kennard. masks and marionettes

MASKSAND

MARIONETTESBY

JOSEPH SPENCER KENNARD

NEW YORK

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1935

Copyright, 1935, by

JOSEPH SPENCER KENNARD

Set up and printed.

Published May, 1935.

PRINTED IN THl"UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

BY THE STRATFORD PRESS, INC., NEW YORK

1I444BH

TO

3. P. H.

IN MEMORIAM

CONTENTS

MASKS

I. ORIGIN OF THE COMMEDIA DELUARTE . . .

The Commedia deH'Arte is Art and it is PsychologyIt is atheatre of music, dance, colour and light It depicts human frail

ties, parodies human foiblesItalian Commedia delFArte is ofRoman, Greek and Etruscan origin In Italian Commedia dell'

Arte, dialects are spoken, masks are used and realism and obscen

ity are common I Gelosi, the most famous of all the Commediadell'Arte Companies, arrives in Florence.

II. FAMOUS PLAYERS AND FAMOUS COMPANIES . , 18

Angela Beolco, surnamed Ruzzante the Joker (born 1502) wasan early and famous actor in Commedia dell'Arte He shared in

the revival of Italian Comedy, and its use of dialects Giancarli

of Rovigo was another actor famous in Commedia dell'Arte In

1570 the Italian "Art Theatre" came to Paris and there remained

popular for over two hundred years Francesco Andreini and his

wife, Isabella, his son and son's wife ("Florinda"), "Tabarino"and Flaminio Scala were among the most famous actors in Commedia deirArteThe Confidenti, Accesi, and Desiosi were

among the most famous "Art Theatre" Companies The Commedia dell'Arte not only was an institution in Prance but exerted

an important influence upon English Comedy.

III. COMPOSITION OF THE DRAMATIC COMPANIES-JOYS AND SORROWS OF THE ACTORS ... 38

A Commedia dell'Arte Company consisted, usually, of three

women and seven men Pantalone', Arlecchino, Pulcinella, and

Brighella are basic types Joys and sorrows of Commedia dell'

Arte actors Today they live in luxury, tomorrow they are cold

and hungry Pride, scandal, jealousy and immorality of the actors

Insults, decrees, regulations and punishments are their portion.

Improvised Comedy reached its zenith about 1650.vii

CONTENTS

MASKS

1. ORIGIN OF THE COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE The Commedia dell'Arte is Art and it is PsycholoESY-lt is a theatre of music, dance, colour and light-It depicts human frailties, parodies human foibles-Italian Commedia dell' Arte is of Roman, Greek and Etruscan origin-In Italian Commedia dell' Arte, dialects are spoken, masks are used and realism and obscenity are common-I Gelosi, the most famous of all the Commedia dell'Arte Companies, arrives in Florence.

II. FAMOUS PLAYERS AND FAMOUS COMPANIES Angelo Beolco, surnamed Ruzzante-the Joker-(born I50Z) was an early and famous actor in Commedia dell'Arte-He shared in the revival of Italian Comedy. and its use of dialects-Giancarli of Rovigo was another actor famous in Commedia dell'Arte-ln I570 the Italian "Art Theatre" came to Paris and there remained popular for over two hundred years-Francesco Andreini and his wife, Isabella, his son and son's wife ("Florinda"), "Tabarino" and Flaminio Scala were among the most famous actors in Commedia dell'Arte-The Confidenti, Accesi, and Desiosi were among the most famous "Art Theatre" Companies-The Commedia dell'Arte not only was an institution in France but exerted an important influence upon English Comedy.

III. COMPOSITION OF THE DRAMATIC COMPANIES

3

-JOYS AND SORROWS OF THE ACTORS. 38 A Commedia dell'Arte Company consisted, usually, of three women and seven men-Pantalone, Arlecchino, Pulcinella, and Brighella are basic types-Joys and sorrows of Commedia dell' Arte actors-Today they live in luxury, tomorrow they are cold and hungry-Pride, scandal, jealousy and immorality of the actors -Insults, decrees, regulations and punishments are their portion. -Improvised Comedy reached its zenith about I650.

vii

viii CONTENTSIV. THE PLOT-THE SCENARIO-IMPROVISATION-

ZIBALDONI 46

Improvised and Studied Comedy had many types and subjects in

common The ludicrous interpolations in a play are called lazzi

Playing impromptu adds vivacity to the acting In the "Art

Theatre" each actor had his own commonplace-book or "Zibal-

done" a collection of jests and speeches adapted to his part in

the play The Commedia delFArte deliberately chose the obscene and the absurd In the Commedia delFArte Isabella is a

coquette, the Doctor an erudite ass and crooked-nosed Pulcinella

makes absurd gestures and -funny speeches Brighella is a -fawn

ing scoundrel, a thief and liarCapitano is a coward, a bully anda ridiculous soldier-lover Pedrolino and Pierrot are the same-He is a cunning ruffian The Colombina soubrette is beautiful,

charming and frequently virtuous.

V. FURTHER SCENARIOS AND MASKS OF THE COMMEDIA DELUARTE 66

The Plays of Flaminio ScalaThe "Dentist" Actors used their

stage-names in private life Pantalone and Doctor Graziano are

the two old men of the Commedia delFArte plays Arlecchino is

a liar, swindler and sometimes thief, but he is a most amusingcharacter Biancolelli (Dominique) was perhaps the greatest andGherardi was another famous Arlecchino.

VI. GOLDONI AND GOZZI-DECAY AND DEATH OFTHE COMMEDIA DELUARTE 76

Goldoni is the greatest author of the Commedia dell'Arte Hisplays reveal every aspect of lifeLe Gortesan, Colombina andCorralina are among his most charming characters His immortalPantalone is Goldoni's mouthpiece and the central figure in theGoldonian Comedy Carlo Gozzi was Goldoni's jealous rivalHis Fiabe are often vulgar caricatures^ but attained popularityThe Little Green Bird is Gozzi's best playGozzi

f

s quarrel withGoldoni, his Fiabe, his love for Teodora Ricci and his Memoirs,sum up his life.

ITALIAN MARIONETTES

I. ORIGIN OF ITALIAN MARIONETTES .... 99Marionettes were before history began Italian Marionettes haveRoman, Grecian and Egyptian ancestrySocrates, Plato and4ristotle draw lessons from marionettes Roman marionettes as-

Vlll CONTENTS

IV. THE PLOT-THE SCENARIO-IMPROVISATION-ZIBALDONI 46

Improvised and Studied Comedy had many types and subjects in common-The ludicrous interpolations in a play are called lazzi -PlaY,ing impromptu adds vivacity to the acting-In the "Art Theatre" each actor had his own commonplace-book or "Zibaldone," a collection of jests and speeches adapted to his part in the play-The Commedia dell'Arte deliberately chose the ob-scene and the absurd-In the Commedia dell'Arte Isabella is a coquette, the Doctor an erudite ass and crooked-nosed Pulcinella makes absurd gestures and funny speeches-Brighella is a fawn-ing scoundrel, a thief and liar-Capitano is a coward, a bully and a ridiculous soldier-lover-Pedrolino and Pierrot are the same-He is a cunning ruffian-The Colombina soubrette is beautiful, charming and frequently. virtuous.

V. FURTHER SCENARIOS AND MASKS OF THE COM-MEDIA DELL'ARTE 66

The Plays of Flaminio Scala-The "Dentist"-Actors used their stage-names in private life-Pantalone and Doctor Graziano are the two old men of the Commedia dell'Arte plays-Arlecchino is a liar, swindler and sometimes thief, but he is a most amusing character-Biancolelli (Dominique) was perhaps the greatest and Gherardi was another famous Arlecchino.

VI. GOLDONI AND GOZZI-DECAY AND DEATH OF THE COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE 76

Goldoni is the greatest author of the Commedia deU'Arte-His plays reveal every aspect of life-Le Cortesan, Colomb ina and Corralina are among his most charming characters-His immortal Pantalone is Goldoni's mouthpiece and the central figure in the Goldonian Comedy-Carlo Gozzi was Goldoni's jealous rival-His Fiabe are often vulgar caricatures, but attained popularity -The Little Green Bird is Gozzi's best pZay-Gozzi's quarrel with Goldoni, his Fiabe, his love for Teodora Ricci and his Memoirs, sum up his life.

ITALIAN MARIONETTES

I. ORIGIN OF ITALIAN MARIONETTES Marionettes were before history began-Italian Marionettes have Roman, Grecian and Egyptian ancestry-Socrates, Plato and dristotle draw kssons from marionettes-Roman marionettes as-

99

CONTENTS ix

sumed many forms In the early Christian Church and all

through the Middle Ages, Marionettes were used in sacred representations and even in churches.

II. ITALIAN MARIONETTES GO ABROAD .... 105

Origin of the word Marionette Burattini, Bagattelli, Bamboccieand Pupazzi are other names Enormous popularity^ of marionettes in Italy and in France Duel between Briocci's ape and

Cyrano de BergeracSame characters and many of the same playsare used in common by the Commedia dell'Arte and the Marionette Theatre Eighteenth century the golden period for the

Marionette Theatre.

III. THE PUPPET THEATRE AND ITS REPERTOIRE . 114

In a puppet theatre the space is narrow behind the stage Ordi

nary marionettes are carved from wood and have disjointed armsand legs Marionette company may include more than

fifty, puppetsBloody battles are popular Marionette ballet is remarkable

Arlecchino and Brighella, Pulcinella and Stenterello, the Devil

and our Punch and Judy are popular The Fiando theatre in

Milan and the Fiano theatre in Rome were famous As the

Marionette actor was the most ancient, so the Marionette theatre

is the most modern, and those marvellous travellers the woodendolls continue to wander over all Italy.

CONTENTS

sumed many forms-In the early Christian Church and all through the Middle Ages, Marionettes were used in sacred representations and even in churches.

II. ITALIAN MARIONETTES GO ABROAD . Origin of the word Marionette-Burattini, Bagattelli, Bamboccie and Pupazzi are other names-Enormous popularity, of marionettes in Italy and in France-Duel between Briocci's ape and Cyrano de Bergerac-Same characters and many of the same plays are used in common by the Commedia dell'Arte and the Marionette The'atre-Eighteenth century the golden period for the Marionette Theatre.

IX

III. THE PUPPET THEATRE AND ITS REPERTOIRE . 114 In a puppet theatre the space is narrow behind the stage-Ordi-nary marionettes are carved from wood and have disjointed arms and legs-Marionette company may include more than fifty, puppets-Bloody battles are popular-Marionette ballet is remarkable -Arlecchino and Brighella, Pulcinella and Stenterelio, the Devil and our Punch and Judy are popular-The Fiando theatre in Milan and the Fiano theatre in Rome were famous-As the Marionette actor was the most ancient, so the Marionette theatre is the most modern, and those marvellous travellers the wooden dolls continue to wander over all Italy.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Joseph Spencer Kennard, Doctor of the Sorbonne, Paris Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

Proscenium Arch and Curtain, Farnese Theatre, Parma, 1618 i

Italian Commedia dell'Arte, or Impromptu Comedy 4

Francesco Andreini 22

Isabella Andreini 24

Giovan Battista Andreini 26

Coviello (1550) 39

Italian Puppet Ballet 41

"La Vita di Pulcinella" 43

The Nuptials of the Humpback and Simona 46

Scapin (1716) 48

Scaramuccia (1645) 53

Brighella (1570) 55

II Capitano (1668) 58

Leandro 60

Tartaglia (1620) 62

Four Comedies 66

Victorian Harlequins 72

Colombina (1683)80

Pantalone (1550)88

"Marco and His Marionettes on Their Travels" 97

Othello and Desdemona, Marionettes 105

Othello and Brabantio, Marionettes 114

ILLUSTRATIONS

Joseph Spencer Kennard, Doctor of the Sorbonne, Paris Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

Proscenium Arch and Curtain, Farnese Theatre, Parma, 1618 1

Italian Commedia dell'Arte, or Impromptu Comedy

Francesco Andreini

Isabella Andreini

Giovan Battista Andreini

Coviello (1550)

Italian Puppet Ballet

"La Vita di Pulcinella"

The Nuptials of the Humpback and Simona

Scapin (1716)

Scaramuccia (1645)

Brighella (1570)

II Capitano (1668)

Leandro

Tartaglia (16.20)

Four Comedies

Victorian Harlequins

Colombina (1683)

Pantalone (1550)

"Marco and His Marionettes on Their Travels"

Othello and Desdemona, Marionettes

Othello and Brabantio, Marionettes

4 .22

39

41

43

46

48

53

55

58

60

62

66

72 80

88

97

PROSCKNIUM, ARCH AND Cl LTAIN FARNESE THhATRR, PARMA, iPROSCES!VM, ARCH ,\;"0;0 Cl l'fAlN P'ARNF.Sf. THE:Ann:. 1'.\RMA, 1618

MASKSMASKS

Chapter I

Origin of the Commedia deH'Arte

THE Commedia dell'Arte is Art and it is Psychology. It is a

theatre of all people, of all arts, of all moments when life

wings up out of drab reality. It is a theatre of music and dance;

of song, colour and light; of plays on wagon stages; of festivals

in streets, in courts, in great squares; on rivers; at weddings

and funerals and coronations; of actors with and without

masks; sometimes in extraordinary costumes.

Many of these actors are unknown to fame; many more are

immortal. Paintings, etchings and engravings have made their

faces familiar diverting, ludicrous, facetious; sometimes

grimly, often grotesquely, the Commedia dell'Arte portrays

incongruous humanity.

The first comic actor may have stood on a rock, a tree stumpor by evening fire in front of his hut. He postured, grimaced,

gesticulated, told a funny story, cracked a joke, sang a song,

burlesqued a boon companion. The Commedia dell'Arte de

veloped through the ages and includes such plays as Goldoni's,

which will live forever; but always the Commedia dell'Arte

depicts human frailties, parodies human foibles.

Eight hundred years before Christ a drivelling, pot-bellied

drunkard was represented on the Grecian stage. Centuries

later Icarian jesters with trestles and carts gave performances

in Grecian cities. Athenian and Spartan charlatans drolled

and clowned to attract an audience and sell their medicines.

3

Chapter I

Origin of the Commedia dell'Arte

THE Commedia dell'Arte is Art and it is Psychology. It is a theatre of all people, of all arts, of all moments when life wings up out of drab reality. It is a theatre of music and dance; of song, colour and light; of plays on wagon stages; of festivals in streets, in courts, in great squares; on rivers; at weddings and funerals and coronations; of actors with and without masks; sometimes in extraordinary costumes.

Many of these actors are unknown to fame; many more are immortal. Paintings, etchings and engravings have made their faces familiar-diverting, ludicrous, facetious; sometimes grimly, often grotesquely, the Commedia dell'Arte portrays incongruous humanity.

The first comic actor may have stood on a rock, a tree stump or by evening fire in front of his hut. He postured, grimaced, gesticulated, told a funny story, cracked a joke, sang a song, burlesqued a boon companion. The Commedia dell' Arte developed through the ages and includes such plays as Goldoni's, which will live forever; but always the Commedia dell'Arte depicts human frailties, parodies human foibles.

Eight hundred years before Christ a drivelling, pot-bellied drunkard was represented on the Grecian stage. Centuries later lcarian jesters with trestles and carts gave performances in Grecian cities. Athenian and Spartan charlatans drolled and clowned to attract an audience and sell their medicines.

IS

4 MASKS AND MARIONETTES

Roman theatrical art is derived from the Etruscan. Maccus,

Bucco, Pappus and Casnar, speaking in Oscan, Greek and

Latin, improvised plays called Atellance. The Roman Mimiwere farceurs who declaimed; the Pantomimi gestured, danced

and mimicked sometimes to the accompaniment of music.

The Sanniones resembled modern circus clowns. In their long

dresses, shaven heads, painted faces and parti-coloured coats

the Planipedes suggest the modern harlequin. The obscene

Ithyphalli and Phallophori have disappeared. Oscans from the

town of Atella near Naples performed Atellana Fabulcs or

Ludi Osci; and Maccus^ like the modern Pulcinella, from

under his mask amused Romans with wit and satire. Pulci-

nella's ancestral statues in bronze have been found in Hercu-

laneum; and on the walls of Pompeii his portraits are seen,

beak-nose and all.

An enormous helmet made at first of tree bark and later of

leather covered the head of the actor. During the reign of the

Emperor Adrian, Alulu-gelle wrote: "The whole head and

face of the actor was enclosed within the mask in such a manner that the voice could escape through only one part which

rendered the voice stronger and more distinct/' Because of

this holding and reverberating of the voice the Latins called

these masks persona. They were comic, tragic or when rep

resenting satyrs or Cyclopes were ugly and of great size. In

the Terence comedies the masks represented the characters

but concealed the actor's personality. Since female parts were

always acted by men the mask sometimes represented a woman's headdress and ornaments.

In Greek and Roman theatres of the fourth and fifth cen

turies, deceived husbands, philosophers and physicians were

ridiculed. This type of play passed directly to the Italian

theatre. In 560 A.D. Cassiodorus writes that the pantomime


Roman theatrical art is derived from the Etruscan. Maccus, Bucco, Pappus and Casnar, speaking in Oscan, Greek and Latin, improvised plays called Atellance. The Roman Mimi were farceurs who declaimed; the Pantomimi gestured, danced and mimicked-sometimes to the accompaniment of music. The Sanniones resembled modern circus clowns. In their long dresses, shaven heads, painted faces and parti-coloured coats the Planipedes suggest the modern harlequin. The obscene lthyphalli and Phallophori have disappeared. Oscans from the town of Atella near Naples performed Atellance Fabulce or Ludi Osci; and Maccus~ like the modern Pulcinella~ from under his mask amused Romans with wit and satire. Pulcinella's ancestral statues in bronze have been found in Herculaneum; and on the walls of Pompeii his portraits are seen, beak-nose and all.

An enormous helmet made at first of tree bark and later of leather covered the head of the actor. During the reign of the Emperor Adrian, Alulu-gelle wrote: "The whole head and face of the actor was enclosed within the mask in such a manner that the voice could escape through only one part which rendered the voice stronger and more distinct." Because of this holding and reverberating of the voice the Latins called these masks personce. They were comic, tragic or-when representing satyrs or Cyclopes-were ugly and of great size. In the Terence comedies the masks represented the characters but concealed the actor's personality. Since female parts were always acted by men the mask sometimes represented a woman's headdress and ornaments.

In Greek and Roman theatres of the fourth and fifth centuries, deceived husbands, philosophers and physicians were ridiculed. This type of play passed directly to the Italian theatre. In 560 A.D. Cassiodorus writes that the pantomime

ITALIAN CQMMEDIA DELUARTEOR IMPROMPTU COMEDY

ITALIAN COMMEDIA DRLL'ARTE OR IMPROMPTU COMEDY

ORIGIN OF COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE 5

was extremely popular among the Romans; and we know that

the Emperor Augustus frequented the performances o the

pantomimist Bathyllus. In time of famine the Emperor Con-

stantius expelled the philosophers from Rome but allowed

three thousand dancers and as many pantomimists to remain.

