallya

broth,stirringthericeuntiltheliquidisabsorbed,thenrepeating.Thiscausesextraevaporationofwaterfromthecookingliquid,sothatmorecookingliquidisrequiredandtheflavorbecomesmoreconcentrated;anditabradessoftenedsurfacestarchfromthericegrainstohelpthickentheliquid.Ifyouaddtheliquidinoneortwodosesandstirless,thegrainswillreleaselessthickeningstarchandwillbreakwhenstirredbecausethey’vesoftenedthroughout.Stopaddingliquidwhenthericeisaldente,orstillslightlychewy,andaddbutter,cheese,orotherfinalenrichingingredients.Toapproximatearisottowithlessconstantattention,incorporatethefirstportionofthecookingliquidintotherice,thenspreaditoutonabakingsheettocoolquickly,andstoreitrefrigerated,whichhardensthecookedexterior.Finishthericejustbeforeservingwithsimmeringcookingliquidandfinalenrichments.Alittlericestarchcansupplementthethickening.

Pilafs are dishes made by briefly sautéing firm long-grain rice inbutteroroiltokeepthegrainsseparate,oftenalongwithonionsorotheraromatics, thenaddinga full volumeof liquidandother ingredients—vegetables,meats, fruits,spices—andcookingthemixturethrough.Stiroccasionallytowardtheendofcookingtomixtheingredientsevenly.Tomakericesaladsforservingcold,useshort-ormedium-grainrices

thatdon’thardenbadlyoncooling.Dressthegrainswithavinaigretteorotheracidicsaucetoinhibitbacterialgrowth.Tomake rice for room-temperature sushi, use short-grain sushi rice

andseasonitwiththetraditionalvinegar-sugarmixture.

CORN

Corn, ormaize, is themost important grain from theNewWorld. It’smuch larger than theothergrainsandhasadistinctive flavor. Its seedcoatissotoughthatdrypopcornistheonlycommonwhole-graincornwe eat. Corn comes in a number of different colors, from white andyellow to blue and deepest purple, and in varieties with particularcooking qualities. Colored corns are richer in valuable phytochemicalsthanwhitecorn.

Popcorn is made from a high-protein corn with a seed coat that’sstrong enough to contain the pressure of steam building up inside it,whichpartlycooksthekernelandburstsandexpandsit.Keep popcorn sealed in an airtight container. Popcorn kernels can

absorborreleasemoisturedependingonairhumidity,andtheyrequireanarrowrangeofmoisturecontentstopopwell.To pop popcorn, heat the kernels rapidly to around 400°F/200°C,

either in a thin film of oil on a preheated pan bottom, or in an airpopper,or in themicrowaveonhighpower. Leave thepan lidajarorreplace itwith anoil-spatter screen to avoid trappingmoisture,whichwillmakethepopcorntoughandchewy.Cornmeal,grits,andpolentaaremilledcornkernelsthatarecooked

intoaporridgewithseveraltimestheirvolumeofwaterorotherliquid(broth, milk). They’re sold in both coarse and fine grinds, andprecooked.Choosestone-groundcornforthemostflavorfulgritsandpolenta.It

includes fragments of the germ and seed coat. Most ground corn isrefined and relatively bland. Stone-ground corn stales quickly; storeairtightinthefreezer,andputyournoseinleftoverbagstomakesureitstillsmellsfresh.Tomakepolenta,grits,andcornmealmush in the traditional, time-

consumingway,slowlystreamthemealintoboilingliquidwhilestirringconstantly,toavoidformingclumpsofmeal.Continuetostirconstantlyforuptoanhourasthecornabsorbswaterandthemixdevelopsflavor,to prevent sticking and burning on the pan bottom and small, messyeruptionsofhotporridge.Tomake these dishesmore easily, stream themeal into the boiling

water while stirring, then: place the uncovered pot in the oven at250°F/120°C,whichheatsthepotgentlyandevenlyfromalldirectionsand prevents eruptions. Check occasionally to stir and scrape the pansidesandbottom,addingwaterifnecessary.Tomakegrits,mush,andpolentaveryeasilyinthemicrowave,start

themealinabowlofcoldwater,leaveituncovered,andheatonhigh,stirringevery5to10minutesuntilfullythickened.Tomakemushorpolentatobecooledintosolidpiecesandfriedor

baked,uselesswaterandmakeafirmermush.Thiswillproducepiecesthatareeasiertocutandcandevelopathickercrust.Hominyisthetermforwholecornkernelscookedinminerallimeto

soften and remove the tough seed coat. It has a dense,meaty texture.Limeisalkalineandhasaslippery,soapyfeelinthemouth.Ifnecessary,soakhominy inwater to remove residual limebeforeusing it in soupsandstews.Masaisadensedoughofcornkernelsmadebygrindinghominy,and

masaharina ismasadriedandpowdered intoa flour so that it canbereconstituted conveniently. Freshmasa is available in ethnic groceries,andmasaharinainmanysupermarkets.They’reusedtomaketortillas,cornchips,andtamales.Freshmasa ismore cohesive than a dough reconstituted frommasa

harina.The flourdevelopsa toastyaromawhen themasa isdriedandground.Tamalesarecorncakesstuffedwithmeatsand/orother ingredients,

wrappedincornhusks,andsteamed.To make light-textured tamales, leaven them with lard. Whip lard

untilit’saerated,loosenmasawithameatbroth,thenwhipalltogetheruntilthemixisfluffy.

PASTAS,NOODLES,ANDCOUSCOUS

Pastas and noodles are thin pieces of dough (paste) made from grainflours,cookedquicklyinhotwater,andflavoredwithavarietyofsaucesor served in soups. Pastas are the Italian version, always made fromwheat.Noodlesaresimilarfoodsmadeinotherpartsoftheworldfromwheat,rice,orpurifiedstarch.Pastasandnoodlescanbedriedandkeptformonthsbeforecooking.Westernpastasandnoodlesaremadeincountlesstypesandshapes.Dried pastas, spaghetti and fettuccine and fusilli and their many

relatives, are usually made from strong-protein durum wheat, whosecohesive dough can be fancifully shaped and produces firm, robuststrandswhencooked.

Dried noodles are usually made from all-purpose wheat flour andegg.They’remoredelicatethandurumpastaandhaveamildeggflavor.Fresh pasta is usually made from all-purpose flour and eggs. SoftItalian flour and high-protein semolina flour also work. Whole eggsproducecohesive,slightlyelasticlight-coloredpasta.Yolksonlyproducearicher,yellower,butmorefragilepasta.Tomakefreshpasta:

Clearplentyofworkspaceforrollingthedoughintoverythinsheets.Mixeggs,flour,salt,andotheringredientsandkneadintoahomogeneousmass.Recipesoftenincludeoil,whichmakesthedougheasiertorollout.Restthedoughintherefrigeratortoallowtheflourparticlestoabsorbtheeggmoisturefully.Dividethedoughintoseveralpieces.Smallbatchesareeasiertorollandcut.Rollthedoughintoverythinsheetsusingaflatrollingpinortherollersonapastamaker.Sprinklethesheetswithflourtopreventstickingandtearing.Cutthedoughsheetsintothedesiredshapeswithaknifeorthecuttingattachmentsonapastamaker.Tossthenoodlesimmediatelywithflourtopreventthecutedgesfromstickingtoeachother.

Use or dry fresh pasta immediately, or refrigerate or freeze it. It’shighlyperishable.Dryfreshpastaonlyindryweather,orinadehydratororanovenat140to150°F/60to65°C.Slowdryingwillallowmicrobestospoilit.Cook fresh pasta attentively. Its surface flour provokes suddenboilovers,anditcooksquickly,injustafewminutes.Thereareseveraldifferentwaystocookpastaandnoodles.Tocookpastainthetraditionalway:

Usealargepotofwater,4to8quartsorlitersperpound/500gramsofpasta,saltedforflavor.Heatthewatertoarollingboil.Coverthepottospeedheating.Tohelppreventboiloversandthestickingofflatfettuccineorfine

spaghettini,add1tablespoon/15millilitersofoiltotheboilingwaterandswishthepastathroughtheoilasyouimmerseit.Orprewetthepastaintapwaterbeforeaddingtothepot.Puristsobjecttothesemethods,buttheywork.Addthepastawhilestirringtopreventthepiecesfromstickingtoeachother.Whenthewaterreturnstotheboil,lowertheheattomaintainamoderateboil,andcookuntildone.Leavethelidajartopreventthepotfromboilingover.

To cookdriedpastamore efficiently,with less time,water, energy,andsticking,rehydratethepastafirst.

Presoakthepastainsaltedwaterforanhourbeforecooking.Addittoapotofboilingsaltedwater,1to2quartsorlitersperpound/500gramspasta.Lowertheheatwhenthewaterreturnstotheboil.Stirgentlyandoccasionallyuntildone.Tocookeitherfreshordriedpastamoreefficientlywithoutpresoaking:Immerseitinapanofcoldwater,1.5quartsorlitersperpound/500gramspasta.Turnontheheat,bringtoaboilwithoccasionalstirring,andcookuntildone.Usethestarch-thickenedpastawatertomakeasimplesaucebytossingitwiththepasta,someoliveoil,andflavorings.

Tocookcompactpastashapeswhileimbuingthemwithflavor,cooktheminthemannerofrisotto,addingsmallamountsofbrothandwineandstirringuntildone.Toavoidovercookingpastaandnoodles, stopcookingwhenthey’restill slightlyhardat thecenter.Theywill continue to softenas they’resaucedandserved.Drain cooked pasta and noodles of excess cooking water in acolander.Don’trinsethemwithtapwater,whichwouldcoolthemdownandpreventthemfromtakingupthesauce.

Serve cooked pasta immediately, ormoisten it slightlywith a littlesaucetopreventsticking.CouscousisaveryfineformofpastainventedinNorthAfrica,usuallyless than thediameter ofwheat or rice grains. It’smadeby sprinklingwater onto durum semolina, then stirring, rubbing, and sieving it tomake small 1-to 2-millimeter granules. They’re dried, and then aresteamed andmoistenedwith water in several stages, the last above asimmeringstew,tomakeanunusuallylight,fluffymass.Mostmanufacturedcouscoushasbeenprecookedanddried.Tomakepreparedcouscousquickly,moisten itwithwaterandheatfor a fewminutes on high in themicrowave, stirring everyminute ortwotoevenoutthemoistureandheat.Pearl (Israeli) couscous and Sardinian fregola are larger roundpastas, the first extruded and the second formed as couscous is. Cooktheminexcesswaterasotherpastas.

ASIANNOODLESANDWRAPPERS

Asiannoodlesandwrappersaremadefromvariousgrainflours(wheat,buckwheat, rice) and extracted starches (rice, mung beans, sweetpotatoes).AslipperysurfaceisprizedinAsiannoodles.Tomakecookednoodlesslipperyandnotsticky,immersethecookednoodlesinice-coldwatertorinseawayexcesssurfacestarchandcongealtherest.Riceandstarchnoodlesandricepaperareattractivelytranslucent,and convenient because they’re precooked and need only to beremoistened.To prepare rice noodles and paper, soak them briefly in hot water(noodles)orlukewarmwater(paper)untiltheybecomepliable.Serve noodles with sauce or in soup. Use rice papers to makerefreshingcoolwrapsforvegetables,meats,andfish.

DUMPLINGS,GNOCCHI,ANDSPAETZLE

Dumplingsaresmallportionsofgraindoughorbatterthataredroppedintohotliquid,boilingwater,orastewandcookedthrough.Gnocchi aremade from cooked and riced potatoes or other starchyroots, or from ricotta cheese, kneaded into a dough with flour andsometimesegg.Spaetzle are small irregular shapes made by drops of a thin flourbatter.To make tender dough dumplings, knead the dough as little aspossible.Tomakethemostdelicategnocchi,useaslittleflouraspossible,andomiteggs,whichgivethemaspringycohesiveness.Tocookdumplings,gnocchi,andspaetzle:

Keepthecookingliquidatagentlesimmer.Vigorousboilingcanbreakthedelicatemorselsapart.Removethemfromthecookingliquidafterthey’verisentothesurfaceandcookedthereforaminuteortwo.Checkonefordonenessbeforestrainingouttheremainder.Floatingisusuallyasignthatthey’vefilledwithhotsteam,butsomedoughpiecesorbatterdropsmayfloatbeforethey’vecookedthrough.

PUDDINGS

Puddings are dense, moist dishes thickened with grains (rice), grainflours, or starch (cornstarch, tapioca). They’re usually sweetened,sometimesenrichedwitheggsand/orfats,andthenbaked,steamed,orboiled.The key to a good pudding is a good recipe,with enough liquid tohydrate the dry grain ingredients fully, and enough sugar and fat tomakeitmoistandtender.Theingredientsarecombinedandcookedverysimply.Heatpuddingscoveredandwithlowtomoderateheattoavoiddryingthemout.

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15

SEEDLEGUMES

Beans,Peas,Lentils,andSoyProducts

eans and their legume-family relatives are main-course seeds,evenmoresothanthegrains.Theycan’tmakeraisedbreadsorchewypastasthewaygrainsdo,butthey’retheheartofthemeal

inmanypartsoftheworldforpeoplewhodon’thaveaccesstomeatorchoosenottoeatit.Theymakeamorenutritionallybalancedsidedishthan riceorbreadorpotatoes, and small legumes like the lentils cookjustasquicklyasrice.Seedlegumeshavedoubletheproteinofthegrains,astrongersavory-

sweet flavor, anda rangeof striking colors that signal thepresenceofvaluablephytochemicals.They’resimpletocook,butittakessomecareto get them to come out intact and with the best beany consistency,neithercrunchynormushy,butcreamilyfirm.Thesoybeanhasitsownkindofversatility,givingusarangeoffreshandfermentedfoods,fromblank-canvas soy milk and tofu to mushroomy tempeh and intenselyaromaticmiso.Beanswillalwaysbeclosetomyheartbecausetheyweretoocloseto

afriend’sandprovokedhimtoprovokemeintowritingaboutfood.Atapotluckdinnersometimearound1975,notlongafterthereleaseofMelBrooks’s Blazing Saddles, a displaced Louisianan and fellow literaturestudentwonderedoutloudwhyitisthatbeansgivepeoplegas,aneffectthatcompromisedhisfullenjoymentofredbeansandrice.Thequestionwasgoodand funnyenough to sendme to the library in searchof ananswer. Even better than the answer, I discovered that much of therelevantresearchhadbeenfundedbyNASA,whichwasconcernedaboutanythingthatmightcompromiseairqualityinspacecapsules.Withthat,and the intriguing window that science gave on everyday life, I was

hooked.

SEEDLEGUMESAFETYANDCOMFORT

Likethegrains,theseedlegumesarestoreddryandgenerallypreparedbyboiling,sotheyposelittleriskoffoodborneillnessinthecookingorimmediateeating.Oncecooked,theycanbecontaminatedasanyotherfood,andshouldbehandledwiththeusualcare.Don’tkeepcookedbeandishesatroomtemperatureformorethan4hours.Eitherholdthemat130°F/55°Corabove,orrefrigerateorfreezethem promptly. If youwant to serve a cool salad over a longer time,finish it with an acidic dressing that inhibits bacterial growth. If youleave a dish out overnight, which is long enough to develop heat-resistant toxins, discard it. Reheat properly handled leftovers to165°F/73°Corabove.Rawsproutsofvariousbeansdoposeariskoffoodborneillness.Thewarm,moistconditionsthatsproutseedsalsoencouragebacteriatogrowwithoutobvioussigns.Don’tserveuncookedsproutstovulnerablepeople.Fava beans can make some people ill. Favism is a hereditarysensitivitytosubstancesinfavabeansthatcancauseseriousanemia.Rawandundercookedlegumeseedscancausediscomfort.Manylegumescontainchemicaldefensesthatcaninterferewiththedigestivesystem.Thoroughcookingdestroysmostofthem.Fullycookedseedlegumesoftendocausegassydiscomfort.Theycontainindigestiblecarbohydratesthatdon’tnourishus,butdonourishmicrobes in our digestive system. When those microbes feast, theyproducecopiousgas.Commercial antigas enzyme preparations can reduce thediscomfort from eating beans for some people, according to clinicaltrials.Tominimize the discomfort of intestinal gas from legumes, choosethemcarefullyandcook themthoroughly.Chickpeas,blackbeans,andlentils contain fewer indigestibles than soy or navy or lima beans.

Prolongedcookingbreakssomeindigestiblesdownintomoredigestiblesugars.Toreducethegassypotentialofanykindoflegume,leachoutsomeoftheindigestiblecarbohydratesbeforeyoucookthem.Bringtheseedsslowlytotheboilinexcesswater,turnofftheheatandletthemsoakforanhour, thendiscard the soakingwaterandproceedwithcooking.Orsoakthemovernightinexcesswater,thendiscardthewaterandproceedwithcooking.Toleratesomegassinesstogetthefullestnutritionalbenefitfromseedlegumes. Leaching out indigestible carbohydrates also removes color,flavor, and nutrients, including the indigestibles themselves. Themicrobestheyfeedinusarebeneficialones.

BUYINGANDSTORINGLEGUMES

Dried seed legumes can be stored for years without spoiling, so theysometimesare.Oldseedstakelongertocook.Ifstoredinhotandhumidconditions,theydevelopthe“hard-to-cookdefect”andbecomeimpossibletosoften.Trytoidentifyandbuylegumesfromthemostrecentcrop.Examinepackages or bins, and avoid buying if there are many broken seeds,damagedseedcoats,ordiscolorations.Storedryseedlegumesinacool,dry,darkplace.Heatandmoisturecancausethehard-to-cookdefectandencouragespoilage.Tryspecialtybeansandpeas,whicharemoreexpensivethanthebulkversions,butareoftenhigherinqualityandstillagoodbuycomparedwithmanyotherfoods.To save preparation time, choose quick-cooking small lentils, orhulledlegumes—splitpeas,manyIndiandals—thatsoftenin10minutes.Precookedcannedand“instant”legumesareconvenientbutrarelytaste as good as when freshly prepared. Canned legumes have beenheatedtoveryhightemperatures,andinstantversionslosearomawhenthey’refreeze-dried.To get the best flavor in canned beans and peas, check labels and

choosebrandswiththefewestaddedflavorsandlowestsodiumcontent.Rinse them thoroughly, taste, and if they’re oversalted, soak them inwarmwaterfor1to2hours.

SPROUTS

Sprouts are fresh, tenderly crunchy, mild vegetables. Many differentseeds are germinated to produce these very young plants, 3 to 6 daysold.Amongthemostcommonaremungbeans,soybeans,andalfalfa.Keep sprouts cold, and use them promptly. Buy them only if very

fresh-looking. Avoid if there is wilting, browning, off smells, or moreobviousspoilage.To store sprouts, blot and air-dry to the touch, wrap loosely in a

towel,andencloseinaplasticbagbeforerefrigerating.Whenindoubtaboutrawsproutquality,cookthoroughlyatorclose

totheboil,ordiscard.Tosproutseedsinthekitchen:

Buyseedsintendedforsproutingandeating,notplanting.Gardenseedsmaybetreatedwithchemicals.Soaktheseedsinwaterforseveralhours,thenrinseanddrain.Keeptheseedsinasproutingjar,coolandshieldedfromlight,untilthey’rereadyinseveraldays.Rinseanddraintheseedsseveraltimesadaytopreventtheaccumulationofmicrobes.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGSEEDLEGUMES

Beans and other legumes can be cooked very simply, by washing theseeds,puttingtheminapotwithflavoringredientsandcopiouswater,heatingthewatertotheboil,andsimmeringuntilthey’resoft.Butthisprocessoftentakeshours,leachescolorfromthebeanskins,andleavesmany of them broken. There areways to shorten times and getmorereliablygoodresults.Cookingdryseedsincludestwodifferentprocesses:gettingwater

into theseeds tomoisten theircellwallsandstarch,andheating them

throughtosoftentheirinterior.Seedstakemuchlongertoabsorbwaterthantheydotoheatthrough,especiallyiftheyhaveintactseedcoats.Toshortencookingtimesbyhalformore,presoaklegumesinsaltedwater, 2 teaspoons/10 grams per quart or liter, for several hours orovernight.Tocookwholelegumesexceptionallyfast,presoakthemandthen pressure-cook them for just 10 to 15 minutes. For the fastestcooking,choosesplitpeasandlentils.Salt does not harden beans or other legumes or prevent themfromsoftening,thoughitcanslowtheircooking.Addedtothepresoakwater, it actually speeds later cooking. Added to the cooking waterwithoutpresoaking,saltdoesslowwaterabsorption.If legumes seem to cook slowly, check your water hardness. Hardwater high in calcium can keep seeds firm. Try cookingwith distilledwater.Sometimesdriedlegumesneverfullysoftennomatterhowthey’recooked.Thishard-to-cookdefectdevelopswhenthey’vebeengrowninunusually hot and dry conditions, or stored for months in warm andhumid conditions. There’s no remedy except to find a more reliablebrand.Tocookbeansandotherseedlegumes:

Rinseandpickthemoverinapotofwater,toremovestraychaff,soil,pebbles,andanybeansthataremuchsmallerthanaverage,whichoftenfailtosoften.Chooseapotwideenoughtoholdtheseedsinathinlayer,toheatevenlyandavoidcrushingseedsatthebottom.Addjustenoughwaterforthemtoabsorbandremainbarelyimmersedinliquid.Forunsoakedlegumes,thisisabout2partswaterforevery1ofseeds,byweightorvolume.Forfullysoakedlegumes,reducethisto1partwater.Includealittlemoretocompensateforevaporationduringcooking,andcheckthewaterleveloccasionallyduringcooking.Forthemostevenheating,bringthepottoasimmeronthestovetop,thencovertightlyandmoveittoa200°F/93°Coven.

To preserve depth of color in black and red beans, minimize the

amount of cooking liquid that draws pigments out of the seed coats.Startthebeansinbarelyenoughcoldwatertocover,andaddhotwaterfromthekettletomaintainthatlevelastheyabsorbwater.Topreserve intact seedcoatsasmuchaspossible,heatasgentlyas

possible.Presoakwithsaltedwatertoexpandtissuesgradually.Heatthepot slowly to 180 to 190°F/80 to 85°C, but not high enough to causeboilingandturbulence.Cookthebeansuntiltender,thenallowtocoolandfirminthecookingliquidbeforehandlingthem.Topreventlegumesfromsofteningtoomuch,addafirmingingredient

when they’ve softened correctly. These ingredients include acids of allkinds (vinegar, tomatoes, wine, fruit juices), sugar, and calcium. Themolassesused inBostonbakedbeans isacidicandprovidesbothsugarandcalcium.Servecookedlegumeswholeorpureedmoreorlesssmoothly.Because

mostcontainstarch,asmallportioncanberemoved,pureed,andstirredintothecookingliquidtothickenitintoasauce.

COMMONSEEDLEGUMES:ADZUKISTOTEPARIES

The legume family is large and diverse. Most of these can be readilyfoundinstoresoronline.Asian beans include a number of relatively small, quick-cooking

beansthatarelowingas-producingcarbohydrates.Theyincludeadzukiorazuki(Japan),blackgram(India),mungorgreengram(China,India),andricebeans(Thailand).Broador favabeanshavea tough seedcoatandbenefit frombrief

precooking in water with a little baking soda, whichmakes the skinseasytoslipoff.FavabeanscaninduceaseriousanemiainsomepeopleofMediterraneanbackground.Chickpeasorgarbanzoshaveadistinctiveflavor,bumpyshape,and

often granular texture. They come in two general types: the familiarlargecream-coloredtypefromEuropeandtheMiddleEast;andsmallervarieties available in Indianmarkets that are a darker brown or evendarkgreen.

Commonbeans,includingwhite,navy,kidney,red,black,pinto,andcannellini,aredescendantsofMexicanoriginals thathavespreadall over the world. They vary in coloration, size, seed coat thickness,cookingtimes,andtextures.Lentilscomeintwogeneraltypes:flat,broad,andlight-colored;and

round, small, and dark green to black. They’re the quickest-cookinglegumes, taking less than an hourwithout presoaking, and are low ingas-producingcarbohydrates.Small lentils can be cooked like rice, in minimal water to produce

separategrains.Hulled red Indian lentils cook into a golden mush in just a few

minutes.Limabeans are popular as a fresh vegetable, but are rarely cooked

whenmatureanddryduetotheirthickseedcoat.Lupiniareseedsfromlupins,relativesofthetruebeansthatcontain

nostarch,abundantsolublefiber,andoftenbitteralkaloidsthatmustbeleachedoutbypresoakinginseveralchangesofwater.Peas, both green and yellow, are generally sold hulled and split

becausetheirseedcoatistough.Theyquicklycookintoamush.Black-eyedpeasareanAfricanrelativeoftheAsianmungbean,with

adistinctivearomaandadarkpigmentringthatsurvivescooking.SoybeansareaChinesenativethatcontainmoreoilthanstarchand

areespeciallyrichinprotein.They’reseldomsimplycookedandservedasis.Theydevelopastrongbeanyaroma,don’tgetassoftandcreamyasstarchierbeansdo,andtendtocausestrong,gassydiscomfort.Teparybeans are a little-known native of the American Southwest,

small and quick-cooking and especially sweet, with the aroma ofmolasses.

SOYMILK,TOFU,TEMPEH,ANDMISO

These traditional processed soy products are less beany-flavored andgassythanplainsoybeans,andmoreversatile.Checklabels and choose the latest sell-bydates. Soymilk, tofu, and

tempehareperishable.Soymilkisabland,milklikefluidmadebygrindingtheboiledsoakedbeanswithwater,thencookingthismixandsievingoffthesolids.Ithasabout the sameproteinand fat contentas cow’smilk,butwithout thehigh proportion of saturated fat, or the lactose and cow proteins towhichsomepeoplearesensitive.Check ingredient lists. Many soy milks are heavily sweetened andincludevanillaandotherflavorings.Beancurd,or tofu, is soymilk coagulated into a bland, solidmasswithcalciumsalts(Chinesestyle,usingthemineralgypsum),amixtureof slightly bitter magnesium and calcium salts (Japanese style, usingnigari, the seawaterminerals left after extracting sodium chloride), orEpsom salts (magnesium sulfate). Different types span a range oftextures,fromfirmandchewytosilken,delicate,andcustardy.Storefresh,unpackagedbeancurdcoveredinwaterinacoldcorneroftherefrigerator.Changethewatereveryday.Check theedibilityof freshorpackagedbeancurd by smellingandtouchingit.Discarditifithasanoffaromaoraslimysurface.Freezing bean curd changes its texture and causes separation ofwaterfromthesolidcurd.Togive firmbeancurdameatier texture andhelp it absorb flavorsbetter, freeze itbeforeusing, thenthawandcut it,andpress the thawwaterout.Freezingformsicecrystalsthatforcethecurdproteinsintoafibrous network, and leave behind voids that can fill with flavorfulcookingliquids.Tempeh is a thin cake made from whole cooked soybeans pressedtogether and fermentedwith a specialmold. It’s drier than bean curdandhasapleasantmushroomyaroma.Fryinggivesitameatyflavor.Freezetempehtostoreitindefinitelywithoutmuchchangeintexture.Checktheedibilityoftempehbysmellingandtouchingit.Discarditifit has an off aroma or a slimy surface. Ignore normal white or blackspotsofitsownmold.Misoisaflavorfulpastemadefromfermentedsoybeansandagrain,usually rice or barley. It comes in awide range of colors and flavors,

with dark-colored types aged longer and stronger flavored. Misoprovidessalt,savoriness,anaromaofsoysauceandoftenpineapple,andactsasacoarsethickener.Check package labels and avoid inferior industrial versions of misomadewithcornsyrupandalcohol.Storemisopasteindefinitely intherefrigerator.Refrigeratepackagesofdrymisopowderafterthey’reopened,butsealthemairtight.Usemiso as an instant soupbase, a flavor supplement in soups andsauces, andpart of a seasoningpaste ormarinade for fish,meats, andvegetables.

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16

NUTSANDOILSEEDS

utsareoil-richseedsthatgiveusanimportantreferencepointforflavor.Nuttynamesthecharacteristicaromaoftoastednuts,whichdevelopswhen theirproteinsand sugarsareessentially

friedinplacebytheirownoil.Unlikethegrainsandseedlegumes,mostnutsaretenderenoughtobeeatenraworquicklycrispedbyhighheat.They and the oil seeds are filled with oil instead of starch, so theyrelease a moist richness in the mouth, and become so creamy andsmoothwhen finely ground that the results are called butters.Groundwithadded liquid, theymake“milks”and“creams”thatcanbe turnedintodairy-freesaucesandicecreams.Most nuts are borne on trees and are contained inside a hard shell.

Their papery seed coats are often removed to refine appearance andflavor,becausetheseedcoatsarebrownandastringent.Butthey’realsorichinvaluable antioxidants, andareprobablypart of the reason thatnutshavebeenfoundtobeassociatedwithgoodcardiovascularhealth.Afewwalnutsinparticularcanhelpbalancethefatsinadishorameal;theyhappentobehighinessentialanduncommonomega-3fattyacids.Thesameoilsthatmakenutsdeliciousalsomakethemvulnerableto

going stale, when they start to taste a little like cardboard or paint.Reallyfresh-tastingnuts,raworroasted,canbehardtofind.WhenIdomanagetogetsomegoodrawhazelnutsorwalnutsoralmonds,I’lltoasta handful in the morning while I make my coffee. The aroma in thekitchen is wonderful, and I’ve even come to anticipate the sounds,usually the faint whistle of escaping water vapor that evolves into asizzleastheoilheatsuptofryingtemperatures.Haveyoueverlistenedto shelled pumpkin seeds, not while they’re toasting but as they cooldown?They’llcrackleawayforaminuteortwoastheair insidethemcontracts and shatters the thin walls, but so delicately that it’s like a

whisperedsecret.

NUTANDSEEDSAFETY

Nutsandseedsareamongourdriestfoodsandnotnormallyhospitableforbacteriatogrowon,sotheygenerallypresentlittleriskofcommonfoodborne illness. The exceptions to this rule have involved unusualcontaminationduringprocessing.Nutsareacommoncauseofseriousfoodallergies.Inform people if you’re serving foodsmadewith nuts and the nutsaren’tobvious.Some nuts are susceptible to molds that produce aflatoxin, acarcinogenthatmayincreasethelong-termriskofdevelopingcancer.Discardshriveled,discolored,oroff-tastingkernels,whichmayhavebeeninfectedwithmold.

BUYINGANDSTORINGNUTSANDSEEDS,NUTBUTTERSANDOILS

Nuts and seeds keep for months without spoiling. But they graduallydevelopstaleandrancid flavors fromtheirpolyunsaturatedoils,whichareeasilyattackedbyoxygenintheair.For thebestqualityand longestshelf life,buynuts in the shell andfreshlyharvested, in latesummerand fall.Choosenuts that feelheavyfortheirsize;oldnutmeatsshrink.Storetheminacool,dryplace.Keepshellednutsandseedsinanair-andlighttightcontainer intherefrigeratororfreezer.Beforeremovingthemfromthecontainer,allowthemtowarmuptoroomtemperature.When buying nuts and seeds from open bins or in transparentpackages, look formostly intactpieces,and foropaque, cream-coloredinteriors. Avoid batches with translucent or yellow interiors, whichindicate rancidity, as well as any with signs of mold infection. Ifpossible,smell thecontaineror tasteasample.Don’tbuy ifyoudetectcardboardstalenessorpaintlikerancidity.When buying preroasted nuts and seeds, avoid batches with dark

brownedges,whichhaveoffflavors.Mostnutsandseedshaveenoughoilthattheycanbedry-roastedwithoutaddedoil.Cookingoilsincreaseoilinessandcanbeasourceofoffflavors.Whenbuyingnutbuttersandpastes,checklabelsforthepresenceofadded sugars, flavorings, and fats. Avoid products that includehydrogenatedoils,whichmaycontainunhealthfultrans-fattyacids.Nutandseedoilscarrycharacteristicflavors,andmakeanexcellentalternativetostandardcookingoilswhendressingsaladsandvegetables.For flavorful nut and seed oils, choose oils extracted from toastednuts by the expeller-press or cold-press method. Solvent-extracted oilsusually have less flavor, but also fewer traces of allergy-inducingcompounds.Storenutandseedoilsinopaquecontainersintherefrigerator.Theirvaluablebutfragilepolyunsaturatedfattyacidscausethemtogorancidfasterthanotheroils.