Seneca relates that twenty thousand gold crowns were given

to a favourite female dancer on her marriage.

Lucian composed a treatise on pantomimes. According to

Macrobius, when Hylas danced a Hymn ending with the words

"the great Agamemnon," he drew himself erect to express the

meaning; but pantomimist Pylades said "you make him tall

but not great." Then Pylades danced the same Hymn and

when he came to this passage he assumed the posture of deep

meditation. Apuleius describes a performance where the

whole story of the "Judgment of Paris" was told by dance and

gesture. Appianus Alexandrinus mentions a pantomime play

describing the destruction of Crassus and his army by the Par-

thians. Suetonius relates that Nero, being ill, vowed that when

well he would dance the story of Turnus as told in the JEneid.

Ferrarius asserts that as late as 1719 vestiges of these Roman

pantomimes still existed in Italy, and that the Mattaccini of

Lombardy gave performances which were survivals of the old

pantomimic dances of the Luperci. Clothed in a tight-fitting

dress and wearing masks of old men they ran through the

streets, dancing, beating people with "ecourgees" like the

ancient Luperci. They ran before fast-driven carriages,

climbed walls, entered windows and engaged in mock com

bat; one falling and pretending to be dead, his dancing part

ner would lift him up and carry him away. He relates how a

company of masked and dancing Mattaccini visited a young

man on his wedding day while surrounded by his friends.

When one of the dancers whispered in the bridegroom's ear

ORIGIN OF COMMEDIA DELLJAR T E 5

was extremely popular among the Romans; and we know that the Emperor Augustus frequented the performances of the pantomimist Bathyllus. In time of famine the Emperor Constantius expelled the philosophers from Rome but allowed three thousand dancers and as many pantomimists to remain. Seneca relates that twenty thousand gold crowns were given to a favourite female dancer on her marriage.

Lucian composed a treatise on pantomimes. According to Macrobius, when Hylas danced a Hymn ending with the words "the great Agamemnon," he drew himself erect to express the meaning; but pantomimist Pylades said "you make him tall but not great." Then Pylades danced the same Hymn and when he came to this passage he assumed the posture of deep meditation. Apuleius describes a performance where the whole story of the "Judgment of Paris" was told by dance and gesture. Appianus Alexandrinus mentions a pantomime play describing the destruction of Crassus and his army by the Parthians. Suetonius relates that Nero, being ill, vowed that when well he would dance the story of Turnus as told in the ..Eneid.

Ferrarius asserts that as late as 1719 vestiges of these Roman pantomimes still existed in Italy, and that the Mattaccini of Lombardy gave performances which were survivals of the old pantomimic dances of the Luperci. Clothed in a tight-fitting dress and wearing masks of old men they ran through the streets, dancing, beating people with "ecourgees/' like the ancient Luperci. They ran before fast-driven carriages, climbed walls, entered windows and engaged in mock combat; one falling and pretending to be dead, his dancing partner would lift him up and carry him away. He relates how a company of masked and dancing Mattaccini visited a young man on his wedding day while surrounded by his friends. When one of the dancers whispered in the bridegroom's ear


he arose and mixed in the masquerade, engaged in a feigned

combat with one of the other dancers and according to the

custom of this dance dropped down as if dead. The others

carried him into a neighbouring chamber swaying to the ac

companiment of lugubrious music, as if attending a funeral.

After the dancers had left, the guests found the bridegroomon the floor, strangled by his rival who had been one of the

dancers.

Callot engraved that famous series of buffoons, mimes and

masks of the ancient comedy known as Balli di Sfessania. In

ancient times the Sfessania in Piedmont invented a popularverse characterized by improvised pleasantries, postures and

scenes resembling the Atellance. In Rome these actors were

called Mimi Septentrionis^ buffoons of the north. Naked or

clad only with a waist scarf they accompanied themselves with

castanets. Callot's types were mostly real actors among whomis "Covilelo" renowned for his comical faces and manner of

speaking. Salvatore Rossa says that Covilelo was one of the

seven masks of the ancient Commedia delVArte; that he orig

inated in Calabria and had the accent and costume of his

country. He resembles the "trasone" of Terence.

The early Fathers of the Church fulminated against pagancomedies; but the Church victorious, forgetting the simplicity

of early Christian worship, gave sanctuary to dramatic art and

religious drama became a part of the sacred service. Crusaders

from the Holy Land and Constantinople filled all Europe with

tales of miracles, marvels and knightly adventures; and this

fantastic material was added to the ancient Latin farces, im

provisations and lazzi. About 1589 Niccol6 Rossi wrote "Norwill I ever name as comedies these that are carried here and

there by sordid and mercenary folk, introducing therein

Gianni, Bergamasco, Francatrippa, Pantalone and such-like


he arose and mixed in the masquerade, engaged in a feigned combat with one of the other dancers and according to the custom of this dance dropped down as if dead. The others carried him into a neighbouring chamber swaying to the accompaniment of lugubrious music, as if attending a funeral. After the dancers had left, the guests found the bridegroom on the floor, strangled by his rival who had been one of the dancers.

Callot engraved that famous series of buffoons, mimes and masks of the ancient comedy known as Balli di Sfessania. In ancient times the Sfessania in Piedmont invented a popular verse characterized by improvised pleasantries, postures and scenes resembling the Atellance. In Rome these actors were called Mimi SePtentrionis~ buffoons of the north. Naked or clad only with a waist scarf they accompanied themselves with castanets. Callot's types were mostly real actors among whom is ltCovilelo/' renowned for his comical faces and manner of speaking. Salvatore Rossa says that Covilelo was one of the seven masks of the ancient Commedia dell'Arte)· that he originated in Calabria and had the accent and costume of his country. He resembles the ((trasone" of Terence.

The early Fathers of the Church fulminated against pagan comedies; but the Church victorious, forgetting the simplicity of early Christian worship, gave sanctuary to dramatic art and religious drama became a part of the sacred service. Crusaders from the Holy Land and Constantinople filled all Europe with tales of miracles, marvels and knightly adventures; and this fantastic material was added to the ancient Latin farces, improvisations and lazzi. About 1589 Niccolo Rossi wrote "Nor will I ever name as comedies these that are carried here and there by sordid and mercenary folk, introducing therein Gianni, Bergamasco, Francatrippa, Pantalone and such-like


buffoons, did we not wish to resemble them to the Mimes,Atellana and Planipedes of the ancients." Vincenzo de Amicis

noted the likeness between the Roman and Gommedia dell'

Arte characters; with their droll voices, gesticulations, somer

saults, dances and lazzi. The "Zanni" is the Latin Sannio. TheDoctor is Dossennus. Pantalone is Pappus. Pulcinella, dressed

in white, is Maccus or Bucco or Mimus Albus; and bizarre

multi-coloured Arlecchino is Mimus Centunculus. The ele

ments of the popular Italian comedy are the oldest, most vital,

most national possessions of the race; an Italian comedy of

masks and improvisations which flourished before Rome rose

upon the Tiber.

It has been said that to connect the Commedia dell'Arte

with the ancient Mime would require a continuity of literary

texts of the same character through the whole Middle Agesand that no such compositions exist; that Pulcinella and

Arlecchino alone even remotely link the Commedia dell'Arte

with the Latin theatre; and that to make this association probable it would be necessary to prove that in the second half of

the fifteenth century Greek actors emigrated to Italy, and

there presented comic plays modelled from the Turko-Byzan-tine type of Mime, and that these comic figures preservedtheir character throughout the whole Cinquecento. Lorenzo

Stoppato collected many evidences tending to prove this con

tinuity; and Ermano Reich maintains that the Italian Corn-

media dell'Arte is the natural transformation of the Byzantine

Mimewhich passed into Italy at the time of the great emi

gration after the Turks captured Constantinople, together

with the remnants of the ancient Latin Mime which had

feebly survived through the Middle Ages.

As in the Roman so in the Italian Commedia dell'Arte,

dialects were spoken, masks used; and rank realism and


buffoons, did we not wish to resemble them to the Mimes, Atellance and Planipedes of the ancients." Vincenzo de Amicis noted the likeness between the Roman and Commedia dell' A rte characters; with their droll voices, gesticulations, somersaults, dances and lazzi. The "Zanni" is the Latin Sannio. The Doctor is Dossennus. Pantalone is Pappus. Pulcinella, dressed in white, is Maccus or Bucca or Mimus Albus; and bizarre multi-coloured Arlecchino is Mimus Centunculus. The elements of the popular Italian comedy are the oldest, most vital, most national possessions of the race; an Italian comedy of masks and improvisations which flourished before Rome rose upon the Tiber.

It has been said that to connect the Commedia dell' Arte with the ancient Mime would require a continuity of literary texts of the same character through the whole Middle Ages and that no such compositions exist; that Pulcinella and Arlecchino alone even remotely link the Commedia dell'Arte with the Latin theatre; and that to make this association probable it would be necessary to prove that in the second half of the fifteenth century Greek actors emigrated to Italy, and there presented comic plays modelled from the Turko-Byzantine type of Mime, and that these comic figures preserved their character throughout the whole Cinquecento. Lorenzo Stoppato collected many evidences tending to prove this continuity; and Ermano Reich maintains that the Italian Commedia dell'Arte is the natural transformation of the Byzantine Mime-which passed into Italy at the time of the great emi· gration after the Turks captured Constantinople, together with the remnants of the ancient Latin Mime which had feebly survived through the Middle Ages.

As in the Roman so in the Italian Commedia dell'Arte, dialects were spoken, masks used; and rank realism and


obscenity were equally common to the Italian masks o the six

teenth century and to the Roman masks of the fifth century

B.C. The conventional characters of Plautus and Terence re

appeared. Both in Roman and in Italian plays plots were

amorous, indecentmen and women appearing naked on the

stage and unmentionable vices being boldly paraded.

Whatever may have been the origin of the Italian Corn-

media dell'Arte we know that early in the sixteenth century

improvised comedies were performed in the courts of princes,

in the palaces of lords and in academic halls, by actors each

time freshly enrolled and instructed who returned to their

ordinary occupations when the festival was over.

In 1502 Isabella Gonzaga, Marchioness of Mantua, re

turned to the paternal palace at Ferrara to attend the mar

riage of her brother the Duke with Lucrezia Borgia and was

present at a performance of Plautus' "Bacchide." Isabella

wrote her husband of the two "Moresche" dances and pantomimes interposed in the "Bacchide." One of these consisted

of ten men naked except for a scarf, their heads covered with

hair made of tin foil. In their hands they carried cornucopiasfilled with varnish, with lighted tapers inside, which soon ig

nited. A terrified maiden ran to the back of the stage; a

dragon sought to devour her but a warrior captured the beast,

and led him away bound, while the maiden arm in arm with a

youth followed him; and round about them went those naked

men tossing flames in the air. The second act was of madmen

wearing shirts and stockings and on their heads paper fools

caps, having bladders in their hands with which they beat

each other. This was true Commedia dell'Arte.

In Florence, the Dramatic Art found in the "Cento No-velle" abundance of plots, characters, caricatures, jests and

repartee. The form of this new material was always Plautinian


obscenity were equally common to the Italian masks of the sixteenth century and to the Roman masks of the fifth century B.C. The conventional characters of Plautus and Terence reappeared. Both in Roman and in Italian plays plots were amorous, indecent-men and women appearing naked on the stage and unmentionable vices being boldly paraded.

Whatever may have been the origin of the Italian Commedia dell'Arte we know that early in the sixteenth century improvised comedies were performed in the courts of princes, in the palaces of lords and in academic halls, by actors each time freshly enrolled and instructed who returned to their ordinary occupations when the festival was over.

In 1502 Isabella Gonzaga, Marchioness of Mantua, returned to the paternal palace at Ferrara to attend the marriage of her brother the Duke with Lucrezia Borgia and was present at a performance of Plautus' "Bacchide." Isabella wrote her husband of the two "Moresche" dances and pantomimes interposed in the "Bacchide." One of these consisted of ten men naked except for a scarf, their heads covered with hair made of tin foil. In their hands they carried cornucopias filled with varnish, with lighted tapers inside, which soon ignited. A terrified maiden ran to the back of the stage; a dragon sought to devour her but a warrior captured the beast, and led him away bound, while the maiden arm in arm with a youth followed him; and round about them went those naked men tossing flames in the air. The second act was of madmen wearing shirts and stockings and on their heads paper foolscaps, having bladders in their hands with which they beat each other. This was true Commedia dell'Arte.

In Florence, the Dramatic Art found in the "Cento Novelle" abundance of plots, characters, caricatures, jests and repartee. The fonn of this new material was always Plautinian

ORIGIN OF COMMEDIA DELUARTE 9

or Terentian, but the ancient monotony was broken. Thus,

the "Calandria" *is decked with episodes borrowed from the

"Decameron"; and the "Mandragola" f in its scenic art fol

lows the Latin model. Says the poet in the prologue

Un amante meschino,Un Dottor poco astuto,

Un Frate mal vissuto,

Un Parassito di malizia il cucco,

Fien questo giorno il vostro badalucco.

An unhappy Lover, a Doctor who is a simpleton, a dissolute

Friar, a Sycophant who is the very essence of cunning, provide

your pastime for today.

As spectacular scenes grew more popular acting became a

profession. Lasca published a popular carnival song referring

to professional actors (1559). The Graziana company and also

the Compagnia della Flaminia and that of Vincenza Armani

recited at Mantua (1567). Comedy or tragedy performanceshad now become an "art/' The Commedia with its manymasks and dialects and improvised recitation was now called

dell'Arte. Florentine pedants distrusted the new fashion. Var-

chi in his "Suocera" declared that his play was "neither wholly

ancient nor wholly modern but partly modern and partly an

cient" and added, "although it is in the Florentine tongue it

is adapted from the Latin; adapted, I say, and not translated;

unless in the same sense as the Latins translated from the

Greeks." And Salviati declaimed in the prologue of the

"Granchio"

Nuova Dftnque k questa Commedia, e a tutto

Potere di colui die I'ha fatta,

Fatta a imitazione delle antiche;

Di quello antiche per6 che gli antichi

* A play by Cardinal Bibbi&na.

fA play by Machiavelli.


or Terentian, but the ancient monotony was broken. Thus, the "Calandria" * is decked with episodes borrowed from the "Decameron"; and the "Mandragola" t in its scenic art follows the Latin model. Says the poet in the prologue

Un amante meschino, Un Dottor poco astuto, Un Frate mal vissuto, Un Parassito di malizia il cucco, Fien questo giorno il vostro badalucco.

An unhappy Lover, a Doctor who is a simpleton, a dissolute Friar, a Sycophant who is the very essence of cunning, provide your pastime for today.

As spectacular scenes grew more popular acting became a profession. Lasca published a popular carnival song referring to professional actors (1559). The Graziana company and also the Compagnia della Flaminia and that of Vincenza Armani recited at Mantua (1567). Comedy or tragedy performances had now become an "art." The Commedia with its many masks and dialects and improvised recitation was now called dell'Arte. Florentine pedants distrusted the new fashion. Varchi in his "Suocera" declared that his play was "neither wholly ancient nor wholly modern but partly modern and partly ancient" and added, "although it is in the Florentine tongue it is adapted from the Latin; adapted, I say, and not translated; unless in the same sense as the Latins translated from the Greeks." And Salviati declaimed in the prologue of the "Granchio"

Nuova Dunque e questa Commedia, e a tutto Potere di colui che I'ha fatta, Fatta a imitazione delle antiche; Di queUo antiche pero che gli antichi

• A play by Cardinal Bibbiena. t A play by Machiavelli.


Chiamavan nuove, adunque non in prosaMa in versi. . . ,

This comedy is new, and is to the best of the author's ability

composed in imitation of the ancient comedies; of those ancient

comedies, however, which the ancients themselves called "new";that is to say, written in verse not prose.

Even in those days, however, the public knew how to make

its rights respected and II Lasca informs us

Lionardo Salviati muor di duolo

Perch il suo Granchio fu tanto achernitol

And Lionardo Salviati dies of grief because his "Granchio" was

so much ridiculed.

People were weary of plots contrived by crafty servants

against stupid masters, the amours of vainglorious soldiers

and the boastings of parasites performances far removed

from reality and they applauded Gelli's prologue of the

"Sporta." "The play being a mirror of customs in private and

civic life treats only of such things as happen every day of our

life. The place wherein the action moves is your Florence;

and this the author has selected because it would not be possible for him to choose a place that both to you and to himshould be more acceptable and because the greater numberof the events that you will see have in their time taken placeand perhaps still take place in Florence; and should it prove

necessary, he would be able to tell you to whom and how/'

And welcome was given to another shoemaker actor;

Apollo vuol che sempre un calzaiuolo

Per lui tenga in Firenze il principato,E sia nel far commedie unico e solo

Apollo always wishes that a shoemaker should hold preeminencefor him in Florence, and be unique in the composition of plays.


Chiamavan nuove, adunque non in prosa Ma in versi. ...

This comedy is new, and is to the best of the author's ability composed in imitation of the ancient comedies; of those ancient comedies, however, which the ancients themselves called "new"; that is to say, written in verse not prose.

Even in those days, however, the public knew how to make its rights respected and II Lasca informs us

Lionardo Salviati muor di duolo Perche il suo Granchio fu tanto achernito!

And Lionardo Salviati dies of grief because his "Granchio" was so much ridiculed.

People were weary of plots contrived by crafty servants against stupid masters, the amours of vainglorious soldiers and the boastings of parasites-performances far removed from reality-and they applauded Gelli's prologue of the "Sporta." "The play being a mirror of customs in private and civic life treats only of such things as happen every day of our life. The place wherein the action moves is your Florence; and this the author has selected because it would not be possible for him to choose a place that both to you and to him should be more acceptable and because the greater number of the events that you will see have in their time taken place and perhaps still take place in Florence; and should it prove necessary, he would be able to tell you to whom and how." And welcome was given to another shoemaker actor:

Apollo vuol che sempre un calzaiuolo Per lui tenga in Firenze il principato. E sia net far commedie unico e solo

Apollo always wishes that a shoemaker should hold preeminence for him in Florence, and be unique in the composition of plays.


II Lasca observed to Lotto:

Ch'Ulisse e Turno da parte lasciando,

Dimostra solo a questa eta presente

Ruggier, Gradasso, Marfisa ed Orlando;E Menandro e Terenzio ha per niente,

Ma sol Giovan Boccaccio va imitando;

Onde moderne fa con gran ragioneCommedie che non hanno paragone.

Who, leaving aside Ulysses and Turnus, shows to this present

age only Ruggier, Gradasso, Marfisa and Orlando; and lightly

esteeming Menander and Terence, imitates Giovanni Boccaccio;

thus with great good sense composing in modern form unequalledcomedies.

This does not mean, however, that the Commedia dell'Arte

did not use these same subjects, presenting them under the

"maschere" which had become so popular; and, when masked

as Pedrolino or Captain Spavento, the public gladly accepted

the "Miles Gloriosus" and "Servo" of the Plautinian and

Terentian Comedies.

And the fertile Cecchi in the "Assiuolo" presented a play

which he affirmed to be "perfectly new" and "not derived

from either Terence or Plautus but from a thing recently be

fallen in Pisa between certain young students and certain

ladies." . , .

A giudizio del popolo fiorentino

E delle donne, che piii pesa e grava,

II Cecchi ha vinto e superato il Cino

Che prima era un poeta e scaccafava

In the opinion of the Florentine people and, what is yet more

important, in that of the women, Cecchi has conquered and sur

passed Cino * who was rather a poet and scaccafava.^

* Cino da Pistoia, a poet of the dolce stil nuovo.

f Scaccafava: a name given to a kind of slipper.


II Lasca observed to Lotto:

Ch'Ulisse e Turno da parte lasciando, Dimostra solo a questa eta presente Ruggier, Gradasso, Marfisa ed Orlando; E Menandro e Terenzio ha per niente, Ma sol Giovan Boccaccio va imitando; Onde moderne fa con gran ragione Commedie che non hanna paragone.

VVho, leaving aside Ulysses and Turnus, shows to this present age only Ruggier, Gradasso, Marfisa and Orlando; and lightly esteeming Menander and Terence, imitates Giovanni Boccaccio; thus with great good sense composing in modern form unequalled comedies.

This does not mean, however, that the C ommedia dell' A rte did not use these same subjects, presenting them under the "maschere" which had become so popular; and, when masked as Pedrolino or Captain Spavento, the public gladly accepted the "Miles Gloriosus" and "Servo" of the Plautinian and Terentian Comedies.

And the fertile Cecchi in the "Assiuolo" presented a play which he affirmed to be "perfectly new" and "not derived from either Terence or Plautus but from a thing recently befallen in Pisa between certain young students and certain ladies." ...

A giudizio del popolo fiorentino E delle donne, che piu pesa e grava, n Cecchi ha vinto e superato il Cino Che prima era un po eta e scaccafava

In the opinion of the Florentine people and, what is yet more important, in that of the women, Cecchi has conquered and surpassed Cino "" who was rather a poet and scaccafava.t

• Cino da Pistoia, a poet of the dolce stil nuovo. t Scaccafava: a name given to a kind of slipper.

is MASKS AND MARIONETTES

In the prologue of his Suppositij Ariosto (1474-1533) de

clares "the author confesses to you that in this work he has

followed Plautus and Terence since not only in the style but

also in the subject of the tales he strives with all his power to

imitate the ancient and celebrated poets. As they in their

Latin plays followed Menander and Apollodorus and the

other Greeks."

Yet Ariosto in the prologue of his first play had coura

geously repudiated those prejudices to which now he clings.

Nova commedia v'appresento, pienaDi varii giochi, che n mai latine

N greche lingue recitarno in scena.

Parmi veder che la piti parte incline

A riprenderla, subito ch'ho detto

Nova, senza ascoltarne mezzo o fine;

Ch tale impresa non li pax suggettoDelli moderni ingegni, e solo stima

Quel che li antiqui han detto esser perfetto.ver che n volgar prosa n rima

Ha paragon con prose antique o versi,

N pari & 1'eloquentia a quella prima;Ma gFingegni non son per6 diversi

Da quel che ftir; ch'ancor per quell'artistaFansi, per cui nel tempo addietro ffirsi!

I present to you here a new comedy full of varied jests such as

never did Latin or Greek actors perform upon the stage. It seemsto me that the majority inclines to raise the objection so soon asI have said "New," without listening to either my method or myaim, that such an enterprise does not seem to them adapted formodern talents and that they esteem only as perfect the work ofthe ancient writers. It is true that neither Italian prose nor rhymeis equal in value to the ancient verse nor is it so eloquent. Still,talents are not different from what they were and are ready toserve artists who possess them as they did formerly.

The Italian comedy of the Renaissance is an imitative form

l~ MASKS AND MARIONETTES

In the prologue of his SuppositiJ Ariosto (1474-1533) declares "the author confesses to you that in this work he has followed Plautus and Terence since not only in the style but also in the subject of the tales he strives with all his power to imitate the ancient and celebrated poets. As they in their Latin plays followed Menander and Apollodorus and the other Greeks."

Yet Ariosto in the prologue of his first play had courageously repudiated those prejudices to which now he clings.

Nova commedia v'appresento, piena Di varii giochi, che ne mai latine N e greche lingue recitarno in scena. Parmi veder che la pili parte incline A riprenderla, sub ito ch'ho detto Nova, senza ascoitarne mezzo 0 fine; Che tale impresa non Ii par suggetto Delli moderni ingegni, e solo stima Que! che Ii antiqui han detto esser perfetto. Ever che ne volgar prosa ne rima Ha paragon con prose antique 0 versi, N e pari e l' eloquentia a quella prima; Ma gl'ingegni non son perc> diversi Da quel che fur; ch'ancor per quell'artista Fansi, per cui nel tempo addietro f~rsiI

I present to you here a new comedy full of varied jests such as never did Latin or Greek actors perform upon the stage. It seems to me that the majority inclines to raise the objection so soon as I have said "New," without listening to either my method or my aim, that such an enterprise does not seem to them adapted for modern talents and that they esteem only as perfect the work of the ancient writers. It is true that neither Italian prose nor rhyme is equal in value to the ancient verse nor is it so eloquent. Still, talents are not different from what they were and are ready to serve artists who possess them as they did formerly.

The ltali<ln comedy of the Renaissance is an imitative form


of art patterned chiefly after Plautus and Terence, from

whom plots were borrowed and sometimes whole scenes taken

with scarcely any change except the substitution of Italian

names and something of sixteenth century Italian atmosphere

in place of the Roman. Ariosto's Cassaria is probably the first

Italian comedy composed after the model of the Latin co

medians. In his later comedies sometimes he gets away from

the Romans and gives us direct transcripts of contemporary

life as he saw it in Ferrara, Mantua, Rome and Venice. Ari-

osto's La Lena was played with great pomp in Ferrara in 1528

or 1529. It is the most realistic and original of Ariosto's com

edies; an accurate study of contemporary low life in Ferrara.

The final and entirely refashioned Cassaria, written in

verse in accordance with classical ideals, was presented in Fer

rara in 1531 and had a tremendous success. Geraldi and other

^ ^contemporary critics held it to be the best comedy of the age."

JfThe general public, however, repudiated Ariosto's "improve-

Jments" and II Lasca wrote:

^Q^

In fino ad oggi non s'& recitate^ Commedia in versi mai che sia piaciuta;

E la Cassaria, in versi transmutata,

Nel recitarsi non fu conosciuta.

^ % Till today there never was recited any play in verse which satis-

-j^>

fied; and Cassaria translated into verse was not recognized when

N ^J^cited.

When the Duke of Mantua wished to celebrate the second

descent into Italy of Charles V he asked Ariosto for a play,

d J* and four were sent. All were returned with a letter saying thatMMi %J\

k "although the plots of all may be fine and excellently written,

none the less it does not please me to have them acted in

verse; if you have the last two written in prose, and also the

WmPOIl' ORIGIN OF COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE 13

of art patterned chiefly after Plautus and Terence, from whom plots were borrowed and sometimes whole scenes taken with scarcely any change except the substitution of Italian names and something of sixteenth century Italian atmosphere in place of the Roman. Ariosto's Cassaria is probably the first Italian comedy composed after the model of the Latin comedians. In his later comedies sometimes he gets away from the Romans and gives us direct transcripts of contemporary life as he saw it in Ferrara, Mantua, Rome and Venice. Ariosto's La Lena was played with great pomp in Ferrara in 1528 or 1529. It is the most realistic and original of Ariosto's comedies; an accurate study of contemporary low life in Ferrara.

The final and entirely refashioned CassariaJ written in verse in accordance with classical ideals, was presented in Ferrara in 1531 and had a tremendous success. Geraldi and other

v, ~ontemporary critics held it to be the best comedy of the age. ,() ~The general public, however, repudiated Ariosto's "improve'l!/- "ments" and II Lasca wrote: '1', ':J- OI (J""

In fino ad oggi non s' e recitate Commedia in versi mai che sia piaciuta; E la Cassaria, in versi transmutata, Nel recitarsi non fu conosciuta.

~" Till today there never was recited any play in verse which satisr'1 ~ed; and C"'Jaria translated into verse was not recogni,ed when ~ eClted.

When the Duke of Mantua wished to celebrate the second descent into Italy of Charles V he asked Ariosto for a play,

tJ ~ and four were sent. All were returned with a letter saying that ~ ~ "although the plots of all may be fine and excellently written,

none the less it does not please me to have them acted in verse; if you have the last two written in prose, and also the

i4 MASKS AND MARIONETTES

Cassaria (which you have now patched and changed into

verse), I shall be pleased for you to make me a copy and will

add this new obligation to the one I am already under to you

for having sent the present versions which are truly more

artistic and learned but do not seem so successful as when per

formed in prose." Mortified Ariosto replied to the duke "It

seemed to me that they were better thus than in prose; but

opinions differ."

It is most interesting and significant that Don Ercole in

vited Ruzzante and his company to Ferrara in 1529, and that

they danced and sang the evening after the performance of

Ariosto's Cassaria and that Ariosto, the greatest of the Ren

aissance writers of classic comedy should have directed the

dramatic performances in Ferrara of the carnival of 1532, in

cluding a comedy after the type of the Commedia delVArte

given by Ruzzante and his company.

Meantime, whilst this heated dispute was going on between

the Florentine "Literati" there appeared on the scene a com

pany of actors and the people ran in crowds to the "Stanza"

(for so their little theatre was called), abandoning Cecchi and

Lotto and Cino and Ruonanni, who looked very blank when

these strolling players were allowed to inaugurate the new

"Salone della Commedia."

II Lasca rubs his hands and laughs behind their backs.

Tutti i comici nostri florentini

Son per questa cagione addolorati;

Prlma il Buonanni e la casa de' Cini

Si favoriti e tanto adoperati;E Lotto e il Cecchi alfm, piccin piccini,

Con tutti gli altri dotti, son restati,

Parendo questa sorta lore arcigna,E il Lasca chiude Focchiolino a ghigna.Pensando il primo ogrmno essere richiesto,


Cassaria (which you have now patched and changed into verse), I shall be pleased for you to make me a copy and will add this new obligation to the one I am already under to you for having sent the present versions which are truly more artistic and learned but do not seem so successful as when performed in prose." Mortified Ariosto replied to the duke "It seemed to me that they were better thus than in prose; but opinions differ."

It is most interesting and significant that Don Ercole invited Ruzzante and his company to Ferrara in 1529, and that they danced and sang the evening after the performance of Ariosto's Cassaria and that Ariosto, the greatest of the Renaissance writers of classic comedy should have directed the dramatic performances in Ferrara of the carnival of 1532, including a comedy after the type of the Commedia dell'Arte given by Ruzzante and his company.

Meantime, whilst this heated dispute was going on between the Florentine "Literati" there appeared on the scene a company of actors and the people ran in crowds to the "Stanza" (for so their little theatre was called), abandoning Cecchi and Lotto and Cino and Buonanni, who looked very blank when these strolling players were allowed to inaugurate the new "Salone della Commedia."

II Lasca rubs his hands and laughs behind their backs.

Tutti i comid nostri fiorentini Son per questa cagione addolorati; Prima il Buonanni e la casa de' Cini Si favoriti e tanto adoperati; E Lotto e il Cecchi alfin, piccin piccini, Con tutti gli altri dotti, son restati. Parendo questa sotta loro arcigna. E il Lasca chiude l' occhiolino a ghigna. Pensando il primo ognuno essere richiesto.


La sua commedia aveva apparecchiato:Chi 1'aveva mostra a quello e chi a questo,

Sperando d'ora in ora essere chiamata;Ma il popol pol weggendo manifesto

L'onor dei Zanni in fino al cielo alzato,

Senza piii altro intendere o sapere,Altre commedie non vuol piii vedere.

Si che chi n'ha cemposte ne dia loro,

Pregando che le vogliono accettare;

Poi che ne fanno tanto buon lavoro,

Ch'ogni cosuzza una gran cosa pare.La voce, gli atti e i gesti di costoro

Si graziosi fan maravigliareLa gente alfin fuor d'ogni umana guisa,

E quasi quasi crepar delle risa.

Non credo mai che gl'istron passati,

Volete in Rome o volate in Atene,

Si capricciosi giuochi e si garbati

Rappresentasser nell'antiche scene.

Sei quei fur buon, questi son vantaggiati,

Questi fan meglio se quei fecer bene;

Onde assai phi di lor fieno I Gelosi

Nei secoli awenir sempre famosi.

All our Florentine playwrights are in distress on this account.

Buonanni and the family of Cini, so popular and so successful;

then Lotto and Cecchi and other learned men have lost courage;

this being a bitter pill for them; while II Lasca winks and grins.

Each expecting to be the first called for had prepared his play;

some had shown their work to this one, others to that one, hopingfrom hour to hour to be summoned; but the people seeing the

glory of the "Zanni" rise to the very skies, without wanting to hear

or know anything further refuse to see any other plays. So let

anyone who has composed one give it to these actors begging them

to accept it; and they will act it so well that the smallest trifle

will appear a fine piece of work. The voices, actions and gestures

of these players are so charming that they amaze the people and

make them almost split their sides with laughter. I do not believe

that any actors of the past, whether in Rome or in Athens, ever

performed so charmingly and gracefully on the ancient stage. If


La sua commedia aveva apparecchiato: Chi l'aveva mostra a quello e chi a questo, Sperando d'ora in ora essere chiamata; Ma il popol pol weggendo manifesto L'onor dei Zanni in fino al cielo alzato, Senza pin altro intendere 0 sapere, Altre commedie non vuol pin vedere. Si che chi n'ha cemposte ne dia loro, Pregando che Ie vogliono accettare; Poi che ne fanno tanto buon lavoro, Ch'ogni cosuzza una gran cosa pare. La voce, gli atti e i gesti di costoro Si graziosi fan maravigliare La gente alfin fuor d' ogni umana guisa, E quasi quasi crepar delle risa. Non credo mai che gl'istron passati, Volete in Rome 0 volate in Atene, Si capricciosi giuochi e si garbati Rappresentasser nell'antiche scene. Sei quei fur buon, questi son vantaggiati, Questi fan meglio se quei fecer bene; Onde assai pIn di lor fieno I Gelosi N ei secoli avvenir sempre famosi.

All our Florentine playwrights are in distress on this account. Buonanni and the family of Cini, so popular and so successful; then Lotto and Cecchi and other learned men have lost courage; this being a bitter pill for them; while II Lasca winks and grins. Each expecting to be the first called for had prepared his play; some had shown their work to this one, others to that one, hoping from hour to hour to be summoned; but the people seeing the glory of the "Zanni" rise to the very skies, without wanting to hear or know anything further refuse to see any other plays. So let anyone who has composed one give it to these actors begging them to accept it; and they will act it so well that the smallest trifle will appear a fine piece of work. The voices, actions and gestures of these players are so charming that they amaze the people and make them almost split their sides with laughter. I do not believe that any actors of the past, whether in Rome or in Athens, ever performed so charmingly and gracefully on the ancient stage. If


those were good, these do better what the others did well; hence,

even more than they shall the Gelosi be honoured in future cen

turies.

The Company of "I Gelosi" had arrived in Florence. It

was the most famous of all the Companies which during two

centuries performed the Commedia dell'Arte in Italy and

abroad. It had as its ensign a two-faced Janus with the motto

which gave rise to its name:

"Virtu, fama ed onor ne fer Gelosi/'

They were jealous for the attainment of virtue, fame and

honour.

Francesco Andreini, for many years leader of the Gelosi,

exclaims in one of his dialogues, "Trappola mio, no longer

are such Companies to be found; and this may be confidently

asserted respecting those that have but three or four good

actors, the others being of little use and not equal to the chief

actors of that famous Company where every role was remark

able. So fine was it in fact that in the dramatic art it set a

standard beyond which no company of actors could go, and

set an example for future actors as to how best to composeand interpret comedies and the other performances such

as are generally seen upon the stage/*

Facendo il Bergamasco e'l Veneziano,N'andiamo in ogni parte,E'l recitar commedie & la nostr'arte. . . .

Questi vostri dappochi commediaiCerte lor filastroccole vi fanno,

Lunghe e piene di guai,Che rider poco e manco piacer d&nno;Tanto che per Faffanno,

Non solamente agli uomlni e alle donne,Ma verrebbero a noia alle colonne.


those were good, these do better what the others did well; hence, even more than they shall the Gelosi be honoured in future centuries.

The Company of "I Gelosi" had arrived in Florence. It was the most famous of all the Companies which during two centuries performed the Commedia dell'Arte in Italy and abroad. It had as its ensign a two-faced Janus with the motto which gave rise to its name:

"Virtu, fama ed onor ne fer Gelosi." They were jealous for the attainment of virtue, fame and

honour. Francesco Andreini, for many years leader of the Gelosi,

exclaims in one of his dialogues, "Trappola mio, no longer are such Companies to be found; and this may be confidently asserted respecting those that have but three or four good actors, the others being of little use and not equal to the chief actors of that famous Company where every role was remarkable. So fine was it in fact that in the dramatic art it set a standard beyond which no company of actors could go, and set an example for future actors as to how best to compose and interpret comedies and the other performances such as are generally seen upon the stage."

Facendo il Bergamasco e'l Veneziano, N'andiamo in ogni parte, E'l recitar commedie e la nostr'arte .... Questi vostri dappochi commediai Certe lor filastroccole vi fanno, Lunghe e piene di guai, Che rider poco e maneo piaeer danno; Tanto che per l'affanno, Non solamente agli uomini e aIle donne, Ma verrebbero a noia aIle coionne.


Acting the Bergamask and the Venetian we roam the whole

world over, and the performing of comedies is our trade. These

silly comedians of yours act for you certain foolish plays of theirs

which, long and tedious, give little amusement and less pleasure;

so tiresome are they in fact that they bore not only men and

women but even the pillars.

And he invited the citizens to come

. . . alia Stanza ad udir Zanni,

La Nespola, il Magnifico e'l Graziano,

E Francatrippa che vale un tesoro,

E gli altri dicitor di mano in mano,Che tutti fanno bene gli atti lorol

To the Stanza to hear Zanni, La Nespola, il Magnifico and Gra

ziano, and Francatrippa who is a treasure in himself, and the other

actors, one after another, who all perform their parts well.

Flaminio Scala, "Flavio," was still the same "Magnifico Pan-

talone" who had aroused the admiration o Henry III. Gra

ziano the Bolognese pedant was Ludovico de' Bianchi, the

most famous interpreter of that type since the time when he

acted with Ganassa a "Lus Burchiello Gratia." II Lasca de

scribes the way in which he took off his cap:

Che gentilmente la piglia con mano,

Poi la scuote e dimena con gran fretta;

E quanto 1'usa piu di dimenare

Piti vuol amico o signore onorare.

Which he gracefully takes with his hand; then shakes it and

twists it in great haste, and the more he wishes to honour friend or

signor the more he twists it round.