THEESSENTIALSOFCOOKINGNUTSANDSEEDS

Dryheatremovesmoisturefromnutsandseeds,crispsthem,andcreatescharacteristicnuttyflavorsastheycookintheirownoraddedoil.Forthebestflavor,heatnutsandseedsuntiltheinteriorturnsgoldenbrown, and just before serving. Dark brown color often signals thedevelopment of harsh, bitter flavors. Cooked nuts lose flavorwithin adayortwoandthenbecomestaleandrancid.Nut skins are a thin layer between shell and seed. Some skins aretoughandadhere tightly to thenut,othersaremorebrittle andeasilyrubbed off. They’re the source of mouth-drying tannins that can alsocreatebluishpurpleoff colors inbakedgoods.But they’re also rich inhealthfulantioxidants.Don’tremovenutskins if theywon’tdetract fromtheappearanceorflavorofadish.Toremovethinskins(peanuts,hazelnuts),toastnutsbrieflyandthenrubtheminaroughkitchentowel.Toremovethickeralmondskins,blanchthenutsfor30to60seconds

inboilingwater,thenremoveintocoldwaterandpeeltheskinsoff.To reduce the astringency and discoloring power of walnut and

pecanskins,whicharehardtoremovecompletely,blanchthenutsfor30 to60 seconds inboilingwater toextract someof the tannins, thendryandtoastimmediately.Toremove toughchestnut skins,make the skins softerbyboilingor

roastingintheshell,thenpeel.Orparetheskinofflikeanappleskin.Tocrispandbrownnutsandseeds,toastthemonabakingsheetina

mediumoven,350°F/175°C, for10to15minutes,or frywithconstantstirring in oil overmedium heat until light golden. In a toaster oven,placetherackatitslowestpositionandshieldthenutsandseedsfromtheupperheatingelementwithfoil.To toastnutsandseeds in themicrowaveoven,heatonmediumor

lowpower,checkingevery1to2minutes,andmoreoftenwhenthey’reclose to being done. A few seconds too many can cause irregularscorching.Tocoatnutswithsalt,sugar,orotherseasonings,coatabowlwith

oilormeltedbutter,orbrieflybeateneggwhiteorsugarsyrup.Tossthecooked nuts in the oil or melted butter, remove them and blot theexcess,thentossinafreshbowlwithseasonings.Ortosswitheggwhiteor syrup, toss again with seasonings, then spread out on a plate orbakingsheetanddryinalowoven.Toaddsaltonly,dissolvesomeinjustenoughwatertocoatthenuts,tosswiththenutsandthentoastordrythem.To slicenutsneatly, heat them in the oven ormicrowave just until

soft,thencutthemwithaverysharpknifebeforetheycoolandbecomebrittle.Fresh nut pastes and butters are made by grinding raw or more

flavorfulroastednutsorseedsinafoodprocessor,heavy-dutyblender,orauger-fedjuicer.Home-groundpastesandbuttersareseldomasfineandsilkenasmanufacturedversions.Tomakeapaste,processthenutsorseedsuntiltheparticlesaresmall

butstillsticktoeachotherandformasolidmass.To make a fine-textured almond paste, include powdered

confectioners’ sugar, which soaks up oil during extended grinding. Tomake a fine-textured nonsweetened paste, replace the sugar withcornstarch.To make butter, process the paste for several minutes longer, untilfreedoillubricatestheparticlesintoaslowlyflowingmass.Fragilehigh-oil nuts—walnut, pecan, pine—go from paste to butter very quickly.Otherhardernutsbreakdownslowly,andremainsomewhatcoarse.Nutmilksaresuspensionsofnutoilandproteininwaterthatmakeflavorfulandhealthful substitutes forcow’smilk indrinks, icecreams,andotherdishes.They’remoremilklikeifdiscoloringskinsareremovedfirst,andmoreflavorfulifthenutsarelightlytoasted.Tomakenutmilk:

Grindskinned,toastednutsinablenderorfoodprocessor,addingjustenoughhotwatertokeepthemassofparticleslubricatedandmoving.Whentheparticlesbecomeverysmall,addenoughwatertocreateathinner,milklikeliquid.Straineverythingthroughcheesecloth,squeezingthesolidsdry.Drytheleftoversolidsinawarmoven,andusethemtoreplacesomeflourincookiesorpastries.

COMMONNUTSANDSEEDS:ALMONDSTOWALNUTS

Almonds are easily blanched, or freed from their skins, and areunusuallyrichinvitaminE.MostU.S.almondsarenowpasteurizeddueto the possibility of salmonella contamination during harvest andprocessing.Standard“sweet”almondshaveamildflavor.Almondextractssafelyconcentratethearomaofbitteralmonds,whichcontain enough cyanide to be hazardous if eaten in any quantity.Apricot,peach,andcherrypitscarrythesamearomaandrisk.Brazil nuts are large and so rich in selenium, an essentialmineral,thatonenutcontainsmorethantherecommendeddailyallowance.Cashews contain more starch than most nuts and so make a goodthickenerforsoups,stews,andpuddinglikedesserts.

Chestnutsstoreenergyinstarch,notoil.They’remoistandperishablewhen fresh, mealy rather than crisp when roasted, and are dried andgroundintoflourformakingcakesandotherstarchyfoods.Choosechestnutsthatfeelheavyandhard.Holdveryfreshchestnuts

foradayortwoatroomtemperaturetoconvertsomeoftheirstarchtosugar,thenstoretightlywrappedintherefrigeratorandusequickly.Toroastchestnuts,cutasmallnotchinthebottomofthenuttoallow

steamtoescape,andheatinamediumovenorincoalsuntiltheshellisbrittleenoughtobreakoff.Coconutsaretropicalseedsthatweighseveralpounds,withawoody

shell andan interior that starts out as a sweet liquid,becomesmilkilygelatinous,andendsupasafirm,moist,fatty“meat”whenmature.Choose coconuts that feel heavy for their size andmake a sloshing

sound. To open, use a hammer and screwdriver to poke in two of thethree“eyes”atoneend.Pourouttheliquid,thenhammerthenutintoafew large pieces. Pull or cut the meat away from the shell, peel thebrownskinfromthemeat,andrinsebeforeusing.Tomakecoconutmilk,grind,pound,orprocessmaturecoconutmeat

ordriedshreddedcoconuttogetherwithhotwater.Kneadtheresultingpaste, then strain the liquidoff the solids throughcheesecloth, and letthemilkstandtoseparateintoarichcreamlayerontopandleanermilkbeneath.Addmorewatertothesolidsandrepeat.Cannedcoconutmilkisoftenstabilizedwithflourorstarchandlacks

thecreamyconsistencyandfullflavoroffreshcoconutmilk.Flaxseedsaresmall,flat,tough,andusefulmainlyasanutritionaland

flavoradjuncttootherfoods.They’retherichestplantsourceofessentialomega-3fattyacids,andalsoarichsourceofsolublefiber,whichgelsinwaterandcanhelpstabilizevinaigrettelikeemulsionsandfoams.Togetthemostnutritionalvaluefromflaxseeds,crushorgrindthem.Hazelnuts, or filberts, are rich in vitamin E. Intensify their

characteristic aroma by roasting, frying, or even boiling. They arehollowandscorcheasilyattheinnersurface;roastatlowtemperaturesandcheckfrequently.Macadamia nuts have very hard shells that are almost always

removedbeforethey’repackagedandsold.Choosenutsthathavebeenpacked airtight, and avoid any with brown discoloration, whichindicatesrancidity.Peanutsaremainlyasnackandchildren’sfoodintheUnitedStates,

but an important thickening and enriching ingredient in Asian andAfrican sauces, soups, and stews. There are several common varieties,Virginia among the most prized for its flavor. Boiling peanuts in theshell, a traditional preparation in theU.S. South, gives them a vanillaflavor.Discardin-shellpeanutswithanyappearanceorsmellofmold,towhich they’re vulnerable because they develop underground. Peanutsare a common cause of serious food allergies.When cooking for otherpeople,makesurethattheirpresenceinadishisclear.Pine nuts come from several different continents and tree species.

Asian types are more than three-quarters oil, American and Europeantypesmuchleaner.Allarefragileandpronetorancidity.Storetheminthe dark and cold anduse quickly. Toast pine nuts very attentively atlowtemperatures.They’reveryeasytoscorch.Pistachios are unusual for being green with chlorophyll, and

especially so when grown at high altitude and harvested young. Toretain thegreen,heatpistachiosgentlyandbriefly, just enough todryandcrispthem.Poppyseedscomefromthesameplantthatproducesopium,andcan

carry traces thatwill show up on a drug test: checkwith competitiveathletesbeforeservingthem.Tastepoppyseedsbeforeusing.Theyoftenhaveabitterorpepperytasteduetodamagetothetinyseedsandtheiroilduringprocessing.Pumpkin seeds, like pistachios, are green with chlorophyll, which

stays more vivid with the lightest possible toasting. They have adistinctive, somewhat animal flavor. Some varieties come in a toughseed coat; more convenient ones come naked and don’t need to behulled. Naked seeds scorch easily during toasting. Pumpkin-seed oil isvisually striking: dark brown in a bowl, but deep green clinging to apieceofbread.Sesame seeds come in shades fromwhite to black, and are usually

toasted to develop their characteristic flavor. They’re the main

ingredient in theMiddleEasternpastecalled tahini.Sesame-seedoil isusuallymadefromtoastedseeds,andisunusuallystableandresistanttorancidity.Toastwithcare;they’resosmallthattheyquicklyscorch.SunflowerseedsareespeciallyrichinantioxidantsandvitaminE.Walnutsandpecansaredistantrelativeswithsimilarlobed,wrinkledshapes.They’rehighinessentialfattyacidsbutalsofragileandpronetorancidity. Store them in the cold and dark. For less mouth-dryingastringency,choosekernelswithalightorredseedcoat,orblanchthem.Toreducethepurplishdiscolorationofbakedgoodsthatincludethem,use toasted nuts.While they’re still hot, rub off asmuch seed coat aspossiblewithacoarsekitchentowel.

B

17

BREADS

reads are dry seeds turned into a soft and fragrant andnourishingclay,shapedbythecook’shand,crustedoutsideandsteamedinsidebyhighheat.Theycanbedenseandflatorlight

andlofty,moistordry,tartorsweet.Thelightestbreadsareleavened,inflatedfromwithinbymicroscopicbubblingyeastsorsimplechemicalreactions.WhenIlearnedtomakeyeastedbreadsinthe1970s,itwasstandard

procedure to knead a stiff dough for 10 or 15minutes to develop itselasticity and help it rise into a lofty loaf. Today you can still makebreadbyworkingthishard,butyoudon’thaveto.Bakershavecometorealize that a soft dough and little or no kneading can also yieldloftiness.Sobreadmakingstilltakeshours,butnowtheyeastsdomostofthework.Onekeytogoodbreadisknowingwhentheshapedloafofdoughhas

risen just enough to go into the oven,where the heatwill cause it tospringhigherandlighter.Ifoundthatthebestwaytoknowwastobakeoften and learnwhat too little, toomuch, and just enough rising feellike.I did this in the 1990s, when I was impressed by breads from

Berkeley’sAcmeBreadCompanyandwantedtofigureout itssecrets. Iended up baking almost every day for a year, in part because I keptfollowingupon little details, butmainly because I loved it. I couldn’twaittogetoutofbedinthemorningtoseehowanovernightrisehadturned out, or to hear awell-sprung loaf crackle as its interior cooledand shrank and broke the crust, or to cut across the loaf and see thestop-actionframeofthedough’sexuberantrise.Forall theirpleasures, raisedbreadsdo takeplanningand time.But

you can also turn outwonderful flatbreads inminutes, start to finish.Justmake plenty of dough so you’ll be sure to have some bread thatactuallygetstothetable.

BREADSAFETY

Bread itself is thoroughly cooked andposes no general safety problemunlessit’sstoredlongenoughtogetmoldy.Never eat moldy bread. If only a portion is moldy, cut deeply andsmelltheremainderbeforeeating.Moldfilamentscanspreadextensivelyandinvisiblyintotheinteriorofaloaf.Burnsarethemostcommonhazardinmakingbread.Toavoidburnsto the hands and arms as youmove bread into and out of a very hotoven,wearalong-sleevedshirtandusedrytowelsorovenmitts.

SHOPPINGFORBREADSANDBAKINGINGREDIENTS

Therearetwobasickindsofplainbread.Preslicedorwholeloavessoldinplasticbagsaregenerallymass-produced, flavored quickly with yeast rather than gradually raised bythem,haveadense,cakelikeinteriorandsoft,chewycrust,arealreadyseveraldaysold,andaremadewithshelf-life-lengtheningadditives.Whole loaves sold inpaperbags aregenerallynotmass-produced,areyeastraisedandhaveamoreopen,irregularinteriorandcrispcrust,are baked within a day of sale, and are made with few if anypreservatives.Mass-produced breads offer convenience and uniformity. Small-productionbreadsofferfresh-bakedtexturesandflavors.For freshbread thatwill keep fora fewdays, choose sourdoughorlevainbreads,whoseacidityslowsstaling.Whenmakingbread,readrecipescarefullytomakesureyoushopforthe correct ingredients. Flours and yeasts come in different forms thatarenotalwaysinterchangeable.Choosethefreshestfloursandyeastsyoucanfindbycheckingsell-by

dates.Ifyou’rebuyingwhole-grainflours,trytofindpackagesthathavebeenrefrigerated.

STORINGBREADANDRESTORINGIT

Freshlybakedbreadhasbeenheatedveryhot,andit’snotmoistenoughforbacteriatothriveon.Sobreadisn’tperishablethewaymanyfoodsare.Buttherearestillsomechallengestostoringitwell.Once baked, fresh bread can suffer two kinds of damage. It can bespoiledbythegrowthofmolds,anditcanstale,ordevelopafirm,hardtexture.Breadgetsmoldywhenitssurfaceismoistandwarmenoughformoldtogrow.Thishappenswhenbreadisstoredatroomtemperatureinaplasticbag.Breadgetsstalewhenitsstarchmoleculessettlebackintoamoresolidstructureafterthedisturbancesofbaking.Thishappensgraduallyatroomtemperature,muchfasteratrefrigeratortemperature,andveryslowlyinthefreezer.Stalingisnotthesameprocessasdrying, thoughbothmakethebreadhard.Tokeepfreshbreadforadayortwo,keepitinabreadboxorporouspaper bag or on the countertop, cut-side down on a board to slowdrying. Sourdough breads keep for several days. To avoid picking upodorsfromawoodenboard,protectthecutsidewithfoil.Tokeepfreshbreadformorethanadayortwo,wrapitairtightandfreezeit.Itstexturewouldhardenmuchmoreintherefrigerator.To thaw frozen bread, unwrap and set it on a rack at roomtemperature,orinanovenat250°F/120°C.Stalingiseasilyreversedbyreheatingthebreadtoatleast160°F/70°Candredisturbingthestarch.Becausereheatingalsodrivesmoistureoutofbread,itleavesthebreadsomewhatdrierafterward.Torestoreapartialorwholeloafofstalebread,moistenitscrusttopreventscorching,andbake inamediumovenfor15minutesoruntilhotandsoftinside.Torestoreafewslicesofstalebread,toastorgrillthem.Thesurfaces

willbedrybutthecentersoft.Take advantage of stale bread firmness to make croutons, bread

salads, puddings, and French toast (pain perdu), dishes inwhich freshbreadwilldisintegrate.

BREADINGREDIENTS:FLOURS

Mostbreadsaremadefromwheatflour,whoseuniquelystretchy,elasticglutenproteinscantrapgasbubblesandcreatealight,airytexture.A dough with “strong” gluten is very elastic and rises well; a

dough with “weak” gluten is more easily torn when stretched, anddoesn’trisewell.Gluten-freebreadsusuallyreplacewheatflourwithacombinationof

riceflourandxanthangum,withthegumprovidingsomegas-trappingpower.Different wheat flours have very different bread-making

properties,andabsorbdifferentamountsofwater.Try to use the exact flour type called for in a given recipe.

Substitutions will require adjustments in the proportion of water, andmaynotworkwell.Refinedwheatfloursincludeall-purposeandbreadflours.Theyhave

had the grain’s fiber-rich outer bran coat and oil-rich inner germ(embryo)removed,sothey’renearlyallproteinandstarch.Bleachedflourshavebeenchemicallytreatedtolightentheoff-white

colorandstrengthenthegluten,andhavelostsomeminornutrientsandflavor.Mostartisanbakerspreferunbleachedflour.All-purposeflour is themost common flour sold andused inbread

making.Itsglutenproteincontentvariesamongregionsandbrands,soproportionadjustmentsaresometimesnecessarywhenswitching.Bread flour contains more gluten protein than all-purpose flour. It

requires more water, and makes a stretchier, more elastic dough thatriseshigher.Theresultingbreadhasachewytextureandadistinctive,slightlyeggyflavor.Whole-wheatflours include thewheatgrain’sbranandgerm.They

add a brownish color, a stronger grain flavor, and more nourishment(vitamins,minerals,antioxidants)toadough,butmakeaweakerglutenandadenser,moisterloaf.Whitewheatvarietiesmakemilderflavoredwhole-wheatfloursandbreads.Commercial whole-wheat flours often suffer from staleness and abittertaste,andshouldbeboughtandkeptasfreshaspossible.To give afreshwhole-wheat flavor to a refined-flour bread, grind afewspoonfulsofwhole-wheatkernelstoaddtoarefined-flourdough.Self-risingflours arenot suitable formakingyeast-leavenedbreads.They contain baking powder for leavening quick breads and griddlecakes.Nonwheat flours—rye, barley, rice—add flavor to breads butproduce a weaker dough and a denser texture. To maintain somelightness, make them a small fraction of the total amount of flour, aquarterorless.Vitalglutenisapurifiedformofthewheatglutenproteins.Addafewspoonfulstodoughsmadewithweakerfloursorwithgluten-weakeningfatsor sugars, to improve their elasticityand the lightnessof the finalbreads.Store all flours in closed containers, protected from air and light.Rolldownthetopsofpartlyemptyflourbagsandpressoutasmuchairaspossible.Keepespeciallysensitivewhole-grainflourswrappedairtightin the refrigerator or freezer, and allow them to warm to roomtemperaturebeforeopeningthem.

BREADINGREDIENTS:WATERANDSALT

Watermakesupnearlyhalf theweightofbreaddough.Water-to-flourratios vary significantly among recipes, and directly affect doughhandlingandbreadtexture.Drydoughsarefirm,easytohandle,andproducearelativelydenseloafwithsmall,regularaircells.Wetdoughsare softandsticky but rise and inflate easily and canproducealightloafwithlarge,irregularaircells.

Water chemistry can affect doughs and breads. The minerals inhardwatermakeamoreelasticdough,asdoessomewhatalkalinewater.Acidicwaterweakensthedoughgluten.Heavilychlorinatedwatermayslowthegrowthofyeastandsourdoughbacteria.Saltcontributestoabalancedtasteandintensifiesaromainbread,but

italsoaffectsstructureandtexture.Saltmakesadoughlesssticky,theglutenmore stretchy, and the finished loaf lighter. In sourdoughs, salthelpscontrolthegrowthofacid-producing,gluten-weakeningbacteria.Double-check the kind of salt specified in your recipe. Adjust the

amount if you’re using a different kind. One teaspoon of compactgranulatedtablesaltcancontainuptotwiceasmuchsaltasateaspoonofflakykosher salt.Agoodamountof salt isaweightequivalent to2percentoftheweightoftheflour:or,involumemeasures,1/2teaspoonofgranulatedsaltforeverycupofflour.

BREADINGREDIENTS:YEASTS

Yeastsarelivingmicroscopiccreaturesthatgeneratecarbondioxidegas,and fill bread dough with bubbles and flavor. They’re sold in threedifferentformsforbaking.Yeastssoldasnutritionalsupplementsarenolongeraliveandcan’tleavenbread.Fresh yeast is sold as moist foil-wrapped cakes. It’s perishable and

mustbekeptrefrigerated.Toreviveit,mixitwithwarm70to80°F/20to27°Cwater.Activedryyeastissoldasloosegranulesinsealedenvelopesorjars,

whichcanbekeptatcoolroomtemperatureuntilthey’reopenedwhenleftovers shouldbe refrigeratedor frozen.To revive it,mix it inwarmwater (105 to 110°F/40 to 43°C) before adding it to the flour.Waterhotterthan140°F/60°Cwillkillyeastsandproduceadoughthatdoesn’trise.Instant yeast is a version of active dry yeast that can be mixed

directlyintotheotheringredientswithoutaninitialrevival.Theproportionofyeasthelpsdeterminehow fastadough rises

andwhatthebreadwilltastelike.Itcanvarytenfoldfromonerecipetoanother.Ahighdosewill raisedough in2hours,while a lowdose

maytake10hoursormore.Choose low-yeast recipes for a slow rise and delicate grain flavor,

high-yeastrecipesforaquickriseandstrongyeastyflavor.Theflavorofpackagedyeastcanbeharshandmasktheflavorofthegrains.

BREADINGREDIENTS:PREFERMENTSANDSTARTERS

Prefermentsandstartersareyeastpreparations thathavebeenactivelygrowing for a few hours or more before they’re incorporated into adough.Variousversionsarecalledsponge,levain,biga,andpoolish.Preferments and starters produce a complex bread flavor and

slow staling. They reduce or eliminate the harsh flavor of packagedyeast, and include flavor-producing bacteria whose tart acids slowstalingandspoilage.Prefermentsaremadebymixingasmallamountofcommercialyeast

withsomeflourandwaterhoursbeforemaking thedough.Liquidandunsaltedprefermentsdevelopmorequicklythanfirmandsaltedones.Sourdough starters are made without commercial yeast. Flour is

mixedwithwaterandvariousother ingredients,often including fruits,milk,orhoney,toencourageyeastgrowth.Desirablebacteriaalsogrowandproducetheacidsthatmakesourdoughsour.Sourdough starters can be tricky to develop and maintain. They

may take several days to develop enough leavening yeasts to makebread. If not fed often enough they become too acid, which inhibitsyeastsandweakensgluten,andproducedense loaves rather than lightones.Ifastarterbecomestooacid,diluteasmallamountinseveraltimes

its volume of water and flour, and feed it regularly. Use the acidleftoverstomakesourdoughpancakes,withbakingsodatomoderatetheacidity.Tokeep starteryeastshappyandbubbly, refresh semiliquid starters

twiceadaywithfreshwaterandflourandagoodaeratingwhisking.Tomakeroomforthenewingredients,removesomeofthestarteranduseordiscardit.Ifthatscheduleisn’tfeasible,addmoreflourtomakeastiff

doughand refrigerate it;divideand refresh this slower-growing startereveryfewdays.Use a starter to make dough only when it’s actively growing andbubbly.Ifit’sbeeninrefrigeratorhibernation,bringitoutadayortwoaheadoftimeandgetitgrowingagain.Be sure to add a fullmeasure of salt to the dough, to help controlbacterialgluten-weakeningenzymes.Raise doughs from starters at moderate room temperature, around70°F/20°C,whichfavorsyeastgrowth.Adaptfermentingandbakingschedulestoyourprefermentorstarter.Eachoneisdifferent.

OTHERCOMMONBREADINGREDIENTS

Bakers use a number of other ingredients to adjust the qualities ofdoughsandbreads,andtoflavorandenrichthem.VitaminCorascorbicacidhelpsstrengthenglutenstructure.Lecithinhelpsslowstalingandthefirmingofbreadtexture.Mostotherbreadingredientsinterruptglutenstructureandmakeadenser, more tender loaf. Nuts, coarse grains, and dried fruit areexamples.Inaddition:Sugars and honey sweeten bread and help it retain moisture, andslowstaling.Theyspeedyeastgrowthinsmallquantities,butslowitinverysweetdoughs.Oilsand fats slowmoisture lossandprovide theirownsensationofmoistness.Milkandotherdairyproductscontributetheirownflavorandspeedbrowning andmore flavor developmentwith their protein and lactosesugar.Whole eggs and egg yolks contribute flavor and fatty moistness,deepencolor,andslowstaling.

THEESSENTIALSOFMAKINGYEASTBREADS

The ingredients for a good yeast bread are good flour, the rightproportionofwater,anactiveyeastculture,time,andflexibility.Try to workwith recipes that specify weights, and use an accuratescaletoreproducethem.Thevolumeoccupiedbyafixedweightofflourvariesdependingonhowlooselyorfirmlypackedtheflouris,soacupofflourmeasuredinyourkitchenmaycontainsignificantlymoreorlessflourthanacupmeasuredbytherecipewriter.The ratio of water to flour in a recipe helps determine thedough’s consistency and the bread’s texture. The flour type alsomattersbecausedifferentfloursabsorbdifferentamountsofwater,breadflourmore than all-purpose flour,whole-grain flourmore than refinedflour.Abagelratioofabout50partswaterto100partsflourbyweight,or50 percent hydration, produces a very firm dough and a very dense,chewytexture.A standard sandwich-bread ratio of about 65 percent hydrationproducesafirm,easilykneadeddoughandadense,eventexture.A baguette ratio of about 70 percent hydration produces a moreeasilystretcheddoughandamoreopeninterior.A ciabatta ratio of about 75 percent hydration produces a stickydoughthat’smessy toknead,andanopen, irregular interior.Asimilarratiousingabsorbentbreadflourmakespizzadough,easilykneadedandstretched.Awetratioof80to90percenthydrationproducesadoughthatcanbeliftedandfoldedbutnotkneaded,andthatcanfallwhenputintheovenandthenriseintoamoist,irregularloaf.Inatypicalhomebreadrecipeforacoupleof loaves, ittakesonlyafew spoonfuls more or less of flour or water to make the differencebetweenalooseciabattadoughandafirmsandwich-breaddough.Thebread-makingprocesshasfivesteps:

mixingthewetanddryingredientsintoadough,kneadingthedoughtodevelopitselasticity,lettingthedoughexpand,orrise,andfurtherdevelopitselasticity,shapingthedoughforbaking,and

baking.

There are several general approaches to the bread-making process,eachwithitsownadvantagesanddrawbacks.Mixingandkneadingbyhand takes30 to45minutesofhands-on

workandcleanup.Mixingandkneadinginastandmixerorfoodprocessorsaves10

to15minutesofhands-ontimebutlittleornocleanuptime.No-knead methods save much of the hands-on work time and

cleanup, and can produce just as good a loaf as hand or machinekneadingdoes.Quick-risemethodsgiveyoufresh-bakedbreadfromscratchinafew

hours, butwith a strong processed-yeast flavor from the large dose ofyeastandwarmrisingtemperature.Long-risemethods producemore flavorful loaves by giving a small

amountofyeastorstarteralongtimetogrowandproduceflavor.Theyoffermoreflexibilityinthetimingofthevarioussteps,butrequiremoreadvanceplanningbecausetheytakealldayorovernight.Breadmachines automate themixing,kneading, rising,andbaking,

andsavetimeandcleanup,butdon’tproducethebesttextureorflavor.Develop your own personal method for making bread. Experiment

with different recipes and adopt the details that work best in yourkitchenandyourlife.

MIXINGANDKNEADINGDOUGH

Mixing the flour, water, leavening, and other ingredients forms thebreaddough.Itcreatesaninnernetworkofglutenproteinsthatwilltrapgasbubblesandmakepossiblealight,airyinterior.Tomakedoughbyhandwithminimalcleanup,usea large, shallow

bowl for bothmixing and kneading. Transfer the finished dough to anarrowerbowlforrising,andsimplyscrapethemixingbowlcleanwithaflexibleplasticscraper.Don’t leaveastandmixerunattendedwhen it’smixingorkneading

dough.Thedoughcanclimbupthedoughhookandcausethemachinetovibrateitswayoffthecountertop.Tomixdoughinlessthanaminute,useafoodprocessor.Becareful

not to overheat or overwork thedough. Startwith cool to coldwater,brieflypulsejustoftenenoughtoformthedough,andallowthedoughtocooldownto70to75°F/20to25°Cbeforecoveringforfermentation.Kneadingthenewdoughstrengthenstheglutennetworkanditsgas-

trappingabilitybyrepeatedlystretchingit,andaddstinyairpocketstoinflateduringfermentationandbaking.Kneading is an optional and flexible step. The dough’s gluten

networkwillalsobestretchedandstrengthenedfromwithinasthegasbubblesexpandduringtherising.Knead the dough if you enjoy seeing and feeling it develop its

responsiveelasticity,andespeciallyifitwillrisequickly,inacoupleofhours.Thelesstimeithastostretchanddevelopitself,themoreitcanbenefitfromkneading.Shortenorskipthekneadinginmostrecipesifyou’reshortontime,

andespeciallyifthedoughwillfermentovernightorlonger.“Lift and fold” doughs that are too wet to knead. Use hands, a

spatula,orascrapertoliftoneedgeofthedough,stretchitstraightup,then fold it onto the rest of the dough.Work all theway around thedoughmass,thenletitrest,andrepeatasdesiredordirected.

FERMENTINGDOUGH

During the fermentation, or rising, the yeasts grow and fill the doughwithbubbles of carbondioxide gas. Fermentationmay last just 1 to 2hours, or 12 hours or more, depending on the yeast dose or starteractivityandthetemperature.Putthedoughtoriseinanarrow,steep-sidedbowlaboutthreetimes

its volume, to help the dough retain gas from the fermentation andstretchitsglutennetworkfully.Coverthebowltopreventdryingout.The dough temperature strongly affects rising time and bread

flavor.Yeastsare livingcells, andaremuchmoreactivewhen they’re

warm.Atcoolroomtemperaturestheygrowandraisedoughslowlyandproduce a delicate, complex flavor. Higher temperatures speed theirproduction of gas and stronger flavors. An increase of 10°F/6°C canshortenthefermentationtimebyathird.Toraisebreadasquicklyaspossible,putthedoughinawarmplace,

80to85°F/27to30°C.Thedoughwilldevelopastrong,yeastyflavor.Tomake breadwith amore delicate and complex flavor, raise the

doughatcoolroomtemperature,70to75°F/20to25°Corbelow.Allow fermenting dough to rise until it has expanded significantly

andfeelslightandsoftratherthandenseandelasticwhenpoked.Scrapethedoughdownalongedgesandkneadgentlytodeflateitand

reorient the gluten network. If you have time, repeat the rising andscrapingdownformoreglutenandflavordevelopment.Retarding fermentation in the refrigerator is a very useful

technique.Refrigeratortemperaturesslowyeastmetabolismanddoughrisingtoacrawl.Theyalsofirmthedoughandmakeiteasiertohandle.Refrigeratethedoughtodelaybakingforadayormore.Mixabatch

of dough ahead of time, refrigerate it, and use portions to bake freshbreadonseveraldifferentdays.Foranopen,rusticinteriorstructure,refrigeratefermenteddoughfor

12 to 24 hours after the final rise, or after forming loaves. Thisredistributestheinnergasestoformfewerandlargerbubbles.

FORMINGANDRAISINGLOAVES

Givethedoughtimetorestwhenyoudivideitandformloaves.Pauseregularlytoalloweachpiecetositforafewminutes.Handlingstretchesthedough and causes it to pull back and resist shaping, but it relaxeswhenrested.For a fine-textured, dense bread to be used for sandwiches or over

severaldays,formthedoughintolarge,roundloaves.For amore open, irregular interior andmaximum crustiness, form

elongatedorsmall,dividedloavessuchasbaguettes,ciabattas,androlls.Thinor small loaves expand faster in theovenandhavemore surface

areaforformingthecrust.Toencourageawell-aeratedinterior,supportshapedloavesforrising

in bread pans, bowls, or baskets. Choose darkmetal or glass pans forfasterbakingandadarker,thickercrust.Topreventthestickingofloavesthatwillbeturnedoutfrombowlsor

baskets,linecontainerswithflouredclothsprinkledwithwheatbranorwithcornmeal,finelygroundtoavoidgrittiness.Allow formed loaves to rise until they’ve expanded but are still

springytothetouch.Toencourageexpansionduringbakingandtodecoratetheloaf,slash

shallow-angled cuts into the top of loaves with a razor blade or verysharpknife.Cutjustbeforebaking.Thiswillallowtheexpandingmoistinteriortopushthehardeningcrustasideandrisethroughit.

BAKING

Baking cooks a soft, fragilemass of dough into a stable, solid loaf ofbread.Ovenheatcausesthegasbubblestoexpandandtheloaftorise,andthensetsthestarchandglutenintoarigidstructure.Severalinitialminutesofsteamheatwillboostthedough’srisesignificantlyandcreateaglossycrust.Bakebreadinanelectricovenifyouhaveachoice.Electricovensare

usuallysealedmoretightlythangasovensandretainsteambetter.Toapproximatetheeven,highheatofatraditionalbreadoven,place

heat-retaining ceramic inserts or common bricks in the oven, andpreheatit longenoughtobringthemupto450°F/230°C.Modernovenheatingelementscycleonandoffandcanquicklyscorchloafsurfaces.Bake loaves on a baking stone or ceramic tiles instead of a baking

sheet to get the best initial rise and a thick, crunchy bottom crust.Preheattheovenforatleast30minutestogetthestoneortileshot.Tofillanovenwithsteam,fillalargecast-ironpanwithcleanpebbles

orsmallrocks,aheavysteelchain,orlargeballbearings.Placeitintheovenbelowortothesideofwhereyou’llplacetheloaves.Preheattheovenandpantotheoven’shighesttemperatureforatleast30minutes.

Whenyouslidetheloavesintotheoven,tossadozenicecubesintothepan and quickly close the oven door. Be careful: misdirected ice cancrack baking stones and warp oven floors, and steam burns skininstantly.Lowerthetemperatureto450°F/230°C.To use the dough’s own moisture to create steam, bake in a clay

bakingclocheorinapotandlid,whichmakeanintimateovenwithintheoven.Preheatthepotandlidalongwiththeoven,removethemandcarefullyrollthedoughintothepot,cover,andreturnittotheoven.Minimizebumpsandshockstothedoughloavesasyoutransferthem

to theoven; thesepopgasbubblesanddeflate thedough.Wetdoughscan tolerate somedeflation since they’re loose andquickly reinflate intheoven.Turntheloavesoutontoarimlesspanorbaker’speel,aflatpaddledesignedforslidingbreadsinandoutoftheoven.Coattheloafbottomsand/orthepanorpeelwithwheatbran,orlinethesurfacewithparchment paper, to help the loaves slide without sticking. Leave thepaperunder thebreaduntil it’s fullybaked, or baked enough that thepapereasilypullsfree.Turndowntheovenheatafter10 to15minutes to400°F/200°C to

prevent scorching by the heating elements. If loaves are browningunevenly,turnandmovethem.Check the loaves fordonenesswhen thecrust turnsanevenbrown.

Tappingon thebottomofa fully cooked loaf shouldmakea resonant,hollow sound. An instant-read thermometer inserted into the loaf willregisterabove200°F/93°C.For a thicker crust, or if you’re in doubt about doneness, keep

baking,turningdowntheheatto250to300°F/120to150°Cifthecrustisgettingdark.Coolfinishedloavesonastove-topgrateorarack,notasolidsurface

thatwilltrapmoistureandsoftenthebottomcrust.Resistthetemptationtocutthebreadwhileit’sstillhot.Evenasharp

knifewilltearandcompactthesoftinterior.Cooltheloavescompletelybeforewrappingthemforstorage.

UNUSUALRAISEDBREADS:BAGELSANDSWEETBREADS

Somepopularraisedbreadscallforspecialhandling.Bagels are small, chewy bread rings with a shiny crust and denseinterior. Use high-gluten bread flour tomake a dry, stiff dough. Aftermaking the dough and forming rings, retard them in the refrigeratorovernight. Briefly immerse the warmed rings in simmering waterflavoredwithmaltsyruptodevelopthecrust,thenbakethem.Brioche,panettone,andothersweetandenrichedbreadsrequireseveral adjustments to the standardmethodsdue to their added sugar,eggs,and/orbutter.Largeamountsofsugarslowyeastgrowthandcauserapid browning in the oven. Eggs and butter weaken gluten. Goodrecipes call for extra yeast, longer rising times, and lower bakingtemperatures, andoftendirect that eggs andbutter be addedafter theother ingredients aremixed and kneaded tomake the gluten. Chillingfirmsenricheddoughssothey’reeasiertohandleandshape.

FLATBREADS:PITA,TORTILLAS,ROTI,NAAN,INJERA,CRACKERS,ANDOTHERS

Flatbreadsaretraditionalconveniencefoods,thequickestwaytoenjoythe deliciousness of fresh-baked bread. It takes just a few minutes tomakethedough,rollitoutthin,andcookitonahotsurface.To make flatbreads even more convenient, keep the dough in therefrigerator for up to aweek, andpull off pieces to cook immediatelywheneveryouwantthem.Flatbreadscanbemadefromanygrainthatwillformadoughlikepaste,andevenfromchickpeas,aseedlegume.Whole-grainfloursmakeespecially flavorful and nourishing flatbreads. Leavenedwheat doughsmakeespeciallypuffy,lightones.Tomaketenderunleavenedflatbreads,rollorpressthedoughoutto1/8to1/4inch/3to6millimetersthick,andcookbrieflyonhighheat.Thickersheetsandlowerheatslowcookingandproducetougherbreads.Leaveneddoughsaretenderizedbytheirbubblesandcanbemadeinarangeofthicknesses.Cookmostflatbreadsonaveryhotstove-topgriddleorapanwithalow rim, or on a ceramic baking stone in an oven preheated to

500°F/260°C. Avoid nonstick surfaces that can’t tolerate high heat.Checkcookingtemperatureswithaninfraredthermometerorbyflickingflour onto the hot surface; it should start to brown in a few seconds.Turnthedoughoccasionallyuntilthesurfacesblisteranddarken.Stackthebreadstogethertokeepthemwarmandmoistuntilthey’reserved.Tomakepocketbreadswhose twosidespuffapart, rolloutorpressthedough toa thicknessof1/8 inch/3millimeters.Thicker sheets areoftentoodensetosplitevenlyduringcooking.To restore the softness of leftover flatbreads, reheat them directlyover a low stove-top flame, on amedium-hot griddle, or between twoplatesinthemicrowave.To make dry crackers, roll the dough very thin, dock it by gentlypressingforktinesintothesurfacetolimitblistering,cutitintopieces,andbaketheminamoderateovenuntildryandcrisp.

PIZZAS

Pizzas are leavened flatbreads that are decorated with a variety oftoppings. They’re made in many different styles and may be thin orthick,brittleorchewyorsoft,bakedonametalpan,ceramicstone,orevenonanoutdoorgrill.Pizzas in the original style of Naples, Italy, are thin-crusted disksbakedon stone inveryhotovens for just2 to3minutesuntil slightlycharred. Pizzas baked on oiled metal pans partly fry and must cooklongertogetcrisp.Grilledpizzasaremadebygrillingthedoughaloneuntilstiff,thenaddingtoppingsandfinishing.Themainchallengesinpizzamakingarestretchingthedoughintoathin sheet, sliding a Naples-style disk intact onto a baking stone, andgettingthetopbubblingandthecrustwellbrowned.Toeasethehandlingofpizzadough:

Mixarelativelywetdoughthatwillspreadeasily.Oncethedoughhasrisen,punchitdownthoroughlytoeliminategaspocketsthatwouldblisterintheoven.Dividethedoughintorelativelysmallpiecesthatwillformmanageable

plate-sizedisksratherthanpizzeriadiameters.Ifthere’stime,chillthemtomakethemlesselastic.Pullorrolloutthepieces,restingthedoughregularlytorelaxitsglutenandloweritsresistancetostretching.Forthin-crustpizzas,aimforathicknessof1/8to3/16inch/3to5millimeters.Forthecrispest,mostflavorfulcrust,preparedoughdiskssothatyoucanslidethemontoapreheatedbakingstoneintheoven.Formorplacethemonarimlesspanorbakingpeellinedforeasierslidingwithapieceofparchmentpapercuttosize,orgenerouslysprinkledwithwheatbran.Applytoppingssparingly,sparsely,andwithalighttouch,toavoidweighingthedoughdown,causingittosticktothepeel,orproducingasoggyresult.Precookvegetabletoppingsthatwon’tsofteninafewminutesofhighheat,andsqueezeoutanysurplusmoisture.

Preheat the oven to its maximum temperature. If using a bakingstone,placeitjustaboveorbelowaheatingelement.Ifthestoneisjustbelowthebroiler,placeasecondstoneorbakingsheetonalowerracktofinishpizzaswhosetopscookfasterthanthecrust.Slide the pizza briskly onto the baking stone, or place the bakingsheetintheoven.Makesurethatnoignitableparchmentedgesendupclosetothebroiler.Foracrisperbaking-sheetcrust,placethesheetonthe oven floor or just above the lower heating element. Remove thepizzawhenthetopissizzlingandthebottomwellcolored.Tokeeppizzacrustsascrispaspossible,transferthemfromtheovento a cooling rack, and cut them using kitchen shears. Crusts quicklysoftenwhenplacedhotagainstacuttingboardorplatethattrapssteam.

QUICKBREADS

Quickbreadsincludescones,sodabread,andcornbread.Theyaremadeand raised inminuteswith baking powder and/or baking soda, ratherthan with slow-growing yeasts. They’re tender rather than chewy,relatives of cakes andmuffins that usually contain less sugar and fat.Theystalequickly.

Chemicalleaveningsarehandybutquirky.Bakingsodarequiresanacid partner, often buttermilk, to generate carbon dioxide. Bakingpowderisacompleteleavenerthatcontainsbothbakingsodaandoneormoreacidpartners.Use fresh baking soda and baking powder. Old batches lose theirleaveningpowerandhaveanoffflavor.Make sure that there’s a partner acid in recipes calling for bakingsoda.Ifnot,theresultwillbedenseandtastesoapy.Blend baking soda or baking powder thoroughly with other dryingredients. This can take a full 60 seconds of whisking. Unevenlydistributedleaveningcancauseanuneventextureandbrownspotsandotheroddcolors,includinggreencarrotshredsandbluewalnuts.Mixwetanddryingredientsbrieflyandbakeimmediately.Chemicalleaveningsbegintoreleasesomecarbondioxideassoonastheygetwet.Manipulation of the dough or batter toughens the gluten and thetexture.For quick breads that stale less quickly, use recipes that includewholegrains,someoil,fat,eggyolk,and/orsugar,orthatcallforbothbakingpowderandanacidicingredient.Atartloafstalesmoreslowly.Restorestalequickbreadsbyreheatingthem.BiscuitsAmericanstylearemadefromdoughsrichwithbutter,lard,orshorteningandraisedwithbakingpowderorsodaandsteam.They’reeitherstiffenoughtoroll to1/2 inch/13millimeters thickandcutoutinto disks, or they’re very tender free-formmorsels. Biscuits are smallandbakequickly,andrequireahotoventopuffthemup.Makebiscuitdoughwithalow-proteinflour,andhandlethedoughaslittleaspossible,tominimizeglutenformationandchewiness.UseasoftflourfromthesoutheasternUnitedStates,orpastryflour,oramixtureof2partsall-purposeflourwith1partcornstarch.Make sure the cutter has a sharp edge. Pressed edges inhibitexpansionandriseduringbaking.Bakebiscuitsinaveryhotoventomaximizesteamproductioninsidethedough.

FRIEDBREADS:DOUGHNUTSANDFRITTERS

Doughnuts and fritters are deep-fried pieces of dough. Some are alsomade from more liquid batters. Doughnuts are usually sweet, whilefrittersmaybesweetorsavory.Frymostdoughnutsandfrittersinafreshneutraloil.Avoidstrongly

flavoredcornandoliveoils.For doughnuts or fritters to be served cool, fry in shortening or

anotherfatthatissolidatroomtemperature.Thisleavesthedoughnutsurfacedryandwaxyratherthangreasy.Keep the oil temperature around 350°F/175°C. Lower temperatures

increase oil absorption; higher temperatures will brown the doughsurfacesexcessivelybefore the interior cooks through.The sweeter thedough, the faster it will brown. Don’t crowd the pot with too manypiecesofdough,whichwilldroptheoiltemperaturetoofarandslowitsrecovery.Shakeoff excessoil immediatelyandvigorously as you remove the

doughnuts or fritters, while the oil on their surfaces is still hot andrunny.

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18

PASTRIESANDPIES

astriesofferthepleasuresofdryness,thecrispandcrumblyandflakyandbrowned.Likebreads,pastriesaremixturesofgroundgrains and water and air, cooked into a solid mass. But they

containverylittlewaterandincludeatenderizingmeasureoffat,whichbreaks up their structure and prevents them from being simply hard.Some pastries stand on their own, while others serve as contrastingcontainersformoistfruits,richcustards,andsavorystewsandpâtés.Pastrymakingcanbeachallengebecausesomerecipesworkrightat

theedgeoffailure.Theremaybebarelyenoughmoisturetoholdthingstogether, or just a few degrees separatingworkable butter consistencyfrom either dough-ripping hardness or dough-weakening softness. Thedoughlayersinstrudelandphylloandpuffpastryendupthinnerthanahumanhair,andonadrydaycanhardenandcrackinmoments.The methods for making these very fine pastry layers involve very

specific manipulations of the dough, long and tedious to describe inwords,butquicklyandeffectivelydemonstrated.HereI’llsticktobasicdescriptions of the methods and how they work. For the turn-by-turndetailsand tricks,watch someof themanygoodvideodemonstrationsontheWeb.I’vefoundthat,asistrueofbaking,thebestwaytomakegoodpastry

is to make it often, ideally every day or two, so you can experiencefailureand learn to recognize landmarkson theway to success. Ifyoumakepastryonlyoccasionally,thenrelaxandenjoyyourexplorationofthis unique branch of baking. Most failed crusts still taste good. Andyou’llappreciatetheartistryofanexcellentpastrymorethanever.

PASTRYSAFETY

Mostpastriesposenohazardtohealth.They’rethoroughlycookedandinhospitablydryformicrobes.Filled pastries, especially those containing eggs, dairy products, ormeats,maybemoistandrichenoughtoharborharmfulbacteria,thoughthey’recommonlykeptatroomtemperatureformanyhours.To minimize the risk of foodborne illness from filled pastries, eatthempromptly,orstorethemintherefrigeratororfreezerandreheattoaminimumof160°F/70°Cbeforeserving.

SHOPPINGFORPASTRYINGREDIENTSANDSTORINGPASTRIES

Mostpastryingredientsarestandardpantryitems:floursandsugars,fatsandoils.Of course it’s best for them tobe as fresh as possible so youdon’tstartoutwithstaleflavors.Read recipes carefully to make sure you have or buy the correctingredients. There are many different flours and sugars and fats, andthey’reoftennotinterchangeable.Store uncooked pie crusts, puff pastry, and other pastry doughs inthefreezer,wellwrappedtoprotectagainstoffodorsandfreezerburn.Some can be baked directly from the freezer. Thaw others in therefrigeratorbeforeusingthem.Storefinishedpastrieswithoutdairyormeatfillingsinabreadboxorpaperbagforadayortwoinadryclimate,wrappedtightlyinahumidclimate. Wrap them tightly and refrigerate or freeze them for longerkeeping.Storefinishedpastrieswithdairyormeatfillingswrappedtightlyintherefrigeratorforafewdaysorfreeze.

SPECIALTOOLSFORPASTRYMAKING

A number of special utensils are good to have on handwhenmakingpastries.Amarbleorgraniteslabhasahighheatcapacityandhelpskeepthefat fromwarmingandsofteningexcessivelyaspastrydoughsaremade

andshaped.Arollingpinmakesitpossibletoformpastrydoughsintoevenlythinsheets.Rollingpinsaremadefromwood,metal,andplastic,indifferentshapesandsizes,withandwithouthandles.Plasticandnonsticksurfacesusuallydosticklessandareeasiertoclean.Rollingpinspacersarebandsthatfitovertheendsofarollingpintoliftitacertainheightfromtherollingsurface.Theymakeiteasiertorollpastryevenlytoaspecificthickness.Pastrytubesandbagsaretoolsforextrudingorpipingchouxpastrydough and other soft ingredients (whipped cream, pastry cream,decorativeicings)intoneatshapesorpatterns.Tartandpiepansdeterminehowovenheatpenetratespastrydoughsduringbaking.Theycomeinmanyfinishes,shapes,anddimensions,allofwhichaffectheatingandmayrequireadjustments inbakingtimeortemperature. Heavy metal pans with a dull surface are a goodgeneralpurposechoice.

PASTRYINGREDIENTS:FLOURSANDSTARCHES

Several different kinds of flours and starches are used to make thecohesive, solid part of pastries. They’re very different and can’t bedirectly substituted for each other. Low-protein pastry and cake floursformamoretenderglutenthanmoderate-proteinall-purposeflours,andabsorb less water. So the same amount of water that produces a firmdoughwithall-purposeflourmayproduceawetstickyonewithpastryorcakeflour.Usetheflourspecifiedinarecipe,orbereadytoadjustproportionsandhandlingtocompensatefornotdoingso.Raisetheproteincontentofaflourbyaddingsomevitalgluten,orloweritbyaddingcornstarch.All-purpose flours have a versatile medium protein content, but itvariessignificantlyamongbrandsandregionsofthecountry.Trytousethebrandsspecifiedinrecipes,orbeawareofthepossibleneedtomakeadjustments.SouthernU.S.brandstendtobelowerinproteinandbetterfor tender pastries, northeastern and northwestern brands higher inproteinandbetterforflakypastries.Nationalbrandsaremostbalanced

andversatile.Pastryflour is low inprotein formaking tender crusts and cookies.

It’s oftenhard to find in supermarkets.Toapproximate it,mix2partsall-purposeflourwith1partcakeflour(measuringbyeitherweightorvolume).Cakeflour is low in protein and chemically treated tomake tender

cakesthatcanhandlelargeproportionsofsugarandfat.Toapproximateit,mix6partsall-purposeflourwith1partcornstarch.Breadflourishighinstrongglutenproteinandsometimescalledfor

incrispchouxandpuffpastries.Whole-wheatflourissometimesusedforitsricherflavor,color,and

nutritional value. It quickly goes stale and becomes bitter and rancid.Checksell-bydatesonpackages,andstorethemtightlywrappedintherefrigeratororfreezer.Letthemwarmagaintoroomtemperaturebeforeopening.Precooked or instant flours, often packaged as a quick gravy

ingredient,aresometimesusedtomakepastrydoughseasiertohandle.They behave more like starch than flour, and have a characteristiccookedflavor.Cornstarchisaprotein-freepurestarchoftenusedtothickenfruitpie

fillings,andtolowertheeffectiveproteincontentofall-purposeflourfortenderpastries.Tapioca and tapioca starch are protein-free starches that are also

used to thicken fruit pie fillings. They produce a clearer filling thancornstarch.

PASTRYINGREDIENTS:FATSANDOILS

Fatsgiveflavor,moistness,andrichnesstopastries,buttheirmainjobisto break up the dough’s structure andmake it flaky or crumbly. Solidbutter, lard, and shortening can make flaky or crumbly pastries.Semisolidpoultryfatsandliquidoilsmaketendercrumblypastries.Low-fatspreadsdon’tworkinpastrymaking.Fatsdevelopstale,rancidflavorswhenexposedtoairandlight,and

thesecanspoilotherwisewell-madepastries.Check fats for off flavors before using. Scrape away any discoloredsurfaceareasfrombutter,lard,orshortening.Ifmeasuringfromastickoffat,besuretocompensateforanyyou’vescrapedoff.Butter isdeliciousandcanmakeexcellentpastries,but is trickier toworkwith than shorteningwhenmaking flakypastries. It’s brittle andunworkablewhenverycold,pliableoverarangeofafewdegrees,andthenunworkablysoftatwarmroomtemperatureandabove.Butterisalsoabout15percentwater,andmaybesalted.“European-style” butters generally containmore fat and lesswater than standardAmerican butters. Most pastry recipes specify unsalted butter.Substitutionswillrequireadjustmentsinaddedwaterand/orsalt.Lard, fat rendered from the pig, is soft but melts at a highertemperature than butter, and makes good flaky pastries. It readilydevelops off flavors and may already be stale when bought. Mostcommerciallardcontainsantioxidantsandisalsohydrogenatedtoslowthis deterioration, and therefore may contain unhealthful trans fats.Choose lardwithasell-bydatewell in the future,and look for freshlyrenderedlardinbutchershopsandethnicmarkets.Vegetable shortenings are made by chemical manipulation ofvegetableoilstobeanidealsolidfatforpastryandcakes,workableoverabroadtemperaturerange,andprefilledwithtinyleaveningbubblesofnitrogengas.They’reeitherflavorlessorartificiallyflavoredtoresemblebutter.Mostnolongerhaveanytransfats.Vegetable oils are liquid at room temperature and can’t form theseparatesheetsthatbutterandshorteningdotomakeaflakystructureindoughs.Theytenderizeandmoistenthroughoutthedough.

OTHERPASTRYINGREDIENTS

Pastrydoughsoftenincludeanumberofotheringredientsthatcanaffectbothflavorandtexture.Saltcontributestoabalancedtasteinallpastries,savoryorsweet.Sugarmakespastriesmore tender aswell as sweetening them,by

absorbing moisture and limiting gluten development. In low-moisturedoughs, powdered confectioners’ sugar dissolves most quickly andreliably.Liquid ingredients are usually added to pastry doughs last, to

minimizeglutendevelopmentthatmakesthedoughtoughandpastrieschewy. The ratio of water to flour is critical for determining theconsistencyofadoughandthetextureofthepastryitmakes.Vinegar or some other acid is often included to limit gluten

developmentandmakepastrydoughsmorepliable.Eggs provide cohesiveness; yolks also contribute color, richness, and

flavor.Checkanduse theeggsize specified inrecipes.Adifferent sizewill

throwoffthecriticalbalancebetweenliquidandflour.Dairy products, from simple milk and cream to cream cheese and

aged cheeses, contribute tenderizing fat, add their own flavor, andpromotefasteranddeeperbrowning.

THEESSENTIALSOFPASTRYMAKING

Mostpastriesaremadefromastiffdoughofflourandjustenoughwatertoholdtheflourparticlestogether,alongwithfatoroilthatinterruptsthe dough structure and makes the baked pastry fragile and tenderinsteadofhard.Pastrystructureandtexturearecreatedbythecook’schoiceoffat

oroil,andthetechniqueusedtocombineitwiththeflour.

Apastrywillcrumbleintosmallbitsinthemouthifyouworkanyfatoroilthoroughlyintotheflour.Apastrywillcomeapartinthin,broadflakesifyoubreakasolidfatintochunksandrollitoutintothinsheetsthatseparatethemassofflourintolayers.Thoselayersbecomeseparatedoughlayers,andbakeintoseparateflakesofpastry.

Making pastry requires greater precision than other kinds ofcooking. Small differences in ingredients, proportions, pan materials,

and handling can make big differences in the finished pastry. Pastryrecipesareoftenverypreciseforthatreason.Evenso:Norecipecantellyoupreciselywhattodowithyourparticularset

ofingredientsandpansandoven.If you can,make pastries often to develop eyes and fingertips that

knowwhenadoughneedsa littlemorewaterora littlemore time towarmup.

MIXINGANDFORMINGPASTRYDOUGHS

Thethreebasicrulesformakingpastrydoughsare:

Measuretheingredientsprecisely.Keeptheingredientscoolorcold.Handlethedoughaslittleaspossible,justlongenoughtodistributealltheingredients.

Each rule helpsminimize the development of stretchy gluten in theflour, which would result in a tough pastry that shrinks during thebaking.Measureingredientsbyweightwheneverpossible.Ifarecipespecifies

onlyvolumes,besuretomeasurethemasdirected.Sifting,leveling,andotherdetailscanchangeingredientvolumessignificantly.Sift dry ingredients after measuring to make them easier to mix

evenlywiththewater.Crumbly pastry doughs are relatively forgiving because the

tenderizingfatisworkedevenlyintotheflour.Thefatcanbegintomeltwithout affecting the dough structure, and it gives added insuranceagainstglutendevelopmentduringthemixingandhandling.Flaky and layered doughs require careful temperature control

andhandling, to keep the pieces of solid fat pliable but not soft andlimitglutendevelopmentinthedoughbetweenthefatpieces.Workinacoolpartofthekitchen,inthecoolpartoftheday.Startwithprechilledingredientsandbowls.

Minimize heat from hands and high-energymachines. Pulsemixersand processors briefly on and off. Stop and chill the dough if the fatbeginstogettoosoft.Keepthedoughtemperaturecool,around58to68°F/15to20°Cwhenworking with butter, 58 to 75°F/15 to 25°C with lard. Shorteningsremainfirmenoughattemperaturesupto85°F/30°C.To mix most pastry doughs, combine fat and flour first, then justenoughcoolliquidtoholdthedoughtogether.Kneadjustlongenoughtowettheflourevenly.Bereadytoadjusttheliquidamount.Thecorrectproportiondependsonmanyunpredictabledetails of flour compositionand finenessof fatmixing.Todispersea small volumeofwater evenly into a flour-fatmixturewith minimal handling, use a water mister. First measure how manyspraysadduptoagivenvolumeorweight,thenspreadthemixtureoutandsprayacrossitsentiresurface.Rolloutthefinisheddoughimmediately,orrefrigerateforanhourormore todistribute themoistureevenly, relax thegluten,andmake thedougheasiertohandle.Flattendoughintoadiskbeforerefrigeratingtospeedcoolingandreducelaterrollingout.Storefreshpastrydoughsforseveraldaysintherefrigeratororweeksinthefreezer.Torolloutadoughthathasbeenrefrigerated,letitwarmupuntilitsfatsoftensanditcanbeworkedwithoutcracking.Roll dough out on a cold surface or cloth, rotating the dough toprevent sticking. If the dough resists or contracts, chill it for 5 to 10minutestorelaxtheelasticgluten.Chillrolled-outdoughbrieflyjustbeforebaking,toavoidshrinkingorslumpingwhenitheatsup.

BAKINGANDCOOLING

Pastrydoughsusuallycookquicklybecausethey’resothinanddry.Theycan also overcook quickly. So it’s good to know your oven well andwatchthebakingclosely.

Studyyourovenwhileitheatsupandduringcooking.Useaninfraredthermometer to check actual floor, roof, and wall temperatures at agiventhermostatsetting.Gettoknowwhereheatcomesfrom,andhowtocontrolittosuitparticularpastries.Oven heating elements switch on during baking—which you canhearasahissorclick—tomaintainthethermostattemperature.They’rehotenoughtoscorchpastriesiftheyswitchonoften.To avoid overbrowning pastries at the correct thermostat setting,keeptheheatingelementsoffasmuchaspossible.

Placeabakingstoneontheovenfloortoretainheatandshieldtheheatingelement.Orshieldwithasheetofkitchenfoil,shinysidefacingdown.Preheattheoven25to50°F/15to30°Chotterthanthebakingtemperaturesothatloadingtheovenwillbringitdowntothebakingtemperature.Thenresetthethermostattothebakingtemperature.Opentheovendoorasseldomandbrieflyaspossible.

To bake most pastries evenly, place them in a single layer on themiddle rack. Correct uneven heating by moving pans to differentpositionsduringbaking.Differentbakingpansandmoldsheatpastriesdifferently. Ifyouswitchtoadifferentkind,ordon’tusethekindspecifiedinarecipe,youmayneedtoadjustbakingtemperaturesortimes.Thesedifferencesarelessimportantinaconvectionoven.Thick, heavy metal pans heat more evenly and quickly than flimsyones. Shiny metal pans reflect heat away and heat slowly. Dull pansabsorbmoreheatandheatup faster.Dark-finishpansheat the fastest.Glasspanstransmitsomeheatradiationdirectlytothepastryandcookmorequicklythanopaqueceramicpans.Topreventedgesandsurfacesfromoverbrowningwhilepastriescookthrough,shieldthemwithpiecesoffoilorpastryguardsoncetheybegintocolor.Cool pastries on a rack, not on a solid surface. A rack provides

constantaircoolingand, forpastries removed fromthepan,anescaperouteforanyremainingmoisturethatwouldotherwisegettrappedandcompromisecrispness.

CRUSTS

Crusts are thin layers of dry pastry designed to support or containsomethingmoist,oftenfruits,acustardorcream,orapâté.Theyshouldbemoisture-resistanttopreventsogginess,andeasilycutforservingandeating.Thesimplestcrustsaresweetpressedcrusts.They’reformedfrom

thecrumbsofalreadypreparedbakedgoodsorgroundnuts,whicharemixedwith some combinationof butter, sugar, corn syrup, andwater,thenpressedintoapan,andbaked.Themoistingredientsdissolvesugarintoasyrupthatgluesthecrumbstogetherasitbakesanddries,whilethefatkeepssomecrumbsungluedandthestructureeasilyfractured.Toavoidhardnessinapressedcrust,includesomesugar-freeground

nutsorbreadcrumbs,andsomecornsyruptoweakenthesugarglue.Ifapressedcrustslumpsduringbaking,nexttimereducetheamount

offatandbakeatahighertemperature.Crustsmadefromrolled-outpastrydougharenamedinconsistently

and prepared in many different ways from one cookbook to another.Their texture dependsmainly on how the flour and fat aremixed, nomatterhowarecipeisnamedordescribed.There are twobasic styles of crustmade fromdoughs: crumbly

andflaky.Crumblycrustsarecrumblybecausethefatandflourarethoroughly

mixedbeforetheliquidwetstheflourintoadough.For themost tender and crumbly crust, choose a recipe thatmixes

softenedfatwithflourandthenaddsliquid.Themorefatand/orsugarinarecipe,themoretenderthecrust.Ifthedoughisdifficulttorollout,pressitintothepaninstead.Foramorecohesivecrumblycrust,replacethewaterwithegg,ormix

fatandliquidfirstandaddtheflourlast.

Flakycrustsbreakapartincrispflakesbecausethefatandflourarelayered in separate thin sheets before the liquidwets the flour into adough.Tomakeaflakycrust,cutchilledfatintosmallpea-sizepiecesinthe

flour, by hand or in a mixer or processor, then add liquid, form thedough,androlloutonceasasinglemass.For the flakiest crust, choose a recipe that first repeatedly rolls out

chilled fat chunks in flour to form hundreds of thin sheets, then addswatertoformthedough.For a tender flaky crust,work the dough as little as possible,with

frequentrestsintherefrigerator,toavoidtougheningthegluten.Somerulesapplytoallrolled-outcrusts.Tomake any crumbly or flaky crustmore tender, use pastry flour

insteadofall-purpose flour,orapproximatepastry flourbyreplacingathirdof theall-purpose flourwithcake flour,oraquarterwith instantflourorcornstarch.To roll out any pastry dough evenly to the correct thickness for a

crust,usespecialtyorimprovisedguidesateachendoftherollingpin.Roll from thedough center outward. It youdon’t have guides, lift therollingpinasyoureachtheedgetoavoidoverthinningit.Whenplacingpastrydoughinapanormold,avoidlettingitstretch,

whichthinsitandcanencourageittocontractwhenbaked.Refrigeratethedoughinthepanbeforebakingtorelaxtheglutenand

preventitfromshrinkingwhenbaked.

FILLEDCRUSTS:PIESANDTARTS

The challenge in making pies and tarts is to cook two very differentmaterials—a barelymoist dough and awet filling—so that the doughendsupverydryandcrispandthefillingthickandmoist.For a crust that best resists sogginess from wet fillings, choose a

crumblycrustmadewithegg.Flakycrustsmorereadilysoakupliquid.Tomakesure that thecrustwon’tbeundercookedand tominimize

sogginess,prebakethecrustinthepan“blind,”withoutfilling.Linethe

crust with parchment paper and weigh it down with dry beans orceramic pie weights for part of the prebaking. When weights areremoved,“dock”thedoughbypressingdownwithforktinestopreventblistering.Protectexposededgesfromexcessheatwithstripsofkitchenfoilorpieguards.Give the prebaked crust amoisture-resistant coating of beaten egg,

chocolate,meltedbutter,concentrated fruitpreserves,orpastrycream,or a layer ofmoisture-absorbent crumbs. For an eggwash, return thecrust to theoven fora fewminutesuntil thecoating isdry, then let itcoolbeforefillingandbaking.Fresh fruit fillings often release copious liquid and fail to thicken

well,especiallyifthefruithasbeensliced.To control the consistency of afresh fruit filling, concentrate and

thicken the juices before baking. Cut the fruit, toss it with sugar in acolander,andletthejuicesdrainintoabowl.Cookdownthejuicesuntilthick,recombinethemwiththefruitandthickener,andfillthecrust.For a translucent fruit filling, thicken the fruit juices with tapioca

insteadofflourorcornstarch.Bake fruit pies or tarts near theoven floor, or directly on abaking

stoneonthefloor,toensurerapidheatingofthebottomcrust.Creamandcustardpie fillingsmay fail to thicken in the oven, or

maythickenwellbutthenreliquefy.For cream and custard fillings thickened with eggs and flour or

starch,besuretoheattheflour-eggmixtureto180to190°F/80to85°C,either before or during baking. Undercooked egg yolks contain anenzymethatbreaksdownstarchandliquefiesfillings.Quichefillingsareeasilyovercookedanddriedout.Checkquichesfrequentlyduringbakingandremovefromtheovenas

soonasatoothpickorknifetipinsertedinthecentercomesoutclean.Allow quiches to cool until the custard is firm enough to cutwithoutslumping.Lemonmeringuepies oftenweep liquid from themeringue surface

orthebottom,whereitfloatsthemeringuefromthefilling.Make a stable meringue topping by using powdered sugar that

includes cornstarch andplacing themeringueon a lemon filling that’sstillhot.Ormakeaprecookedmeringueonthestovetop,thenplaceonthe pie and finish it in the oven to warm it through and brown theedges.Ensure a stable lemon filling by cooking the cornstarch-sugar-egg

mixture to 180 to 190°F/80 to 85°C, and adding the lemon juiceafterwardofftheheat.

PUFFPASTRYFORTARTSANDNAPOLEONS,CROISSANTS,ANDDANISHPASTRIES

Puff pastry is the ultimate flaky pastry.Where pie pastry is flaky butdense, puff pastry is a light and airy mass of crisp, paper-thin pastrysheets.Puffpastryrequiresconsiderablecareandseveralhourstomake.You

encloseamassofbutterinaflourdough,andthenrepeatedlyrolloutinone direction, fold up, quarter-turn, and roll again, until you’vemadehundredsofalternatingbutter-dough layers.When it’sbaked,moisturein the dough and butter vaporizes and puffs the greased dough layersapart.Thekeytopuffpastryismanagingthetemperatureofthebutterand

theelasticityof thedough, so that the twomaterialscanberolledouttogetherevenlyandfinely.Thedoughisrefrigeratedrepeatedlysothatthe butter can cool down and the dough gluten can relax betweenrollings.Therearemanydifferentwaystomakegoodpuffpastry.Recipes

oftenrunfivepagesormoreandcanbeintimidatinglyprecise,buttheydiffer on many basic points, some even calling for precooked instantflour.Find a recipe with clear and encouraging directions, and watch

videosofthetechniqueontheWeb.Pay special attention to the quality and consistency of the butter.

Trim good butter of any surface discoloration and rancidity. Keep itstemperaturearound60°F/15°C.Ifmuchcolder,itwilltearthedough;ifwarmeritwillmeltintoitanddamagethelayering.

Makeaquick,lessformalversionofpuffdoughinabout2hours.Cutbutterintosmallpieceswithflour,addcoolwater,andgatherintoastiffdough;thenrollout, fold,giveaquarter-turn,andrepeat;andrest thedoughintherefrigerator.Repeatthissequenceonceortwice.Cut any puff-pastry doughwith a very sharp knife and by pressing

down,notbackandforth.Forthebestrise,thedoughedgesshouldbecompressedorsmearedaslittleaspossible.Chillandrelaxthedoughafterthefinalrollingandcuttingtoprevent

shrinkingintheoven.Bakeatahighinitialoventemperaturetomaximizesteamproduction

andpuffingup.To use frozenmanufactured dough, thaw it in the refrigerator and

bringittocoolroomtemperaturebeforecutting.Croissants and Danish pastries are made from puff-pastry doughs

thatincludeyeast.Oncethedoughsareformed,they’reallowedtorisebeforebaking.Danish doughmixes eggs and sugarwith the flour. Croissant dough

includesmilkand isallowedtorisebeforebeing foldedandrolledoutwithbutter.CroissantandDanishdoughsrequireespeciallycarefulhandling.They’resofterandmorefragilethanstandardpuff-pastrydough.