Acting the Bergamask and the Venetian we roam the whole world over, and the performing of comedies is our trade. These silly comedians of yours act for you certain foolish plays of theirs which, long and tedious, give little amusement and less pleasure; so tiresome are they in fact that they bore not only men and women but even the pillars.

And he invited the citizens to come

... alIa Stanza ad udir Zanni, La N espola, il Magnifico e'l Graziano, E Francatrippa che vale un tesoro, E gli altri dicitor di mana in mano, Che tutti fanno bene gli atti loral

To the Stanza to hear Zanni, La Nespola, i1 Magnifico and Graziano, and Francatrippa who is a treasure in himself, and the other actors, one after another, who all perform their parts well.

Flaminio Scala, "Flavio," was still the same "Magnifico Pantalone" who had aroused the admiration of Henry III. Graziano the Bolognese pedant was Ludovico de' Bianchi, the most famous interpreter of that type since the time when he acted with Ganassa a "Lus Burchiello Gratia." Il Lasca de

scribes the way in which he took off his cap:

Che gentilmente la piglia can mana, Poi la scuote e dimena can gran fretta; E quanta l'usa pili di dimenare Pili vuol amico a signore onorare.

Which he gracefully takes with his hand; then shakes it and twists it in great haste, and the more he wishes to honour friend or signor the more he twists it round.

Chapter II

Famous Players and Famous Companies

ANGELO BEOLCO, surnamed Ruzzante (the joker), born at

Padua in 1502, was an early and famous actor in the Corn-

media dell'Arte. Bernardino Scardeon's "Antiquities of

Padua" (1560) relates that "Angelo Beolco, known under the

name of Ruzzante, was to Padua what Plautus had been to

Rome as an author and Roscius as an actor. He even surpassed

them; and there is no ancient comedy comparable to those

which Ruzzante played throughout Italy. When he was on

the stage the public had neither eyes nor ears for any of the

other actors.'7 *

Ruzzante lived in the midst of the Italian wars of Francis I

and of Charles V. Rome was assaulted, Florence ravaged by

pest and Ruzzante 's Padua desolated by famine. His comedies

fulminate against both the Spanish and the German. Amidst

his most amusing improvisations there are terrible situations,

seething passion. Ruzzante Inspired the Italian comedy re

vival and its use of popular dialects. His characters speakPaduan, Bergamask, Bolognese, Venetian, Tuscan, Latin,

Italianized Spanish and modern Greek.

Ruzzante filled the principal role in his own plays, sometimes wearing an archaic or fantastic costume. When he ap-

* In 1617 at Vicenzo, Domemco Amadio printed "The Works of the most celebrated Signer Angelo Beolco, a noble Paduan surnamed Ruzzante. They are greatlyloved and appreciated throughout the entire world for their sentiment, esprit,finesse and the learning with which they are full/'

Chapter II

Famous Players and Famous Companies

ANGELO BEOLCO, surnamed Ruzzante (the joker), born at Padua in 1502, was an early and famous actor in the Com

media dell' Arte. Bernardino Scardeon's "Antiquities of Padua" (1560) relates that "Angelo Beoko, known under the name of Ruzzante, was to Padua what Plautus had been to Rome as an author and Roscius as an actor. He even surpassed them; and there is no ancient comedy comparable to those which Ruzzante played throughout Italy. When he was on the stage the public had neither eyes nor ears for any of the other actors." '*'

Ruzzante lived in the midst of the Italian wars of Francis I and of Charles V. Rome was assaulted, Florence ravaged by pest and Ruzzante's Padua desolated by famine. His comedies fulminate against both the Spanish and the German. Amidst his most amusing improvisations there are terrible situations, seething passion. Ruzzante inspired the Italian comedy revival and its use of popular dialects. His characters speak Pad uan, Bergamask, Bolognese, V ~netian, Tuscan, Latin, Italianized Spanish and modern Greek.

Ruzzante filled the principal role in his own plays, sometimes wearing an archaic or fantastic costume. When he ap-

• In 1617 at Vicenzo, Domenico Amadio printed "The Works of the most cele· brated Signor Angelo Beoico, a noble Paduan surnamed Ru%zante. They ue greatly loved and appreciated throughout the entire world for their sentiment. esprit. finesse and the learning with which they are full."

18

FAMOUS PLAYERS AND COMPANIES 19

pears on the stage he says: "Let us amuse ourselves. You will

never guess my name and I won't ask you to try. I am a mad

spirit or goblin. I come from the other world and one of those

spirits called Actius or Plautus orders me to tell you that a

comedy will be played this evening. It is not composed in

Latin, in verse or in beautiful language, nor would those an

cient actors compose their comedies today in a different manner from that which you shall hear."

Padua is the scene of Ruzzante's play Moschetta; peasants

are the principal characters. Ruzzante would test his wife's

fidelity. Angry Bettina flies to a soldier's house. Ruzzante's

attempts to win her back make excellent comedy. In the

Fiorina comedy Ruzzante and Merchioro contend for Fiore's

favours. Ruzzante's jealous rival beats him but he carries off

the prize. This short swift comedy is virile, simple and sober

art. Ruzzante appeals to the young contadina. "But what

sweetness, what joy to me to die at thy dear Hands, my beauti

ful Fiore; for thou art dearer to me than my oxen," How

spontaneous and ingenuous the comparison! How character

istic of the Italian peasant!

In the Dialoghi in lingua rustica entitled Parlamento de

Ruzzante che era vegnu de campo (Speech of Ruzzante on

coming from the field), Ruzzante is the typical braggart pol

troon; repulsed by Gnua, beaten by her "bravo" lover, he be

comes valiant when the "bravo" departs. Belora is a monologue

describing a poor peasant's emotions when robbed of his wife.

He will murder the sediicer but renounces his intention. He

would beat and insult, yet he is not brave; his honour is not

sensitive. But he loves his faithless wife, will have her and will

beat her. It is a tremendous part, fraught with laughter, tears

and terror.

Ruzzante's Fiorina or Fiorinetta is a sixteenth century


pears on the stage he says: "Let us amuse ourselves. You will never guess my name and I won't ask you to try. I am a mad spirit or goblin. I come from the other world and one of those spirits called Actius or Plautus orders me to tell you that a comedy will be played this evening. It is not composed in Latin, in verse or in beautiful language, nor would those ancient actors compose their comedies today in a different manner from that which you shall hear."

Padua is the scene of Ruzzante's play Moschetta~' peasants are the principal characters. Ruzzante would test his wife's fidelity. Angry Bettina flies to a soldier's house. Ruzzante's attempts to win her back make excellent comedy. In the Fiorina comedy Ruzzante and Merchioro contend for Fiore's favours. Ruzzante's jealous rival beats him but he carries off the prize. This short swift comedy is virile, simple and sober art. Ruzzante appeals to the young contadina. "But what sweetness, what joy to me to die at thy dear liands, my beautiful Fiore; for thou art dearer to me than my oxen." How spontaneous and ingenuous the comparison! How characteristic of the Italian peasant!

In the Dialoghi in lingua rustica entitled Parlamento de Ruzzante che era vegnu de campo (Speech of Ruzzante on coming from the field), Ruzzante is the typical braggart poltroon; repulsed by Gnua, beaten by her "bravo" lover, he becomes valiant when the "bravo" departs. Belora is a monologue describing a poor peasant's emotions when robbed of his wife. He will murder the seducer but renounces his intention. He would beat and insult, yet he is not brave; his honour is not sensitive. But he loves his faithless wife, will have her and will beat her. It is a tremendous part, fraught 'with laughter, tears and terror.

Ruzzante's Fiorina or Fiorinetta is a sixteenth century

s>o MASKS AND MARIONETTES

replica of the Philenie of Demophile and of Plautus. But there

is a difference. Plautus' Philenie is a loving courtesan, who

shares her favours with both father and son; after having been

caressed by two slaves. Unlike Philenie, Fiorinetta loves Flavio

with her whole soul.

FIORINETTA: What do you wish from me, mother?

CELEGA: To my great distress you have again permitted Flavio

to enter the house by the garden gate. I have not said any

thing to you about his presence. . . . Stupid child, do you not

realize your misfortune? If you love those who give you nothing,all the others will keep their hands closed. Our future depends

upon competition. A hundred times I have told you, if anyonemakqs you a present show it to the others and they will give yousomething more valuable. Be charming to everyone and pretendthat you love them all.

FIORINETTA: Do you wish me to love everybody as I love Flavio?

CELEGA: I don't tell you to love anybody but to make believe

that you love them.

FIORINETTA: My mother, that would be for me a life of great

suffering. I can do nothing contrary to the feelings which I have

in my heart. I would rather marry; and I wish for a happier exist

ence than that which you propose for me.

Fiorinetta has never been a courtesan. She has none of the

sentiments or attractions of one. Better die than belong to

anyone except her dear Flavio. When Flavio's mother Ros-

pina consents to this marriage she realizes this. She wouldnever have received Philenie, the courtesan of the antiquedrama. This is a better play than Plautus at his best, Ruz~

zante, the Renaissance buffoon, possessed something akin to

Shakespeare and Molire. He played his comedies impromptubefore he wrote them, and in many scenes the improvisationis left to the actors. Andrea Galmo (1540), Venetian contem

porary of Beolco (Ruzzante), was both actor and playwright;his Saltuzza, Rodiana and Travaglia resemble classic com-


replica of the Philenie of Demophile and of Plaut us. But there is a difference. Plautus' Philenie is a loving courtesan, who shares her favours with both father and son; after having been caressed by two slaves. Unlike Philenie, Fiorinetta loves Flavia with her whole soul.

FIORINETTA: What do you wish from me, mother? CELEGA: To my great distress you have again permitted Flavia

to enter the house by the garden gate. I have not said anything to you about his presence. . . . Stupid child, do you not realize your misfortune? If you love those who give you nothing, all the others will keep their hands closed. Our future depends upon competition. A hundred times I have told you, if anyone make:s you a present show it to the others and they will give you something more valuable. Be charming to everyone and pretend that you love them all.

FIORINETTA: Do you wish me to love everybody as I love Flavia? CELEGA: I don't tell you to love anybody but to make believe

that you love them. FIORINETTA: My mother, that would be for me a life of great

suffering. I can do nothing contrary to the feelings which I have in my heart. I would rather marry; and I wish for a happier existence than that which you propose for me.

Fiorinetta has never been a courtesan. She has none of the sentiments or attractions of one. Better die than belong to anyone except her dear Flavio. When Flavia's mother Rospina consents to this marriage she realizes this. She would never have received Philenie, the courtesan of the antique drama. This is a better play than Plautus at his best. Ruzzante, the Renaissance buffoon, possessed something akin to Shakespeare and Moliere. He played his comedies impromptu before he wrote them, and in many scenes the improvisation is left to the actors. Andrea Calmo (1540), Venetian contemporary of Beolco (Ruzzante), was both actor and playwright; his Saltuzza~ Rodiana and Travaglia resemble classic com-


edies. His other plays are true Commedia dell'Arte, inter

mingling dialects, literary Italian and Italo-German jargon.

His "Letters" are a shower of jokes, satire and jest; a river

of words rippling with laughter.

Gigio Artemio Giancarli of Rovigo was both author and

actor. In his Caprirta and Zingana he used many dialects. The

title "Capriria" is derived from certain she-goats which the

peasant Spadan carries to his old master. Afrone's two chil

dren, brother Lionello and sister Dorotea meet after a long

separation but fail to recognize one another. Both Afrone and

Lionello love Dorotea; Afrone is tricked and cheated by his

servant Brusca but Lionello is faithfully served by Orteca,

inexhaustible deviser of cunning plans. Lively, witty, amus

ing, this play has a marked classical character.

The Zingana comedy transforms the old motifs and adds

new ones drawn from life. It is an excellent Cinquecento

popular drama. An old married couple Alcario and Barbarina

love Stella and Cassandro, but finally recover from their se

nile desires. The Zingana contains many comic scenes; is rich

in jests and gay conceits and unforeseen happenings. In Ruz-

zante's, Calmo's and Giancarli's plays the professional co

medians preferred improvisation to memorized repetition and

one actor played many parts. This improvisation and the fixed

types that these artists probably borrowed from plebeian farce

finally became essential characteristics of a special kind of

dramatization which formed the connecting link between the

learned and the popular theatre, the natural passage from the

literary comedy of classic type to the Commedia dell'Arte.

Thus in the second half of the sixteenth century rose the "Art

Comedy" whose characteristic was improvisation and masks.

In 1570 an Italian company of comedy actors came to Paris

and on their little stage presented farces and comedies in


edies. His other plays are true Commedia dell'Arte) intermingling dialects, literary Italian and !talo-German jargon. His "Letters" are a shower of jokes, satire and jest; a river of words rippling with laughter.

Gigio Artemio Giancarli of Rovigo was both author and actor. In his Capriria and Zingana he used many dialects. The title "Capriria" is derived from certain she-goats which the peasant Spadan carries to his old master. Afrone's two children, brother Lionello and sister Dorotea meet after a long separation but fail to recognize one another. Both Afrone and Lionello love Dorotea; Afrone is tricked and cheated by his servant Brusca but Lionello is faithfully served by Orteca, inexhaustible deviser of cunning plans. Lively, witty, amusing, this play has a marked classical character.

The Zingana comedy transforms the old motifs and adds new ones drawn from life. It is an excellent Cinquecento popular drama. An old married couple Alcario and Barbarina love Stella and Cassandro, but finally recover from their senile desires. The Zingana contains many comic scenes; is rich in jests and gay conceits and unforeseen happenings. In Ruzzante's, Calmo's and Giancarli's plays the professional comedians preferred improvisation to memorized repetition and one actor played many parts. This improvisation and the fixed types that these artists probably borrowed from plebeian farce finally became essential characteristics of a special kind of dramatization which formed the connecting link between the learned and the popular theatre, the natural passage from the literary comedy of classic type to the Commedia dell' Arte. Thus in the second half of the sixteenth century rose the "Art Comedy" whose characteristic was improvisation and masks.

In 1570 an Italian company of comedy actors came to Paris and on their little stage presented farces and comedies in

2$ MASKS AND MARIONETTES

French, Italian and Spanish. In 1571 the first "principal"

company of "Comici d'arte" arrived in Paris to celebrate the

entry of King Charles IX with his bride. Next year they en

livened the nuptials of the King of Navarre with the sister of

the French King. This Gelosi Company was led by a Berga-

mese stage-named "Ganassa," who perhaps invented the role

of Arlequino, the second Zanni. By direction of the Duke of

Mantova, Ganassa merged his company with that directed by

"Pantalone"; hence Brantome referred to their plays as "celles

de Zanni et Pantalone" and a certain Monsieur Vauquelin de

la Fresnaye immortalized in his verse

Ou le bon Pantalon, ou Zany dont Ganasse

Nous a represente la fa^on et la grace

Either the good Pantalone or Zany whose manners and graceGanassa has represented for us.

In October 1571 the Gelosi Company was still at Paris; in

1572 at Genoa; but Ganassa with part of his company was

playing in Spain. The company "des comediantes Italianos,

cuya cabeza y autor era Alberto Ganassa," received a warmwelcome there. It performed "comedias Italianas, mfmicas"

for "la mayor parte y bufonescas de asuntos triviales y popu-lares/' in which figured 'las personas de Arlequfn, del Panta-

16n, del Dotore, etc."; and we are told that even if Ganassa

was not "perfectly understood" there he made the assembly

laugh and obtained much money, and that from him the

Spaniards learned to make plays similar to his. Those members of the Gelosi Company who had not followed Ganassa

into Spain played in Venice during the carnival of 1574 andlater in Milan during the festivals honouring Don Giovanni

of Austria, hero of Lepanto. When Catherine de' Medici's son

Henry King of Poland, passed through Venice, he requested


French, Italian and Spanish. In 1571 the first "principal" company of "Gomici d'arte" arrived in Paris to celebrate the entry of King Charles IX with his bride. Next year they enlivened the nuptials of the King of Navarre with the sister of the French King. This Gelosi Company was led by a Bergamese stage-named "Ganassa," who perhaps invented the role of Arlequino, the second Zanni. By direction of the Duke of Mantova, Ganassa merged his company with that directed by "Pantalone"; hence Brantome referred to their plays as "ceIles de Zanni et Pantalone" and a certain Monsieur Vauquelin de la Fresnaye immortalized in his verse

Ou Ie bon Pantalon, ou Zany dont Ganasse Nous a represente la fa~on et la grace

Either the good Pantalone or Zany whose manners and grace Ganassa has represented for us.

In October 1571 the Gelosi Company was still at Paris; in 1572 at Genoa; but Ganassa with part of his company was playing in Spain. The company "des comediantes Italianos, cuya cabeza y autor era Alberto Ganassa," received a warm welcome there. It performed "comedias Italianas, mimicas" for Ula mayor parte y bufonescas de asuntos triviales y populares/' in which figured "las personas de Arlequin, del Panta-16n, del Dotore, etc."; and we are told that even if Ganassa was not "perfectly understood" there he made the assembly laugh and obtained much money, and that from him the Spaniards learned to make plays similar to his. Those members of the Gelosi Company who had not followed Ganassa into Spain played in Venice during the carnival of 1574 and later in Milan during the festivals honouring Don Giovanni of Austria, hero of Lepanto. When Catherine de' Medici's son Henry King of Poland, passed through Venice, he requested

FRANCESCO ANDREINIFRANCESCO ANDREINI


a performance by the Gelosi Company, and especially wished

to see the famous prima donna. In 1574 the Confident! and

Gelosi united as the Comici Uniti. Later they separated and

the Gelosi Company was re-formed under Flaminio Scala

and again visited Paris in 1577.

In 1560 Sofonisbdj translated by Saint-Gelais, was per

formed by the French King's daughters and by other ladies

and young girls. The Queen, considering that this play "had

brought evil to the affairs of the kingdom/' banished all trag

edies; though "ouy bien des comedies et tragicomedies, et

mesmes celles de Zanni et Pantalone, y prenant grand plaisir,

et y rioit son saoul comme une autre car elle rioit volontiers."

King Henry having adjusted his affairs of state remembered

his gay Venetian days and wrote to the French Ambassador at

Venice

Now that peace is made in my kingdom I wish to have here the

"Magnifique" . . . the one who came to me at Venice on myreturn from Poland with all the actors of the company of the

Gelosi. I beg you to seek out the said "Magnifique" and tell himto come to me according to the letter I write him and which youwill deliver to him. You will also furnish him with the moneynecessary for his journey, letting me know what you have givenhim. I will order those who attend to my finances that it be re

turned to you soon. Henry.

Giulio Pasquati was in truth a "Magnifico." On January

25, 1577, Pasquati and the Gelosi Company were at Blois

where King Henry had convoked the States-General, and per

formed before the King and his court. They arrived a little

late because on the way they had been captured by the Hu

guenots, who obtained from the King a considerable ran

som.


a performance by the Gelosi Company, and especially wished to see the famous prima donna. In 1574 the Confidenti and Gelosi united as the Comici U niti. Later they separated and the Gelosi Company was re-formed under Flaminio Scala and again visited Paris in 1577.