PHYLLOANDSTRUDEL

Phylloandstrudelareastoundinglydelicatepastries,madefromasinglesheet of dough stretched to the thickness of a human hair. They’rewrappedorrolledaroundafruitorvegetableormeatfilling,orstacked,thenbakeduntilgoldenandcrisp.Phylloandstrudeldoughsareespeciallytrickytomake.It’snecessary

tostretchoutandhandleagossamer-thinsheetofdough3or4feetindiameter without having it tear, and to work quickly to prevent thesheet fromdryingout and cracking.Watchvideosof the techniqueontheWeb.Useahigh-proteinflourthatdevelopsastronggluten,andincludeoil

tohelpmakethedoughlesselastic.Approximate strudel by overlapping manufactured phyllo sheets tomakethedesireddimensions.To use frozen manufactured phyllo sheets, thaw them in therefrigerator. Keep the sheets covered or brush with oil or butter toprotectthemfromdryingoutandcracking.

CHOUXPASTRIES:CREAMPUFFSANDGOUGÈRES

Chouxor cream-puff pastry is unlike all other pastries. It bakes into athin, crisp crust, but it starts out as a solid ball of moist precookeddough.Highheatfromanovenorfryingoilsetstheoutside,vaporizesthemoistureontheinside,andinflatestheballintoacrisp,hollowshell(choux, pronounced “shoo,” is French for “cabbage”.) The shells areservedasisorfilledwithwhippedcream,pastrycream,oricecream.Tomakechouxpastrydough:

Boilwaterormilkinasaucepantogetherwithbutter,fat,oroil.Removethepanfromtheheatandbeatinflourtoformathickpaste.Heatandbeatthepasteforafewminutestocookitthroughandremovesomemoisture.Removefromtheheatandbeatintheeggsonebyone,toblendthemmoreevenly.Ifusingafoodprocessorforthisstep,beattheeggstogetherinabowlandthenpourslowlyontothedough.

To prepare choux dough that will bake into the lightest, crispestshells, use water instead of milk or cream, bread flour instead of all-purpose flour,moreeggwhites thanyolks,andenough liquid tomakethe dough as fluid as possible while still able to hold its shapewhenspooned or squeezed from the tip of a pastry pipe.Milk fat and yolksproducearicher,softerpastry.Tomakeespeciallylightversionsofcheese-flavoredgougères,replacetheusualGruyèrewithadriergratingcheesesuchasParmesan.Usethedoughimmediatelyorrefrigerateitforuptoaday.Spacethespoonedorpipeddoughwithroomtoexpandonthebaking

sheet. Use a nonstick or greased surface that will readily release thestickydough.For crisper shells, shape the dough into small balls that will makethinner walls. Large shells may end up soft and heavy enough tocollapse.Bake inahot400 to450°F/200 to230°Coven to generate a goodburstofleaveningsteam.Watchpuffsandturndowntheheatwhentheybegin to color, to dry them out. When they’re fully colored, turn theoven off, cut knife slits in the crust bottoms to let steam escape, andleavetocontinuecrispinginthecoolingoven.To keep and use finished choux pastries, freeze them wrappedairtight,andrecrispthemdirectlyfromthefreezerinamediumoven.To bake an approximation of deep-fried choux pastry, prepare theshapeddoughasaboveandbrushthesurfaceswithoilbeforebaking.

C

19

CAKES,MUFFINS,ANDCOOKIES

akesindulgeourprimalloveofthesweetandrich,andmaketheidealfoodforcelebrationsofallkinds.Likebreadsandpastries,cakesaremixturesofgroundgrainsandwaterandair.Butthey

fleshoutthesebarestructuralboneswithsugar,fat,andeggs,andformtendermassesthatfallapartdeliciouslyinthemouth.Andwedecoratethem with even sweeter, richer glazes and icings, pleasure piled onpleasure.Where pastries challenge the cook with scantness, by working with

barelyenoughwatertoholdtheflourandfattogether,cakeschallengewithplenitude,byloadingtheflourwithasmuchsugarandfatasitcansupport. Food manufacturers have even gone to the trouble ofdevelopingspecialflours,shortenings,andmixestomaximizesweetnessandrichness.These ingredientsaccomplish that taskwell,butmaynotproducethemostdeliciouscake.Iwasn’treadingingredientlistsduringmyearlycake-eatingyears.ButIdidstickafinger—once—intoacanofshortening,andcanstillrememberhowwaxyanddeaditseemedinmymouth.Ireallydidn’tcareforcakeuntilIwasinmytwentiesandtastedonemadebyalocalbakerwhousedbutterforbothcakeandicing.ThatwasthemomentwhenIunderstoodwhatcakesareallabout.Whetheryouchoosetraditionalor“improved”ingredientsformaking

cakes,you’llwanttouseagoodelectricmixer,whichcanaerateacakebatter inminutes instead of the hour or two called for in nineteenth-centuryrecipes,wheretherecommendedapplianceisamanservant.Andyou’ll want to pay special attention to cake pans. The right size isimportant,sobeforeyoustartmixingthebatter,besuretocheckwhattherecipecallsforandwhatyou’vegot.Cookies are miniature sweet baked goods of all sorts, from little

pastries to littlecakes.Because they’resmallandcooksoquickly, they

bakebytheirownrules.

CAKEANDCOOKIESAFETY

Cakesandcookies seldomposeanyhealthhazard apart from theirconcentrated calories. They’re thoroughly cooked and inhospitably dryandsweetformostmicrobes.Uncookedor lightly cooked icingsmadewith eggs canpose a slightriskofsalmonellacontamination.To ensure that icings are safe, use pasteurized eggs or a techniquethatcookstheeggstoaminimumof160°F/70°C,andstoreleftoversintherefrigerator.

SHOPPINGFORCAKEANDCOOKIEINGREDIENTSANDSTORINGCAKES

Most baking ingredients are pantry staples and don’t require specialselection,excepttochoosethematerialsspecified inrecipes.Therearemanydifferent flours, fats, leavenings,andegg sizes,and they’reoftennotinterchangeable.Keepleftovercakecoveredatcoolroomtemperatureforadayortwo,refrigeratedforseveraldays,orfrozenformonths.Covercutsurfacescloselywithwraporfoiltopreventdryingout.Tofreezecake,placeinthefreezerlongenoughtofirmthefrosting,thenwrapittightlyinplasticwrap,andtheninathickerplasticbagorfoiltoblockoffodors.To thaw a cake with frosting, unwrap the cake and thaw it in therefrigerator, ideally covered with a cake dome or inverted bowl, topreventmoisture fromcondensingonthe frosting.Thenbring itout toroomtemperature.Tothawacakewithoutfrosting,leaveitwrappedandwarmitonthekitchencounter.

SPECIALTOOLSFORMAKINGCAKESANDCOOKIES

Anumberof specializedutensilsandappliancesmakecakeandcookiepreparationeasier.A scale is especially valuable in cakemaking, where accurate flourmeasurementsareessentialforgoodresults.Afloursifterorfine-meshstrainerhelpsaeratedryflour,cocoa,andleavenings,sothatthey’llmixmorereadilyandevenlywithfatandwetingredients.Siftingdoesnotdoagoodjobofblendingdryingredients;dothiswithahandorelectricwhiskinstead.A countertop stand electricmixer with a “planetary”motion thatmoves thewhisk around thebowl does the best job of beatingbattersandcoatingsforthe5to15minutesoftenrequired.Ahandheldelectricmixer canmixcakebatterswell,providedyoumoveitallaroundthebowl.It’snotpowerfulenoughforbeatingsomestifficings.Mixingbowls hold the batterwhile it’s beaten. Thinmetal has theadvantage of quick heat transfer in case the batter needs cooling orwarming. Invest in several 2-to 4-quart bowls, sincemany recipes callforseparatemixingofgroupsofingredients.Cakepansdeterminehowovenheatpenetratesthebattertoraiseandsetit.Theycomeinmanyfinishes,shapes,anddimensions,allofwhichaffect heating and may require adjustments in baking time ortemperature.Mostimportantisthatthebatterfillthepanbetweentwo-thirds and three-quarters full. Too large a pan will shield the cakebottom from oven heat; too small a panwill let the expanding batteroverflow.Sheet pans andbaking sheets formaking sheet cakes and cookiesarebestmadeofheavy-gaugemetal thatwon’twarpas it heatsuporcoolsdown.Parchmentpapercanlinepanbottomsandeaseremovalofcakes.Nonsticksprays that containoil, lecithin, and sometimes flourhelpgrease pan interiors to ease removal of the finished cake. Butter andshorteningdothesamething.

Siliconelinersforbakingsheetsprovideanonsticksurfaceforbakingcookies.Cakepanstripscoolthepansidesduringbaking,slowthesettingof

thebatteratthesides,andhelpproduceahighandevenovenrise.Acaketesterisastiffwireforprobingdonenessatthecake’scenter.

It’slongerthanatoothpickandleavesasmallerhole,butissothinthatunderdone batter doesn’t always stick to it. Many bakers test with asmallknife.Awirerackallowsairtoflowunderneathandaroundthepantocool

evenly.A turntable makes it easier to coat cakes evenly with icings and

glazes.Apastrybagandsetoftipsareversatiletoolsforpipingicingsinto

decorativedesigns.A cake dome covers and protects the cake without touching and

marringitssurface.

CAKEANDCOOKIEINGREDIENTS:FLOURS

Flourprovidesmuchofthesolidstructureofcakesandcookieswithitsproteinandstarch.All-purposewheatflouristhemostversatileflourformakingcakes

andmostcommonlyspecifiedinrecipes.Itshighcontentoftougheninggluten protein is not ideal but is balanced by added tenderizingingredients, sugar and fat. Some recipes mix all-purpose flour withpotatoorotherstarchestoincreasetenderness.Cakeflourisalow-proteinflour,veryfinelygroundandtreatedwith

chlorinetocarryfarmoresugarandfatthanusualandproduce“high-ratio”cakes.Commercialcakemixes include it.Manycakerecipescallfor it. Some bakers avoid it due to its somewhat harsh taste and theextremelyfinetextureitproduces.Self-risingcakeflourincludeschemicalleavening.Double-check recipes and labels to make sure you’re using the

specified flour.All-purpose and cake flours can’t really be doctored to

repalceeachother.

CAKEANDCOOKIEINGREDIENTS:FATSANDOILS

Fats and oilsmoisten and tenderize cakes and cookies by interruptingandweakeningtheprotein-starchstructure.Incakesandcookiesleavenedbythecreamingmethod,solidfatstrapandaccumulatetinyairbubblesthatwillexpandduringbakingtoraiseandtenderizethecake.Fats develop a rancid-tasting surface when exposed to air. Manywrappersallowairtoreachbutterandshortening.Scrapeawaythesurfaceofbutterorshorteningifithasbecomedarkortranslucent.Oilsbecomestaleandthenrancidwhenopenedandkeptformonths.Tasteoldoilbeforebakingwithit.Butter is the traditional cake fatand is stillused tomake the finestcakes. Butters vary in their butterfat content and in their flavor, butthesedifferencesarenotasimportantincakesastheyareinpastries.Butter is more sensitive to temperature than shortening duringcreaming, and often doesn’t produce as light a cake, but its flavor isbetter.Shortening is made from vegetable oils modified to optimize theircake-makingqualities.Itcanbecreamedoverawidertemperaturerangethan butter, and contains emulsifiers and tiny gas bubbles that aid inleavening.Shorteningmakes cakes that risehigher andoftenkeepbetter.Usedwithcakeflour,itmakespossiblehigh-ratiocakeswithmoresugarandfatthanatraditionalcake,andasimplemethodofmixingallingredientstogetherinonebowl.Themaindisadvantageofshorteningisitsartificialflavor.Tasteshorteningandbuttersidebyside,considerhowthey’remade,andhowimportantflavor,lightness,andeaseofpreparationaretoyou.Chooseyourfatandrecipesaccordingly.

Margarinesarenotusefulincakebaking.They’redesignedforgoodspreadingandtoimitatethefeelingofbutter,notitsaeratingpowers.

CAKEANDCOOKIEINGREDIENTS:SUGARS

Sugarssweetenandsoftenthestarch-proteinstructureofcakesandsomecookies,andhelpretainmoisture.Theycontributetothecrunchoflow-moisturecookies.Thereareseveralkindsofsugar thatcan’talwaysbesubstitutedforeachother.Granulatedtablesugarconsistsofrelativelycoarsecrystals,goodfor

creatingairbubblesduringcreaming,but slowtodissolvewhen liquidingredientsareadded.Inlow-moisturecookiesitmaynotdissolveatall,andcontributestocrunchiness.Superfine,orbaker’s,sugarconsistsoffinecrystals,andispreferred

by some bakers for creaming. It dissolves faster than table sugar. Tomakefine-grainedsugar,grindtablesugarinthefoodprocessor.Powdered, or confectioners’, sugar consists of sugar particles too

finetofeelonthetongueandtoofineforcreaming.It’susefulinmakingquick icings and other smooth-textured coatings. It contains a smallamountofcornstarch.Brown sugars, honey, andmolasses contribute distinctive flavors,

andretainmoisturebetterthanwhitesugar.Allaresomewhatacid,andcan react with baking soda or other alkaline ingredients to produceleaveningbubbles.Corn syrup is a mild-flavored combination of glucose and long

glucosechainsinwater.Itspeedsbrowning,retainsmoisture,andslowsthehardeningoftextureincookies.Noncaloric sweeteners can’t substitute for sugar’s many roles in

cakes.

CAKEANDCOOKIEINGREDIENTS:EGGSANDLEAVENERS

Eggs contribute several different materials to cakes and cookies:moisture, air-trapping and structure-building proteins, and tenderizing

yolk fats and emulsifiers. Separated whites produce a drier, lightertexture;yolksamoisteranddenserone.Eggs of different sizes contain different amounts and proportions of

thesecomponents.Check recipes to make sure you’re using the egg size specified. If

you’renot,adjustthequantityofeggyouuse.Chemical leaveners, baking powder and baking soda, are

concentratedalkalisandacidsthatcreatecarbondioxidegaswhentheydissolve.They’reusedtohelpraisequick-andhigh-ratiocakes.Bakingpowderandbakingsodaarenotinterchangeable.Bakingsoda isanalkalinesalt thatproducescarbondioxidegasthe

momentthatitcomesintocontactwithadissolvedacid.Thatacidcanbeinoneof themajor ingredients—suchasbuttermilkorhoney—oritcanbeaddedinpureformascreamoftartar.Baking powders are combinations of baking soda and acid in

proportions that maximize their gas production. Single-acting bakingpowder is made with cream of tartar or acid phosphates that reactimmediatelywhenthedoughismixed.Double-actingpowdersarethemosteffectivechemicalleaveners.

They contain special acids that produce some gas only during thecooking process, when the cookie or cake can better trap it and rise.Despitesomepopularsuspicion,there’snoevidencethatacommonone,SAS(sodiumaluminumsulfate),isunhealthful.Store leavenings airtight. Baking soda absorbs odors, and baking

powderslowlyreactswithmoistureandlosespower.Totestbakingpowder,pourhotwaterontoa spoonful inabowl; it

shouldbubblevigorously.Ifitdoesn’t,discardit.To make an emergency single-acting baking powder, combine 1

tablespoon/15gramsbakingsodawith2tablespoons/18gramscreamoftartarand11/2tablespoons/11gramscornstarch.Hartshorn, or baker’s ammonia, is a chemical leavener used only

withthin,drycookies.Inotherbakedgoodsitcanleaveanunpleasantammoniaresidue.Beware of overleavening cakes and cookies. Too much leavening

causes batters to rise too quickly and then collapse. A general rule ofthumbis1teaspoon/5gramsofbakingpowderor1/4teaspoon/1gramofbakingsodapercup/120gramsof flour.Adjust recipes thatcall forsignificantlymore.

CAKEANDCOOKIEINGREDIENTS:CHOCOLATEANDCOCOA

Chocolateandcocoacontributetothestructureofchocolatecakesandcookiesaswellastheirflavor.Theycontainsolidparticlesofthecacaobean,whichbehavelikestarchandabsorbmoisture.Chocolateandcocoaaresoldwithmanydifferentproportionsofcocoasolids,cocoafat,andaddedingredients.Chocolate always contains cocoa particles and cocoa fat, and mayinclude sugar and milk solids. It is sometimes labeled with thepercentage of cocoa solids and cocoa fat. Baking chocolate is 100percent cocoa solids and cocoa fat, dark chocolates usually 50 to 80percent, milk chocolates less than 50 percent. “White” chocolatecontainsnococoaparticles,justcocoafat,sugar,andmilksolids.Try to use the chocolate specified in your recipe. If you have toreplace dark chocolate with baking chocolate, use less chocolate andmoresugar; toreplacebakingchocolatewithdark,usemorechocolateandlesssugar.Cocoas are mainly the solid particles of the cacao bean. They’reintense and sometimes harsh in flavor. They may be sweetened orunsweetened,andaremadeintwodifferentstyles.“Natural”cocoas,theusualAmericanstyle,areacidic.“Dutch process” cocoas, usually European, have been chemicallytreatedandarealkaline,withamilderflavor.Makesurewhichstyleofcocoayourrecipecallsfor.IfyouuseDutchprocesscocoainarecipedesignedfornatural,thecakemaynotriseorsetandmayhaveasoapytasteduetoexcessalkalinity.Flourlesschocolatecakesreplaceflourwithchocolateand/orcocoa,oftennutfloursormeals,andrelyoneggsasthesettingagent.Theysetbestwithnaturalcocoas.TouseDutchprocesscocoaandpreventitfrom

interfering with egg setting, balance its alkalinity with acid cream oftartar,andreducetheamountofbakingpowder.It’spossiblebuttrickytosubstitutechocolateandcocoaforeachother in baking. Chocolate contains fat and sugar as well as cocoaparticles, so substitution means adjusting fat and sugar quantities aswell.

THEESSENTIALSOFCAKEMAKING

There are three important stages in cake making: measuring,mixing,andbaking.Measure out all the ingredients first, by weight whenever possible,using a reliable digital scale. If you measure by volume, follow therecipe’sinstructionsforexactlyhowtodoso.Mix the ingredients in the correct order and mix thoroughly tomaximizeaerationandlightness.Bakeinapanofthecorrectsize,andinanovenwhosetemperatureyouhavechecked,sothatthebattergetshotenoughtosetitwhenithasrisen to itsmaximumheight. Before youmake a new recipe, check tomake sure you have the pan it waswritten for or a pan that holds asimilarvolume.Cakesarebuiltfromtwoopposingpairsofmainingredients.Onepair, flour and eggs, provides the bland but solid structure. The otherpair,sugarandfat,fillsthatstructurewithsweetnessandrichness,andweakensitsoitwillbemoistandsoft.Afifthingredient,bubblesofairorgas,spreadstheotherfourintotinythinsheetsthatcreatelightnessanddelicacy.Ingredient proportions and types are finely balanced in goodrecipes. Toomuch flour or eggmakes a dry and dull cake; toomuchsugar or fat makes it dense and soggy. Cake flour can carry a higherproportionof sugarand fat thanall-purpose flour.Shorteningweakensbatterstructurelessthanbutter.Don’tsubstitutefortheingredienttypespecifiedinarecipewithoutbeingreadytoexperimentandadjustproportions.

Mixing combines the batter ingredients evenly, and captures air toleaventhebatterandlightenthecaketexture.Mixingisdoneinseveralstages.Ineach,besuretostopandscrapeclingingingredientsfromthebeaters,whisks,andbowlsintothemainmass,sothatthemixingisasevenaspossible.

Whisktheflourthoroughlywithotherdryingredients,anychemicalleavenings,orcocoapowdertoavoidthelocalpocketsofexcessconcentrationthatsimplestirringleaves.Siftthedryingredientstoseparateandaeratetheparticlessothatthey’llmixmorequicklyandevenlywiththewetingredients.Useafloursifterorafine-meshsieve.Beatairbubblesintosoftenedfat,orliquideggs,orintoacombinationofingredientswithanelectricmixer.Combinetheseparatelyaeratedfatoreggswiththeotheringredients.

Creaming and folding are specialmixing techniques that are oftenusedinmakingcakesandcookies.Creaming is the prolonged beating of softened, semisolid butter or

shortening with sugar crystals, which gradually aerate the fat withcountlesstinyairbubbles.Itcantake10minutesormore,andrequirescarefulcontrolofthebuttertemperature.Folding is thegentlemixingbyhandof twobattercomponents,one

light and one dense, tominimize the loss of aeration.Using a flexiblespatula, repeatedly scoop the light material onto the spatula surface,thencutdownverticallythroughthesecondmaterialandliftsomeofitfrombeneathontothefirst.Folding is the standard method for combining whipped egg whites

withtheothercake ingredients.Somecooksfindthatquicklyblendingwithaballoonwhiskworksjustaswell.Therearetwobasicfamiliesofcakes,definedbyhowtheirbatters

arefilledwithgasbubbles.Buttercakesincludebasicwhite,yellow,pound,andchocolatecakes.

They’re aerated by beating air into butter or shortening, or into thebatterasawhole.

Foamcakesincludeangel,chiffon,andspongecakes.They’reaeratedbybeatingairintoeggwhitesorwholeeggs,andfoldingtheeggfoamintotheotheringredients.

MIXINGBUTTER-CAKEBATTERS

Batters for standard butter cakes aremixed in several ways. Here arethreecommonones.Creaming, the traditionalmethod, is time-consuming but best for

producing well-aerated, light cakes. It mixes semisolid fat—butter,shortening, or a combination—with granulated or superfine sugar, totrapairbubblesforleavening.

Ifyou’llbecreamingbutterinawarmkitchen,65°F/18°Corabove,prepareawidecontaineroficeorcoldwaterincaseyouneedtocoolthebutterquickly.Beatthecoolfatandsugarfor5to10minutes,untilthemixtureislightandfluffy.Usemediumspeedinanelectricstandmixer,orhighspeedwithalessefficienthandheldmixer.Don’tletbuttergetwarmerthan68°F/20°C,orshorteningwarmerthan85°F/30°C.Thefrictionofmixinggeneratesheat,andifthefatmelts,itlosesitsairbubbles.Ifthebowlbottomgetsnoticeablywarm,stopcreamingandcoolthebowl.Mixintheremainingingredientsinstagesandatlowspeed,toavoidcoarselyfoamingtheeggsortougheningtheflourgluten.Addtheeggsoneatatimetoincorporatethemevenly,thenpartoftheflour,thenpartoftheliquidingredients,thentherestoftheflour,andfinallytheremainingliquid.

Two-stagemixingiseasierandfasterthancreaming,andproducesatenderbutdensercake.

Whiskallthedryingredientstogetherverythoroughly.Whiskallthewetingredientstogetherinasecondbowl.Addthesoftenedbutterorshorteningtothedryingredientsandbrieflymixonmediumspeed.

Addthewetingredientsinseveraldosesuntilevenlyincorporated.One-bowl,or“dump,”mixingiseasiestofall,butdoesn’tproducethetendernessandlightnessoftheothermethods,andworksbestwithcakeflourandshortening.It’sthemethodformostsupermarketcakemixes.Whiskandsifttogetheralldryingredientsbuttheleavening.Addtheshorteningandwetingredientsandmixforseveralminutesatlowandthenmoderatespeed,thenaddthebakingpowderforthelastminute.Ormixthedryingredientsandfatwithmostofthemilk,thenaddtherestofthemilkandtheeggsandmixatlowandthenmoderatespeedforseveralminutes.

MIXINGEGG-FOAMBATTERS

Battersforsponge,chiffon,andangelcakesareleavenedbybeatingairbubbles intoeggs insteadof fat.Egg-leavenedcakesareusually lighterand less rich thanbuttercakes.Theeggwhiteandyolkcanbebeatenseparatelyortogether.Angelcakeismadewiththewhitesonly.Separated-eggmixingproducesthelightestbatter.

1. Alwayswhipeggwhiteswithacidcreamoftartarorlemonjuice.Acidstabilizes egg foams, and also whitens the interior of angel foodcake.

2. Beattheyolkswithsomesugaruntiltheyturnlightwithairbubbles.3. Beatthewhitesinaseparatebowlwithcreamoftartaruntiltheyformsoftpeaks.Thenaddtherestofthesugarandbeatuntiltheyformstiffpeaks.

4. Siftflourontotheyolks,addathirdofthewhitesandstirtogether,thenfoldintheremainingwhites.Buttercanbebarelymeltedandfoldedinattheend.

Whole-eggmixingissimpler.

Beatthewholeeggswithsugar,startingonlowspeedandincreasingtomedium,untilthemixiscream-coloredandthickenedfromthe

airbubbles.Addtheliquidingredientsandbeatthemin.Sifttheflourontothetopofthebatter,andfoldinuntilwellmixed.Toaddbutter,beatitseparatelyuntilsoftandcreamy,thensoftenfurtherwithasmallamountofbatter,andfoldthebuttermixturegentlyintothebatter.

Génoisebatterproducesadry,firmcakemeanttobemoistenedwithsyrup.

Stirandwarmwholeeggsandsugartoaround100°F/40°C.Whipthemixtureonhighspeedandthenmediumtolowspeedforatotalof10to15minutesuntilthickandrisentoabouttripleitsoriginalvolume.Removeaportiontomixwithmeltedbutter.Foldintheflourandthenthebuttermixture.

PREPARINGANDFILLINGTHEPAN

Panmaterialsandshapeshaveastronginfluenceonhowwelltheoventransformsbattersintocakes.Choosedullmetal pans andmolds for themost evenheating. Shiny

pans will reflect radiant heat and slow cooking; black pans can over-brownthesideswhilethecentercooksthrough.Tubepanscreatemorebattersurfaceandspeedcooking.Springformpanswithremovablesides,andflexiblesiliconepans,easeunmoldingofthefinishedcake.Don’toverfillorunderfillpans,whichwillresultinspillingoveroran

underdonetop.Thebattershouldfillthepantobetweentwo-thirdsandthree-fourths of its height. To determine a pan’s volume, fill it withwaterusingameasuringcup.To prevent sticking of most cakes, grease the pan with melted but

thickbutter or spraywithnonstick spray.Coat flutedmolds especiallywell.Linethegreasedpanbottomwithgreasedparchmentpaper.Dust greased surfaces with flour to help the batter wet the pan

evenly.Don’tgreasepansforchiffonandangelcakes,whicharefragileand

needtoclingtothepansideswhilecooling.

After filling, knock the panona hard surface or run a sharp knifethroughthebattertosettleandfillanyvoidareas.

BAKINGANDCOOLING

Ovenheatcausestheairbubblesincakebattertoexpandandraisethebatter. It also causes thebatterproteins and starch to set and solidify.Whenacakeiswellbaked,thebattersetsjustasitreachesitsmaximumexpansionandlightness.Bakecakesinanelectricovenifyouhaveachoice.Gasovensdon’t

retainrise-enhancingsteamaswell.The oven temperature and placement of the pan determine how

fastthebatterheatsupandwhatkindoftextureitdevelops.Lowbakingtemperaturesandalongbakingtimefavorahigherrise

andopentexture.Higher temperatures and quicker baking favor a denser but finer

structure.Bakemostcakesatmoderateoventemperatures,325to375°F/160to

190°C.Belowthisrangemostcakessettooslowly;aboveittheybrownbeforethey’recookedthrough.Forevenheating,placethepanonthemiddleovenrack.Topreventthetopfrombrowningtoofast,placeasheetoffoilonthe

toprackorlooselyoverthepantoshielditfromradiantheat.For rapid bottom heating and expansion, place the pan on a

preheatedbakingstonerestingontheovenfloor,oronthelowestrack.Don’topentheovenuntilthecakeisnearlydone,toretainsteamthat

promotesheatingandrising.Checkthecake’sdonenessearly,beforethesidesbegintoshrinkfrom

thepan.To judge doneness, probe the center with a cake tester, skewer, or

knife.Mostproperlydonecakeswillnotleavearesidueclingingtotheprobe, unless they’re intentionally underbaked to have puddinglike orliquidcenters.

Freshly baked cakes are soft and fragile. They become firmer astheycool.Cool delicate chiffon and angel cakes to room temperature in thepan.Suspendthetubepanupsidedownoverastandingwinebottle,toletgravitykeepthecakestretchedtoitsfullvolumeasitfirms.Remove other cakes from pans after a brief cooling to firm theiredges.Restthepanonarackforafewminutes.Runaknifealongthecakeedge to loosen it from thepan, remove thecakeby inverting thepanontoaplate then invert itagainontoarackandallowit to finishcoolingthere.Coolcakescompletelybeforedecorating,toavoidtearingthecakeormeltingtheicingorglaze.

TROUBLESHOOTINGCAKES

If a new cake recipe doesn’t turn out well, there may be somethingwrongwiththerecipe.If a familiar or reliable cake recipe doesn’t turn outwell, therewasprobablysomethingwrongwithyouringredientsorprocedure.Take some time to think throughwhatmighthavebeenwrong, andmakeanotetoadjustyouringredientsorprocedurethenexttime.Manycakefailuresarecausedbyabatterthatriseseithertoolittleortoomuchbeforeitsets.Make sure tomix the batter longand carefully enough to aerate itfully.Check the amount and quality of leavening. Too much producescoarse,fallencakes;toolittleproducesdense,humpedcakes.Astandardamountis1/4teaspoon/1gramsodaor1teaspoon/5gramspowderpercup/120gramsflour.Testoldbakingpowder(thispage)andreplaceifit’snotactive.Coarse-grainedorsunkencakesalsoresultfromundermixingortoolowanoventemperature,sothecenterdoesn’triseenoughorsetsafteritfallsagain.Tryahighertemperatureand/orlongermixing.

Crackedorpeakedcakes result fromovermixingbatteror toohighanoventemperature,sothecentercontinuestoexpandafterthesurfacehasset.Tryalowertemperatureand/orshortermixing.Dry, tough cakes result from baking too long. Check for donenessearlier.High-altitude baking requires major adjustments to ingredientproportions and methods. Batters expand and dry out much faster atelevationsaboveabout3,000feet/900meters.

Adjustproportionsinhigh-altitudebatterstogivethemmoremoistureandhelpthemsetfaster.Reducesugarandleavening,increaseeggandotherliquidsandflour,andreplacemilkwithbuttermilktospeedproteinsetting.Beateggwhitesless,tosoftpeaksinsteadoffirm,toallowgreaterexpansion.Useatubepanandincreasethebakingtemperaturetospeedheatingandsetting.

CUPCAKES,SHEETCAKES,ANDFRUITCAKES

Cupcakesarestandardcakebattersthatarebakedquicklyinthecupsofmuffinpans,greasedorlinedwithpapertopreventsticking.Tomake cupcakes, fill cups two-thirds full with batter and bake at350°F/175°Cforabout20minutes.Checkdonenessearlytoavoiddryness,andremovecupcakesfromtheovenwhenatoothpickorotherprobecomesoutcleanfromthecenter.Allowthemtocoolandfirmforafewminutesbeforeremovingfromthepan.Sheetcakesandrollcakesaremadefromstandardcakebattersthatarespreadoutontoasheetpanandbakedinathinlayerfor10to15minutes.Prevent sheet cakes from sticking to the pan with a piece ofparchmentpaperorwaxedpaper.Shapethebattertobeasevenlythickaspossible.Thinedgesscorchandcrack.

To avoid cracks, watch carefully and don’t overbake. If the cakebecomestoodrytoroll,brushitlightlywithsyrup.Fruitcakes are butter cakes with a high proportion of nuts andcandiedfruits,oftensoakedwithspiritsafterbakingandagedforweekstomellowinflavor.Foramoisterfruitcake,presoakdriedfruitsinspiritsorsyrupsotheywon’tabsorbmoisturefromthebatter.Allow fruitcakes to cool and firm before unmolding. They’reespecially fragile because the nuts and fruits interrupt the batterstructure.Keepspirits-soakedfruitcakesforweeksatroomtemperature,monthsintherefrigerator.Storetightlywrappedtoavoiddryingout.

MUFFINSANDQUICKCAKES

Muffins and quick cakes are sweet, rich versions of quick breads,leavenedwithbakingpowderorsodaandwithoutthelaboriousaerationofstandardcakes.Mix muffins and quick cakes as rapidly as possible to minimizetougheningglutenandlosingleaveninggas.Onestandardmethodistobeattheliquidingredientswithsugartodissolveit,thentocombinethismixwithflourandleavening.To obtain a shapely peak on themuffin tops,make sure the batterisn’toverleavened,fillthepancupsalmostfull,andusearelativelyhighbakingtemperature,400to425°F/200to220°C.Startcheckingdonenessearly.Thecupsinmuffinpanshavevaryingcapacities,andquickcakescanbebakedincakeorloafpans,socookingtimeswillvary.Removefromtheovenwhenatoothpickorotherprobecomesoutcleanfromthecenter.Allowmuffins and quick cakes to cool and firm for a fewminutesbeforeremovingthemfromthepan.Muffins and quick cakes keep better than quick breads due totheirsugarandfat.Keepthemforadayortwoatroomtemperature,aweekormoreintherefrigerator,ormonthsinthefreezer.

Torestorestalemuffinsandquickcakes,reheatthemuntilsteaminghotandsoftinside.

GLAZES,ICINGS,FROSTINGS,ANDFILLINGS

Cakecoatingsaredecorativeandoftendelicious,butalsohelpthecakeretain its moisture and eating quality longer. Coatings with fat areespecially goodmoisture barriers. Royal icing, fondant, and other all-sugarcoatingsabsorbmoistureandbecomestickyinhumidweather.Cakefillingsareusuallyacreamycontrasttothecake’sowntexture.They’recommonlymadefromsweetenedwhippedcream,anegg-basedcustard, fruit curd or starch-stabilized pastry cream, or a chocolate-creammixture,ganache.For a more stable whipped cream filling, choose a recipe thatstabilizesthecreamwithgelatin.Underwhipthecreamtosoftpeaks,sothat the final manipulation of spreading or piping doesn’t cause it tobreak.There are many ways to coat cakes. They range from glazes ofwarmed fruit preserves, to icings of confectioners’ sugar mixed withenough liquid tomake it flow, to sweetenedcreamcheeseorwhippedcream, various versionsofmeringue, andmore elaboratepreparations.Hereareguidelinesforahandfulofcommonones.Whenaddinghotsyruptoeggs,avoidpouringontospinningbeaters,whichwill throw the syrup onto the bowlwalls andmake hard sugarlumps.Tomakepouredglazesandicingsassmoothaspossible,applyintwocoats, the first touched up to cover the cake surface completely, thesecondnottouchedatall.Chocolate glazes are made by melting chocolate into warmwater,cream,sugarsyrup,orclarifiedbutter,sothatthemixtureisthinenoughto pour onto a cake and solidifies into a tender coating rather than ahardone.Storerefrigeratedorfrozen;reheatgently.Makechocolateglazesshinierby includingsomebutter,oil,orcornsyrup.Toretaintheshine,don’trefrigerateorwraptightly.

Royalicingisamattematerialforfinedecorations,madebybeatingeggwhiteswithaboutfivetimestheirweightinconfectioners’sugarintoadense,thickmeringue.Boiledicingisafirm,glossycookedmeringue.Heatsugarandwater

to234to240°F/112to116°C,thenpourthissyrupontoeggwhitesasthey’rebeingbeateninamixer.Continuemixinguntilthemeringuehascooled.Fondant isafirm,dense,creamyglaze,asmoothmassoftinysugar

crystalsheldtogetherwithsugarsyrupthatcanbeflavoredorcolored.Poured fondant is cooked and forms thin coatings. Rolled fondant iskneadedandmakesthickercoatings.Bothcanbeboughtpremade.Makepouredfondantbyheatingsugarandwater,pluscreamoftartar

or corn syrup to keep crystals fine.Once themix reaches the soft-ballstage,234to240°F/112to116°C,pourontoamoistenedcountertoporwork surface, allow to cool to150°F/65°C, and stir and scrapeuntil itbecomesadry,whitemass.Kneadportionsbyhanduntil theybecomesmooth. Cover and rest for a day or more at room temperature, orrefrigerateforweeks.Tousepouredfondant,kneadinflavoringsandcolorings,thenwarm

to100to105°F/38to41°C.Ifit’snotthinenoughtopour,addalittlesugarsyrup.Makerolledfondantbydissolvinggelatin inhotwater, addingcorn

syrup, glycerin, and shortening, andkneading inpowdered sugaruntilsmooth.Coverandrestforafewhours,orrefrigeratefordays.To use rolled fondant, grease surfaces to avoid sticking. Roll no

thinner than 1/4 inch/0.5 centimeter to make the smoothest cakesurface. Always roll rather than pull, whichwill tear the sheet. If thefondant begins to crack, cover it with plastic wrap to prevent furtherdrying.Buttercreams are stiff, densemixtures of sugar and fat that can be

flavored and formed into decorative shapes by piping through pastrytips.Traditionalbuttercreamismadelaboriouslyfromsugar,butter,andeggs. Quick buttercream ismade inminutes with confectioners’ sugarandamixtureofbutterandshortening.To make traditional French buttercream, beat egg yolks or whole

eggs until light, then drizzle in a sugar syrup cooked to 234 to240°F/112to116°C,andbeatuntiltheaeratedbutdensemixturecoolstoawarmroomtemperature.Thengraduallybeatinsoftenedbutterandanyflavoring.Refrigeratefordaysorfreezetightlywrappedformonths,thoughbuttertendstoabsorboffflavors.To pasteurize eggs for the safest possible buttercream, heat beaten

eggsandmostofthesugarwithconstantstirringto160°F/70°Coverapotofsimmeringwater.Thenwhiponhighspeedfor10to15minutesuntilstiffandcool,addremainingsugar,andbeatinsoftenedbutterandflavorings.Keepbuttercream in the refrigeratoror freezer.After thawing in the

refrigerator,rewhipittorestoreitsconsistency.To make quick buttercream, beat together butter, shortening, or a

mixturewithconfectioners’ sugar,which is too fine to feelgrainy,andwhose cornstarch absorbs moisture and prevents separation. A highproportionoffatmakesasoftcream,ahighproportionofsugarastiffone.Tousebuttercream,letitwarmuptoroomtemperature,rebeat,and

thenheatitgentlyuntilit’ssoftenoughtospreadeasily.

COOKIESANDBROWNIES

Cookies areminiature versions ofmoist cakes, dry pastries, and oftensomethinginbetween.Manycookiedoughsaremadelikecakebatters,but with more flour and less liquid. Cookie doughs and battersrefrigeratewellandtakeonlyafewminutestocook,sothey’reeasytobakefresh.Cookiedoughs oftenhave very littlemoisture, and small changes in

proportionscancausebigdifferencesinconsistencyandhowmuchthedoughpiecesspreadwhenbaked.The flour for cookie doughs and batters is usually a low-protein

pastry, cake, or southern all-purpose flour, to produce the tenderestresult. National all-purpose floursmakemore gluten and absorbmoremoisture, so substituting with them will produce less tender, driercookiesthatspreadlesswhenbaked.

Tomakemoretendercookieswithall-purposeflour,replaceaquarteroftheflourweightwithcornstarch.Cocoapowder, chocolate, and groundnuts, including nut butters

andmeals, can replace some or all of the flour in cookies while alsotenderizing and intensifying flavor. They contain starch or starchlikeparticlesandfat,butnotougheningprotein.Realbutterisessential foragoodtexture incookieswhoserecipes

callforit.Don’tsubstitutemargarineorlow-fatspreads.Tomakemostcookiedoughs,beatbutterorshorteningwithsugarto

developleaveningairbubbles.Iftherecipeincludesleavening,whiskitthoroughlywiththeflourtodisperseitevenlyandavoiduneventextureandunpleasant taste.Mix in the flourand then theeggs, adding themoneatatimetoblendthemevenly.Minimizethefinalmixingtoavoiddevelopingglutenorcausingtheeggproteinstofoam.Restcookiedoughsintherefrigeratorforhourstoevenoutmoisture

andrelaxgluten,andtofirmthefatandproduceneateredges.Todevelopmoreflavor,refrigeratedoughsfordayswrappedairtight.

Refrigerated doughs slowly break down some starch and protein, andmakeprogressivelydarkerandmoreflavorfulcookies.Freeze doughs to keep them formore than a few days, presliced to

avoidthawingandrefreezing.Sizedoughpiecesaccordingtothecookiequalitiesyouwant,smallfor

uniformlycrisporsoft,largeforcrispedgeandmoistcenter.Bake cookies on a heavy-gauge sheet pan for the most consistent

results.Linethepanwithasiliconesheet,parchment,orothernonsticksurface. Space the dough pieces to leave room for spreading. In astandardovenwithoutconvectiontocirculatethehotair,bakeonepanat a time on the middle rack, rotating the pan if necessary for evenheating.Monitorcookiedonenessclosely.Cookingtimesareshort.Allowcookiestocoolandfirmsomewhatbeforeremovingthemfrom

thepan. If theycool enough to stick, return thepan to theoven foraminuteortwotoreleasethem.Beforestoringcookies,coolthemthoroughlyonaracktoreleasefree

moistureandpreventspoilage.Storeinanairtightcontainertopreventmoisturelossorgain.Tosoftenhardenedcookies,warmtheminamediumovenforafew

minutes,ormicrowaveonmediumpowerforafewseconds.Cookierecipesoftenneedadjustmenttoproduceaspecifictexture

or shape. Adjustment of one ingredient often requires rebalancing ofothers.

Tomakecookieslesscrumbly,addmoreegg.Tomakecookiesmoretender,addmorefatoreggyolkandlesswhitesugar.Tomakecookiescrisp,addmorewhitesugar.Tomakecookiesmoremoist,replacesomewhitesugarwithbrownsugar,cornoragavesyrup,orhoney.Togetdarkerbrowncolorandflavor,replacesomesugarwithcornoragavesyrup,brownsugar,orhoney,oraddsomebakingsoda.Tomakecookiesspreadmore,replaceshorteningwithbutterandgranulatedwhitesugarwithsuperfinesugar.Tomakecookiesspreadless,replacebutterwithshortening,andDutchprocesscocoawithnaturalcocoa.

Browniesareacookie-cakehybrid,theresultofreducingtheflourinacookierecipetomakeadoughintoabatter.Theycanbecakelikeorfudgelike,crustyorcrustless.Makebrowniescakelikebyusingalargeproportionofflourtoliquid,

cocoa rather than chocolate, andbakinguntil an inserted toothpickorknifetipcomesoutclean.Make brownies fudgelike by using less flour, chocolate rather than

cocoa,andbakinguntilbarelyset,whenaninsertedtoothpickorknifetipstillbringsaslighttraceofbatter.To avoid a thin surface crust, mix eggs into the batter gently. To

makeacrust,beatthebattervigorouslyafteraddingtheeggs.To get a crisp crust and moist interior, bake at a relatively high

temperature,350°F/175°Cratherthan300°F/150°C.Tocutbrowniescleanly,allowthemtocoolcompletelyfirst.

G

20

GRIDDLECAKES,CREPES,POPOVERS,ANDFRYING

BATTERS

riddlecakesandtheirilkaremadefrombatters,flour-thickenedfluids that spread into a thin layer and cook through veryquickly into sheets. The basic batter ingredients are simple—

flour,milk, eggs,butteroranother fat—but thecookcanusedifferentkindsofheatandatouchof leaveningtocreateverydifferenttexturesandflavors.Give a basic batter aminute on a hot pan tomake pale,moist, flat

crepes.Thirtyminutes inahotoven inflatesamuffincupof the samebatter into a crisply brown popover, or a pan of it into browned butcustardy Yorkshire pudding. Bring a little yeast or chemical leaveninginto themixandyougetbliniorAmerican-stylepancakesonanopenpan,wafflesinawaffleiron.Leaveoutthefatandmilk,useplainwater,andyouget a crispbinderor coating for fritters anddeep-fried foods.Pour something like that fryingbatterontovegetablesas they fry inapan,andyougetKoreanorVietnamesepancakes.I’ve cookedmostof thesebatter foodsmany timesovermanyyears,

butittookmequiteawhiletorealizethatthey’resocloselyrelated,andthatthebasicformulaissoflexible.Ifthere’senoughflourinthemixtogivetheliquidsomeweight,sothatitflowsmorelikethincreamthanlikewater,thenitwillsetwhenyouheatit.Thatproportionisaround1part flour to every2 of liquidbyweight, 1 to 1by volume.Howyouflavorthemix,howyouenrichit,whetherornotyouusemoreflourformoredensity,whetheryouleavenitformorelightness,howyoucookit—therestofthedesignisuptoyou.It’ssafesttofollowarecipewhenyouwanttotryapopoverorwaffle

for the first time, but it’s liberating—and fun—to start with the basic

formulaforagriddlecakeandinventyourown.

GRIDDLECAKEANDBATTERSAFETY

Batter foods are thoroughly cooked and don’t present a health hazardwhenpreparedfresh.Manyrecipessuggestlettingbatterssitforseveralhourstoallowdryingredientstoabsorbmoisturefully.Refrigeratebattersforagingperiodslongerthan2hours,especiallyiftheycontaineggs.Refrigerate leftovergriddlecakes tokeep themformore thana fewhours.

GRIDDLECAKEINGREDIENTSANDSTORAGE

Batter ingredients are mainly familiar kitchen staples and require nospecialattention.Buyfreshflourandleaveners ifyoursarea fewmonthsold.Bakingsodaandpowders slowlyabsorboffodors, floursgo stale,whole-grainfloursgorancid.Premadepancakeandwafflemixesareavailableinvariousdegreesofcompleteness.Somearemainlyfloursandleaveningandrequiremilkand eggs; others require onlywater or are ready to pour.Mixes oftensuffer fromstaleandoff flavors,andareonlyslightlymoreconvenientthanstartingfromscratch.Storebattersforadayortwointherefrigerator.Beforeusingthem,restore depleted chemical leavening with baking powder; give yeast-leavenedbatters1to2hourstowarmupandbubble.Refrigerate or freeze leftover griddle cakes and popovers. Reheatgriddlecakesinamediumoven;brieflyrecrisppopoversinahotoven.

THEESSENTIALSOFMAKINGFRIEDANDBAKEDBATTERS

Thekeystosuccesswithbattersarecreatingtherightbatterconsistencyandcookingthemat theright temperature.Bothareeasilyadjustedasyoucook.Batterconsistencydeterminesthefinishedtexture.Athickbatterwillmakeadense,cakeliketexture;arunnybatteralighter,moistertexture.Adjust the batter as you cookwith small additions of liquid, flour, orleaveningtoproducethetextureyouwant.Mostbatterfoodsshouldbetender,notchewy.Uselow-glutenfloursorflourmixtures thatwon’tproduceachewy,toughtexture.Theseincludepastryandcakeflours,orall-purposeflourcombinedwithcornstarchorbuckwheat,rice,orcornflours.Meltanybutterorothersolidfatsinmilkandwhiskwelltodispersethefatevenlyintothebatterandhelptenderize.Stir the flour with the liquid ingredients just enough to mix, tominimizeglutendevelopmentandtoughening.Griddle cakesmaybe eitherunleavenedor leavenedwith yeast,baking powder, baking soda and an acidic ingredient, orwhipped eggwhites.Don’t overdo chemical leavening. Too much will cause batters tocollapse into a coarse, dense structure and produce a harsh flavor.Typicalproportionsare1teaspoon/5gramsbakingpowderpercup/120grams flour, or 1/2 teaspoon/2 grams baking soda per cup/250millilitersbuttermilk.To avoid strange green and gray colors from blueberries and nuts,payspecialattentiontothealkalinebakingsodathatcausesthem.Blendsoda thoroughly with flour to avoid local excesses, and replace somesodawithbakingpowdertoreduceoverallalkalinity.Replace some baking soda with baking powder in recipes thatneutralize acid ingredients with soda. A slight excess of acidity canimprovebothflavorandtexture.To leaven without powders or yeasts, or to supplement them withextra lightness,beateggwhitesseparatelyandfold into therestof themixjustbeforecooking.Preparemostunyeastedgriddlecakebattersanhourormorebefore

cooking,togivetheflourtimetoabsorbmoistureandproduceavelvetycookedtexture.(Don’tdothiswiththebatterforwaffles,whichshouldbe crisp and not velvety.) Refrigerate for rests longer than 2 hours.Withholdbakingsodaorpowderand/orbeateneggwhites,andaddjustbeforecookingtomaximizetheirleaveningpower.Whiskpowderswithalittleflourfirsttohelpincorporatethemevenly.Check the batter consistency often, after resting and during the

cookingofseveralbatches.Gentlystirinmoreliquidasneededtokeepthebatterfluidandthetexturelight.Cook griddle cakes on a nonstick or well-seasoned griddle or pan.

Flatgriddlesmayspanmorethanoneburnerorextendpasttheburneredge.Watchforunevenheatingasyoucookandadjustaccordingly.Applyfatsandoilssparinglytothepantoavoidgreasiness.Cookgentlyovermoderateheat,sothatthesurfacebrownspleasantly

in the fewminutes it takes for the cake to cook through. An infraredthermometer will read 325 to 350°F/160 to 175°C; a drop of waterflickedontothesurfacewillsizzleandevaporateinafewseconds.Preheatplatesandtoppings,includingbutterandsyrups.Thingriddle

cakescoolfast.

PANCAKESANDBLINI

Pancakesaremoistandtenderdisksmadefromarelativelythinbatterthatspreadseasilyinthepan.Bliniareyeast-raisedpancakes,oftenespeciallyrichanddelicatefrom

theinclusionofcreamandbuckwheatflour.Yeast-raisedbatterswill rise before and during preparation for the

griddle.Gentlystirtodeflatelargebubblesbeforepouringthemontothepan.To make especially delicate pancakes, replace milk or water with

yogurtorbuttermilk.Thesethickliquidsneedlessflourtomakeabatterwith the right consistency. Neutralize part or all of their acidity byreplacing baking powder with baking soda. Some tartness can bedeliciousinpancakes.

Leaveroomforspoonfulsofbattertospreadwhenpouringthemontothepan.Turn pancakes when the upper batter surface has set around theedges,andwhenbubblesare risingnear thecenter.Don’twait for thebatteredgetolookdryandthebubblestobreak;thiswillgiveacoarse,dryresult.To make the first batch less irregularly colored than usual, wipeexcessoilfirmlyfromthepansurface,sothatallbattercomesintodirectcontactwithmetal.If some inner batter remains uncooked after the surfaces havebrownedonamoderatelyhotpan,thebatteristoothick.Thinthebatterwithmilkorwatersoitwillspreadintoathinnerlayer.Don’t stackcookedpancakesontoeachother if you’renotgoing toserve them right away.Toavoid flatteningand steaming them, spreadthemoutonarackorplateinalowoven.German and Austrian baked pancakes are really sweet soufflésstabilizedwithflourorstarch,startedinahotfryingpanandfinishedintheoven.Eggwhites arebeaten into a foam for leavening, andmixedwithsweetenedyolksandflour.Forthelightesttextureinbakedpancakes,beattheeggwhiteswithcream of tartar until firm but still moist, to allow expansion duringcooking.Foldorwhisktheotheringredients ingentlytominimizelossofairbubbles,andaddthebatterimmediatelytothepreheatedpan.

CREPESANDBLINTZES

Crepes are delicate griddle cakes, about 1 millimeter thick, usuallycookedoneatatimeonasmall,shallowpan,moistandflexibleenoughtobefoldedintoquartersorrolledaroundafilling.Blintzes are essentially crepes barely cooked on one side only, theuppersidebeingthesurfaceonwhichfillingsareplacedbeforefoldingandfinishingonabutteredpan.Makecrepebatter2hoursormoreaheadofcooking toallow flourparticlestimetoabsorbmoisturefully,andsoftenmoreduringthebrief

1to2minutesofcooking.Make crepe batter very thin, between the consistencies ofmilk and

cream,sothatwhenpouredontothehotpanitspreadsquicklywithoutsetting into thick and thin areas. Adjust the thickness withwater justbeforecooking,andduringextendedcooking.Oil or butter the pan only lightly. Unlike pancakes, crepes cannot

absorbexcessoilandwillbecomegreasy.Preheatthepanonlyto250to275°F/120to135°C,sothatadropof

watergentlysputters,beforewipingwithoilor fatandpouringonthebatter. Higher temperatures will set the batter before it spreads, cookunevenly,andcausebubblingandholesinthecrepe.Turnorflipthecrepeassoonasitreleasesfromthepan,around1

minute.Cookthesecondsidejustlongenoughtosetandrelease.Don’tovercook,oritwillturnoutdry.Brittany-style crepes,orgalettes,madewithbuckwheat flourmay

be too fragile to flip. If so, gently stir a few spoonfuls of cohesion-creatingwheatflourintotheremainingbatter,andthenenoughwatertoproducethecorrectthinconsistency.Storecrepeswrappedairtightforafewdaysrefrigerated,afewweeks

frozen.

CLAFOUTIS

Clafoutis are crustless fruit tarts made by surrounding pieces of fruitwithabattersimilartocrepebatter.Make the batter an hour or more ahead of time to allow full

hydrationandamoreevencookedtexture.Don’t use a tart pan with a removable bottom. The thin batter is

likelytoleakoutbeforeitsets.To make clafoutis easier to cut and serve in neat wedges, bake a

portionofthebatterinthepanuntiljustsettoformasolidsheetforthefruitpiecestoreston.Thenplacefruitonthissheet,pourintherestofthebatter,andfinishbaking.Toensureamoistinterior,bakeclafoutisjustuntilset.

Allowclafoutistocoolfullybeforecutting.

WAFFLES

Wafflesaremeanttobemostlycrispandcrunchycrust,andtheirbattershould be handledmore as a frying batter than a pancake batter. Theindentedwaffleironprovidesextrasurfaceareatomaximizetheamountofcrust.Forcrispwafflesthatreleasewellfromthepan:

Includeplentyoffat.Recipesoftencallforasmuchas¼pound/115gramsofbutterforeverycup/120gramsofflour,oraboutequalweights.Makethebatterthin.Thinbatterexpandswellforgoodcrispingandcoatingoftheiron,especiallyBelgianwaffleironsthatareflippedduringthecooking.Mixthewafflebatterbrieflyandcookitimmediately,beforetheflourhasachancetosoakupmuchmoisture.

Reduced-fatwafflerecipes, includingpancakerecipes,produceadenser,hardercrustthatbecomesleatheryifitreabsorbsmoisture.Give the batter room to rise and become light in the iron. Don’t

overfilltheiron,whichproducesadense,pancakelikeresult.Toavoidhavingwafflessticktotheiron,besuremetalsurfacesare

wellseasoned,ornonsticksurfacesclean,notstickywitholdfat.Allowtheirontopreheatfullybeforespooningonbatter.Keeptheironcloseduntiltheflowofsteamisgreatlyreduced.If waffles won’t release from the iron, let them cook for another

minuteortwotofurtherdrytheirsurfaces.Tokeepwafflescrispuntilthey’reserved,holdtheminasinglelayer

onarackinalowoven.Store leftoverwaffles wrapped airtight in the refrigerator for a few

days, or the freezer indefinitely. Recrisp in a medium oven or in atoasteronthelowestsetting.

POPOVERS

Popovers are irregular, muffin-shaped, hollow pastries made from abatter like crepe batter, but cooked inmetal cups in a hot oven. Thebottom, top, and sides set while the inner batter forms steam andexpands,pushingthetopup.Forahigherriseandcrispertexture,usearecipethatcallsforsomeseparatedeggwhites aswell aswhole eggs.Mix thebatter justbeforebaking.Useametal panwith deep,well-separated cups, to encourage evenheatingandrising.Greasethecups,preheatedintheovenifdesired,andfillthemhalfwaywithbatter.Startpopoversinahotoven,450°F/230°C,untilthebatterrisesfullyafter15 to20minutes.Then turn theheatdown to cook throughandcrisptheirsurfaceswithoutexcessivebrowning.Tosavetimeandenergy,startpopoversinacoldpanandcoldoven.Many recipes call for preheating the oven and pan to maximize thebatter’srise,butitwillrisesurprisinglywellwithouttrickyhandlingofhotmetalandfat.Cutslitsinthesideoffinishedpopoverssothattheinnersteamwillescapeandthepopoverswon’tcollapse.Store popovers wrapped airtight in the refrigerator for days, or thefreezerforweeks.Torefreshleftoverpopovers,reheatthemfor5minutesinahotoven.

FRYINGANDFRITTERBATTERS

Fryingandfritterbattersarethinmixturesofflourandliquidthatcoatasolidpieceof food,orcoatandholdseveralsmallpiecestogether,andthenfryinoiltoacrispbuttendercrust.Agoodfryingbatterhasjustenoughproteinfromflourand/oreggstoholdthebattertogetherandtothefood.Toomuchflourglutenoreggyolkfriesintoadense,tough,oilycrust.To make tender, crisp crusts, mix batters that dilute wheat flour

glutenwith cornstarchor rice flour, and that containmoreeggwhitesthanyolks.For amore crumbly crispness, replace up to half of the liquidwithvodka, whose alcohol limits gluten formation and reduces waterabsorptionbystarch.Itboilsoffquicklyduringfrying.For a lighter, crunchier crust, break the batter up into fragile littlechambersbyleaveningit.Includesomebakingpowder,foldinwhippedeggwhitesatthelastminute,oruseverycoldbeerorcarbonatedwaterfortheliquid.Mix the batter with as little stirring as possible, and just beforefrying,sotheflourhaslittletimetoabsorbmoistureandthebatterwillcrisp quickly. If you’ll be frying over a period of an hour or more,prepare the solidand liquid ingredients separatelyaheadof time, thenmixtogetherinbatchesjustbeforefrying.Japanesetempurabatterproducesanespeciallydelicate,irregularlylacy crust. Mix ice-cold water with the flour and egg briefly andincompletely just before frying, to minimize the formation of toughglutenandthetimerequiredtocrispthecrust.Tohelpbattersadhere to foods, dredge foods indry flouror starchjustbeforedippinginbatter.Usefresh,neutral-flavoredoilforfrying.Freshoilisthinnerthanoldoilandclingslesstofriedfoods.Checktheoil temperatureoftenduringfryingandadjusttheheatasneeded tomaintain thedesired temperature,usually325 to375°F/160to 190°C. The first minute or two of cooking require more heat tomaintainthetemperaturethanlaterstages,whenheatshouldbeturneddown.Discardbattersformeatorfishafter4hours.Therepeatedexposuretorawfoodsmayresultinhazardousnumbersofdiseasebacteria.

C

21

ICECREAMS,ICES,MOUSSES,ANDJELLIES

hilledandfrozendessertsreallydomeltinthemouth,theclassicdescription for something luscious. They cool and refresh, andprovide that intriguing sensation of a solid mass disappearing

intoelusive,flavorfulfluid.Chillingandfreezingaremethodsthatgivestructureand firmness to foods justasheatingdoes,but theyhave theunusualvirtueofbeingreversible.Wecanfirmmanyicesandjelliesandthenmeltthem,adjustthem,andfirmthemagain.Colddishesmakeagoodintroductiontocookingforchildren,safeandeasyandtastyevenwhenthetextureisn’tquiteright.Thebestreasonablypricedicecreammakerisstilltheentertainingbucket-stylefreezerthatusesiceandsalt.It’salsoeasy to improvisean icecreamfreezer fromthreeplasticbagsandsomewaterandsalt.Mosticecreammakingputsapremiumonsmoothness,whichcomes

fromfreezingthemixveryquicklyandpreventing its icecrystals fromgrowing big enough to feel on the tongue. It’s difficult to match thesmoothness of commercial ice creams using a homemachine.When Ifoundthatoutthehardway,itoccurredtometoask:whydoesallicecreamhavetobesmooth?Of course itdoesn’thave tobe! I found thatoneof the firstprinted

recipes for ice cream was named ice cream “with pins” for itsintentionallylargeicecrystals.Imadeitandfoundthatthecrystalsdidindeed prickle at first, but then they melted away into smoothcreaminess,sothatIhadtwocontrastingtexturesineachbite.Ilikeditand still make it. Then there’s the salep ice cream of Turkey andneighboring countries, which is made intentionally and delightfullychewy by thickening the mix with the powdered bulb of a particularorchidandthenkneadingthefrozenmixlikebreaddough.Youcangetasimilar effect by using locust bean gum or guar gum, more readily

availablethickeners.Byallmeansenjoyhome-stylesmoothnessandvanillaandchocolate,but then think about other possibilities. If you’re going tomake yourownicecream,whynotreallymakeityourown?

COLDANDFROZENFOODSAFETY

Cold and frozen foods are less hazardous than many foods becausethey’re prepared and served at temperatures that slow the growth ofmicrobes.Coldand frozen foods can still cause illness if they’repreparedwithcontaminatedingredientsorhandledcarelessly.Observe the usual food safety precautions when making cold andfrozen foods. Wash hands, utensils, and raw ingredients. Thoroughlycookmeats,fish,andstocksmadefromthem.Avoidputtingthesefoodsincontactwithotheruncookedfoods.Raw and barely cooked eggs are sometimes used to make coldmousses and soufflés. There’s a very slight possibility that they maycarrysalmonellaandcauseillness.Toeliminatetheriskofsalmonellaillnessfromeggs,usepasteurizedeggsormeringuepowderinsteadoffresheggs.Topasteurizefresheggsinthekitchen,carefullyheateitheryolksplussugar, orwhites plus creamof tartar, over awater bathwith constantstirring until they reach 160°F/70°C. Take off the heat and continuestirringuntilthey’renolongerhot.

SHOPPINGFORANDSTORINGCOLDFOODS

Thebestcoldandfrozenfoods,withthebestflavorandmostmeltingconsistency,aremadewithgood-qualityfruitsandjuices,freshmilkandcream and eggs, and genuine flavorings. Use these tomake your ownjellies,ices,andicecreams.Many manufactured foods are imitations of the fresh-madeoriginal,madewithcheaperdrieddairyandeggingredients,extracted

or artificial flavorings, excessive sugar in the form of corn syrups,stabilizingstarchesandgums,andpreservatives.Read labels to find outwhat you’re buying. For fresh-made quality,choosebrandswiththefewestandmostfamiliaringredients.When choosing ice cream, heft cartons and compare prices. Acontainerofcommercialicecreamcanbeasmuchashalfairbubbles,soasmallerbutdensercontainermaycontainjustasmuchsolidpleasure.Partial warming and rechilling damages the texture of frozenfoods, evenwhen they remain frozen.Partialwarmingmelts small icecrystals; rechilling adds their water to the surviving big crystals andmakes them bigger. This temperature cycling turns a fine, smoothconsistencyintoacoarse,grainyone.Bring along an insulated coolerwhen shopping, to keep cold foodscold.Pickupchilledandfrozenfoodslast,justbeforecheckingout.Choose the coldest containers, usually from the back of thecompartment.Choose small containers of frozen desserts that you will finishquickly. Their temperature changes frequently in your freezer as thechillingunitcyclesonandoffandwhenthedoorisopenedandclosed.Everytimeacontainer iswarmedupforservingandthenrefrozen, itstexturegetsgrainier.Keepthefreezerascoldaspossible,ideally0°F/-18°Corlower.Wrapleftoverfoodsairtighttominimizefreezerburnandthepickupof off odors. Press plasticwrap directly into the surface of ice creamsandices.Warmstored icecreamsand icesbeforeserving toabout20°F/-7°C,sothatthey’refirmbutnothard.Servecoldfoodspromptlyonprechilleddishes,sothattheystaycoldatthetable.

THEESSENTIALSOFFREEZINGICESANDICECREAMS

Freezingistheprocessofchillingaliquidmixcoldenoughtoturnmostof itswater into amass of solid ice crystals,with the rest of themixformingasyrupthatcoatsandlubricatesthecrystals.The consistency of an ice or ice cream is set by the size of its ice

crystals and the proportion of syrup coating them. The smaller thecrystals, the finer the texture. The more liquid syrup and otheringredientstherearetokeepthecrystalsapart,thesofterthetexture.Crystalsizeandsyrupproportionsdependonthemixingredients,how

youfreezethemix,andtheservingtemperature.Small crystals and fine texture are favored by sweetermixes, and

rapidfreezingwithconstantagitation.Soft texture is favored by sweeter mixes and warmer serving

temperatures.Mixeswith toomuchsugarmakesticky,syrupy icesandicecreams.Othermix ingredients that helpproduce fine, soft consistencies

are corn syrup, honey, alcohols, egg yolks, dried milk solids, gelatin,fats,fruitpectins,andair.Theyallinterferewiththeformationoflargeicecrystals.There are two basic methods for freezing ices and ice creams:

still-freezingandchurning.

Still-freezingchillsthemixinapanormoldinthefreezerwithlittleornoagitation.Itproducesacoarse,hardtextureunlessthemixcontainsplentyofingredientsthatinterferewithicecrystalgrowth.Churningchillsthemixinanappliancethatallowsfrequentorconstantagitation.Itwillproducesmallericecrystalsfromagivenmix,andasmoothertexture.Churningalsoworksairintothemix,whichmakesitlighterandeasiertoscoop.

Ice cream makers come in three types: electric makers, freezercanisters,andbrinebucketmakers.

Electricicecreammakersareminiaturefreezersthatmovethemixastheychillitandcontinuouslyextrudeit.Mosthavelimitedchillingpowerandproduceafairlysoftresultthatisgoodwhen

eatenimmediately,butgetsgrainywhenhardenedinthefreezer.Freezercanisterscontainacoolantsubstancewithintheirhollowwallandbottom,andmustbechilledinthefreezerovernightbeforethey’recoldenoughtofreezeabatchofmix.Tobesurethatthemixwillfreezefullyinacanistermaker,prechillthemixinthefreezeruntilitbeginstocrystallize.Tomakethesmoothesticecreaminacanister,andtoavoidastuckdasher,crankthedashercontinuously.Brinemachinesaremodernversionsoftheoriginalicecreammachine,andworkverywell.Theysurroundthemixwithaslushoficeandsalt.Thehighertheproportionofsaltintheslush,thelowertheslushtemperature.Tofreezeamixefficiently,keeptheslushsignificantlycolderthanthefreezingpointofthemix,20°F/-7°Corlower.

There are four steps in making frozen dishes: mixing theingredients, prechilling the mix, freezing the mix, and hardening thefreshlyfrozenmix.Combinethemixingredients,cookingthemifnecessary.Don’tbothercooking a sugar syrup to add to the other ingredients unless you’remakingseveraldifferentmixesquickly.Thesugarwilldissolvewithoutheating.Season and flavor cold foods boldly. Our perception of flavor ismuted when foods are cold, so they need more flavor to make animpression.Prechillthemixintherefrigeratorfreezer,stirringoccasionally,untilitbeginstofreezeattheedges.Thiswillspeedthechurningprocessandproduceafinertexture.To freeze themix ina canisterormachine, fill the containerup totwo-thirds full, to leave room for themix to expandwith air and riseover the dasher edge. Leave more room if you’re going to add nuts,fruits,orotheringredientsneartheendoffreezing.Churnuntilthemixis too stiff to continue. For the lightest result, churn the fastest as themixstiffens,whenitcantraptexture-softeningairbubbles.To freezeamixslowlywithoutacanisterormachine,useabroad,shallowpan,whichprovidesmoresurfacefromwhichheatcanescape.

Ifpossible,stirandscrapeoccasionallytopreventthemixfromfreezingsolid.Slowfreezingcantakeafewhoursdependingonthemixvolume,andproducesarelativelygrainyconsistency.To freeze a small amount of mix quickly without a canister or

machine, use a plastic bag to spread it into a thin layer. Thismethodtakesabout30minutesandproducesafinertexturethanslowfreezing.