In 1560 Sofonisba~ translated by Saint-Gelais, was performed by the French King's daughters and by other ladies and young girls. The Queen, considering that this play "had brought evil to the affairs of the kingdom," banished all tragedies; though "ouy bien des comedies et tragicomedies, et mesmes celles de Zanni et Pantalone, y prenant grand plaisir, et y rioit son saoul comme une autre car elle rio it volontiers." King Henry having adjusted his affairs of state remembered his gay Venetian days and wrote to the French Ambassador at Venice

Now that peace is made in my kingdom I wish to have here the "Magnifique" . . . the one who came to me at Venice on my return from Poland with all the actors of the company of the Gelosi. I beg you to seek out the said "Magnifique" and tell him to come to me according to the letter I write him and which you will deliver to him. You will also furnish him with the money necessary for his journey, letting me know what you have given him. I will order those who attend to my finances that it be re-turned to you soon. Henry.

Giulio Pasquati was in truth a "Magnifico." On January 25, 1577, Pasquati and the Gelosi Company were at Blois where King Henry had convoked the States-General, and performed before the King and his court. They arrived a little late because on the way they had been captured by the Huguenots, who obtained from the King a considerable ransom.


Francesco Andreini, born at Pistoia about 1548, was cap

tured by the Turks but after eight years escaped from slavery.

Welcomed into Scala's company, he became famous as Cap-

itano Spavento dell' Vail' Inferno. At Milan he played the part

of a Sicilian Doctor "very comic" and that of "the wizard

Falsirona, who spoke French, Spanish, Slav, Greek, Turkish";

then he "marvellously acted the part of the shepherd Corinto

playing many different wind instruments and singing rural

verses in imitation of Sannazaro."

The Gelosi Company played before King Henry III in

1577 and afterwards at the Hotel de Bourbon. They attracted

an audience "larger than that of Paris' four most popular

preachers"; grumpy judges complained that such was "the

corruption of the times that farce-players, buffoons and mi-

gnonS; all found favour with the king." Towards the end of

1602 Marie de Mdicis invited the Gelosi to again visit the

French Court. For nearly thirty years Flaminio Scala (Flavio),

director of the Gelosi Company, was applauded in France and

Italy. He first collected and printed the scenari of the improvised comedies. These scenarios merely explain the necessary

action. This was the Gelosi Company which vexed Florentine

playwrights in 1578. We have seen how II Lasca composeda derisive poster announcing their arrival in Florence,

In 1578 Flaminio Scala engaged in the Gelosi Company a

sixteen-year-old Paduan girl named Isabella, beautiful, tal

ented and virtuous. The actor Francesco Andreini loved her

at first sight and married her. Next year Isabella bore a son

G. B. Andreini, afterwards famous as "Lelkx" Isabella was the

soul, the honour and the chief support of the Gelosi Company,

praised by Tasso, Ciabrera, Marino, by cardinals, princes and

kings; her crowned portrait was placed between those of


Francesco Andreini, born at Pistoia about 1548, was captured by the Turks but after eight years escaped from slavery. Welcomed into Scala's company, he became famous as Capitano Spavento dell' Vall' Inferno. At Milan he played the part of a Sicilian Doctor "very comic" and that of "the wizard Falsirona, who spoke French, Spanish, Slav, Greek, Turkish"; then he "marvellously acted the part of the shepherd Corinto playing many different wind instruments and singing rural verses in imitation of Sannazaro."

The Gelosi Company played before King Henry III in 1577 and afterwards at the Hotel de Bourbon. They attracted an audience "larger than that of Paris' four most popular preachers"; grumpy judges complained that such was "the corruption of the times that farce-players, buffoons and mignons~ all found favour with the king." Towards the end of 1602 Marie de Medicis invited the Gelosi to again visit the French Court. For nearly thirty years Flaminio Scala (Flavio), director of the Gelosi Company, was applauded in France and Italy. He first collected and printed the scenari of the improvised comedies. These scenarios merely explain the necessary action. This was the Gelosi Company which vexed Florentine playwrights in 1578. We have seen how II Lasca composed a derisive poster announcing their arrival in Florence.

In 1578 Flaminio Scala engaged in the Gelosi Company a sixteen-year-old Paduan girl named Isabella, beautiful, talented and virtuous. The actor Francesco Andreini loved her at first sight and married her. Next year Isabella bore a son G. B. Andreini, afterwards famous as "Lelio." Isabella was the soul, the honour and the chief support of the Gelosi Company, praised by Tasso, Ciabrera, Marino, by cardinals, princes and kings; her crowned portrait was placed between those of

ISABELLA ANDREIN1ISABELLA ANDREINI


Petrarch and Tasso in a festa given her in Rome by Cardinal

Aldo Brandeni.*

Isabella left Paris and was on her way to Italy when an acci

dent obliged her to stop in the city of Lyons, and there she

died on July 10, 1604. To her funeral aldermen sent the city

flags with their mace bearers; and the merchant's corporationfollowed the hearse with torches. A medal was struck bearingon one side her portrait and name with the letters "G.C."

(Comedian of the Gelosi Company) and on the reverse the

emblem of Fame and the words "&terna fama" With her

died the Gelosi Company.Francesco Andreini's Capitano Spavento thus answers his

servant Trappola, who has asked about the famous Gratiano

of the Gelosi Company:

I have met him; and with him I have met Pasquali of Padua,the Pantalone; Simone of Bologna, the Zanne; Gabrielle of Bo

logna who was Francatrippa; Gratio of Padua, the "Lover"; dameIsabella Andreini of Padua who was the prima donna lover; anda certain Francesco Andreini, husband of the said dame Isabella,

This Andreini played the part of a haughty and boastful Captainwho, I well remember from my name, gave himself out as 'Capitano Spavento dell' Vail' Inferno/

"

Francesco Andreini's son Giambattista (Giovanni-Battista)

* Admired by the Court and the City, and especially by Marie de Mddicis and

Henry IV, her popularity in France was enormous. Of her a French poet wrote

Je ne crois point qu'IsabelleSoit une femme mortelle;C'est plut6t quelqu'un des dieux

Qui s'est d^guise' en femmeAfin de nous ravir l^mePar 1'oreille et par les yeux.

Thomas Garzoni in his Piazza TJniversale wrote: "The gracious Isabella Andreini,

most brilliant ornament of the theatre, equally praiseworthy for her beauty and for

her virtue, has rendered illustrious the profession of comedian. So long as the world

endures and to the end of the centuries, the name of the celebrated Isabella Andreini

will be venerated."


Petrarch and Tasso in a festa given her in Rome by Cardinal Aldo Brandeni. '*'

Isabella left Paris and was on her way to Italy when an accident obliged her to stop in the city of Lyons, and there she died on July 10, 1604. To her funeral aldermen sent the city flags with their mace bearers; and the merchant's corporation followed the hearse with torches. A medal was struck bearing on one side her portrait and name with the letters "G.C." (Comedian of the Gelosi Company) and on the reverse the emblem of Fame and the words U.£terna lama." With her died the Gelosi Company.

Francesco Andreini's Capitano Spavento thus answers his servant Trappola, who has asked about the famous Gratiano of the Gelosi Company:

I have met him; and with him I have met Pasquali of Padua, the Pantalone; Simone of Bologna, the Zanne; Gabrielle of Bologna who was Francatrippa; Gratio of Padua, the "Lover"; dame Isabella Andreini of Padua who was the prima donna lover; and a certain Francesco Andreini, husband of the said dame Isabella. This Andreini played the part of a haughty and boastful Captain who, I well remember from my name, gave himself out as 'Capitano Spavento dell' Vall' Inferno.' "

Francesco Andreini's son Giambattista (Giovanni-Battista)

• Admired by the Court and the City, and especially by Marie de Medicis and Henry IV. her popularity in France was enormous. Of her a French poet wrote

Je ne crois point qu'Isabelle Soit une femme mortelle; C'est plut6t quelqu'un des dieux Qui s'est deguise en femme Afin de nous ravir l'ime Par l'oreille et par les yeux.

Thomas Carzoni in his Piazza Universale wrote: "The gracious Isabella Andreini, most brilliant ornament of the theatre, equally praiseworthy for her beauty and for her virtue, has rendered illustrious the profession of comedian. So long as the world endures and to the end of the centuries, the name of the celebrated Isabella Andreini will be venerated."


was known on the stage as "Lelio." He directed the Fedeli

Company, largely composed of former Gelosi actors. United

with the Accesi they performed in Milan in 1606 but soon

separated. In 1601 Andreini married the youthful Virginia

Ramponi, famous as "Florinda" as witness these lines:

Vive la madre tua ne la tua sposa

Ch de lo suo divin dandole parte,

In Virginia respira e in lei si cole.

Your mother lives in your wife to whom she gives something of

her own divinity. In Virginia she breathes again and is worshipped

once more.

He composed for her his first play, under the name of Flor

inda. When the nuptials of Prince Francesco with Margherita

of Savoy were being celebrated in Mantua (1608) the artist

engaged to sing Arianna in Rinuccini's opera died of small

pox. Florinda memorized the part in six days and delighted

her audience.

In the Adone (VII. 68) Marino, speaking of the perform

ance, writes

E in tal guisa Florinda udisti, o Manto,IA nei teatri de' tuoi regi tetti,

D'Arianna spiegar gli aspri martiri,

E trar da mille cor mille sospirL

And you heard Florinda, O Mantuan, in the theatre of your pal

ace, interpreting the bitter sufferings of Arianna, drawing from a

thousand hearts a thousand sighs.

Florinda was the bright star of the Fedeli until she 'left the

stage of this world" (1627). Lelio's second wife (1628) the

actress Virginia Rotari ("Lidia") had been his mistress for

many years. Giarobattista Andreini directed the Fedeli Com-


was known on the stage as "Lelio." He directed the Fedeli Company, largely composed of former Gelosi actors. United with the Accesi they performed in Milan in 1606 but soon separated. In 1601 Andreini married the youthful Virginia Ramponi, famous as "Florinda" as witness these lines:

Vive la madre tua ne la tua sposa Che de 10 suo divin dandole parte, In Virginia respira e in lei si cole.

Your mother lives in your wife to whom she gives something of her own divinity. In Virginia she breathes again and is worshipped once more.

He composed for her his first play, under the name of Florinda. When the nuptials of Prince Francesco with Margherita of Savoy were being celebrated in Mantua (1608) the artist engaged to sing Arianna in Rinuccini's opera died of smallpox. Florinda memorized the part in six days and delighted her audience.

In the Adone (VII. 68) Marino, speaking of the performance, writes

E in tal guisa Florinda udisti, 0 Manto, La nei teatri de' tuoi regi tetti, D'Arianna spiegar gli aspri martiri, E trar da mille cor mille sospiri.

And you heard Florinda, 0 Mantuan, in the theatre of your palace, interpreting the bitter sufferings of Arianna, drawing from a thousand hearts a thousand sighs.

Florinda was the bright star of the Fedeli until she "left the stage of this world" (1627). Lelio's second wife (1628) the actress Virginia Rotari (" Lidia") had been his mistress for

many years. Giambattista Andreini directed the Fedeli Com-

GIOVAN BATTISTA ANDREINIGIOVAN BATT 1ST A ANDREINI


pany until 1652. He composed many poems, comedies, sonnets

and dialogues.

The Commedia dell'Arte was not a monopoly of the An-

dreinis. There were the Riccobonis and Fiorello, Domenico

Biancolelli, Tommaso Visentino ("Tommasino"), Carlo Ber-

tinazzi ("Carlino"), Salvatore Rosa, of whom Lippi wrote

Pittor, passa chiunque tele imbiacca,

Tratta d'ogni scienza ut ex professo>E in palco fa si ben Coviel Patacca,

Che, sempre ch'ei si muove o ch'ei favella,

Fa proprio sgangheraiti le mascella.

A painter who, no matter who may pass by, daubs at his can

vases, treats of every science ut ex professo and on the stage acts so

well the part of Coviel Patacca that whenever he moves or speakshe makes you split your very sides.

Such women as Flaminia Riccoboni and Aurelia Bianchi and

that Maria Malloni ("Celia") of whom Marino wrote

Celia s'appella, e ben del Ciel nel volto

Porta la luce e la beltk Celeste;

Ed oltre ancor, ch& come il Cielo bella

E ha Tarmonia del Ciel nella favella.

Celia, she is called; and truly she bears in her face something of

Celestial light and beauty; besides which she is fair as the celestial

region and has its music on her lips.

Another woman of the sixteenth century a poet, musician,

singer, sculptress, comedian Vincenza Armani was born at

Venice. In her honour "guns were fired1 ' when she entered a

city; jousts and tournaments were held in her name. She acted

in Comedy, Pastorals and Tragedy, correctly, observing the

rules of each. Here is some of her poetry:


pany until 1652. He composed many poems, comedies, sonnets and dialogues.

The Commedia dell' Arte was not a monopoly of the Andreinis. There were the Riccobonis and Fiorello, Domenico Biancolelli, Tommaso Visentino ("Tommasino"), Carlo Bertinazzi ("Carlino"), Salvatore Rosa, of whom Lippi wrote

Pittor, passa chiunque tele imbiacca, Tratta d'ogni scienza ut ex professo, E in palco fa si ben Coviel Patacca, Che, sempre ch' ei si muove 0 ch' ei favella, Fa proprio sgangherarti Ie mascella.

A painter who, no matter who may pass by, daubs at his canvases, treats of every science ut ex professo and on the stage acts so well the part of Coviel Patacca that whenever he moves or speaks he makes you split your very sides.

Such women as Flaminia Riccoboni and Aurelia Bianchi and that Maria Malloni ("Celia") of whom Marino wrote

Celia s'appella, e ben del Ciel nel volto Porta la luce e la beld Celeste; Ed oltre aneor, che come il Cielo e bella E ha l'armonia del Ciel nella favella.

Celia, she is called; and truly she bears in her face something of Celestial light and beauty; besides whieh she is fair as the celestial region and has its music on her lips.

Another woman of the sixteenth century-a poet, mUSICIan, singer, sculptress, comedian-Vincenza Armani was born at Venice. In her honour "guns were fired" when she entered a city; jousts and tournaments were held in her name. She acted in Comedy, Pastorals and Tragedy, correctly, observing the rules of each. Here is some of her poetry:

28 MASKS AND MARIONETTESE con le belle braccia

Mi cinge il collo e tace,

E il cor con Talma allaccia,

Che di desio si sface,

Ond'io di piacer pienoLe bacio il petto e il seno.

Dalla sua bocca bella

Poi colgo il cibo grato,lo muto e tacit* ella,

Liet'ella ed io beato,

Portiam Falte faville

Coi baci a mille a mille.

Quel che succede poiAmor solo il pub dire,

Perch'ebri ambidue noi

Nel colmo del gioirePerdiam nei gaudi immensi

Ualma, gli spiriti e i sensi.

When her fair arms entwineAbout my neck in silent joy

My heart and soul combineIn sweetest bliss without alloy;With passion filled and rapture blest,

I kiss and kiss her heart and breast.

Of perfect love the pleasant fruit

From her sweet lips I gladly kiss.

Silent she and I quite mute

Happy she and I in bliss,

The sparks of love ascend on highFrom kisses that unnumbered ply.What happens then you well may guessThe God of Love alone can know.Intoxication both confess-

Along the brink of joy we goThen plunge into that gulf immenseWhere lost is spirit, soul and sense.

Rosa Benozzi, celebrated under the name of "Sylvia," cameto Paris with a company called by the Regent in 1716, For


E con Ie belle braccia Mi cinge il co110 e tace, E il cor con l' alma allaccia, Che di desio si sface, Ond'io di piacer pieno Le bacio il petto e il seno. Dalla sua bocca bella Poi colgo il cibo grato, 10 muto e tacit' ella, Liet' ella ed io beato, Portiam l'alte faville Coi baci a mille a mille. Quel che succede poi Arnor solo il puo dire, Perch'ebri ambidue noi N el colmo del gioire Perdiam nei gaudi immensi L'alma, gli spiriti e i sensi.

When her fair arms entwine About my neck in silent joy My heart and soul combine In sweetest bliss without alloy; With passion filled and rapture blest, I kiss and kiss her heart and breast. Of perfect love the pleasant fruit From her sweet lips I gladly kiss. Silent she and I quite mute Happy she and I in bliss. The sparks of love ascend on high From kisses that unnumbered ply. What happens then you well may guess The God of Love alone can know. Intoxication both confess-Along the brink of joy we go Then plunge into that gulf immense Where lost is spirit, soul and sense.

Rosa Benozzi, celebrated under the name of "Sylvia," came to Paris with a company called by the Regent in 1716. For


forty-two years she played the role of the woman lover with

vivacity, delicacy and charm and up to the day of her death

she enjoyed public favour. In different plays and those bydifferent authors the role of "Sylvia" was variously treated.

Sometimes she is mistress and soubrette; in other pieces she

is simply soubrette and sometimes simple peasant or innocent

shepherdess.

Eleanor Virginia Baletti ("Flaminia") was born in Ferrara

in 1686. Her parents gave her a superior education and she

became an excellent actress and a very cultivated woman,

speaking several languages fluently. From her earliest years

she was considered one of the best actresses in Italy. Louis

Riccoboni ("Lelio"), director of a dramatic company, mar

ried her and brought her to Paris in 1716 hoping that she

would assist him in a reformation of the Italian theatre. Hewas not successful. The French public preferred Harlequin

and Scaramouche with their masks to the finest productions

of the Italian classic theatre; so Flaminia and Riccoboni re

tired in 1732.

Between 1610 and 1612 the Fedeli Company played chiefly

in Northern Italy, In 1613 the Queen Regent Marie de

Medicis called them to Paris, and they acted at the Louvre and

Hotel de Bourgogne, and also before the Fontainebleau

Court and at Saint-Germain. The Fedeli again visited France

in 1621, 1622 and 1623. They acted at Prague and in Vienna

at the Court of Ferdinand II from 1627 to 1628. In 1652

Eularia Coris, young and charming comedian in the Fedeli

Company, contributed to the success of a dramatic piece en

titled la Maddalena Lasciva e Penitente. Besides Magdalen,

Martha and Lazarus the principal actors are the Archangel

Michael and other angels, Divine Grace, three lovers of Magdalen, her page, butler, cook, two dwarfs and three old women


forty-two years she played the role of the woman lover with vivacity, delicacy and charm and up to the day of her death she enjoyed public favour. In different plays and those by different authors the role of "Sylvia" was variously treated. Sometimes she is mistress and soubrette; in other pieces she is simply soubrette and sometimes simple peasant or innocent shepherdess.

Eleanor Virginia Baletti ("Flaminia") was born in Ferrara in 1686. Her parents gave her a superior education and she became an excellent actress and a very cultivated woman, speaking several languages fluently. From her earliest years she was considered one of the best actresses in Italy. Louis Riccoboni ("Lelio"), director of a dramatic company, married her and brought her to Paris in 1716 hoping that she would assist him in a reformation of the Italian theatre. He was not successful. The French public preferred Harlequin and Scaramouche with their masks to the finest productions of the Italian classic theatre; so Flaminia and Riccoboni retired in 1732.