Prechillapint/500millilitersofmixina1-gallon/4-literfreezerbag.Immersethebaginalargebowlofbrine,with2to3pounds/1to1.3kilogramsofcrushedicetossedwith1/2cup/150gramsofgranulatedsalt.Massagethebagoccasionallytomixthecontents,untilthey’restiff.Tothin-freezemixesregularlyandlesswastefully,keepthebrineinbagstoo.Dissolve1pound/0.5kilogramsaltin3quartsorliterswater,dividethisbrinebetweentwo1-gallon/4-literbags,andprefreezethemforatleast5hours.Thenplacetheprechilledmixbagbetweenthebrinebagstofreeze.

Harden the newly frozenmix in the refrigerator freezer for severalhourstoreachitsfullfirmnessandkeepitsicecrystalssmall.Dividethemixintotwoorthreeprechilledcontainerstohardenquickly,andcoverthemtoprotectfromoffodors.Foods direct from the freezer are too cold to enjoy. They’re icy

hardandmaketeethandheadshurt.Warm ice creamsand ices for serving to 10 to 20°F/–12 to -7°C. If

you’regoingtorefreezethecontainer, removethe foodassoonasyoucan scoop it and refreeze the leftovers immediately to minimize icecrystalgrowthandgraininess.Towarmicesandicecreamsquickly,microwavethecontainerfor5

to 10 seconds, then check the consistency and repeat if necessary.Microwaves penetrate deep into icy foods, and slight thawing causeslargechangesinsoftness.

ICECREAMS

Icecreamsarefrozenmixturesofsweetenedmilkandcream.Agoodicecreamissmoothtextured,firm,almostchewy,andcoldbut

noticy.Itmeltsslowlyandevenly.The keys to making a good ice cream are a balanced mix of

ingredients and quick freezing, which produce small ice crystalssurroundedbyasweet,thick,concentratedcream.Abasicmixforasmoothconsistencyisequalpartswholemilkand

heavy cream,andabout20percentof the total liquidweight in sugar(about 7 tablespoons/100 grams per pint/500 milliliters). This mix ishighinmilkfatandsugar.Other ingredients can contribute smoothness and replace some

butterfat or sugar. They include egg yolks, evaporated and powderedmilks,andcornsyrups,starches,pectinsandgums,andgelatin.There are three basic styles of ice cream: fresh, or Philadelphia;

custard;andgelato.

FreshorPhiladelphia-styleicecreamismadebyfreezingamixoffreshmilkandcream,sugar,andflavorings.It’sthesimplest,withthepureflavorofcream,andisatitsbestfreshlymade.Itbecomeshardandgrainywhenstored.Ithasarelativelyhighbutterfatcontent.Custard-styleicecreamismadefromacookedmixofmilk,eggyolks,sugar,flavorings,andsometimescream.Theingredientsareheatedtogethertothickenthemintoacookedstirredcustard,whichthenfreezestoanespeciallysmoothconsistency.It’softenmadewithlittleornoaddedcream,andhasarelativelylowbutterfatcontent.Thetechniquecanalsobeappliedwithheavycreamtomakeaveryrichmix.Gelatocustard-styleicecreamismadefromacookedmixofmilk,sometimescream,andalargenumberofeggyolks,5ormoreperpint/500milliliters,andischurnedgentlytominimizeaerationandmaximizedensity.Thankstotheabundantyolkemulsifiersandprotein,gelatohasaverysmoothconsistencyandgloss.

Reduced-fat, low-fat, and nonfat ice creams, and icemilks andfrozen yogurt have less milk fat than the 10 percent commercial

minimum for ice cream. They replace texture-smoothingmilk fatwithpowderednonfatmilk,cornsyrup,andvariousgums.Soft-serve ice creams can be made with less sugar and fat thanstandard ice creams because they’re served partly thawed at highertemperatures.Frozen yogurt is also low in fat, and refreshingly tart. Commercialversionscontainvery littleyogurtand fewof itshealthfulbacteria.Tomake frozen yogurt with fresh flavor and bacteria, add sugar or fruitpreservestotastetoplainyogurt,prechillthemix,andfreeze.To make ice cream, start with the freshest milk and cream.Ultrapasteurizedcreamhasablandflavorcomparedtolesswidelysoldpasteurized cream, but helps keep ice crystals small and resists beingaccidentally churned into butter. Delicious but tart ice creams can bemadeusingcrèmefraîche.Handle high-creammixes carefully to avoid churning their fat intobutter.Prechillthemthoroughlyandchurnasbrieflyaspossible.Ifusingwholevanillabeansorother flavorings, infuse them inhotmilkorcreambeforemakingthemix.Ifusingflavorextracts,addthemafterthemixhascooled.Includeasmallpinchofsalttoenhanceotherflavors.Tomakeacustard-stylemix,whisktogethertheeggsandsugar,heatthe milk and/or cream separately to 180°F/80°C, and whisk the hotliquidintotheeggs.Don’taddeggstohotliquid.Heatandstirthemixjustuntil it thickens, around180°F/80°C.Quickly take themixoff theheatandstiruntilitcools.Pouritthroughafine-meshstrainerandchill.Don’tbothertoageicecreammixesforhours.Agingisimportantincommercial mixes that include gelatin and stabilizing gums, but inhomemade ice cream it encourages cream to separate and churn intobutter.Prechill the mix in the freezer, occasionally stirring and scrapingdown icecrystals fromtheedge.To speed thisprocess,divide themixamongseveralsmallcontainers.Whenthemixreaches30°F/-1°Corthecrystalsre-forminafewminutes,themixisreadytofreeze.Freeze quickly in the ice cream maker with frequent or constant

churning to produce the finest ice crystals and texture, and to avoidchurning cream into butter. If still-freezing themix in a pan, stir andscrapeeveryfewminutes.To lighten the mix with air, churn vigorously once the mix hasbecomesemisolidandcanretainit.Tomakeadense,gelato-styleicecream,stir thesemisolidmixwithaslittleaerationaspossible.Foldinsolidingredientsincludingnuts,piecesoffruit,orchocolateattheendofchurning.Hardenthemix in the freezeronce ithasbecometoostiff tochurn.Dividethebatchintoseveralsmallerprechilledcontainers.Storeicecreamsascoldaspossible in thebackof the freezer.Pressplasticwrapdirectlyontotheicecreamtoprotectitfromoffodorsandfreezerburn.Massageoutanyairpockets.Toscoopa light,delicateballof icecreamwhile it’s stillhard,usethescoopedgetocutathin,continuousribbonfromthesurfaceandrollitintoaball.Serveicecreamsinchilledbowls.

ICES,GRANITAS,SORBETS,ANDSHERBETS

Ices are simple frozen dishesmadewith just fruit or a flavoredwater(coffee,tea,cocoa,wine),sugar,andsometimesmilk.Theymeltinthemouthtoarefreshingsweet-tartmoistness.Granitas and granités are still-frozen ices, usually less sweet thansorbetsandintentionallycoarseandgrainy.Sorbetsarechurnedices,relativelysweetandfinetextured.Sherbetsarechurnedicesmadewithsomemilk.Most ices are robust andeven reversible. They canbepulverizedandsoftened for serving ina foodprocessor,or thawed,modified,andrefrozen.Ice consistency depends on the sugar content of the mix and theconsistencyofthefruitingredient.

Thehigherthesugarcontent,thesmallertheicecrystalsandthefinertheconsistency.Thick purees make finer-grained ices than thin purees and juices.

Apricot, raspberry, and pineapple purees make especially fine-grainedices.Tomakeunusuallycreamyices,includesomeavocado,whichishigh

inoil,at1partforevery3partsofthemainfruit.Inlargeramountsitbecomeslessanonymous.Mixesproduceasmoothicewhentheycontain25to30percent

sugarbyweight,includingthefruit’sownsugar.Thisrangesbetween3and6tablespoons/45and90gramsaddedsugarperpint/500milliliters.Lesssugarmakesagrainierice,moresugarasticky-sweet,syrupyice.Tomakealower-sugarsmoothice,replaceaquarterofthesugarwith

cornsyruporafewspoonsofhigh-alcoholspiritsorliqueur.Tomake an intentionally coarse granita, add as little sugar as you

like.Balancethesweetnessofaddedsugarwithacid fromlemonor lime

juiceorsoursalt(citricacid).Somefruitjuicesandpureesbenefitfromdilutionwithwater to

makethemtastemoredelicate,lesslikesimplefrozenfruit.Melonsandpearsareexamples.Sour lemonandlimejuicesrequiredilution just tobepalatable.Dilutionalsomakesalargervolumeoficefromthesamevolumeoffruit.Tomakesimplegranitas,freezethemixwithoutstirringinapan.To

serve,scrapecrystals fromthesurfacewithaspoonorforkandcollecttheminaprechilledcontainer.Orthawtheicejustuntilsoftenoughtobreakupwithafork,thencrushbyhandorinafoodprocessor.Tomakegranitasreadytoservedirectlyfromthefreezer,stirthemix

occasionallyduringfreezingsothatitformsloosecrystalmasses.Tomakesorbetsandsherbets,prechillthemixinthefreezer,stirring

occasionally,until itbegins tocrystallizearoundtheedges, thenchurninanicecreammakeruntilstiff.Store icesairtight, pressingplasticwrapdirectly onto the surface to

protectthemfromoffodors.

Warm icesbefore serving tomake themeasier to scoopandeat.Towarmquickly,heat thecontainer inamicrowaveoven for10seconds,checktheconsistency,andrepeatifnecessary.Serveicesinchilledbowls.

COLDANDFROZENMOUSSESANDSOUFFLÉS

Moussesareflavorfulliquids,purees,orpastesgivenbothstructureandlightnessbybeingcombinedwithwhippedeggwhitesand/orwhippedcream,andthenchilledorfrozenuntilset.Frozenmoussesareagoodalternativetohomemadeicecreams.

They’re frozen without stirring, their texture is usually smoother, andthey’reeasiertoserve.Tomakemousseswithfullflavor,minimizetheproportionofflavor-

dilutingeggorcreamfoams.Toretainasmuchof the foam’svolumeaspossible,gently fold the

ingredientstogetherorstirwithaballoonwhisk.Tofold,mixaquarterof the foam thoroughlywith the rest of themix to loosen it, pour themixontothefoamorviceversa,andstrokedownintoandupoutofthefoam,repeatinguntilthetwoareevenlycombined.Gelatin is included in the base mix for Bavarian creams and some

other mousses. It provides extra firmness for unmolding and anattractive gloss. Before adding it, warm the base mix to at least100°F/38°C, tomake sure that thegelatin isevenlydispersedbefore itcoolsandgels.Refrigeratecoldmoussesuntilchilledandfirmthroughout,atleast2

hoursforindividualservingsand4hoursforlargerdishes.Frozen mousses and soufflés are essentially lightened versions of

icesandicecreams.Themixesarefrozenwithoutstirringinamoldorindividualservingdishes.Semifreddosarechilledorfrozencombinationsofcakeandacustard-

style ice creammixmade light and fluffy by the addition ofwhippedcream.Freezingwithoutstirringcanproduceanicy,grainyconsistency.

Tominimizegraininess infrozenmoussesandsoufflés,chooseamixthatincludeseggyolks,cornsyrup,orgelatin,whichinterferewithicecrystalgrowth,andwhipthecreamand/oreggwhitestotheirmaximumvolume.Covermoussesandsouffléslooselywithplasticwraptominimizethe

pickupofoffodorsduringchilling,freezing,andfrozenstorage.

COLDJELLIES

Cold jellies (not the fruit preserves) are flavorful, glossy, slick, oftentransparent masses that melt in the mouth. They’re made from manydifferentliquids,includingmeatstocks(aspics,thispage),wines,spirits(jellyshots), freshfruitandvegetable juicesandpurees,andmilksandcream(pannacotta).Piecesofmeatorfish,eggs,vegetables,andfruitscanbeembeddedinjelly.Gelatin turns liquids into solid jellies.Gelatin is a protein extracted

from animal skins and bones. It dissolves invisibly into warm or hotliquids,setsthemintomoistsolidswhenchilled,andmeltsagainwhenwarmedtobodytemperature,inthemouthorinawarmroom.To make jellies without animal gelatin, use vegetarian substitutes

made from seaweed carbohydrates. Supermarkets carry versions madefromcarrageenanthatcomewithdetailedinstructions.Agar,alsocalledkanten, is a seaweed carbohydrate available in Asian markets. Agarjelliesaren’tthesameasgelatinjellies.Theyneedtobecookedneartheboiltodissolvetheagar.Whencooled,theysettoabrittletexture,andmeltagainonlyat185°F/85°C,notinawarmroomorinthemouth.Tobeeaten,theyneedtobechewed.Manufactured gelatin is sold in two forms, as a powder and in

sheets.Powdered gelatin is measured out by packet, volume, and weight.

Packetsusuallycontainabout21/4teaspoons/7gramsofgelatin.Sheetgelatinismeasuredbythesheetorbyweight.Sheetscomein

differentweights,sizes,andstrengths.There’snogeneralwaytoconvertproportionsbetweensheetandpowderedgelatins.

Premoistenallgelatinsincoldwatertopreventclumpingwhenaddedto thewarmorhot liquid. If clumpingoccurs, stir constantlyuntil theclumpseventuallydissolve.Thiscantakesometime.To prepare powdered gelatin for use, pour a small amount of cold

waterintoashallowbowl,sprinklegelatinevenlyoverthesurface,andletitabsorbwaterfor5to10minutes.Thenmixthemoistenedgelatinwithotheringredients.Topreparesheetgelatinforuse,place it inabowl,coverwithcold

water, and let it absorb water for 5 to 10 minutes. Then remove it,squeezeoutexcesswater,anddissolveitintootheringredients.Add gelatin to liquids only after they’re cooked and ready to set.

Gelatinbreaksdownandlosessettingpowerwhenit’sexposedtohighorprolongedheat.Jellyfirmnessdependsontheconcentrationofgelatinintheliquid,

andontheotheringredients.Toomuchgelatinmakesarubbery,chewyjelly,whiletoolittlewon’tsettheliquidatall.Thestandardfirmdessertjellymadefrompackagedmixesisabout

3percentgelatin,or1packetin1cup/250milliliterswater.Tomakeatenderjellythatcanstillbeunmolded,use1packetto2

cups/500millilitersliquid.Foratremblinglydelicatejelly,use1packetin3cups/750milliliterswater.Ingredients that firm jellies include moderate amounts of sugar,

milk,andalcohol.Ingredientsthatsoftenjelliesincludesaltandacids.Fruitjuicesand

winesareacidandrequiremoregelatinforagivenfirmnessthanotherliquids.Don’t try to make jellies with fresh fruits and spices that contain

protein-digestingenzymes,whichbreakdowngelatinand jellies.Theseincludefigs,kiwis,mangoes,melons,papayas,peaches,andpineapples,andfreshginger.Thoroughlycooktheseingredientsfirst,orusecannedfruitsinsteadoffresh.Tomake theclearest jellies from fruit juice, strainor clarify it, and

dilutewithsomewaterifnecessary.Tea and red wine make cloudy jellies because their tannins cluster

withthegelatinproteins.To prevent food pieces from sinking or floating instead of being

dispersed evenly in a jelly, allow the gelatin solution to thickensomewhatbeforeaddingthepieces.Chill gelatinmixtures to set in the refrigerator. Jellieswill set in a

fewhours,buttheywillcontinuetofirmslowlyforseveraldays.Largevolumestakelongertosetthanindividualportions.To rescue a jelly that fails to set, warm it gently to 105°F/40°C,

sprinkleadditionalpowderedgelatinonasmallportiontomoistenanddissolve,thenstirintotherestofthemix,andchillaspoonfulquicklyinthefreezer.Ifitdoesn’tsetwhencold,thenrepeat.Storejelliesintherefrigerator.Don’tfreezethem,whichcausesthem

toleakliquidwhenthawed.Unmoldandservejelliesbygentlywarmingthemoldandknife.When cutting jelly into decorative shapes, chill the cutting surface

andknifetoavoidmelting.Servejelliesonchilleddishes.

C

22

CHOCOLATEANDCOCOA

hocolate is one of the most mouthfillingly delicious foods wehaveandoneofthemostelaboratelyprocessed.Itstartswithafattytropicalseed,thecacaobean,whichgetsfermented,dried,

roasted,ground, and sweetenedwith sugar.The result isdeeplynutty,fruity, bitter and astringent, and sweet, with a brittle snappiness thatmeltsinthemouthtorichvelvet.Chocolate is also the one triumphant creation of the food industry.

None of today’s velvety chocolates could exist until manufacturersfiguredouthowtoseparatecacaobeansintotheircocoafatsandsolids,andgrindthesolidsdowntonearlyundetectablefineness.Many chocolate foods are easy to prepare. Not so easy is making

chocolatecoatingsandcandiesthatareasglossy,assnappytobiteinto,andaslusciousinthemouthastheoneswecanbuy.Thekeytomuchofchocolate’smagic is itscocoafat,which iswhat

allows us to melt it and shape it. If we melt it and cool chocolatecasually, then its cocoa fat forms a casual, disorganized structure. Thechocolate surface becomes uneven and mottled, and it feels soft andgreasyonthefingersandinthemouth.Butifwe temper thechocolate,ormeltandshape itat just theright

temperatures, then its cocoa fat sets in a highly organized structure.That’s what gives chocolate a beautifully matte or mirrorlike surface,and a dry solidity that snaps between the teeth andmelts juicily andcoolinglyinthemouth.Temperingtakestimeandtrouble,but it’sa fascinatingprocesseven

whenitgoeswrong,andit’seasytostartoveragainandgetitright.I’vebeencaptivatedenoughbychocolate tohave spirited freshcacaopodsfromSouthAmerica toCalifornia, fermented thebeans fordays inmy

kitchen, then dried and roasted and pounded them, just to get somefeeling for how a bitter, astringent, and aromaless raw seed couldpossiblybecomeanepitomeofdeliciousness.Ican’tdothateveryday!ButIcanalwaysmeltsomechocolate,temperit,andmixitwithtoastednuts tomakeafter-dinnerchocolatesas freshandsnappyasanything Icanbuy—andenjoytheinscrutableserendipityofatropicalseedwhosefatissowelldesignedtoplease.

SHOPPINGFORCHOCOLATESANDCOCOA

Cacaobeansaregrownandfermentedinmanytropicalandsubtropicalcountries,andmostareshippedtoconsumingcountriestobeprocessedintochocolateandcocoa.“Fair-trade”productsaremeanttohavebeenmade from beans for which a higher price is paid to farmers indeveloping countries. Chocolate and cocoa are highly variableingredients. They’re sold in many different formulations that mayincludemilksolids,otherflavorings,andanythingfromnosugartoalotofsugar.Arecipethatworkswellwithonekindorbrandofchocolatecanbeadisasterwithadifferentone.Double-checkwhatkindofchocolateorcocoaarecipecallsforandtry to buy that kind, especially if a percentage of cacao bean solids isspecified.Ifyoucan’t,trytoadjusttherecipeforthekindyouhave.Tastedifferentbrandsofchocolateandcocoatoknowwhatchoicesyouhave.Inexpensive mass-market chocolates are made with inexpensivecacao beans, theminimumallowedproportion of cacao solids and themaximumallowedsugar,andhaveasimple,mildflavor.Expensive“fine”and“artisan”chocolatesareusuallymadewithahigherproportionofhigher-qualitycacaosolids.Theyhavearelativelystrong,complexflavor.Milk chocolates contain less cacao solids than dark chocolates andincludedriedmilkpowder.Theyhavethemildestchocolateflavor.“White chocolate” contains no cacao solids at all, just cocoa fat,sugar, dried milk powder, and flavorings. It has a very mild flavor,mainlyfromvanillaandmilk.

CHOCOLATESAFETYANDSTORAGE

Chocolate itself, and foods made primarily of chocolate, present littlehazard.They’retoodryandsweetformostmicrobestosurviveonthem.Don’t discard chocolate that develops a white surface film ormottling,whichisfatorsugarparticlescreatedbytemperaturechangesorhighhumidity.Usethechocolateincooking,ormeltandtemperit.Keepchocolateconfectionsforafewweeksatroomtemperature. Inhumid climates, wrap airtight to avoid development of white, grittysugar “bloom” on surface. Eat nut confections quickly; nut oils stalefasterthanchocolatedoes.Storechocolateconfectionsforweeksormonthswrappedairtightintherefrigeratororfreezer.Beforefreezing,refrigeratethemforadayormore; and to thaw, leave them for 24 hours in the refrigerator beforebringing them to room temperature. Large temperature changes cancause cracking when chocolate and fillings expand or shrink. Allowchilledcandiestowarmupfullytoroomtemperaturebeforeopeningthepackage.Airmoisturewillcondenseoncoldchocolatesandmakethemstickyandmottled.Storeplaindarkandmilkchocolate formonthswrappedairtightatcool room temperature. The cocoa solids prevent oxidation, but don’tpreventgradualflavorlossandthedevelopmentofcrumbliness.Choosea place where the temperature doesn’t change much, to avoiddevelopmentofawaxy-lookingfat“bloom”onthesurface.Storewhitechocolateforafewweekswrappedairtightatcoolroomtemperature, somewhat longer in the refrigerator.White chocolate hasnoantioxidantcacaobeansolidsandstalesfasterthandarkchocolate.

TOOLSFORWORKINGWITHCHOCOLATE

Successful chocolate work is made much easier by tools that provideprecisecontroloverproportionsandtemperatures.Akitchenscale is essential formeasuringout chocolate, andusefulfor measuring everything else with greater precision than cups andspoonscan.

An accurate thermometer is essential for tempering chocolatereliably.Inexpensiveinstant-readthermometersarenotaccurateenough.Digitalcookingthermometersarebetter.Specialchocolatethermometersmeasurebetween40and130°F/4and55°C. Infraredthermometersareideal for tempering because they give instant readings withoutimmersion or the need for cleaning. But don’t use them in makingganache to measure cream temperatures, whose water content makeshotsurfacereadingsinaccurate.Spoonsmadeofwoodorsiliconedon’tconductheatoutofmolten

chocolate as they stir, which gives better control of the chocolatetemperature.Awaterbathordoubleboilerheatschocolateindirectlyandgently.

It’s a nested set of two saucepans, the bottom one containing waterheatedbythestovetop,thetoponecontainingthechocolateandheatedbywaterorsteamfromthebottom.Improviseadoubleboilerbyplacingabowlontopofaslightlynarrowersaucepanofhotwater.Becarefulnottowetthechocolatewithstraydropsorvaporwhen

warmingchocolatewithwaterorsteam.Smallamountsofwatercausechocolateparticlestoclumpupandformahardpaste.Amarbleorgraniteslabhelpscoolmeltedchocolatefortempering,

and isn’t damaged by vigorous scraping. A greased baking sheet or asiliconelinercanbeusedinstead.Pastrytubesandbagsaretoolsforextrudingorpipingganacheinto

neat,evenportions.Dippingforksandtoolseasethehandlinganddrainingoffoodpieces

tobecoatedinmeltedchocolate.Chocolate molds hold and set melted chocolate into a variety of

decorativeshapes.

WORKINGWITHCOCOAPOWDER

Cocoapowdersconsistmainlyofthedriedparticlesofthecacaobeans,whichcarrynearlyalltheflavor.Theyalsoincludevaryingamountsofcocoafat,from5to25percent.Higher-fatcocoasmakericherdishes.To

comparethefatcontentsofdifferentbrands,checktheirnutritionlabels.“Instant”cocoas contain sugarandmilk solidsasamix formakinghotchocolate.They’reconveniencefoods,notingredientsforbaking.Therearetwotypesofunsweetenedcocoapowder:“natural”and“Dutch process.” They have different flavors, and can’t always besubstitutedforeachother.“Natural” cocoa is untreated cocoa powder, reddish-brown, verybitterandastringent,andacidic. Itsaciditycanreactwithbakingsodatohelp leavenbakedgoods, and it speeds the settingof flour andeggproteins.“Dutchprocess,” “alkalized,” or “alkali process” cocoa has beentreatedwithachemicalrelativeofbakingsodatomakeitstastemilder.Itscolorrangesfromlightbrowntonearlyblack.Thedarkerthecolor,the milder the taste. It is neutral or slightly basic rather than acidic,doesn’treactwithbakingsoda,andslowsthesettingofproteins.Makesureyouhave the typeofcocoacalledfor inarecipe. Ifyoudon’t,thenadjusttherecipetobalancetheacidityofnaturalcocoawithbakingsoda,orthealkalinityofDutchprocesscocoawithsomeacid.The main challenge in cooking with cocoa is mixing the very dryparticleswiththeotheringredients.The fat-coated particles can be hard to mix evenly with wetingredients,andwillsoakuphotliquidandclump.Tomixcocoawith liquids,whisk insmallamountsofcoldorwarmliquid until you develop a paste. Don’t use hot liquid, which causesclumping.Thenaddtheremainingliquid,whichmaybecoldorhot.

KINDSOFCHOCOLATE

The four main types of chocolate are defined by their relativeproportions of cacao-beanmaterials, sugar, andmilk solids.Almost allchocolates contain added cocoa fat, natural or artificial vanilla flavor,andlecithin,anemulsifierthathelpsblendparticlesandfattogether.Unsweetenedchocolate isall cocoapowderandcocoa fat,withnosugar.It’sbitterandastringent,anintensesourceofchocolateflavorand

liquid-absorbingpower,designedforcookingwithotheringredients,notforeatingasis.Bittersweetorsemisweetchocolatescontainaminimumofabouta

thirdcacao-beanmaterials,powderpluscocoafat,butcanbeasmuchas90percent.They’reusuallybetween10and50percentsugar.Bittersweet chocolates are often sold with a percentage indication.

“Seventy-percent”chocolateis70percentcocoaparticlespluscocoafat,and 30 percent sugar. Percentages indicate the balance betweenchocolateflavorandsweetness,notquality.Sweet chocolate is aminimumof 15 percent cacao-beanmaterials,

andseldommorethan50percent.It’susually50to60percentsugar.Milkchocolateisaminimumof10percentcacao-beanmaterials,and

includesasmuchas15percentdriedmilksolids. It’sabout50percentsugar.Couverture chocolate is any kind of chocolate formulated with

enoughadditionalcocoafatthatwhenmelteditflowswelltomakethin,evencoatings.“White chocolate” is not really a chocolate. It contains no cocoa

particles or chocolate flavor, justmild or deodorized cocoa fat, sugar,anddriedmilkpowder.Compound coatings or nontempering chocolates are versions of

chocolateinwhichsomeorallofthecocoafathasbeenreplacedwithothertropicalseedfats.Theyresistsofteningatwarmtemperaturesandstayshinyandbreakwithasnapwithoutspecialhandling.

WORKINGWITHCHOCOLATE

Chocolate has two primary roles in the kitchen. It’s melted andrehardenedonitsownasacoatingorcandy.Andit’smixedwithotheringredientstoflavorandthickenthem.Forshapesorcoatingsthatareevenlymatteorglossy,hard,and

breakwith a snap, chocolate must be melted and held in a specifictemperature range. This process is called tempering and is describedbelow.

Tempering is not essential formany chocolate coatings or shapes,especiallyifthey’llbeeatenfreshlymadeandwithoutcloseattentiontotheir texture. Untempered chocolate tastes just as good. Temperchocolatewhenyouwanttosavoritsappearanceandtexture,andhavethetimetodoit.Chocolateworkisdifficultinhotweatherorhotkitchens.Cocoa

fatmeltsaroundbodytemperature,andbeginstogetsoftandstickyatwarmroomtemperature.To melt chocolate without tempering, grate or chop it into small

pieces,thenheatitwithfrequentstirringinawaterbathorheldabovealowburner.Orheatitinabowlinthemicrowaveoven,stoppingtostirevery30seconds.Don’theatchocolateonitsowntomorethan120°F/50°C.Plaindark

chocolate can tolerate somewhat higher temperatures, but they’re bestavoided toprevent emulsifierdamageand separationof the solidsandfat.Whenchocolateismixedwithliquid ingredientssuchasmilkand

cream,theirwaterdissolvesthechocolate’ssugarparticlesintoasugarsyrup,andgetsabsorbedbytheflourlikecocoaparticles.Successful chocolatemixtures depend on the correct balance of

cocoa fat, syrup-making sugar, andmoisture-absorbing cocoaparticles.Because different chocolates have different proportions of fat andparticlesandsugar,be sure touse thekindcalled for in the recipe,ormakeadjustmentsforthechocolateyouhave.To substitute a high-percentage artisan chocolate for standard

bittersweet,addlesschocolateandmoresugar.Forexample, touse70percentinsteadofstandardbittersweetatabout50percent,decreasetheamountofchocolatebyathird,thenadddoublethatsubtractedweightinsugar.Whenmixingchocolateandliquids,alwaysaddat leastaquarterto

half of the chocolate’sweight inwater.Too littlewaterwill cause thesugarandcocoaparticles tosticktoeachother,andthechocolatewillseizeupintoahardpaste.Chocolateswithahigherpercentageofcocoasolids require the higher proportion of liquid. When working withcream,rememberthatit’sonly60to80percentwater,dependingonits

fatcontent.Torescuechocolate thathasseizedup,addmore liquid so that thesugarparticleswilldissolveandthecocoaparticleswillunstick.Tomixchocolateevenlywith liquid ingredients, chop thechocolatefinely,heattheliquidtoatleast120°F/50°C,combine,andstiruntilthechocolatehascompletelymeltedandmixedintotheliquid.Thiscanbedone in a bowl, mixer, or food processor. Make sure the liquid stayswarm enough to keep the cocoa fat melted, at least 90°F/32°C. Ifnecessary,gentlyreheatthemixture.Theconsistencyofachocolatemixturechangeswithtemperatureand time. When a chocolate mixture is heated, the cocoa particlescontinue to absorb moisture, swell, and thicken the mixture. When achocolate mixture cools to room temperature or below, the cocoa fatsolidifiesandstiffensthemixtureevenmore.Tolightenorsoftentheconsistencyofachocolatemixture,addcreamand/orbutter,whosefatissofterthancocoafat.

TEMPERINGCHOCOLATE

Tempering is theprocessof carefullymeltingandcoolingchocolate sothatitsetsintoamatteorglossysolidthatbreakswithasnapandmeltsjuicily and coolingly in themouth.Without tempering, solid chocolatecan develop a streaky surface, break softly, and feel either fatty orpowderyinthemouth.Effective tempering methods heat and melt the solid cocoa fat inchocolate into a liquid, then slightly cool it to maintain some of thecocoa fat in the form of specific kinds of solid crystals. These crystalsthen guide the proper crystallization of the rest of the cocoa fat as itcoolsallthewaytoroomtemperatureandhardens.Tempering methods either add the guiding crystals to the meltedchocolate from an already tempered piece of chocolate, or form themfromscratchinthemeltedchocolate.There are several effectivemethods for tempering chocolate, andcountless minor variations. Some call for measuring precise

temperatures;othersrelyonthesenseoftouch.For precisionand easeofmeasuring, use apoint-and-shoot infraredthermometer. Check any thermometer for accuracy, because just adegreeortwomakesadifference.Ifyoudon’thaveathermometer,thenjudgetemperaturesbyplacinga toothpick with some chocolate between your lips. The correct endtemperaturefortemperingdarkchocolateshouldfeelneitherwarmnorcool.Target temperatures are different for dark, milk, and whitechocolates. For milk and white chocolate, subtract 4°F/2°C from thetemperaturesgivenbelow.Forquick stove-top temperatureadjustments, usea thinmetalbowlthat can transfer heat rapidly from water bath to chocolate. Use aflexible spatula to scrape chocolate down the sides of the bowlefficiently.Choporshavethechocolateintosmallpieces,tospeedwarmingandeasemixing.Melt the chocolate in a bowl held over a low burner or partlyimmersedinhotwaterat140to160°F/60to70°C,orinanovensetonlow, around 150°F/65°C. Or melt in a bowl in the microwave oven,heatingin30-secondpulsesandstirringinbetween.

FOURMETHODSFORTEMPERINGCHOCOLATE

Here are four different ways to obtain a mass of liquid temperedchocolate. It’s easiest if some or all of the solid chocolate is newlybought and snappy, a sign that it’s in good temper. A simple butexpensive alternative is to use a chocolate tempering machine, whichautomatestheprocess.To convert a new batch of shiny and snappy dark chocolate intoliquid tempered chocolate, melt it very carefully until its temperaturereaches90°F/32°C(feelsneithercoolnorwarmonthe lips),andnevergetsanyhigher.Theliquidchocolateisnowintemper.Ifyouovershootthattemperature,continuewithoneoftheothermethods.

Touseapieceoftempereddarkchocolatetotemperalargerbatch,meltthebatchthoroughlybyheatingitto120°F/50°C(hottothelips),allow it to cool to 93°F/34°C (slightlywarm to the lips), then stir thetemperedpiecegentlyaroundthebowltocoolitgraduallyandreleaseguide crystals. Remove any remaining solid chocolatewhen the batchreaches90°F/32°C.Thischocolateisnowintemper.Totemperdarkchocolatefromscratch,meltthechocolateto110to

120°F/43to50°C(hottothelips),allowittocooltoaround105°F/41°C(still somewhat hot), then stir continuously until it cools down andthickensnoticeablywithguidecrystals.Thencarefullyheatitbackupto88to90°F/31to32°C(neitherwarmnorcool).Thechocolateisnowintemper.To temper chocolate from scratch more quickly, melt chocolate to

110to120°F/43to50°C(hottothelips),pourhalftotwo-thirdsontoaclean, dry stone slab or countertop or sheet pan, and work it with ascraper until it thickens noticeably with guide crystals. Then stir thisfraction back into the remainder of the melted chocolate. If itstemperature doesn’t fall below 91°F/33°C, then repeat with a smalleramount of chocolate. If necessary, warm the batch back up to 88 to90°F/31to32°C,whereitwillbeintemper.Totestchocolatefortemper,dipaknifeedgeorpieceoffoil intoit

andput itaside.Temperedchocolatewill set inabout5minutes toanevenmatteupper surface.Untemperedchocolatewill remain tacky for10minutesormoreanddevelopstreaks.