Between 1610 and 1612 the Fedeli Company played chiefly in Northern Italy. In 1613 the Queen Regent Marie de Medicis called them to Paris, and they acted at the Louvre and Hotel de Bourgogne, and also before the Fontainebleau Court and at Saint-Germain. The Fedeli again visited France in 1621, 1622 and 1623. They acted at Prague and in Vienna at the Court of Ferdinand II from 1627 to 1628. In 1652 Eularia Cor is, young and charming comedian in the Fedeli Company, contributed to the success of a dramatic piece entitled la Maddalena Lasciva e Penitente. Besides Magdalen, Martha and Lazarus the principal actors are the Archangel Michael and other angels, Divine Grace, three lovers of Magdalen, her page, butler, cook, two dwarfs and three old women

3o MASKS AND MARIONETTES

of bad reputation.The first three acts consist of love scenes

and festivals. Sensual Magdalen scorns sister Martha's reproof

but in the third act she renounces pleasure, dons haircloth,

sees visions and rises to Heaven borne on the arms of fifteen

cherubims and followed by the Archangel Michael and Di

vine Grace.

In 1613 Andreini composed a "Sacra Rappresentazione" in

five acts in verse, which was called Adamo. Among the char

acters are Adam and Eve, the Eternal Father, the Archangel

Michael, Satan, Lucifer, infernal spirits,the Seven Mortal

Sins, Seraphims, Angels, Death, Famine, the Body and the

Serpent. It is a rsum of a fifteenth century mystery. This

work is, possibly, the origin of Milton's Paradise Lost. "II y a

souvent," says Voltaire, "dans les choses ou tout parait ridi

cule ou vulgaire un coin de grandeur qui ne se fait apercevoir

qu'aux hommes de genie" and Milton "d<couvrit & travers

I'absurdit6 de Fouvrage, une sublimit< cach^e du sujet." Al

though his plays contain many lewd passages Andreini after

ward retired to a monastery to meditate and write on religious

subjects.

Between 1574 and 1581 the Confidenti were acting in

Northern Italy and in Mantua gave performances to celebrate

the marriage of Vincenzo Gonzaga with Margherita Farnese.

In 1582 or 1583 they divided, some of them joining the Uniti

Company. Next year the Confidenti after acting in Turin and

Milan went to France; in 1587 they were in Spain and be

tween 1615 and 1620 they acted in various Italian cities. In

1639 while in Milan they were "called by the majesty of the

King of France to come there and act for the entertainment

of his Majesty and of the Queen/1

Meanwhile, the Uniti

Company flourished under the protection of the lords of Man

tua, Duke Guglielmo and his son Vincenzo, who loved the


of bad reputation. The first three acts consist of love scenes and festivals. Sensual Magdalen scorns sister Martha's reproof but in the third act she renounces pleasure, dons haircloth, sees visions and rises to Heaven borne on the arms of fifteen cherubims and followed by the Archangel Michael and Divine Grace.

In 1613 Andreini composed a "Sacra Rappresentazione" in five acts in verse, which was called Adamo. Among the characters are Adam and Eve, the Eternal Father, the Archangel Michael, Satan, Lucifer, infernal spirits, the Seven Mortal Sins, Seraphims, Angels, Death, Famine, the Body and the Serpent. It is a resume of a fifteenth century mystery. This work is, possibly, the origin of Milton's Paradise Lost. "II y a souvent," says Voltaire, "dans les choses OU tout parah ridicule ou vulgaire un coin de grandeur qui ne se fait apercevoir qu'aux hommes de genie" and Milton "decouvrit a travers l'absurdite de l'ouvrage, une sublimite cachee du sujet." AI· though his plays contain many lewd passages Andreini afterward retired to a monastery to meditate and write on religious subjects.

Between 1574 and 1581 the Confidenti were acting in Northern Italy and in Mantua gave performances to celebrate the marriage of Vincenzo Gonzaga with Margherita Farnese. In 1582 or 1583 they divided, some of them joining the Uniti Company. Next year the Confidenti after acting in Turin and Milan went to France; in 1587 they were in Spain and between 1615 and 1620 they acted in various Italian cities. In 1639 while in Milan they were "called by the majesty of the King of France to come there and act for the entertainment of his Majesty and of the Queen." Meanwhile, the Uniti Company flourished under the protection of the lords of Mantua/ Duke Guglielmo and his son Vincenzo, who loved the


theatre. In 1583 they united with the Confident! Companyand called themselves the Uniti Confident!/' *

In 1600 the company of Accesi left Mantua for France at

the request of Henry IV; they were warmly recommended byVincenzo Gonzaga to the Dukes d'Aiguillon and de Nevers

and were entertained at Turin by Carlo Emanuele of Savoy.

They played a great part in the festivities in honour of the

marriage of Henry with Marie de Medicis celebrated in Lyons

in December 1600; and in January 1601 followed the Court to

Paris where they remained till October. Recrossing the Alps,

they visited Rome and Turin and in 1606 together with the

company of the Fedeli, they acted in Milan. Arriving in Paris

in 1608 they first performed before the King and Court and

then at the Hotel de Bourgogne.f The Accesi afterward acted

in various Italian cities until their final performance in Flor

ence in 1623. The Desiosi called also "of Diana" (after their

* The real artistic rival of Signora Vittoria of the Confident! was Isabella of the

Gelosi. In May 1589 for the marriage of Ferdinand de' Medici with Cristina of

Lorraine the two rival artists raet in Florence; on the 6th of May Vittoria acted in

her most famous play La Zingana and on the i3th Isabella gave an astonishing performance in a piece of her own invention La Pazzia. After this the two rivals parted,

each going her own way. The Uniti were in Florence and Mantua in 1592; then

they went to Genoa and Milan and again in 1604 acted in Florence. For the year

1614 in the Uniti Company we have the following list of actors among others with

the name, surname, native town and rdle: Jacomo Braga of Ferrara (Pantalone),

Domenico de' Negri of Ferrara (Curzio), Silvio Fiorillo of Naples (Captain Matta-

moros), Giovan Battista Fiorillo his son (Scaramuzza), Andrea Fraiacomi of Bologna

(Trivellino).

f Calderoni's Company went to Germany "in the service of the Elector of Bavaria,

to Munich and to Brussels"; and then to Vienna "in the service of the Emperor

Leopold and of Joseph King of the Romans." In 1664 Calderoni wrote "The other

evening 'Li tre finti turchi' was given, the new second Zanni acting, and it went so

well that everyone left before it was finished, saying that if we had nothing better

to offer they would pelt us with apples," On their return to Italy Calderoni's

comedians acted in Naples and Leghorn. In 1697 they were in Brussels and later

played in Augsburg and in Vienna. The young Roman Pietro Cotta played with

this company; and having later assumed direction of his own company undertook

to banish licentious words from his plays and to perform good plays such as

Guarini's Pastor fido and Tasso's Aminta. His attempt failed; but Luigi Riccoboni

was more fortunate as regards tragedy though he also was not successful in present

ing comedies free from improprieties,


theatre. In 1583 they united with the Confidenti Company and called themselves the Uniti Confidenti." *

In 1600 the company of Accesi left Mantua for France at the request of Henry IV; they were warmly recommended by Vincenzo Gonzaga to the Dukes d' Aiguillon and de Nevers and were entertained at Turin by Carlo Emanuele of Savoy. They played a great part in the festivities in honour of the marriage of Henry with Marie de Medicis celebrated in Lyons in December 1600; and in January 1601 followed the Court to Paris where they remained till October. Recrossing the Alps, they visited Rome and Turin and in 1606 together with the company of the Fedeli, they acted in Milan. Arriving in Paris in 1608 they first performed before the King and Court and then at the Hotel de Bourgogne.t The Accesi afterward acted in various Italian cities until their final performance in Florence in 1623. The Desiosi called also "of Diana" (after their

• The real artistic rival of Signora Vittoria of the Confidenti was Isabella of the Gelosi. In May 1589 for the marriage of Ferdinand de' Medici with Cristina of Lorraine the two rival artists met in Florence; on the 6th of May Vittoria acted in her most famous play La Zingana and on the 13th Isabella gave an astonishing performance in a piece of her own invention La Pazzia. After this the two rivals parted, each going her own way. The Uniti were in Florence and Mantua in 1592; then they went to Genoa and Milan and again in 1604 acted in Florence. For the year 1614 in the Uniti Company we have the following list of actors among others with the name, surname, native town and r6le: Jacomo Braga of Ferrara (pantalone), Domenico de' Negri of Ferrara (Curzio), Silvio Fiorillo of Naples (Captain Mattamoros), Giovan Battista Fiorillo his son (Scaramuzza), Andrea Fraiacomi of Bologna (Trivellino ). t Calderoni's Company went to Germany "in the service of the Elector of Bavaria,

to Munich and to Brussels"; and then to Vienna "in the service of the Emperor Leopold and of Joseph King of the Romans." In 1664 Calderoni wrote "The other evening 'Li tre finti turchi' was given, the new second Zanni acting, and it went so well that everyone left before it was finished, saying that if we had nothing better to offer they would pelt us with apples." On their return to Italy Calderoni's comedians acted in Naples and Leghorn. In 1697 they were in Brussels and later played in Augsburg and in Vienna. The young Roman Pietro Cotta played with this company; and having later assumed direction of his own company undertook to banish licentious words from his plays and to perform good plays such as Guarini's Pastor fido and Tasso's Aminta. His attempt failed; but Luigi Riccoboni was more fortunate as regards tragedy though he also was not successful in presenting comedies free from improprieties.


celebrated actress) acted in Pisa, Milan and Cremona and per

haps at Ferrara. In 1588, after a great dispute, license was con

ceded in Rome to the Desiosi to act comedies by day, but with

out women. Senza donne seeming to mean that boys took the

place of actresses; as was the custom in Rome. The companyis mentioned as having been in Genoa in May 1597 and at

Verona in August 1599.

By command of the King, Luigi Riccoboni's company went

to Paris and acted in the hall of the Petit Bourbon and then

at the Palais Royal, In 1664 they received the official title

"The King's Comedians of the Italian Troupe/' In 1680 they

were established at the Hotel de Bourgogne and in 1684 their

duties and rights were minutely determined. In 1697 ^eygave La Fausse Prude., a violent satire against Madame de

Maintenon, and Louis XIV ordered the company disbanded

and their theatre closed. Thus the Com^die Italienne was

silent for nearly twenty years. But after the death of Louis

XIV it was revived in 1716 when a new Italian troupe was

called to Paris by the Regent Philippe d'Orl^ans. Antonio

Vicentini called Thomassin made his first appearance in the

role of Arlequin at the theatre of the Palais Royal in Inganno

fortunato.

During these many years in Paris, the Italian Comedy fell

so completely under French influence that the actors performed plays written in French by French authors. The Ital

ian theatre thus became a French theatre except that it

retained the licentiousness, buffoonery and satire, the panto

mime, drollery, canzonettes and dances, in fact all the spirit

of Italian impromptu comedy.Born in Naples the famous "Tabarino" ("Tabarin" in

French) came to Paris in 1618. At first he associated with the

charlatan Mondor who set up an open-air theatre to draw a


celebrated actress) acted in Pisa, Milan and Cremona and perhaps at Ferrara. In 1588, after a great dispute, license was conceded in Rome to the Desiosi to act comedies by day, but without women. Senza donne seeming to mean that boys took the place of actresses; as was the custom in Rome. The company is mentioned as having been in Genoa in May 1597 and at Verona in August 1599.

By command of the King, Luigi Riccoboni's company went to Paris and acted in the hall of the Petit Bourbon and then at the Palais Royal. In 1664 they received the official title "The King's Comedians of the Italian Troupe." In 1680 they were established at the Hotel de Bourgogne and in 1684 their duties and rights were minutely determined. In 1697 they gave La Fausse Prude~ a violent satire against Madame de Maintenon, and Louis XIV ordered the company disbanded and their theatre closed. Thus the Comedie Italienne was silent for nearly twenty years. But after the death of Louis XIV it was revived in 1716 when a new Italian troupe was called to Paris by the Regent Philippe d'Orh~ans. Antonio Vicentini called Thomassin made his first appearance in the role of Arlequin at the theatre of the Palais Royal in Inganno fortunato.

During these many years in Paris, the Italian Comedy fell so completely under French influence that the actors performed plays written in French by French authors. The Italian theatre thus became a French theatre except that it retained the licentiousness, buffoonery and satire. the pantomime, drollery, canzonettes and dances, in fact all the spirit of Italian impromptu comedy.

Born in Naples the famous "Tabarino" ("Tabarin" in French) came to Paris in 1618. At first he associated with the charlatan Mondor who set up an open-air theatre to draw a


crowd to buy his medicine. In 1622 Tabarin was at the height

of his glory. His theatre in the Place Dauphine was crowded.

In 1625 Tabarin made a tour of France and in 1630 he re

tired to enjoy his fortune. Tabarin's Farces are important in

the Commedia dell'Arte repertoires. Of them Saint-Victor says

"The pearls are rare but there is abundance of salt. Here one

sometimes finds both Moliere and La Fontaine." Such is the

scene of Pouquelin. The "Bonhomme" epilogue has come

from a Tabarin farce as a pearl comes from the oyster. Scapin's

sack in which he imprisoned Geronte originated in the ba-

raque of the Pont-Neuf plays.

The Comedie Italienne was an institution in France. Sol-

dino, the Florentine, is called "comedian in his Majesty's

suite" (1572) and Massimiano Milanino is designated "chief of

the Company of Italian Comedians following the King of Navarre" (1578). A decree of Chatelet (1599) prohibits the "so-

called Italian Comedians of the King" to hold performances

elsewhere than in the Hotel de Bourgogne. The Italian Com

edy was definitely established in Paris in 1660 and continued

until the nineteenth century, competing with the Comedie

Franchise, the Foire and the Opera Comique. In 1762 it ab

sorbed the latter and took possession of its repertoire, acclaim

ing Carlo Goldoni as its director and poet. When Italian com

edy was suppressed in the Hotel de Bourgogne it went to the

Sala Favart (1763). Losing its Royal subsidy in 1792 through

the great Revolution it expired in 1801. The surviving Ital

ian comedians of the Sala Favart united with a French com

pany to form the Opra Comique which acted at the Sala

Feydeau.** The Commedia dell'Arte inspired Moliere to create the French Comedy. The

scenarios of the Commedia dell'Arte furnish the plots, scenes, types of characters

from which Moliere created Tartufe, Le Malade imaginaire, George Dandin,

Trissotin, Sganarelle and Scapin.


crowd to buy his medicine. In 1622 Tabarin was at the height of his glory. His theatre in the Place Dauphine was crowded. In 1625 Tabarin made a tour of France and in 1630 he retired to enjoy his fortune. Tabarin's Farces are important in the Commedia dell' Arte repertoires. Of them Saint-Victor says "The pearls are rare but there is abundance of salt. Here one sometimes finds both Moliere and La Fontaine." Such is the scene of Pouquelin. The "Bonhomme" epilogue has come from a Tabarin farce as a pearl comes from the oyster. Scapin's sack in which he imprisoned Geronte originated in the baraque of the Pont-Neuf plays.

The Comedie Italienne was an institution in France. Soldino, the Florentine, is called "comedian in his Majesty's suite" (1572) and Massimiano Milanino is designated "chief of the Company of Italian Comedians following the King of Navarre" (1578). A decree of Chatelet (1599) prohibits the "socalled Italian Comedians of the King" to hold performances elsewhere than in the Hotel de Bourgogne. The Italian Comedy was definitely established in Paris in 1660 and continued until the nineteenth century, competing with the Comedie Franc;;:aise, the Foire and the Opera Comique. In 1762 it absorbed the latter and took possession of its repertoire, acclaiming Carlo Goldoni as its director and poet. When Italian comedy was suppressed in the Hotel de Bourgogne it went to the Sala Favart (1763). Losing its Royal subsidy in 1792 through the great Revolution it expired in 1801. The surviving Italian comedians of the Sala Favart united with a French company to form the Opera Comique which acted at the Sala Feydeau.·

• The Commedia dell'Arte inspired Moliere to create the French Comedy. The scenarios of the Commedia dell'Arte furnish the plots, scenes, types of characters from which Moliere created Tartufe, Le Malade imaginaire, George Dandin, Trissotin, Sganarelle and Scapin.


The theatre of the Funambules was transformed into a

theatre of pantomime and vaudeville, in which that great

actor Deburau for fifteen years played pieces of old French

farce, mixed with Italian phantasy. Deburau's pantomimewas all that was left in France of the ancient Italian comedy.Deburau changed the Pierrot type, as Dominique had trans

formed Harlequin. Sometimes his Pierrot is good and gen

erous, sometimes a thief; sometimes coward, sometimes brave.

Almost always poor; when he had money he spent it reck

lessly. Always he is lazy and greedy. Deburau also transformed

the physical character of his Pierrot. In Jules Janin's biog

raphy of Deburau he says:

The greatest comedian of our time was born the gist of July,

1796. He made a revolution in our art and has created a new type.An actor without passion, without words and almost without a

face, he said everything, expressed everything, mocked at everything and without speaking a single word played the comedies of

Moli&re and gave to them real life; an inimitable genius who wenthither and thither, who looked, who opened his mouth, whoclosed his eyes, made everyone laugh and was charming. In Nocesde Pierrot, a farce which he played over six hundred times, wesee the curtain rising slowly. Deburau appears in his white costumewith a pretty girl on his arm. It is impossible to describe the

enthusiasm of the audience. Deburau simply placed his hand onhis heart, and a tear rolled down over his face whitened with flour.

The only Italian parts now remaining in French plays are

Pierrot, Arlequin, Leandro, Cassandra and Columbine; all

greatly transformed.

The Cornmedia delVArte exerted considerable influence

upon the English comedy. In 1527 an Italian company crossed

to England, led by a Mantuan, the Harlequin Drusiano Mar-tinelli. At the court of Elizabeth the two English buffoons

Tarleton and Wilton probably learned from him how to im-


The theatre of the Funambules was transformed into a theatre of pantomime and vaudeville, in which that great actor Deburau for fifteen years played pieces of old French farce, mixed with Italian phantasy. Deburau's pantomime was all that was left in France of the ancient Italian comedy. Deburau changed the Pierrot type, as Dominique had transformed Harlequin. Sometimes his Pierrot is good and generous, sometimes a thief; sometimes coward, sometimes brave. Almost always poor; when he had money he spent it recklessly. Always he is lazy and greedy. Deburau also transformed the physical character of his Pierrot. In Jules J anin' s biography of Deburau he says:

The greatest comedian of our time was born the 31St of July, 1796. He made a revolution in our art and has created a new type. An actor without passion, without words and almost without a face, he said everything, expressed everything, mocked at everything and without speaking a single word played the comedies of Moliere and gave to them real life; an inimitable genius who went hither and thither, who looked, who opened his mouth, who closed his eyes, made everyone laugh and was charming. In N oces de Pierrot) a farce which he played over six hundred times, we see the curtain rising slowly. Deburau appears in his white costume with a pretty girl on his arm. It is impossible to describe the enthusiasm of the audience. Deburau simply placed his hand on his heart, and a tear rolled down over his face whitened with flour.

The only Italian parts now remaining in French plays are Pierrot, Arlequin, Leandro, Cassandra and Columbine; all greatly transformed.

The Commedia dell'Arte exerted considerable influence upon the English comedy. In 1527 an Italian company crossed to England, led by a Mantuan, the Harlequin Drusiano Martinelli. At the court of Elizabeth the two English buffoons Tarleton and Wilton probably learned from him how to im-


provise on mere'

'scenarios" and to compose them. We still

have the scenari of four comedies dell'Arte from the time of

Elizabeth. Writers of the Elizabethan period frequently ex

press admiration for the Italian Commedia dell'Arte, and reproduce the traditional comic characters in their own comedies.

Shakespeare's comedies contain many reminiscences of the

Commedia dell'Arte. His Comedy of Errors is derived from

the Menechmi through an Italian imitation; The Taming of

the Shrew comes in part from Ariosto's Suppositi; and Romeoand Juliet recalls Luigi Groto's Hadriana. In Othello lago

calls Brabanzio "il Magnifico"; treating him as Pantalone.

Captain Parolles in All's Well That Ends Well who carries

"the whole theorick of war in the knot of his scarf and the

practice in the chape of his dagger" is Capitano Spavento.

The scene in which his soldiers blindfold and lead him to his

own general, whom he believes to be that of the enemy and

to whom he reveals the secrets of the camp and slanders his

colleagues, was taken directly from an Italian scenario. In

Love's Labour's Lost the "Spanish Captain" says to his valet:

I will hereupon confess I am in love; and as it is base for a

soldier to love, so am I in love with a base wench. If drawing mysword against the humour of affection would deliver me from the

reprobate thought of it I would take Desire prisoner and ransomhim to any French courtier for a new devised courtesy. I think

scorn to sigh; methinks I should outswear Cupid. Comfort me,

boy; what great men have been in love?

The pedant Holofernes in the same comedy resembles the

Italian Graziano.

Many Italian words occur in The Taming of the Shrew and

there is even a scrap of dialogue. One friend says: "Con tutto

il cuore ben trovato" and the latter replies: "Alia nostra casa

ben venuto, molto honorato signor mio Petruchio." There is


provise on mere "scenarios" and to compose them. We still have the scenari of four comedies dell'Arte from the time of Elizabeth. Writers of the Elizabethan period frequently express admiration for the Italian C ommedia dell' A rte ~ and reproduce the traditional comic characters in their own comedies.

Shakespeare's comedies contain many reminiscences of the Commedia deU'Arte. His Comedy of Errors is derived from the Menechmithrough an Italian imitation; The Taming of the Shrew comes in part from Ariosto's Suppositi; and Romeo and Juliet recalls Luigi Groto's Hadriana. In Othello Iago calls Brabanzio "il Magnifico"; treating him as Pantalone. Captain Parolles in All's Well That Ends Well who carries "the whole theorick of war in the knot of his scarf and the practice in the chape of his dagger" is Capitano Spavento. The scene in which his soldiers blindfold and lead him to his own general, whom he believes to be that of the enemy and to whom he reveals the secrets of the camp and slanders his colleagues, was taken directly from an Italian scenario. In Love's Labour's Lost the "Spanish Captain" says to his valet:

I will hereupon confess I am in love; and as it is base for a soldier to love, so am I in love with a base wench. If drawing my sword against the humour of affection would deliver me from the reprobate thought of it I would take Desire prisoner and ransom him to any French courtier for a new devised courtesy. I think scorn to sigh; methinks I should outswear Cupid. Comfort me, boy; what great men have been in love?

The pedant Holofernes in the same comedy resembles the Italian Graziano.

Many Italian words occur in The Taming of the Shrew and there is even a scrap of dialogue. One friend says: "Con tutto il cuore ben trovato" and the latter replies: "AlIa nostra casa ben venuto, molto honorato signor mio Petruchio." There is


also a scene in which nothing of the Commedia dell'Arte is

lacking. ... A young man disguised as a master of grammarmakes love to his lady. An old gallant is present; he too in

love with this girl.

BIANCA: Where left we last?

LUCENTIO: Here, madam."Hac ibat Simois; hie est Sigeia tellus;

Hie steterat Priami regia celsa senis."

BIANCA: Construe them.

LUCENTIO: "Hac ibat/' as I told you before, "Simois," I amLucentio, "hie est/' son unto Vincentio of Pisa, "Sigeia tellus/'

disguised thus to get your love; "Hie steterat/1 and that Lucentio

that comes a-wooing, "Priami," is my man Tranio, "regia," bear

ing my port, "celsa senis/' that we might beguile the old pantaloon. . . .

BIANCA: Now let me see if I can construe it: "Hac ibat Simois/'

I know you not, "hie est Sigeia tellus/' I trust you not; "Hie

steterat Priami/' take heed he hear us not, "regia," presume not,

"celsa senis," despair not.

In The Merry Wives of Windsor there is the French physi

cian who lards his discourses with phrases in his own lan

guage; and the parish priest who prattles English like a

Welshman; and the silly fellow who speaks "in punta di

forchetta." All these have their prototypes in improvisedCommedia.

Every history of the Commedia delVArte must take account

of Louis Riccoboni ("Lelio") who was born at Medina in

1674. Son of a celebrated actor he was both excellent actor

and distinguished author, composing more than thirty plays

and writing a history of the Italian theatre. According to

Riccoboni there were few good actors "towards 1680." The

only good company remaining being directed by Francesco

Calderoni ("Silvio") and his wife Agatha ("Flaminia"). In


also a scene in which nothing of the Commedia dell'Arte is lacking .... A young man disguised as a master of grammar makes love to his lady. An old gallant is present; he too in love with this girl.

BIANCA: Where left we last? LUCENTIO: Here, madam.

"Hac ibat Simois; hic est Sigeia tellus; Hie steterat Priami regia celsa senis."

BIANCA: Construe them. LUCENTIO: "Hac ibat," as I told you before, "Simois," I am

Lucentio, "hie est," son unto Vincentio of Pisa, "Sigeia tell us," disguised thus to get your love; "Hie steterat," and that Lucentio that comes a-wooing, "Priami," is my man Tranio, "regia," bearing my port, "celsa senis," that we might beguile the old pantaloon ....

BIANCA: Now let me see if I can construe it: "Hac ibat Simois," I know you not, "hie est Sigeia teBus," I trust you not; "Hie steterat Priami," take heed he hear us not, "regia," presume not, "celsa senis," despair not.

In The Merry Wives of Windsor there is the French physician who lards his discourses with phrases in his own language; and the parish priest who prattles English like a Welshman; and the silly fellow who speaks "in punta di forchetta." All these have their prototypes in improvised Commedia.

Every history of the Commedia dell'Arte must take account of Louis Riccoboni ("Lelio") who was born at Medina in 1674. Son of a celebrated actor he was both excellent actor and distinguished author, composing more than thirty plays and writing a history of the Italian theatre. According to Riccoboni there were few good actors "towards 1680." The only good company remaining being directed by Francesco Calderoni ("Silvio") and his wife Agatha ("Flaminia"). In


the eighteenth century (1747) Gerolamo Medebac directed

his own company in Venice, originally formed of mounte

banks. Goldoni writes that this company was able within a

short time "to hold its own with the oldest and most ac

credited companies of Italy." Antonio Sacchi's dramatic com

pany was also active in Venice at the same time and was pro

tected by Carlo Gozzi. In 1761 Cesare d'Arbes was one of the

company, and also Teodora Bartoli Ricci who was the willing

object of Carlo Gozzi's "protection/* of Pietro Antonio Gra-

taroFs love and of Sacchi's libertinism. In 1742 Sacchi (Truf-

faldino) the principal actor went with half his company to

Russia where he remained until 1745. After 1780 Sacchi's

company began to disintegrate. Sacchi when nearly eighty

years of age acted in the Falcone theatre of Genoa (1786). Hedied on shipboard (1788) and with him died the Commedia

dell'Arte.


the eighteenth century (1747) Gerolamo Medebac directed his own company in Venice, originally formed of mountebanks. Goldoni writes that this company was able within a short time "to hold its own with the oldest and most accredited companies of Italy." Antonio Sacchi's dramatic company was also active in Venice at the same time and was protected by Carlo Gozzi. In 1761 Cesare d' Arbes was one of the company, and also Teodora Bartoli Ricci who was the willing object of Carlo Gozzi's "protection," of Pietro Antonio Gratarol's love and of Sacchi's libertinism. In 1742 Sacchi (Truffaldino) the principal actor went with half his company to Russia where he remained until 1745. After 1780 Sacchi's company began to disintegrate. Sacchi when nearly eighty years of age acted in the Falcone theatre of Genoa (1786). He died on shipboard (1788) and with him died the Commedia deltArte.

Chapter III

Composition of the Dramatic CompaniesJoys and Sorrows of the Players

THREE women and seven men, ten actors in all; was the usual

composition of a Commedia dell'Arte Company, Isabella,

Vittoria, Flaminia, Celia, Flavia, Silvia, Leonora, Teodora,

Alvira, are maidens, shepherdesses, princesses and queens.

They are maidens sometimes secretly married; or dissatisfied

wives, or young widows seeking new marriage-beds. All are

sentimental, athirst for love; but husbands are vigilant; and

fathers are avaricious and insist on hateful marriages; youngmen are capricious or unfaithful. Passionately pursuing their

dreams, these women weep often; but their tears dry quickly.

Pretending obedience to gain time they swoon, simulate madness, threaten suicide, flee from home as servants or soldiers,

drink sleeping potions, are buried as dead. They threaten

death to successful rivals and ruin to men who spurn them.

Some are constant; many are fickle; others change their love

for gold.

Colombina, Olivetta, Rosetta, Fioretta, are serving maids;

partisans of their mistresses and their lovers, they carry mes

sages and make appointments. Living in an atmosphere of

love, languor and intrigue, they fall in love early or else,

hoping for marriage, they give themselves to old men. Sometimes they supplant their mistresses. They fight with rivals

38

Chapter III

Composition of the Dramatic Companies Joys and Sorrows of the Players

THREE women and seven men, ten actors in all; was the usual composition of a Commedia dell' A rte Company. Isabella, Vittoria, Flaminia, Celia, Flavia, Silvia, Leonora, Teodora, Alvira, are maidens, shepherdesses, princesses and queens. They are maidens sometimes secretly married; or dissatisfied wives, or young widows seeking new marriage-beds. All are sentimental, athirst for love; but husbands are vigilant; and fathers are avaricious and insist on hateful marriages; young men are capricious or unfaithful. Passionately pursuing their dreams, these women weep often; but their tears dry quickly. Pretending obedience to gain time they swoon, simulate madness, threaten suicide, flee from home as servants or soldiers, drink sleeping potions, are buried as dead. They threaten death to successful rivals and ruin to men who spurn them. Some are constant; many are fickle; others change their love for gold.

Colombina, Olivetta, Rosetta, Fioretta, are serving maids; partisans of their mistresses and their lovers, they carry messages and make appointments. Living in an atmosphere of love, languor and intrigue, they fall in love early or else, hoping for marriage, they give themselves to old men. Sometimes they supplant their mistresses. They fight with rivals

88

COVIELLO (1550)COVIELLO (1550)

JOYS AND SORROWS OF PLAYERS 39

and pull hair. Lively, talkative, with smiles, airs and graces

they pass across the scene.

In the improvised comedy the male actors are lovers, old

men or servants. Flavio, Orazio, Florindo, Lelio are lovers;

Sireno, Corinto, Selvaggio are shepherds; Adrasto, Corebo

are princes. They sing serenades, threaten rivals, sometimes

marry. Often they make love to married women, sometimes

tempt young girls;and when jealous they seek to kill both

rival and unfaithful fair. Disguised as beggar, doctor or no

tary, they enter the house of the beloved; and their amours

are aided by clever servants.* The servants are called Zanni;

sometimes Zan Ganassa, Zan Farina, Zan Capella; or named

Arlecchino, Pedrolino, Frittellino, Truffaldino, Brighella,

Pulcinella, Coviello. These servants love the serving maids

and this complicates the plot. Jailers, beggars and innkeepers

have the same names and practice the same roguery as the

serving men.

In the Commedia dell'Arte the basic types are Pantalone,

Dottor Graziano, Arlecchino, Pulcinella and Brighella; each

of these characters having been made celebrated by some dis

tinguished actor and becoming traditional as other actors

assumed that name and the peculiar characteristics of that

mask.

These strolling players are petted, receive rich gifts; yet

often they are hungry. One authority protects them; another

persecutes them. The public applauds and derides. Actors

friendly on the stage quarrel behind the scenes. Today they

live in luxury; tomorrow they "wheel their barrows along

* In the ancient Italian comedy the lover was just a lover-usually a comic lover-

his role played by the principal actor of the company; Flavio was the lover's name

even before the appearance of Flaminio Scala. Ruzzante's Flavio is thus described

by his rival Polidoro, "Because he is beautiful, gallant, a maker of sonnets, because

he understands music, has court manners and^dresses

like a Spamard, Flavio

imagines that he can hold the love of Fiorinetta."

JOYS AND SORROWS OF PtA YERS 39

and pull hair. Lively, talkative, with smiles, airs and graces they pass across the scene.

In the improvised comedy the male actors are lovers, old men or servants. Flavio, Orazio, Florinda, Lelia are lovers; Sirena, Corinto, Selvaggio are shepherds; Adrasto, Corebo are princes. They sing serenades, threaten rivals, sometimes marry. Often they make love to married women, sometimes tempt young girls; and when jealous they seek to kill both rival and unfaithful fair. Disguised as beggar, doctor or notary, they enter the house of the beloved; and their amours are aided by clever servants. * The servants are called Zanni; sometimes Zan Ganassa, Zan Farina, Zan Capella; or named Arlecchino, Pedrolino, Frittellino, Truffaldino, Brighella, Pulcinella, Coviello. These servants love the serving maids and this complicates the plot. Jailers, beggars and innkeepers have the same names and practice the same roguery as the servmg men.

In the Commedia dell'Arte the basic types are Pantalone, Dottor Graziano, Arlecchino, Pulcinella and BrigheUa; each of these characters having been made celebrated by some distinguished actor and becoming traditional as other actors assumed that name and the peculiar characteristics of that mask.

These strolling players are petted, receive rich gifts; yet often they are hungry. One authority protects them; another persecutes them. The public applauds and derides. Actors friendly on the stage quarrel behind the scenes. Today they live in luxury; tomorrow they 'wheel their barrows along

• In the ancient Italian comedy the lover was just a lover-usually a comic loverhis rille played by the principal actor of the company; Flavio was the lover's name even before the appearance of Flaminio Scala. Ruzzante's Flavio is thus described by his rival Polidoro, "Because he is beautiful, gallant, a maker of sonnets, because he understands music, has court manners and dresses like a Spaniard, Flavio imagines that he can hold the love of Fiorinetta."


country roads, having been expelled in disgrace from some

city. Tristino Martinelli received affectionate autographed

letters from Queen Marie de Medicis; royal gifts, honours and

offices were his. Drusiano Martinelli refused the Grand Duke

of Tuscany's "two or three thousand scudi in cash/' demand

ing "ten thousand all at once, besides my keep/' The Queen

of France ordered that five hundred ducats be given the Fedeli

Company and another two hundred be paid them monthly.

She placed a collar weighing two hundred doble round Ar-

lecchino's neck. A Prince seeing Tiberio Fiorilli act in Rome

presented him with a carriage and six horses. Louis XIV was

godfather to Domenico Biancolelli's child. Maria Cecchini

was ennobled by the Emperor Maximilian, and Angelo Con

stant! was created a noble by Augustus II of Saxony.

Scholars praised the comedians. Garzoni wrote that "while

the world shall last, while centuries run and times and sea

sons live, every voice, every tongue, every cry shall sound the

celebrated name of Isabella Andreini." In 1611 a Corona di

Lodi in honour of Maria Maloni was published. In 1608 a

Racolta di varie rime was dedicated to Orsola Cecchino ("Fla-

minia"). Tristino Martinelli ("Arlecchino") called Marie de

Medicis "gossip queen hen/' He wrote to the Grand Duke of

Tuscany: "I implore, beg, counsel and expressly command you

upon receipt of this not to fail to do according to the orders

and command contained in this and my other letter as you

hold dear my favour do as I order and command, and happy

you if you are able to fit in with my humour. Try therefore to

retain my friendship, as I am resolved to keep yours through

the ages and time without end/' Tallemant des Raux re

cords that on Arlecchino's arrival in Paris he visited King

Henri IV, and when the King rose Arlecchino sat in his chair

and addressed the King as Arlecchino.


country roads, having been expelled in disgrace from some city. Tristino Martinelli received affectionate autographed letters from Queen Marie de Medicis; royal gifts, honours and offices were his. Drusiano Martinelli refused the Grand Duke of Tuscany's "two or three thousand scudi in cash," demanding "ten thousand all at once, besides my keep." The Queen of France ordered that five hundred ducats be given the Fedeli Company and another two hundred be paid them monthly. She placed a collar weighing two hundred doble round Arlecchino's neck. A Prince seeing Tiberio Fiorilli act in Rome presented him with a carriage and six horses. Louis XIV was godfather to Domenico Biancolelli's child. Maria Cecchini was ennobled by the Emperor Maximilian, and Angelo Constanti was created a noble by Augustus II of Saxony.

Scholars praised the comedians. Garzoni wrote that "while the world shall last, while centuries run and times and seasons live, every voice, every tongue, every cry shall sound the celebrated name of Isabella Andreini." In 1611 a Corona di Lodi in honour of Maria Maloni was published. In 1608 a Racolta di varie rime was dedicated to Orsola Cecchino ("Flaminia"). Tristino Martinelli ("Arlecchino") called Marie de Medicis "gossip queen hen." He wrote to the Grand Duke of Tuscany: "I implore, beg, counsel and expressly command you upon receipt of this not to fail to do according to the orders and command contained in this and my other letter .... as you hold dear my favour do as I order and command, and happy you if you are able to fit in with my humour. Try therefore to retain my friendship, as I am resolved to keep yours through the ages and time without end." Tallemant des Reaux records that on Arlecchino's arrival in Paris he visited King Henri IV, and when the King rose Arlecchino sat in his chair and addressed the King as Arlecchino.

hwj<PQ

p,fe

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I


Behind these fictitious splendours of the comedians' life

what misery, tumult and discord; what pride, presumption,

vanity, frivolity and jealousy; what intolerance of authority

and restraint! Confined within narrow limits, in closest daily

intercourse, the passions of these actors became intense. In

1609 Virginia Andreini wrote to Cardinal Ferdinando Gon-

zaga:

Your Worship will have heard how I have overthrown all the

triumph erected by Signora Flaminia. Her nose has lengtheneddownwards as much as it was proudly in the air before. She is

hated by all Turin for her frenzied haughtiness in the love of

Cintio, to her very great shame it is true. On this Your Worshipwill hear a hundred stanzas and forty sonnets by Cavalier Marino.