USINGTEMPEREDCHOCOLATE

Once you’ve tempered chocolate you need to keep it in temperwhileyou work with it, with the correct proportions of crystals and liquidcocoafat.Keep tempered chocolate thin enough to work with by placing the

bowl in a bowl of 90 to 93°F/32 to 34°Cwater, or nestled in awarmheatingpadwhosetemperatureyou’vecheckedwellaheadoftime.If your tempered chocolate gets noticeably thicker, it has

crystallized toomuch andwon’t coat and release properly. Rewarm it

gentlyover awaterbathorwith just a few seconds in themicrowaveuntilthinagain,butstillnowarmerthan90°F/32°C.Don’t scrape and stir in any chocolate that sets on the side of the

bowl. This will speed cooling, crystallizing, and thickening in thetempered chocolate.Wait until you rewarm the bowl, then scrape thesideswhenthechocolatethereremelts.Warmotheringredients.Foods tobecoated—candyfillings,cookies,

nuts, fruit pieces—should be dry and at room temperature, 70 to80°F/20to27°C.Coldfillingswillcausethechocolatetosetprematurelyandsoftlyratherthandevelopingsnap.Let freshlymadechocolatesorcoatingsset for24hours todevelop

themostmar-resistant surface and hardest snap. Tomake neat edges,trimthemsoonafterthechocolatesetsbutbeforeitbecomesbrittle.

CHOCOLATESPREADING,COATING,ANDCLUSTERING

Thesimplestwaystopreparechocolatearetospreaditoutonasurfacetohardenintomorselsorsheets;tocoatfreshordriedfruits,cookies,orotherfoodswithit;ortomixitwithtoastednutstoholdthemtogetherinclusters.Thesurfaceoftemperedchocolatepreparationsisattractiveand

resistsmarring andmeltingwhen briefly touched.When it hardens inair, tempered chocolate develops an even,matte appearance.When ithardensincontactwithanobject,ittakesonthesurfacequalitiesofthatobject:matte if it’s apieceofwaxorparchmentpaper, glossy if it’s apieceofglossyplasticorfoilorpolishedstone,veinedifit’saplantleaf.The surface of untempered chocolate preparations is softer and less

evenandstable;itquicklybecomesmottledandstreaked.To make chocolate pieces or coat or cluster foods with chocolate

quickly and casually, simply melt the chocolate without tempering,spoonorspreaditontoasurfaceordiporstirafoodintoit,thenletitcoolandset.Thechocolatewon’thavethebestappearanceor texture,butitwilltastefine.To speed the hardening of casual chocolates, chill them in the

refrigeratororfreezer inacoveredcontainer.Whenservedthey’llstartto soften again, and in high humidity will become moist withcondensation.Cold-setchocolatewillbesofterbackatroomtemperaturethanchocolatesetatroomtemperature.Tomakechocolatepiecesorcoatingsorclusterswithaneven,matte

surfaceandgoodsnap, temperthechocolate first.Allowseveralhoursat room temperature after the chocolate sets to develop a snappytexture.Don’tchill,whichpreventstruesnapfromdeveloping.Warm and dry fresh fruits before coating them with tempered

chocolatesothechocolatewilladhereandhardenwell.Washandallowthem to warm to room temperature before drying; air moisturecondensesoncoldsurfaces.

GANACHE

Ganache is a soft but solid mixture of chocolate and cream, oftenflavoredwithspicesorspirits.It’susedasafillinginchocolatetruffles,and as a filling or coating for cakes. Once made, a ganache may bewhipped to make it lighter, or supplemented with butter to make itsofter and slow the gradual firming of its cocoa fat. Recently somechocolate makers have been making “water ganaches,” based onflavorfulliquidswithoutthefatthatcreamprovides.Ganacheismadebymeltingchocolateandmixingitthoroughlywith

heatedcreamandotherliquidingredients,thenlettingthemixtureset.Thereare threebasicmethods formakingganache:mixing solid

chocolatewith preheated hot cream,mixing solid chocolatewith coolcream and warming them together, and mixing melted temperedchocolatewithwarmcream.Ganache consistency depends on the kinds and proportions of

chocolate and cream you use, and how you mix and cool them.Ganache is essentially a sugar syrup filled andmade firm with cocoaparticlesanddropletsofcocoafat.Themoreparticlesanddroplets,thefirmer the ganache. If the chocolate is kept in temper and coolsgradually at room temperature, the ganache will be smooth and finegrained;ifthechocolatelosestemperorischilledtosetitquickly,itwill

besoftwhenwarmedandwillbecomegrainywithtime.High-percentagechocolatesprovidemore intense flavorandfirmness

inganachethanstandardbittersweetorsemisweetchocolate.Heavycream,around38percentbutterfat,makesaricherandfirmer

ganachethanwhippingcream,ataround30percent.Double-check to make sure you’re using the chocolate and cream

specified inarecipe.Thehighproportionofcocoaparticles inahigh-percentage chocolate can soak up too much water and turn a firmstandard-chocolateganacherecipeintoanoily,streakypaste.Milkandwhitechocolatescontainlesscocoafatthandarkchocolateandmakeasofterganache.For a soft, creamy ganache for a mousse, pastry filling, or pot de

crème,usemorecreamthanchocolate,asmuchasdoubletheamount.Foramedium-firmganachethatwillholditsshapeincakeicingsand

intruffles,useequalproportionsofcreamandchocolate.For a firmer and more intense ganache, to 1 part cream use

approximately2partsdarkchocolate,2.5partsmilkchocolate.Preparethechocolatebychoppingitfinely,topromotefastandeven

meltingandmixing.Preparethecreambybringingitjusttotheboil.Heatedcreamgives

thebestshelf life forganache,severaldays toweeksdependingontherecipe.Ifit’stobeinfusedwithdryingredients(spices,tea,coffee),addthemtothehotcream,covertoavoidevaporationandskinformation,infuse5to10minutes,andstrainthecream.Tomake the ganache simply, pour thehot creamonto the chopped

chocolate,wait1minuteformuchofthechocolatetomelt,thenstirtofinish melting and combine. If some of the chocolate remains solid,warm the bowl over a water bath. For the best ganache consistency,keepchocolateintemperbyallowingthecreamtocoolbeforeaddingitso that the mix temperature never rises above 93°F/34°C. When theganache has formed, stir in any softened butter, flavoring extracts, orspirits.To make tempered ganache another way, gently melt tempered

chocolate to 90°F/32°C and no higher, cool the boiled cream and any

other liquid ingredients to 105°F/41°C, and stir quickly to combinebefore themixcoolsandbegins to set.When theganachehas formed,stirinanysoftenedbutter,flavoringextracts,orspirits.Tosettemperedganachewiththebestconsistency,pour it ina thin

layerontoaslaborbakingsheet,coverwithplasticwrap,andallowtocoolandgraduallyfirmatroomtemperatureovernight.Tosettheganachemorequicklyforshapingthesameday,pouritout

andallow it to cooluntil thick, then fold andmixwith a few strokes,restitforafewminutes,andrepeatifnecessaryuntiltheganacheisfirmenough to hold a sharp ridge when scraped. Pipe or shape the firmganacheimmediately.Don’trefrigerateganachetospeeditssetting.Itwillbetoosoftwhen

itreturnstoroomtemperature,andwillbecomegrainy.To soften a ganache that has become too firm to shape, warm it

gently.Torescueaseparatedganache,warmitwithoccasionalstirringover

a water bath until it reaches 90 to 92°F/32 to 33°C, then whiskvigorously or blend with a prewarmed immersion blender or in aprewarmed food processor bowl until the fat disappears into themixture.Ifthisfails,thenrepeatwithasmallamountofaddedwaterorspiritstoprovidemorevolumeinwhichthefatcanbedispersed.

CHOCOLATETRUFFLES

Trufflesareballsofganachecoatedwithathinlayerofchocolateand/ordustedwithcocoa.Thefinesttruffleshaveaneven,snappycoatingandcleanlymelting

interior.Theyrequire temperedchocolate for theganacheandcoating,andadayormoreofmaturing.Everyday truffles aren’t as snappy or clean-melting, but are still

deliciousandcanbemadewithlesstroubleandtime.Make the ganache filling an hour or more before shaping and

coating, and let it firm at room temperature. If the ganache has beenmade ahead and refrigerated, allow it to warm to room temperature

beforeshapingandcoating.Don’t speed trufflemaking by refrigeratingnewlymade ganache tofirm it for coating. This will cause the chocolate shell to crack. Coldganacheexpandsasitwarms,whilethemoltenchocolatecoatingshrinksasitcools.Formganacheballs inhandswashedwellandthenrinsedwithcoolwater; hot hands melt chocolate. Manipulate the ganache as little aspossible. For a lighter truffle center, use a melon baller to scoop acontinuousthinlayerofganacheintoaball.To coat the ganache balls with chocolate, temper the chocolate ormeltitinabowlorpanto95°F/35°C,thendiptheballsusingaforkorspecial dipping utensil, shaking off as much excess as possible beforeplacingthemonarackorcleansurfacetoset.For an especially thin coating, place a small amount of meltedchocolate in the palm of one hand and roll the ball over it with thefingertipsoftheotherhand.Allowthecoatingtosolidify,thenrepeatifnecessarytoevenitout.Forthebesteatingconsistency,lettrufflesmatureforseveralhoursatroomtemperature. Immediaterefrigerationprevents thecocoafat fromcrystallizing fully and results in a soft, greasy feeling that becomesgrainywithtime.

MOLDEDCHOCOLATES

Whenpouredintoaglossycandyorchocolatemold,temperedchocolatedevelops a glossy, hard surface that resistsmarring andmeltingwhenbriefly touched. If the chocolate isn’t tempered, its surface will beuneven,streaked,andgreasy.Keeptemperedchocolatewarmandrelativelythinsoitwillbefluidandcoatthemoldevenly.Tokeepchocolate in temperduringmolding,make sure themold isslightlywarm,77 to 85°F/25 to 30°C, and any filling between70 and80°F/20and27°C.Makecreamfillingsformoldedchocolateswithcooked fondants,or

withuncookedsugardoughsmadewithfondantsugar,cornsyrup,andflavors.Recipes that include invertase,anenzyme that slowly liquefiesfondant,willproduceamoistercenterwithshelflifeofseveralweeksatroomtemperature.Let freshly molded chocolate rest at least 15 minutes at roomtemperature, so the guide crystals will dominate the setting and thechocolatewillshrinkslightlyandreleaseitselffromthemold.Prematurechillingpreventspropersetting,shrinkage,andrelease.Refrigerate themoldsafter resting at around 40°F/4°C for 10 to 15minutes,oruntilthechocolateshaveshrunkslightlyandunmoldeasily.Solidchocolatestakelongertoshrinkthanfilledchocolates.Letfreshlymadechocolatessetatroomtemperaturefor24hours todevelop ahard,mar-resistant surface and snap.Toneaten their edges,trimthemsoonafterthechocolatesetsbutbeforeitbecomesbrittle.Avoidwashingplasticmoldswithsoap,which ishard to rinseawaycompletelyandcantaintthenextbatch.

CHOCOLATEDECORATIONSANDMODELINGCHOCOLATE

Chocolate is a versatile decorative material and can be formed intoalmostanyshapewhileit’swarmandmalleable.Makemostdecorativeshapeswithtemperedchocolate,whichwillsetquicklyandtoaneven-surfaced,hard,durablemass.Modelingchocolateisaclaylikemixtureofchocolateandcornsyrup,madeforformingintopermanentdecorativeshapes.Tomakemodelingchocolate,meltchocolate,combineitwithathirdto half its weight of corn syrup, and knead the mixture until it’shomogeneousandpliable.Ifitbecomestoostifftowork,addmorecornsyrup.Onceshapedandlefttodryout,itwillharden.

CHOCOLATEDRINKS,SAUCES,PUDDINGS,ANDMOUSSES

Hotcocoaandhotchocolatecanbemadewithwater,milk,cream,oracombination.Chocolatewillmakearicherdrinkthancocoaduetoits

highfatcontent,whilecocoacarriesmoreconcentratedchocolatearomaandbitterness.For the purest chocolate flavor, heat the liquid just to servingtemperature. Higher temperatures add a cooked-milk flavor. Whiskunheated liquid slowly into cocoa powder and sugar, then heat themixtureandstirorblenduntilit’sthickened.Orgratechocolate,addittothewarmliquid,andstirorblenditinasitmelts.Chocolatesaucesandchocolatefonduearesimilartohotchocolate,andbestmadeinthesameway,withmoderateheat.Hot fudge sauce is a thickmixture of cocoa powder and chocolatewithsugarandcream.Forahotfudgesaucethatgetschewyandcandylikewhenchilledonice cream, choose a recipe that calls for cooking the sugar into aconcentratedsyrup.Chocolatepudding is another simplemixtureofmilkor creamandchocolate, thickened into a moist solid with cornstarch. For the bestflavorandconsistency,mixcoldmilkgraduallyintothecornstarch,heatthemixtureuntilthickenedandthestarchyaromahasfaded,andstirinthechocolateattheend.To make a more intense chocolate pudding, thicken it with cocoaparticles. Omit the cornstarch, replace with more chocolate or cocoa,andheatthemixturejustuntilthick.Itwillthickenfurtherandsetwhenchilled.Chocolate mousses are chocolate-flavored foams of egg whites,cream,oracombination,sometimesincludinggelatin.Theeggwhitesorcreamarewhipped intoa foamwith sugar, then scrapedontoa liquidmixofmoltenchocolateandeggyolk,andthemixcarefullystirredorfoldedintothefoamtominimizethelossofbubbles.To fold, slowly and gently scoop up the chocolate base and trail italongthefoam,repeatinguntilbaseandfoamarejustmixedevenly.Let mousses rest for up to an hour at room temperature beforechilling several hours. This encourages the cocoa fat to set in crystalsthatwillmeltmorecleanlyandrefreshinglyinthemouth.

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23

SUGARS,SYRUPS,ANDCANDIES

ugars are brilliant building materials, and sugar candies aremarvels of microengineering. As foods they may be completelyfrivolousindulgences,buttheyfeedmorethanthesweettooth.

Manufactured candies can be very good, and they’re what nearlyeveryonegrowsuponandhasearlyandstrongmemoriesof.Itwasonavisit toFrance rightaftercollege that Iencounteredsaltedcaramels inBrittany.Thatwasmyfirsttasteofacandythatreallyinvitedsavoring.I’ve never really craved sweets, but I sometimes do crave the

experienceofmakingthem.There’snootherkindofcookingquitelikeit,startingwiththesamebasiccombinationoftablesugarandwaterandcreating such different textures, from syrupy to creamy to chewy tocrunchy to rocky. And one sugar preparation is my all-time favoriteexampleofthealchemyofcooking.Startwithpuretablesugar,asinglekind ofmolecule, colorless, odorless, and simply sweet.Addheat, andyoucreatecaramel:manyhundredsofnewmolecules,browncolor,richaroma,sweetandtartandbitter.Candymaking is also unusual for the exacting nature of its recipes,

which specify narrow temperature ranges for a given kind of texture.Monitoringthetemperatureofascalding-hot,stickysyrupcanbealittledaunting.Butanumberofcandiescanbemadecasuallyandquickly,byheating the syrup in a microwave oven and using color changes astemperatureindicators.Theresultsmaynotbeasconsistentasyoucangetonthestovetop,butthey’restilldelicious.Andthealchemyremains.

SUGARANDCANDYSAFETY

Solid sugars and candies present little health hazard from microbes.

They’re cooked to high temperatures and contain little water formicrobes to grow on. Liquid syrups can develop surface molds whenstoredforalongtime.Discardsyrupswithvisiblemoldgrowth,orskimthemoldoff,bringsyruptotheboil,andskimagainbeforeusing.Don’tservehoneyinanyformtochildrenlessthanoneyearold,whoaresusceptibletobotulismsporesthathoneycommonlycontains.Candymakingcanbehazardous. Sugar syrups get far hotter thanboiling water, easily splatter and spill, stick to skin, and can causeseriousburnsinstantaneously.Takeextracarewhenyoumakecandy.Anticipateandthinkthrougheverytransferofhotsyrupfromoneplacetoanother.Don’tletchildrenmakecandywithoutclosesupervision.If you’re burned by hot syrup, immediately place the injured skinundercoldrunningwaterforseveralminutesbeforeapplyingfirstaid.

CHOOSINGANDSTORINGSUGARS,SYRUPS,ANDCANDIES

Sugars and syrups come in innumerable types and variations. Ifyou’refollowingarecipe,choosetheingredients itspecifies.Otherwisetryoutunfamiliaringredientstolearnaboutnewflavors.Store sugars for months at room temperature, tightly wrapped toavoidstickinessfromhumidair.Storecookedsyrupsandmaplesyrupformonthsintherefrigerator.Molds can spoil them at room temperature. Corn and othermanufacturedsyrupsusuallydon’trequirerefrigeration;checklabels.Storecandiesforweeksat roomtemperature.Wrap themairtight inhumidclimates.Store candies for months wrapped airtight in the refrigerator orfreezer.Ifthey’refrozen,allowthemtothaw24hoursintherefrigeratorandthenwarmtoroomtemperaturebeforeopeningthepackage.Roommoisture will condense on cold candies, making them sticky andmottled.

SPECIALTOOLSFORMAKINGCANDIES

Several special tools help you make candy more easily, reliably, andsafely.An accurate thermometer is essential for cooking sugar syrups tospecific concentrations. Inexpensive instant-read thermometers are notaccurate or wide-ranging enough. Digital cooking thermometers arebetter.Specialcandythermometersmeasure to400°F/200°C; somecliptothesideofthesaucepanforcontinuousmonitoring.Don’tusenoncontactinfraredthermometersincandymaking.Theirreadingsaren’treliablebecausetheyregister theescapingwatervapor,notthesyrup.A kitchen scale is useful for measuring ingredients with greaterprecisionthancupsandspoonsallow.Choose spoonsmadeofwoodor silicone,whichdon’t conductheatoutofasyrupasyoustir.Thisisgoodforthesyrup(fastercooking,noundesiredlocalcoolingandcrystallization)andthecook(acoolhandle).Longhandleshelpkeephandsawayfromheat.A pastry brush helps push crystallized sugar on the sides of asaucepanbackdownintothecookingsyrup.Amarbleorgraniteslaborcountertophelps speed thecoolingofhot sugar syrupsandmelted chocolate, and isn’tdamagedbyvigorousscraping.Agreasedbakingsheetorasiliconelinercanbeusedinstead.Scrapers are large, flat blades of metal or plastic for manipulatingsugarsyrupsastheycoolonacountertoporstoneslab.Candymoldsholdandsetcandysyrups intoavarietyofdecorativeshapes.

CANDYINGREDIENTS:SUGARS

Thecandymakerworkswithtwosetsof ingredients:sugars,andotheringredientsthatinfluenceflavor,texture,orcolor.Kitchen sugars contain three different chemical sugars: sucrose,glucose,andfructose.

Sucrose is good at forming crystals and provides the main solidsubstanceofcandies.Glucose and fructose are smoothing agents. When dissolved with

sucrose, theyget in thewayassucrose formscrystals,andprevent thecrystals from growing large and coarse. They help create both creamyandglassycandies.Kitchensugarscomeintwobasickinds.Standardwhitetablesugar

andbrownsugarareentirelyormostlysucrose,butmanufacturedsyrupsandspecialtysugarsaremainlyglucoseandfructose.Whitegranulatedtablesugaristhestandardsugarincandymaking.

It’s extracted from sugarcane and sugar beets. Very rarely, beet sugarcancarryoffaromasortracematerialsthatcausefoaming.Confectioners’ sugar is finely powdered white sugar together with

somecornstarch.It’susedmorefordustingcandiesthanmakingthem.Fondant sugar is powdered white sugar without cornstarch. Its

particles are too small to feel grainy, so it can bemixedwith a littlewatertomakefudgelikecandieswithoutanycooking.Brown sugars are less pure and more flavorful than white sugar.

Their sucrose crystals are coated with a thin syrup layer of glucose,fructose, other flavors of caramel or molasses, and brown pigments.Brownsugarsvaryincolorandflavor,fromlightandmildtodarkandstrong.Cornsyrupisabout20percentwater,15percentglucose,10percent

other sugars, and the rest tasteless thickeningmolecules derived fromcornstarch.Itlimitssucrosecrystallizationandsmoothescandytextures.Ittastesmuchlesssweetthansugarorhoneyandoftenincludesvanillaflavoring.High-fructosecornsyrupismostlyamixtureofglucoseandfructose,

with about 20 percent water and some long thickening molecules. Ittastesmuchsweeterthanordinarycornsyrup.Glucose syrup is the professional version of corn syrup, available

withoutaddedflavoringsandinseveralsweetnesses.Itcanbeverythickandalmosttasteless.Honey is a syrup made by bees from flower nectar, a mixture of

fructose and glucose in water. It limits sucrose crystallization as cornsyrupdoes, but its distinctive flavor also limits its usefulness in candymaking.Invertsugar isa texture-smoothingmixtureofglucoseand fructose,availablefromspecialtystores.Tomakeinvertsugar,gentlyboil tablesugarwitha littlewaterandsome acid, either lemon juice or creamof tartar, for 30minutes. Thisconvertssucroseintoamixtureofglucoseandfructose.Molasses is a strong-flavored, syrupy by-product of cane sugarmanufacturing,richintexture-smoothingglucoseandfructose.

OTHERCANDYINGREDIENTS

Invertase is an enzyme that slowly converts table-sugar sucrose intoglucoseandfructose,usuallyincreamyandliquidcandycentersmadeoffondant or ganache. This conversion also slows mold growth andspoilage.Alwaysaddinvertasetoacandymixafterithasbeencookedandisno longer hot. High temperatures above 160°F/70°C destroy invertaseactivity.Flavorandcolor ingredientsareoftenconcentrated intoessencesorextractssothatthere’slittleornowatertocookoff.Milk, cream, butter, and eggwhites contribute structure, fat, andflavor to many different confections. Their normal water content andtendency to scorch or curdle require long, slow cooking. Condensedmilksandpowderedeggwhitesareoftenusedtoshortencookingtimesandavoidcurdling.Pectin is used to make fruit jelly candies. Use the concentratedpowderform,notthe liquid.Pectin is thecomponentof fruitcells thatcausesjamstothickenwithsugarandacid.Gelatin is used to turn a concentrated sugar syrup into gummycandies,andtogivechewybodytomarshmallows.It’sthedriedanimalproteinusedtomakedessertjellies.Coolhotsugarsyrupsbeforemixingwithgelatintoavoidbreakingit

downwithexcessheat.Starch isusedtomakeTurkishdelightandsimilarjellycandies,and

to line themolds formolded candies. It’s a fine carbohydrate powderextractedfromcornandotherplants.

THEESSENTIALSOFMAKINGCANDIES

Sugar candies are mixtures of sugar and water, along with minoringredients. They’re defined largely by their texture, which can rangefromahardbrittle toa lusciouscream.Candytexturedependson twofactors:theirproportionsofsugarandwater,andthesizeoftheirsugarcrystals.You control the proportions of sugar and water in a candy by

boilingthemtogetherinasyruptoaspecifictemperature.Thehigher theboilingpointof a syrup, the firmer the candy it

makes. Boiling a sugar syrup evaporateswater awayand concentratesthesugar.Asthesugarconcentrationrises,theboilingpointdoestoo.Thestandardsyrupboilingpointsfordifferentcandiesarenamed

bytheconsistencyofthesyrupwhenalittleisdroppedincoldwater,orthesounditmakeswhenthecooledsampleisbitten.

CANDYSYRUPTEMPERATURES

SYRUPSTAGE

TEMPERATURE,°F/°C(atsealevel)

CANDIESMADEWITHTHISSYRUP

Thread 215-235/102-113 preserves,fruitjellies

Softball 235-240/113-116 softfondant,fudge,caramel

Firmball 245-250/118-121 hardcaramel,marshmallow

Hardball 250-265/121-130 softtaffy,fruitgums

Softcrack 270-290/132-143 hardtaffy,firmnougat

Hardcrack 300-320/149-160 brittles,butterscotch,toffee

Caramel 340/170andabove caramelcages,spunsugar

Above about 300°F/150°C, sugar breaks down into caramel, abrown and aromatic mixture. As the temperature rises and carameldarkens,itbecomesincreasinglyaromaticbutalsobitter.Youcontrolhow the syrup sugar crystallizes by howyou handle

the syrup as it cools down.When the syrup cools, the dissolved sugarmolecules begin to rebond to each other into solid crystals ornoncrystallineglass.Ifyoucoolthesyrupwithoutstirringinthepotorkneadingon

the countertop, the sugar forms large, grainy crystals and a coarsetexture.If you cool the syrupwith vigorous stirring or kneading at the

rightstage,thesugarformstinycrystalsandafinetexture.Otheringredientscanlimitsugarcrystallizationandhelpproduce

glassy, crystal-free hard candies, or tiny-crystal creamy ones. Cornsyrups, honey, and invert sugar contain glucose and fructose sugars,which interfere with table sugar crystallization. Acid ingredients in asyrupcanbreakdownsomeofthetablesugarintoglucoseandfructose,andalsohelpsmoothcandytexture.

WORKINGWITHSUGARSYRUPS

Nearlyallcandiesaremadebycookingasugarsyruptoaspecifichightemperature,thenmanipulatingitasitcoolsdownandsolidifies.Candymakingisnormallydoneonthestovetop,wherethecookcan

observesyrups,measuretemperatures,andadjustheatconstantlytogetthe best results. Reasonably good candies can also be made in themicrowaveoven,whichgivesthecooklesshands-oncontrol,butcookssyrupsmorerapidlyandevenlywithouttheworryofscorchingthepanbottom.Tomake candies in themicrowave, use a lightmetalmixing bowl,

whichwon’t be as heavy or retain asmuch heat as amicrowave-safeglass bowl. Oven power levels vary, so check syrup temperaturesfrequentlytoavoidovercooking.Bevery carefulwhenyou cook sugar syrups. Theygetmuchhotterthanboilingwater, easilyboil over and splatter, stick to the skin, andcancauseseriousburns.Clearthestovetopandenoughcounterortablespacetohandlehotsyrupswithoutobstacles.Whenpouring,holdthepotedgeclosetothenewcontainerorsurfacetopreventspills.Wearrubberorlatexglovestopulltaffiesandbrittlesordopulledsugarwork.Cooksyrupsinalargepotwithseveraltimesthevolumeoftheinitialingredients,talltoallowplentyofroomforthemixtoboilupwithoutboilingover,andbroadtospeedevaporationfromthemix.Whenmeasuringtemperatureswithafixedorhandheldthermometer,make sure the thermometer tip isn’t close to theheatedpotbottomorside to avoidmisleadingly high readings. Take the pot briefly off theheattogetastablereading.Correctboilingtemperaturesforyouraltitudeifyoulivesignificantlyabovesealevel.Reducerecipetemperaturesby2°F/1°Cforevery1,000feet/300metersofelevation.Candy making is affected by the weather. It’s difficult to makecandiesinahumidkitchenbecausesugarsquicklyabsorbmoisturefromtheair,makinghardcandiesstickyandaeratedcandiessoft.Tocompensateforhighhumidity,cooksyrups2to3°F/1to2°Chotterthanrecipesspecify.Use a wet pastry brush on the pot walls to dissolve and washcrystallized sugar back into the syrup as it boils and spatters. If thesecrystalsendupinfinishedsyrup,they’llmakethecandygrainy.Cook syrupswith dairy products overmoderate heatwith constantstirringtoavoidscorchingonthepanbottom.Don’t try to shorten cooking timeswith high heat, or leave the potunattendedevenbrieflytodootherthings,oritmayboiloverorscorch.Cookingcandysyrupscantakeahalfhourorlonger.Lower the heat as the syrup temperature gets close to the target.

Syrup temperatures rise faster toward the end of the cooking, and it’seasytoovershoot.Tostopthecookingquickly,liftthepotofftheburnerandplaceitonacoolstoneortilecountertop.Add flavorings and colors to the finished syrup, to avoid losing orchangingthemasthesyrupcooks.To clean pots, fill them promptly with hot water and allow thehardenedsugartodissolvebeforescrubbing.

SYRUPSANDSAUCES

Sugarsyrupscanabsorbandcarryaromasfromotheringredients,andtheirconcentratedsugarsgivethemapleasingsaucelikethickness.Tomake“simplesyrup”forcocktailsorfruitices,combinetablesugarandwater andheatuntil the sugarhasdissolved. Store the syrup in aclosed container. Refrigerate to keep for more than a few days andpreventspoilagebymolds.Simplesyrupismadeintwostrengths.Equalvolumesofsugarandwatermakea1:1syrupthat’s45percentsugar.Twovolumesof sugarandoneofwatermakea2:1syrupthat’s63percentsugar.A2:1 simple syrup isahandy liquidequivalent for table sugar,spoonful for spoonful. It provides the sameweight of sugar in a givenvolumeastablesugaritselfdoes.(Aspoonfulofsugarcrystalsisalmosthalfair.)To make flavored syrups, prepare a simple syrup and infuse withfruits,fruitpeels,herbs,orspices.Toextractthemostflavor,breaktheflavoringredientsintosmallpiecesorcrushthetissue,simmeruntilthesyrupiswellflavored,thenstrain.Caramelsyrupsandsaucesprovidetheflavorofsugaritselfcookedveryhot,tothepointthatitturnsbrownandaromatic.Tomakecaramelsyruponthestovetop:

Haveabowlofwaterreadyforquickcoolingofthepotbottom.Heatthesugaraloneorwithasmallamountofwater,stirring

constantlytokeepthepotbottomfromscorching.Whenthesugarcolors,reducetheheattolowandwatchcarefully.Thesugardarkensquicklyandcandevelopharshflavors.Whenthecolorisright,turnofftheheat.Usethebowlofwaterifnecessarytoarrestthecookingimmediately.Tiltthepanawaytoavoidhotspatter,addwater,andstirtomix.

Tomakecaramelsyrupinthemicrowave:

Usealightmetalmixingbowlandheatthesugarandanywateronhighpower.Stoptheheatingregularlytocheckthecolorandstir.Removethesyrupfromthemicrowavewhenit’sdoneandcoolthebowlbrieflyinalargerbowlofcoldwater.Ifyou’veusedaheat-resistantglassbowl,don’tcoolitinwater,whichwillcausecracking.Tiltthebowlawaytoavoidhotspatter,slowlyaddwatertothesyrup,andstirtomix.

Tomake caramel sauce,make stove-top ormicrowave caramel andthinwithcreaminsteadofwater.Tomake butterscotch sauce, cook sugar on the stove top or in the

microwaveuntilitbeginstocolor,thenaddbutterandcontinuetocookuntilitturnslightbrownandaromatic.Thinwithcreamasforcaramelsauce.

HARDCANDIES:BRITTLES,LOLLIPOPS,TOFFEES,TAFFIES,ANDSUGARWORK

Hard candies are solidmasses of sugar,most of them glassy andwithlittle or no graininess. They’re made from syrups boiled to a hightemperature to remove almost all water, and often include largeproportions of grain-preventing corn syrup. They can be difficult tomakewithoutstickinessinhumidweather.Stirsyrupsconstantlytomakesurethethermometerregistersthetrue

temperature. Reduce the heat as the temperature approaches

300°F/150°Ctoavoidundesiredbrowning.Brittles are thin, crunchy sheets of hard candy, usually embedding

pieces of nuts. Baking soda leavens the syrup with crunch-amplifyingbubbles,anddeepenscolorandflavorduetoitsalkalinity.Cookrawnutsalongwiththebrittlesyrup,oraddcookednutsasthe

syrupapproaches300°F/150°C.Stirthebrittlesyruprapidlywhenaddingsodaandbutterattheend

ofcooking,sothatthefoamingdoesn’tcauseittospillover.To make brittle less hard and more crisp, especially if the recipe

doesn’t include baking soda,make it thin. Pour the syrup out to cool,waituntilitbecomespliable,thenstretchitquicklyinalldirections.Lollipopsarehardcandiesstucktoapaperorwoodhandle.Tomake lollipops, boil sugar and corn syrup to about300°F/150°C,

stir inconcentratedflavoringsandafood-coloringpaste,andpour intomoldsthatholdthehandles.Tomake lollipopswithoutmolds, cool the syrupuntil thick, around

240°F/115°C,andthenpourspoonfulsovertheendsofthehandlesonagreasedsurface.Rockcandyismassesoflargesugarcrystalsthattakedaysorweeks

to grow. It’smadewithout corn syrupor other ingredients thatwouldinterferewithcrystallization.Tomakerockcandy,combine2partssugarto1partwaterandcook

themixture to250°F/120°C.Add foodcoloringpaste,pour intoapan,and suspend stringsor toothpicks in the syrup for crystals togrowon.Coverandleaveinacoolcornerundisturbeduntilcrystalsdevelop.Toffees and crunches are brittle candies made rich with butter,

whichalsohelpslimitgraininess.Tomake toffeesand crunches, cook the syrupandbutter to300 to

310°F/149 to154°C, thenquickly coolwithout stirringuntilworkable,andcutorshapeindividualcandies.Taffiesarehardorsoftcandiesthatareworkedhardtolightenthem

withtinyairbubbles.To make taffies, cook the syrup to 290°F/143°C for a hard candy,

250°F/121°Cforsoft,cooluntilworkable,thenknead,fold,andstretchuntilstiff.Sugarworkincludesspunsugar,sugarcages,andsatinypulledsugar

ribbons, cords, and other shapes. They’re made by manipulating thesugarbasewhileit’sstillhotandeitherfluidordoughlike.Kneadingandpullingsugarishard,hotwork.Useaheatlampandrubberorlatexglovesfordoingextensivesugar

work.Theheat lampwillhold the sugarbaseatworking temperature.Glovesprotect the fingersandprevent themfrommarringglossysugarsurfaces.Tomakethebaseforsugarwork,cookthemixtureofsugarandcorn

syrup or invert sugar to 315 to 330°F/157 to 166°C. Make spun orpouredshapeswhileit’sstillfluid,orcoolitto120to130°F/50to55°Cforcoloringandpulling.

SOFTCANDIES:FONDANT,FUDGE,PRALINES,ANDCARAMELS

Soft candies are creamy, chewy, or crumbly. They’re masses of tinysugar crystals held together with thick sugar syrup, are made fromsyrups boiled to around 240°F/116°C, and usually include about onethirdcornsyruporsomeacidcreamoftartartolimitcrystalgrowth.Fondant is the basic cream candy, and is also used tomake cream

centers and coatings. It’s made only with sugars and sometimes anessentialoil.Dependingontheproportionsofwaterandsugar,itcanbecrumblyanddryorcreamyandmoist.To cook fondant, heat sugar, water, and corn syrup to 235 to

240°F/112 to 116°C, cool at room temperature without stirring to125°F/52°C, then work the syrup with a scraper on a marble slab orcountertop to make crystals, until it thickens, then turns opaque andcrumbly.Kneadittogetherintoasinglemass,workinginanyflavoring.Fondant benefits from a day or more of maturing at room

temperatureafterit’smade.Itbecomessofterandeasiertoworkwith.Store fondant at room temperature until needed, up to several

months.

Toreworkorflavormassesoffondantorfudge,slightlywarmtheminthemicrowaveovenuntilpliable.To make fondant without cooking, mix fondant sugar or

confectioners’ sugar with corn syrup in a stand mixer until even andsmooth.Fudgeisfondantmadewiththeadditionofmilkorcream,butter,and

oftencocoaorchocolate.Chocolatefudgehasanaddedfirmnessandmeltingqualitythanksto

thechocolate’scocoa fat.Fudgemadewithcocoapowder lacks the fatandthismeltingfirmness.Tomake fudge, cook the ingredients to 235 to 240°F/113 to 116°C

gradually, to avoid scorching or curdling. Cool the mixture to110°F/43°Cwithoutstirring,thenstirittoformcrystalsuntilthick,andpour it into a greased pan.Allow it to firm for at least 1 hour beforecutting.Make quick fudgelike confections by warming and mixing

confectioners’sugarwithdairyandchocolateingredients.Pralinesarebutter-enrichedsoftcandies,eithercreamyorchewy.Tomakecreamypralines,usemoregranulatedsugarthancornsyrup,

cook the syrup to 240°F/116°C, add butter and beat until it thickenssomewhatwithcrystalsandlookslessglossy,thenspoonouttoset.Tomakechewypralines,cookequalamountsofsugarandcornsyrup,

addbutterandcreamto thecookedsyrup,andreturnto240°F/116°C,thenspoonoutwithoutbeating.Caramels are soft, chewy, caramel-flavored candies. Their flavor

comesfromtheinclusionofmilk,cream,andsometimesbutter.They’reusuallygrain-freethankstoalargeproportionofcornsyrup.Traditionalcaramelstakealongtimetocook.Boilingwholemilk

orcreamandsugarto235to245°F/113to118°Ccantakeanhour,andthisproducesadistinctiverichflavor.Usevery freshmilkandcream tomakecaramels.Longcookingcan

causeslightlysoureddairyproductstocurdle.Modern caramel recipes often replace whole milk with canned

condensedmilk,whichtakesmuchlesstimetocook.

Tomakecaramels,cookthecaramelmixtureto235to245°F/113to118°C over moderate heat and scrape the pot bottom frequently, toavoidscorching.Addbuttertowardtheendtoincreasethesensationofjuicinesswhenthecandiesarechewed.Coolwithoutstirring.

FOAMEDCANDIES:DIVINITY,NOUGAT,ANDMARSHMALLOWS

Foamed candies are light, chewy, usuallywhite confections filledwithtinyairbubbles,whichcomefrombeatingthesyrupwithfoam-creatingeggwhitesorgelatin.Whenaddinghot sugar syrup to eggs or gelatin in amixer, pour it

steadily down the inside bowl wall. Avoid pouring it directly ontospinningbeaters,whichwillflingsomeofitoutofthefoam.Divinity is a light version of fondant candy, creamy due to small

sugar crystals initiated by a small portion of added fondant. For thesmoothest candy, choose a recipe that includes a large proportion ofcornsyrup,honey,orinvertsugar.Tomakedivinity,cookthesyruptoaround250°F/121°Candpourit

into egg whites whipped to stiff peaks. Add small pieces of premadefondanttothemixtureandcontinuebeatinguntilthick.Nougat is a chewy egg-foam candy that usually includes nuts. It’s

sometimes flavoredwithhoney that is cookedandaddedseparately toavoidflavorlossandinversionofthemainsyrup.Tomakenougat,cookthesyrupto275°F/135°C,thenpourontoegg

whites beaten to a stiff foam andwhip until cool but still spreadable,addingnutsattheend.Tomakestickynougateasiertohandle,spreadouttosetbetweensheetsofediblericepaper.Marshmallows are the lightest and softest foamed candies. They’re

usually made with gelatin. Egg whites make marshmallows that arefluffier,lesschewy,andfastertodryandstale.Tomakemarshmallows, cook the syrup to 240°F/116°C for gelatin,

245°F/118°Cformoistereggs, thenallowtocool to212°F/100°C.Pourthesyrupontopresoakedmeltedgelatinoreggswhippedtosoftpeaksandbeatfor5to15minutes,stoppingoccasionallytoscrapecooledmix

fromthewallsback intotherest.Beat inanyflavorsandcolorsat theend.Spreadthemixoutandletitfirmforseveralhoursbeforecuttinganddustingstickysurfaceswithconfectioners’sugar.

JELLIESANDGUMS

Jellies and gums aremoist, sweet-tart, colorful confections given bodybypectin,gelatin,orstarch.Fruitjellies,orFrenchpâtesdefruit,aretendermorselswithgenuinefruitflavorsandcolor.Tomakefruitjellies,combinestrainedjuiceorpureewithsugarandpectin,andcookthemixtureto225°F/107°C.Addlemonjuiceorotheracid at the very end of cooking to set the pectin; adding earlier willbreak thepectindownandprevent setting.Pour intoapan linedwithwaxedpaperandallowtofirmatleast1hourbeforecutting.Fruit gums, or gummies, are chewy versions of the fruit jelly.They’re made with a more concentrated syrup and low-moisturepreparedflavorsandcolors,andthickenedwithgelatininsteadofpectin.Tomakefruitgums,cookamixtureofsugarandcornsyrupto250to275°F/120to135°C.Cool it to200°F/93°Cwithoutdisturbingtoavoidcrystallization,thenmixinsoakedmeltedgelatin,flavorings,andcolor.Pourintomoldstosetovernight.Starch jellies include firm jelly beans and tender Turkish delight(lokum).They’remadebycookingasugarsyrupwithstarchandglucoseto 235 to 265°F/113 to 130°C, depending on the desired consistency,thenaddingflavorings,allowingthemixtoset,andshaping.TomakeTurkishdelight, cook sugarwithwater and lemon juice toconvertsomeof it intocrystal-limitingsugars, thenaddcornstarchandcreamoftartarandcookslowlyto235°F/113°C.Addflavorings,scrapethemixintoagreasedpan,andallowittosetovernightbeforecuttinganddustingwithamixtureofconfectioners’sugarandcornstarch.

CANDIEDFLOWERSANDFRUITS

Candiedflowersandfruitsareflowersandfruitsturnedintoconfections,coatedorimpregnatedwithsugar.Crystallized,orcandied,flowersandpetalsmaintaintheiroriginalshape and some of their aroma. Tomake them, brush the petalswiththinnedeggwhite,thendustthemwithsuperfinesugarandallowthemto dry for days at room temperature. To avoid concerns aboutsalmonella,usepowderedeggwhites.Candied fruits are whole fruits or pieces impregnated with sugar,whichpreventsthemfromspoilingandpreservestheirshape,color,andsomeoftheiraroma.Fruitpiecescanbecandiedinafewhours.Wholefruits take days or weeks to progressively build up the sugarconcentrationthroughout.Tocandyfruitslicesandcitruspeels,cutthinpiecestospeedsyruppenetration.Removethebitternessfromcitruspeelsbybringingthemtoa boil in water and draining, two or three times if needed. Gentlysimmerslicesorpeelsinsyrupuntilthey’retranslucent.Topreventtheslow formation of sugar crystals during storage, include corn syrup inthecookingsyrup.To candy whole fruits and large pieces, immerse them in a lightsyrup, cook them through gently, and leave to soak. Every day overseveraldaysorweeks,removethefruit,boilthesyruptoconcentrateitsomewhat, and reimmerse the fruit. Continue until the syrup reachesabout75percentsugarsandmicrobeswon’tgrowinitorthefruit.Don’t try to speed candying. Using too concentrated a syrup at anystage will dehydrate and toughen the fruit surface and actually slowsugarpenetration.

C

24

COFFEEANDTEA

offeeandteaarestimulatingdrinks,andcaffeineisn’ttheironlyactive ingredient. Their basic deliciousness, and the endlessvariations and subtleties in their making, inspire everything

fromsimplelikingtobroadknowledgeablenesstodeepobsession.Coffeeandteagetyokedtogetherbecausewemakedrinkswithboth,

butthey’reverydifferentingredients.Coffeestartsasamaturetreeseed,a dormant, nutlike package of basic nutrients to nourish the seedling,bitterandastringent todeteranimals fromeating it.Wegive the seedintense flavors by roasting it with high heat. Tea starts as a newlyopened leaf, also bitter and astringent to deter animals, but activelygrowing and full of enzymes to build andmaintain itself.We provoketheenzymestocreatenewflavorsbywiltingandsqueezingtheleaf,andthenpreserveormodifythoseflavorswithlowormoderateheat.Slumbering seedandheat,young leafand itsown liveliness.Flavors

fromtwodifferentrealms.WhenIcameofcaffeine-drinkingageintheearly1970s,mystandard

choiceswerecannedcoffeegroundsbrewed inapercolator,anda fewkinds of bagged teas, so dusty and quick to turn astringent that Imeasuredinfusiontimesinseconds.Myfirstcupoffreshlyroasted,dark,drip-brewedcoffeewasalmosttooflavorfultofinish.AfewmonthslaterIboughtthehand-crankedirongrinderthatstillbreaksthequietofmyearlymornings.My son got off to a faster start on twenty-first-century coffee. He

prefers his late-model Italian burr grinder to my Spong, and he’sinstructedmeintheproperoperationofhisespressomachine,advancedmilk-foamingtechniques,andthebettercoffee-geekWebsites.He’salsovisited China and brought back unusual teas, one medicinally bitter,

anotherlikefallenleavesonarainyday.There’sneverbeenabettertimetobestimulatedbythesefamiliaryetextraordinaryleavesandseeds.Thefewpagesofthischapterstepbackfromthedetailstogivetheessentialfactsoftheircareandbrewing.

COFFEEANDTEASAFETY

Coffee and tea pose little risk of foodborne illness. They’remade fromdryingredientsandpreparedinhotwater,sothey’rerelativelymicrobe-free.Scaldingandchronicirritationarethemostcommonkindsofharmcausedby coffee or tea. They’re often served at temperatures that cancause serious burns in a few seconds. Habitual drinking of very hotliquids is also associated with an increased risk of mouth and throatcancers.Takefirstsipscautiously tomakesureyoudon’ttakeamouthfulofburning-hotliquid.Don’tdrinkcoffeeandteawhenthey’rehotenoughtohurt.Caffeine is a stimulant chemical in coffee and tea that can alsocause restlessness and insomnia. Once consumed it takes between 15minutesand2hourstoreachitsmaximumbloodlevels,and3to7hourstofallbackagainhalfway.Thecaffeinecontentofprepareddrinksvarieswidely.Ingeneral,acupofteacontainshalforlessthecaffeineinacupofbrewedcoffee,andashotofespressocoffeealsocontainssomewhatlessthankstoitssmallvolume.

BUYINGANDSTORINGCOFFEE

CoffeebeansaretheseedsofsmalltreesnativetonorthernAfrica.Todaycoffees are grown in many tropical and subtropical countries andshipped for roasting to the countries that consume them. “Fair-trade”coffees are meant to provide a higher price to farmers in developingcountries. Coffees may be sold by their place of origin, or as blends.Arabicabeanscomefromvarietiesofonecoffeespeciesandarevaluedfor their finearomas; robustabeans come fromadifferent speciesand

providemorebodyandcaffeinethanarabicas.Totryprizedregionalbeans,buyfromreputablesources.Anumberof regional coffees fetch high prices, and are sometimes counterfeitedwithcheaperbeans.Roastingcreatescoffee flavor.Mediumroastingproducesmedium-brownmattebeanswithfullbodyandflavor.Lightroastingproducesalighter, more acidic drink with distinctive bean aromas; dark roastingproduces oily beans with a more generic roasted flavor and somebitterness.Buy coffee that has been roasted recently, within a few days forlocallyroastedcoffee,orwiththelatestsell-bydateforvacuum-packedcoffees. Coffee develops stale, rancid flavors thanks to itspolyunsaturated oils, which are vulnerable to attack by oxygen in theair.Buywholebeansandgrindcoffeejustbeforebrewingforthefullest,freshest flavor. Coffee beans quickly lose aroma when they’re groundintofineparticles.Storewholebeanstightlywrappedatroomtemperatureforaweek,orfreezeforafewmonths.Store ground coffee tightly wrapped for a few days at roomtemperature,orfreezeforafewmonths.Beforeusingapackageof coldor frozen coffee,warm thepackagethroughatroomtemperaturetoavoidmoisturecondensationwhenyouopenit.Decaffeinatedcoffeehashadmostbutnotallofitscaffeineremovedwithwater,carbondioxide,orasolventcalledmethylenechloride,verysmalltracesofwhichpersistinbeansbutarethoughttobesafe.Thesetreatments also remove substances that contribute flavor and body, sodecaffeinatedcoffeesgenerallybrewintoalessdeliciouscup.Instant coffee is a dried concentrate of coffee flavor and colorcompounds,betterasaflavoringingredientinsweetsandpastriesthanasasubstituteforfresh-brewedcoffee.

BUYINGANDSTORINGTEA

TeasarethedriedleavesofaspeciesofcamellianativetoeasternAsia.FineteasarenowmadeinChina,Japan,India,SriLanka(Ceylon),andKenya,andcomeinarangeofpricesandqualities.Inexpensivebagteasaremadefromsmallparticlesthatbrewquickly

intoastrongcup.Moreexpensivelooseleafteasandteasinsilklikeplasticsachetsare

larger pieces or whole leaves, and can make more distinctive, subtlecups.Scentedteasaremadebystoringtheteasforsometimewithflowers,

andmaycontain flowerpetals.Someversionsare flavoredwitharomaextracts. Lapsang souchong is a Chinese tea lightly smoked with pinewood.Chooseteasfromsuppliersthatsellalotofteaandkeeptheirstocks

fresh.Storeteaformonthsinanopaque,airtightcontainerinacoolplace.

Checkolderteasbeforeserving;theyslowlylosearoma.Whiteteasaremadefromthenewbudsoftheteaplantbeforethey

have had a chance to unfurl into leaves. They brew into a very pale,delicatetea.Green teas aremade from young leaves of the tea plant, harvested

andquicklyheated topreserveat least someof theircolor.Theybrewinto greenish to yellowish teas with an especially savory taste, somebitterness,andaromasthatrangefromgrassytoseaweedytonutty.Oolongteasaremadefromyoungleavesthatareflavoredandlightly

colored by their own enzymes and by brief heat. They brew intoyellowish to light amber, somewhat astringent teaswith rich, flowery-fruityaromas.Blackteasaremadefromyoungleavesthatareintentionallybruised

anddeeplycoloredbytheirownenzymes.Theybrewintoambertored,somewhatastringentteaswithacomplex,spicyfloral-fruityaroma.PuerhteasaremadefromChineseteasthatarefermentedandaged.

Theybrew intoadeep red-brown,nonastringent teawithautumn-leaf,spicy,sometimesclovelikearomas.Herbalteasarealternativestostandardteasfromthecamelliabush.

They are mostly caffeine-free and made from a wide range of plantmaterials, includingmints, hibiscus flowers, lemon verbena, rose hips,chamomile, and citrus peels. Many are manufactured with flavorextracts.Rooibos, or red-bush, tea and honeybush tea are caffeine-free teasmade from South African shrubs. Rooibos is especially rich inantioxidants.Matéisacaffeine-richteamadefromaSouthAmericanshrub.

THEESSENTIALSOFBREWINGCOFFEEANDTEA

Coffeeandteaaremadebyextractingflavorfulsubstancesfromthedrybeansandleavesintowater.Flavor extraction is influenced by the size of the coffee or teaparticles,thewatertemperature,andtheextractiontime.Smallparticlesandhightemperaturescauserapidextraction.Hightemperaturesextractmorebitterandharshtastes,butalsomoredelicatearomas.Both coffee and tea produce bland brews if they’re not extractedenough.Theyproduceharshbrewsifthey’reextractedtoocompletely.Thekeytogoodcoffeeandteaistoadjustbrewingtemperaturesandtimes to the character of the beans and leaves, to extract a pleasingbalanceofflavors.Waterqualityaffectsthequalityofcoffeeandtea,ofwhichitmakesup95to98percent.Use filteredwater tomake coffee and tea, to remove any off odorsthataren’tdrivenoffbyheatingthewater.Avoid using very hard, softened, or distilledwaters tomake coffeeand tea. The abundant minerals in hard water interfere with flavorextractionandcausecloudinessandsurfacescum.Softenedanddistilledwatersproduceunbalancedflavors.To remedy flat-tasting teas and coffee, try adding small pinches ofacidiccreamof tartarorsoursalt to thebrewingwater.Manycity tapwatersarealkalinetoslowpipecorrosion,andbenefitfromaddedacid.Ortrybottledwaterswithmoderatemineralcontents.

BREWINGANDSERVINGCOFFEE

There are several common methods for brewing coffee, and eachproducesadistinctivecup.Drip filter cones give good control over the starting water

temperature,butnotoverthebrewingtemperatureorthebrewingtime,whichisdeterminedbyhowfastthewatermovesthroughthegrounds.Paperfiltersremovenearlyallresiduesandproduceasparkling,stablecup,butmaycontributetheirownflavor.Metalfiltersandscreenspasssomeresidues,andthesecontinuetobeextractedinthecupandslowlyincreasebitterness.Standarddripcoffeemachinesusuallygivelittlecontrolovereither

brewingtemperatureortime,andrunatlowerthanidealtemperatures.Expensivemodelsmaybrewwithproperlyhotwater.Plunger,orFrench-press,potsgivegoodcontroloverbrewingtime,

but thewater temperature coolsduring the severalminutes it takes toextractcoffeefromthecoarsegrindtypicallyused.Plungerpotscreensallow residues into the cup, and retain them in the pot, so the coffeebecomesmorebitterasitstands.Stove-top moka pots give little control over brewing time or

temperature, and the temperature is high, slightly above the boilingpoint.Theymakeafull-bodiedbutbittercoffee,goodfordrinkingwithmilk.Inexpensiveespressomachines forceboilingwaterthroughground

coffee with relatively weak steam pressure. They also produce a full-bodiedbutbittercup.Genuine espresso machines actively pump below-boiling water

through finely ground coffee at high pressures. Many are designed tooptimize the brewing conditions, and the best give the operatorsignificant control. They produce a cup with unparalleled fullness ofbodyandflavor,inpartbecausethehighpressureforcesthebeans’oilsintoafine,enrichingemulsion.Specialespressocoffeeblendsofarabicaand robusta beans help optimize flavor, body, and the characteristiccrema,orfoam.Turkish-style pots are used to boil very fine coffee grounds

repeatedly, to get a very strong brewwhose harshness is balanced bylargedosesofsugar.Eachbrewingmethodextracts aparticular grindof coffee for a

particulartime.Ingeneral,thefinerthegrind,theshorterthebrewingtime.Plungerpots extract coarsegrounds for4 to6minutes,dripandstove-topdevicesmediumgroundsfor2to4minutes,espressomachinesextractfinegroundsfor30seconds.Evenlygroundcoffeebeansmakethebestcoffee.Inamixoflarge

andsmallparticles,somewillbeeitherunderextractedoroverextracted,andthecoffeecanendupweak,bitter,orboth.Avoidgrindingcoffeewithastandardpropellergrinder,whichgrinds

veryunevenly.Usehand-turnedorelectricburrgrindersinstead,orbuycoffeepregroundeveryfewdays.Brewcoffeewithwaterbetween180and205°F/80and96°C.Water

justofftheboilextractsbothmorearomaticsandmorebitternessfromthegrounds.Atcoolerbrewingtemperatures,thecoffeecomesoutwithasmootherbutlessfullflavor.Experiment to find the rightproportions of coffee towater for your

tastes.TypicalAmericandripcoffeeismadewitharatioof1partcoffeeto15partswater,orabout16gramsper8-ounce/250-millilitercup.Theratio for espresso is 1 to 5 or 1 to 4, 6 to 8 grams per 1-ounce/30-millilitershot.It’sbettertomakecoffeetoostrongthantooweak.Strongbutbalancedcoffeecanbedilutedwithhotwaterandremainbalanced.To brew coffee with consistent strength, measure the dry coffee by

weightinsteadofvolume.Coffeescoopsareconvenientbutanunreliablemeasure. A standard scoop can contain between 8 and 12 grams ofcoffeedependingonitsfinenessandhowcompacteditis.To make a milk foam with the steaming wand on an espresso

machine,useawell-chilledmetalpitcherfilledhalfwaywithveryfresh,well-chilledmilk,at least2/3cup/150milliliters. Immerse the steamernozzle, turnon thesteam,andmove thepitcherdowntomaintain thenozzle just below themilk surfacenear thepitcherwall,where itwillkeep the milk circulating. Stop when the pitcher reaches about150°F/65°C,toavoidastrongcookedflavor.Preheatservingcupstopreventcoffeefromcoolingtooquickly.

Don’tholdapotofcoffeeonlowheatorreheatitonhighheat.Theflavorbalanceoffreshlybrewedcoffeeisfragile.Furtherheatharshensaromaandincreasesacidity.Toreheatcoldcoffeewiththeleastdamagetoflavor,microwaveitonlowpower.To serve coffee over an extended time, brew or pour it into apreheatedinsulatedpot.Icedcoffee can bemade in severalways. Tomake it quickly, brewextra-strong coffee and pour it over ice,whichwill dilute it. Or brewnormalcoffee,chillitintherefrigerator,andaddiceonlywhenserving.Cold-extracted coffee is a distinctively full-bodied but mild coffee,madebylettingcoldwaterpercolateovernightthroughabedofcoarsecoffee grounds, or lettingwater and coffee steep and then filtering offtheextract.It’sverysmooth,withlittlebitternessoracidity,butitalsohaslessaromathanhotcoffee.

BREWINGANDSERVINGTEA

Teas are brewed in differentways in different parts of theworld.Youcanbrewasmallportionofleavesonce,oralargerportionseveraltimesto enjoy the changing flavors. Tea leaves are sometimes rinsed beforebrewing,orthefirstbrewmaybediscarded.Brewing proportions are flexible. The standard is a heapingteaspoonof leaves,around2grams,for8ounces/250milliliterswater,theequivalentofseveralsmallAsiancups,11/2Europeanteacups,or1Americanmug.Brewing temperatures depend on the kind of tea. DelicatewhiteandJapanesegreenteasarebrewedatlowtomediumtemperatures,120to 175°F/50 to 80°C, to moderate extraction of bitter and astringentcompoundsandretaingreenishcolorandgrassyfragrance.MorerobustChinese green teas are brewed at medium temperatures, 160 to175°F/70to80°C.Especiallyaromaticoolong,black,andpuerhteasarebrewedinwaterjustofftheboil.Brewingtimes rangebetween15secondsand5minutes,dependingonthefinenessoftheteapieces,thewatertemperature,andthenumberof times the tea has already been brewed. Inexpensive tea bags often

contain very fine tea “dust” and become overextracted in aminute ortwo.Experimentwithbrewingtemperaturesandtimestogettheflavoryoulikebest.Ifthetasteisflat,tryahighertemperatureand/orlongertime.If the taste is somewhatharsh, trya lower temperatureand/or shortertime.Brewlooseteaenclosedinastrainer,oruseaone-servingpot,tobeable to stop the brewing when the tea is ready. Continued contactbetweenleavesandwaterwillproduceanoverextracted,harshtea.Preheatthepotandcupswithhotwatersothattheteatemperaturedoesn’tfalltoofarduringbrewingorsipping.Whentryingaloose-leafteaforthefirsttime,brew

whiteteasat175°F/80°Cfor2to3minutes,Chinesegreenteasat175°F/80°Cfor2to3minutes,Japanesegreenteasat160to175°F/70to80°Cfor1to3minutes,oolongteasjustofftheboilfor3to4minutes,blackteasjustofftheboilfor4to5minutes,puerhteasjustofftheboilfor1to3minutes.

Check tea flavor during the brewing by pouring small tastes atintervals.Separatetheliquidfromtheleavesassoonastheteaisready.Eitherserve all of it into cups, or remove the leaves from the pot in theirstrainerorsachetorbag.Toenjoyteasattheirbest,drinkthempromptly.Astheystandtheycool and lose aroma. Green and oolong teas oxidize, changing bothflavorandcolor.Ifyoudrinkblackteawithmilk,pourthemilkintothecupfirst,thenadd the tea. This heats themilk gradually andmakes it less likely tocurdle.Icedteashouldbemadewithastrongerbrewsinceitwillbedilutedastheicemelts.Usehalfagainasmuchtealeavesperpotasusual.Toavoid cloudy iced tea, infuse cool or coldwaterwith tea leavesoverseveralhours.Thisextractslessofthematerialsthatcauseclouding

whentheteaischilled.

WHERETOFINDMOREKEYSTOGOODCOOKING

Here’s a list of good, accessible sources of information about variousfoods and cooking methods. Treatises from culinary schools andspecialistpublisherscanbeexcellent,butgenerallyfocusonlarge-scalepreparationinprofessionalkitchens.Thefollowingaredirectlyrelevanttocookingathome.

GENERALCOOKING

HaroldMcGee,OnFoodandCooking:TheScienceandLoreoftheKitchen.NewYork,Scribner,2004.

ShirleyCorriher,CookWise:TheHowsandWhysofSuccessfulCooking.NewYork.Morrow,1997.

NathanMyhrvoldwithChrisYoungandMaximeBilet,ModernistCuisine:TheArtandScienceofCooking.Seattle,TheCookingLab,2010.

MichaelRuhlman,Ratio:TheSimpleCodesBehindtheCraftofEverydayCooking.NewYork,Scribner,2009.

GENERALCOOKBOOKS

IrmaS.Rombauer,MarionRombauerBecker,andEthanBecker,JoyofCooking.NewYork,SimonandSchuster,2006.

PaulBertolliwithAliceWaters,ChezPanisseCooking.NewYork,RandomHouse,1988.

JudyRodgers,TheZuniCafeCookbook.NewYork,Norton,2002.

KITCHENTOOLS

AltonBrown,AltonBrown’sGearforYourKitchen.NewYork,Stewart,TaboriandChang,2008.

ChadWard,AnEdgeintheKitchen:TheUltimateGuidetoKitchenKnives.NewYork,Morrow,2008.

FRUITSANDVEGETABLES

AlizaGreen,FieldGuidetoProduce:HowtoIdentify,Select,andPrepareVirtuallyEveryFruitandVegetableattheMarket.Philadelphia,QuirkBooks,2004.

ElizabethSchneider,VegetablesfromAmaranthtoZucchini.NewYork,Morrow,2001.

DAIRYPRODUCTS

AnneMendelson,Milk:TheSurprisingStoryofMilkThroughtheAges.NewYork,Knopf,2008.

MEATSANDFISH

BruceAidellsandDenisKelly,TheCompleteMeatBook.Boston,HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2001.

HughFearnley-Whittingstall,TheRiverCottageMeatBook.London,HodderandStoughton,2004.

PaulJohnson,FishForever:TheDefinitiveGuidetoUnderstanding,Selecting,andPreparingHealthy,Delicious,andEnvironmentallySustainableSeafood.NewYork,Wiley,2007.

SAUCES

JamesPeterson,Sauces:ClassicalandContemporarySauceMaking.NewYork,Wiley,2008.

BAKING,BREADS,PASTRIES,ANDCAKES

ShirleyCorriher,BakeWise:TheHowsandWhysofSuccessfulBaking.NewYork,Scribner,2008.

ReganDaley,IntheSweetKitchen:TheDefinitiveBaker’sCompanion.NewYork,Artisan,2001.

JeffreyHamelman,Bread:ABaker’sBookofTechniquesandRecipes.NewYork,Wiley,2004.

PeterReinhart,PeterReinhart’sArtisanBreadsEveryDay.Berkeley,TenSpeedPress,2009.

RoseL.Beranbaum,ThePieandPastryBible.NewYork,Scribner,1998.

RoseL.Beranbaum,TheCakeBible.NewYork,Morrow,1988.

CHOCOLATEANDCANDIES

PeterP.Greweling,ChocolatesandConfectionsatHomewiththeCulinaryInstituteofAmerica.NewYork,Wiley,2009.

COFFEEANDTEA

KennethDavids,Coffee:AGuidetoBuying,Brewing,andEnjoying.NewYork,St.Martin’s,2001.

CorbyKummer,TheJoyofCoffee:TheEssentialGuidetoBuying,Brewing,andEnjoying.Boston,HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2003.

MichaelHarney,TheHarney&SonsGuidetoTea.NewYork,ThePenguinPress,2008.

MaryLouHeissandRobertJ.Heiss,TheTeaEnthusiast’sHandbook:AGuidetotheWorld’sBestTeas.Berkeley,TenSpeedPress,2010.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thekeytogoodbookmaking—atleastforthisbook—hasbeenhavingthebestofcolleagues,friends,andfamily.IfirstmetBillBufordwhenIvisitedNewYorkinMay2005.Wegot

togetherforlunch,andbeforedessertarrivedhehadchangedthewayIthoughtaboutmylifeasawriter. I’mtremendouslygrateful toBill forhis counsel and friendship. And I thank AndrewWylie, to whom Billintroducedme,forhelpingmeplotmynewcourse,andforfindingsuchagoodhomeforthisbook.For sharing theirdeepknowledgeof foodsandcookingas Iput this

booktogether,IthankFritzBlank,DavidChang,ChrisCosentino,WylieDufresne, Andy and Julia Griffin, Johnny Iuzzini, John Paul Khoury,David Kinch, Christopher Loss, Daniel Patterson, Michel Suas, AlexTalbot, andAkiKamozawa. I’vebeenespecially fortunate toworkandplaywiththeever-questioningHestonBlumenthalandhis teamatTheFatDuck,includingKyleConnaughton,AshleyPalmer-Watts,andJockyPetrie. My fellow writers Edward Behr, Shirley Corriher, SusanHerrmannLoomis,MichaelRuhlman,andPaulaWolfertpliedmewithacutequestionsandobservations.I’velearnedmuchaboutcookingandscience from conversations with Nathan Myhrvold, Chris Young, andAlain Harrus, and about chocolate and life from Robert Steinberg, agoodfriendwhomImissverymuch.A special thanks to my teaching partners at the French Culinary

Institute,DavidArnold andNilsNoren,whohave schooledme in andoutofclassonfoodanddrinkandmuchelse.ForreadingandcommentingondraftsofthisbookIthankShirleyand

ArchCorriher,MarkPastore,andDanielPatterson.DavidArnoldspenthourswithme on the phone going overmuch of the text sentence bysentence.OfcourseIaloneamresponsibleforwhateverinfelicitiesanderrorsremain.

AtPenguinPress,AnnGodoff sawthat thisbookneeded tobemoreample than the slim handbook it started out as, and has beenwonderfully supportive throughout its prolonged gestation. ClaireVaccaro translatedmy ideas for thedesign intoamodelof clarityandutility. Noirin Lucas expertly shepherded the text through production,and Lindsay Whalen managed our communications with warm andtactfulefficiency.Then there’s my family. I first learned what good cooking is fromLouise Hammersmith’s curries and Christmas cookies, and Chuck Mc-Gee’s Sunday griddle cakes and roasts. My late sister Ann helped mevisualizetheinvisibleformyfirstbook;andJoan,herhusbandRichardThomas,andmybrotherMichaelcontinuetoheartenfromafar.HaroldandFlorenceLong,ChuckandLouiseHammersmith, andWernerKurzgavemeimportantlessonsintheproperpreparationandappreciationoffish, often afterwe’d caught them together. SharonLong sharedmanyenthusiasmsanddiscoveriesoverthethirtyyearsthatwecookedsidebyside.Andouryoungtastetestershavegrownup,generouslyforgiventhelutefisk experiment, and become valued collaborators. John improvedthesectionsonteaandcoffeeandmilkfoams,andappliedakeeneyetothe page proofs. Florence carried out experiments on chocolate andbaking, lent a critical palate tomany others, and keptme fedwhen Icouldn’tleavethecomputer.Mythanksandlovetoall.

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

HaroldMcGeewrites about the science of food and cooking. He’s theauthor of the award-winning classicOn Food and Cooking: The ScienceandLoreoftheKitchen,andwritesacolumn,“TheCuriousCook,”forTheNew York Times. He has been named food writer of the year by BonAppetitmagazineandtotheTime100,anannuallistoftheworld’smostinfluentialpeople.HelivesinSanFrancisco.