You will certainly hear them, for I shall take care that they cometo your hand. Please speak of her to the Ambassador; for you will

hear the most iniquitous things. All the companies cry out uponher temerity and Frittellino's. They would have settled her before

this if I had not come to Turin. I try to bear with this ugly humour but shall not for long/

1

Cecchini ("Frittellino") writes of Giovan Battista and Vir

ginia Andreini: "God preserve me and my fellows from being

with Lelio and Florinda. Florinda and her husband's intrigues

and persecution have brought me to ruin and perdition." In

another letter to the Duke he said: "Baldina must be ex

cluded from the company then going to France. With secret

art she kindles such conflagration in the company that it is

impossible to live in the turmoil. . . . With Baldina we shall

never do any good either in France or in Italy." Giovan Bat

tista Andreini denied making love to Baldina, succeeded in

imposing her presence upon his wife, and when Florinda

died he married her.

The amours between actresses and noblemen and between


Behind these fictitious splendours of the comedians' life what misery, tumult and discord; what pride, presumption, vanity, frivolity and jealousy; what intolerance of authority and restraint! Confined within narrow limits, in closest daily intercourse, the passions of these actors became intense. In 1609 Virginia Andreini wrote to Cardinal Ferdinando Gonzaga:

Your Worship will have heard how I have overthrown all the triumph erected by Signora Flaminia. Her nose has lengthened downwards as much as it was proudly in the air before. She is hated by all Turin for her frenzied haughtiness in the love of Cintio, to her very great shame it is true. On this Your Worship will hear a hundred stanzas and forty sonnets by Cavalier Marino. You will certainly hear them, for I shall take care that they corne to your hand. Please speak of her to the Ambassador; for you will hear the most iniquitous things. All the companies cry out upon her temerity and Frittellino's. They would have settled her before this if I had not corne to Turin. I try to bear with this ugly humour but shall not for long."

Cecchini ("Frittellino") writes of Giovan Battista and Virginia Andreini: "God preserve me and my fellows from being with Lelio and Florinda. Florinda and her husband's intrigues and persecution have brought me to ruin and perdition." In another letter to the Duke he said: "Baldina must be excluded from the company then going to France. With secret art she kindles such conflagration in the company that it is impossible to live in the turmoil. ... With Baldina we shall never do any good either in France or in Italy." Giovan Battista Andreini denied making love to Baldina, succeeded in imposing her presence upon his wife, and when Florinda died he married her.

The amours between actresses and noblemen and between

4* MASKS AND MARIONETTES

the wives of citizens and actors roused jealousy and impreca

tions. In 1590 Conte Ulysse Bentivoglio thus described the

company of the Desiosi: "It is a brothel of infatuation be

tween strumpets and scamps." Vincenza Armani was poisoned

in Cremona by "some rejected lover/' Carlo de' Vecchi was

assassinated by actor Pier Maria Cecchini. Fortunately, how

ever, these quarrels usually concluded with violent words.

Ecclesiastical authorities stormed against the corrupting art

of the comedians. In his Comcedio-crisis published at Viterbo

in 1637 Father Girolamo Fiorentini maintained that it was

mortal sin to witness an obscene comedy; and every comedywas immoral that treated of love or secret marriage. The ec

clesiastical censors of his manuscript affirmed that it was not

mortal sin to witness an obscene comedy if the spectator "does

not take pleasure in the obscenity, but only goes to satisfy his

curiosity or for enjoyment/' In Milan Cardinal Carlo Borro-

meo would have forbidden all comedies and wished that the

wicked race of actors should be extirpated. Civil authorities

persecuted them. In Paris Parliament opposed Ganazza's

company in 1571 and the Gelosi in 1577 and forbade performances by Italian actors in 1588.

Capponi, Commissionary for Pisa, after having permittedthe Pedrolino comedians to act in that town forbade their

return because he had heard "such an outcry about the

amours of their women that serious scandal might arise/'

Even in Venice, the "sea-sodom" as Byron called it, the mart

of pleasure for all Europe, the city of carnival licentiousness,

the Council of Ten opposed the comedians. In 1768 the In

quisition thus permitted a dramatic performance:

This evening if the door open upon theatricals, but not if thedoor open upon a brotheL Remember that you comedians are

people hateful to God but fcoienitt4 by the prince to gratify the


the wives of citizens and actors roused jealousy and imprecations. In 1590 Conte Ulysse Bentivoglio thus described the company of the Desiosi: "It is a brothel of infatuation between strumpets and scamps." Vincenza Armani was poisoned in Cremona by "some rejected lover." Carlo de' Vecchi was assassinated by actor Pier Maria Cecchini. Fortunately, however, these quarrels usually concluded with violent words.

Ecclesiastical authorities stormed against the corrupting art of the comedians. In his Comcedio-crisis published at Viterbo in 1637 Father Girolamo Fiorentini maintained that it was mortal sin to witness an obscene comedy; and every comedy was immoral that treated of love or secret marriage. The ecclesiastical censors of his manuscript affirmed that it was not mortal sin to witness an obscene comedy if the spectator "does not take pleasure in the obscenity, but only goes to satisfy his curiosity or for enjoyment." In Milan Cardinal Carlo Borromeo would have forbidden all comedies and wished that the wicked race of actors should be extirpated. Civil authorities persecuted them. In Paris Parliament opposed Ganazza's company in 1571 and the Gelosi in 1577 and forbade performances by Italian actors in 1588.

Capponi, Commissionary for Pisa, after having permitted the Pedrolino comedians to act in that town forbade their return because he had heard "such an outcry about the amours of their women that serious scandal might arise." Even in Venice, the "sea-sodom" as Byron called it, the mart of pleasure for all Europe, the city of carnival licentiousness, the Council of Ten opposed the comedians. In 1768 the In-quisition thus permitted a dramatic performance: '

This evening if the door open upon theatricals, but not if the door open upon a brotheL Remember that you comedians are people hateful to God but :tolcgt~g by the ~rince to gratify the


people who take pleasure in your iniquities. You people easily

lose your heads but the Magistrate will be vigilant if you err.

Comport yourselves like Christians, even though you are comedians.*

In his Piazza Universale, Garzoni says:

No sooner have they made their entrance than the drum beats

to let all the world know that the players are arrived. The first

lady of the troupe dressed like a man, with a sword in her right

hand, goes round inviting the folk to the comedy. The populacehurries to take places. Paying their pennies down they crowd into

a hall where a temporary stage has been erected. An orchestra of

tongs and bones like the braying of asses or the caterwauling of

cats in February performs the overture. Then comes a quack-doctor's oration to his gulls. The piece opens; you behold a Mag-nifico who is not worth the quarter of a farthing; a Zanni whostraddles like a goose; a Gratiano who squirts his words out froma clyster-pipe; a lover who acts like a narcotic; a Spanish captainfull of musty oaths, a stupid foul-mouthed bawd; a pedant who

trips up in Tuscan phrases; a Burattino taking oil his greasy cap;a prima donna who yawns through her mumbled part with eyes

wide open to the chance of selling her overblown charms in quiteanother market than the theatre.

The show is seasoned with loathsome buffooneries and inter

ludes which ought to send their performers to the galleys. These

profane comedians present nothing which is not scandalous. Thefilth falling from their lips infects themselves and their profession

with foulest infamy. They are donkeys in their action, pimps and

ruffians in their gestures, public prostitutes in their immodesty of

speech. In everything they stink of impudicity and pique them

selves by barefaced bawdry and undisguised indecency. In one

corner of the piazza you will see our swaggering Fortunato and his

boon companion Fritate keeping the populace agape with stories,

songs, improvisations, dialogues. In another corner Burattino sets

up his bray of brass. You would think that the hangman had got

hold of you, to hear him yell into your ears.

When the burlesque prologue comes to a conclusion, Burattino's

* Nicol6-Maria Tiepolo, about 1778, quoted by Molmenti in his Essay on Goldoni,

Venezia, Ongania, 1880, p. 68.


people who take pleasure in your iniquities. You people easily lose your heads but the Magistrate will be vigilant if you err. Comport yourselves like Christians, even though you are comedians.'*'

In his Piazza U niversale ~ Carzoni says:

No sooner have they made their entrance than the drum beats to let all the world know that the players are arrived. The first lady of the troupe dressed like a man, with a sword in her right hand, goes round inviting the folk to the comedy. The populace hurries to take places. Paying their pennies down they crowd into a hall where a temporary stage has been erected. An orchestra of tongs and bones like the braying of asses or the caterwauling of cats in February performs the overture. Then comes a quackdoctor's oration to his gulls. The piece opens; you behold a Magnifico who is not worth the quarter of a farthing; a Zanni who straddles like a goose; a Gratiano who squirts his words out from a clyster-pipe; a lover who acts like a narcotic; a Spanish captain full of musty oaths, a stupid foul-mouthed bawd; a pedant who trips up in Tuscan phrases; a Burattino taking off his greasy cap; a prima donna who yawns through her mumbled part with eyes wide open to the chance of selling her overblown charms in quite another market than the theatre.

The show is seasoned with loathsome buffooneries and interludes which ought to send their performers to the galleys. These profane comedians present nothing which is not scandalous. The filth falling from their lips infects themselves and their profession with foulest infamy. They are donkeys in their action, pimps and ruffians in their gestures, public prostitutes in their immodesty of speech. In everything they stink of impudicity and pique themselves by barefaced bawdry and undisguised indecency. In one comer of the piazza you will see our swaggering Fortunato and liis boon companion Fritate keeping the populace agape with stories, songs, improvisations, dialogues. In another comer Burattino sets up his bray of brass. You would think that the hangman had got hold of you, to hear him yell into your ears.

When the burlesque prologue comes to a conclusion, Burattino's • Nicolo-Maria Tiepolo, about 1778, quoted by Molmenti in his Essay on Goldoni,

Venezia, Ongania, 1880, p. 68.


master puts in his appearance. It is our old friend the Doc

tor with his Bolognese jargon and absurd pretensions to om

niscience. Near by is the Milanese quack, velvet cap on head and

white Guelf feathers waving to the wind. He is telling Gradello

the story of his hapless love. Toward evening the crowd of quacks,

blind musicians and acrobats thicken. Here is Zan-della-Vigna with

his performing monkeys; there Catullo and his guitar; in another

corner the Mantuan merry-andrew dressed like a zany, Zottino

singing an ode to the pox, and here is the pretty Sicilian rope-

dancer. The whole piazza is swarming with folk selling a powder

and pill for every ill. Men eat fire, swallow tow, pull yards of

twine from their throats, wash their faces in molten lead, find

cards in the pockets of unsuspecting neighbours.

When the play was given in a theatre the nobles came on to

the stage, made love to the actresses and walked about during

the performance. Woe to the actor who objected. In 1609

Cardinal Giustiniano, Legate of Bologna, commanded that

whoever ventured to impede the comedians directly or in

directly by standing in front of them while they were acting,

by sitting on the stage or by cries and hisses, "shall receive

three stripes of the lash or three months1

imprisonment and a

fine of a hundred scudi" and whoever "throws apples, nuts or

garbage at the comedians, or brings printed sonnets to adver

tise them from the stage, or fights or makes other noise during

the comedy, shall fall under the above penalties and also the

penalty of five years at the galleys or one year in prison, or

exile from the whole of the Legation for five years" and who

ever "draws arms shall fall under the penalty of death/'

Decrees, regulations and proclamations promulgated in

Florence, Bologna, Milan, Venice and other Italian states

during two centuries, attest persistence of these evils despite

threats of severest punishment. An "Advice" from Rome in

1668 relates that many went "to the comedy of the public

theatre . . . more to see the revels, intrigues, feasting and


master puts in his appearance. It is our old friend the Doctor with his Bolognese jargon and absurd pretensions to omniscience. Near by is the Milanese quack, velvet cap on head and white Guelf feathers waving to the wind. He is telling Gradello the story of his hapless love. Toward evening the crowd of quacks, blind musicians and acrobats thicken. Here is Zan-della-Vigna with his performing monkeys; there Catullo and his guitar; in another comer the Mantuan merry-andrew dressed like a zany, Zottino singing an ode to the pox, and here is the pretty Sicilian ropedancer. The whole piazza is swarming with folk selling a powder and pill for every ill. Men eat fire, swallow tow, pull yards of twine from their throats, wash their faces in molten lead, find cards in the pockets of unsuspecting neighbours.

When the play was given in a theatre the nobles came on to the stage, made love to the actresses and walked about during the performance. Woe to the actor who objected. In 1609 Cardinal Giustiniano, Legate of Bologna, commanded that whoever ventured to impede the comedians directly or indirectly by standing in front of them while they were acting, by sitting on the stage or by cries and hisses, "shall receive three stripes of the lash or three months' imprisonment and a fine of a hundred scudi" and whoever "throws apples, nuts or garbage at the comedians, or brings printed sonnets to advertise them from the stage, or fights or makes other noise during the comedy, shall fall under the above penalties and also the penalty of five years at the galleys or one year in prison, or exile from the whole of the Legation for five years" and whoever "draws arms shall fall under the penalty of death."

Decrees, regulations and proclamations promulgated in Florence, Bologna, Milan, Venice and other Italian states during two centuries, attest persistence of these evils despite threats of severest punishment. An "Advice" from Rome in 1668 relates that many went "to the comedy of the public theatre . . . more to see the revels, intrigues, feasting and


other things done in the boxes than to see the above mentioned comedy.'' The nobles chattered, laughed, passed nois

ily from place to place, obstructed the stage, spitting freely on

the heads of the spectators below; the plebeians making an

uproar with voice, feet, hands and sticks; taunting and insult

ing the actors, and hurling upon the stage "lemons, oranges,

apples, pears, turnips and other similar filth."

The heyday of improvised comedy was the middle of the

seventeenth century. When invention was exhausted and the

art had frozen into the traditional masks Pantalone, Arlec-

chino, Brighella and Pulcinella still represented the qualities

and costumes of the ancient Italian peoples; just as the Lelios,

Ottavios and Florindos with enormous powdered wigs and

laced shirts typified the more recent corruption. Such troupes

of professional performers passed from city to city; and in

popular theatres or upon improvised stages in the city squares

represented more modern versions of old farces and scenarios,

in which Arlecchino distributed blows, and the only season

ing was lascivious gestures, indecent equivocations and vulgar

jokes; thus returning to the ancient tradition of mounte

banks, mimes, acrobats, jongleurs, circus clowns and rope

dancers. The Commedia dell'Arte had sunk to its lowest

depths.


other things done in the boxes than to see the above mentioned comedy." The nobles chattered, laughed, passed noisily from place to place, obstructed the stage, spitting freely on the heads of the spectators below; the plebeians making an uproar with voice, feet, hands and sticks; taunting and insulting the actors, and hurling upon the stage "lemons, oranges, apples, pears, turnips and other similar filth."

The heyday of improvised comedy was the middle of the seventeenth century. When invention was exhausted and the art had frozen into the traditional masks Pantalone, Arlecchino, Brighella and Pulcinella still represented the qualities and costumes of the ancient Italian peoples; just as the Lelios, Ottavios and Florindos with enormous powdered wigs and laced shirts typified the more recent corruption. Such troupes of professional performers passed from city to city; and in popular theatres or upon improvised stages in the city squares represented more modern versions of old farces and scenarios, in which Arlecchino distributed blows, and the only seasoning was lascivious gestures, indecent equivocations and vulgar jokes; thus returning to the ancient tradition of mountebanks, mimes, acrobats, jongleurs, circus clowns and rope dancers. The Commedia dell' Arte had sunk to its lowest depths.

Chapter IV

The Plot The Scenario Improvisation Zibaldoni

IN THE first Commedia dell'Arte there were no Arlecchini

and Pulcinelli, but simply the same servants and old men and

young lovers and courtesans and Spaniards who had acted in

the erudite comedy but were now represented in more popular form, were more ridiculous, more mirthful, with droll

gestures, foolish lazzi, songs and dances. Improvised comedy,however, contained a conspicuous literary element. In Scala's

"Scenari" madrigals were recited, Fidenzio's poetry was read,

songs were sung, Boccaccio's stories were told and French was

sometimes quoted.

Improvised and studied comedy had many types and sub

jects in common. Ariosto's Suppositi, the Mostro of Terence,

Plautus's Anfitrione and Pseudolus were reduced to improvised comedy scenarios, which were also derived from trage

dies, "sacre rappresentazioni" and melodramas. Giulio Strozzi's

melodrama Romolo e Remo (Venice, 1645) was reduced to a

scenario "to be recited in the Teatro Nuovo." Giambattista

Andreini, Cecchini and many other writers of scenarios for

improvised comedy borrowed largely from the classical and

literary comedies.

When the actor had a serious part he used elegant meta

phors and rhetorical artifices. When his part was ludicrous he

invented lazzi. "By lazzi we mean/' says Riccoboni, "the ac

tions of Arlequin or the other actor when they pretend fright46

Chapter IV

The Plot-The Scenario-Improvisation-Zibaldoni

IN THE first Commedia dell'Arte there were no Arlecchini and Pulcinelli, but simply the same servants and old men and young lovers and courtesans and Spaniards who had acted in the erudite comedy but were now represented in more popular form, were more ridiculous, more mirthful, with droll gestures, foolish lazzi~ songs and dances. Improvised comedy, however, contained a conspicuous literary element. In Scala's "Scenari" madrigals were recited, Fidenzio's poetry was read, songs were sung, Boccaccio's stories were told and French was sometimes quoted.

Improvised and studied comedy had many types and subjects in common. Ariosto's Suppositi, the Mostro of Terence, Plautus's Anfitrione and Pseudolus were reduced to improvised comedy scenarios, which were also derived from tragedies, "sacre rappresentazioni" and melodramas. Giulio Strozzi's melodrama Romolo e Remo (Venice, 1645) was reduced to a scenario "to be recited in the Teatro Nuovo." Giambattista Andreini, Cecchini and many other writers of scenarios for improvised comedy borrowed largely from the classical and literary comedies.

When the actor had a serious part he used elegant metaphors and rhetorical artifices. When his part was ludicrous he invented lazzi. "By lazzi we mean," says Riccoboni, "the actions of Arlequin or the other actor when they pretend fright

46

THE NUPTIALS OF THE HUMPBACK AND SIMONA,

SIXTEENTH CENTURY ENGRAVINGTHE NUPTIALS OF THE HUMPBACK AND SIMONA.

SIXTEENTH CENTURY ENGRAVING

PLOT-SCENARIO-ZIBALDONI 47

or make jests foreign to the plot of the comedy. It is this by

play invented by the actor which the Italian comedians call

lazzi" In Arlequin Devaliseur de Maisons Arlequin and

Scapin are valets, Flaminia is separated from her parents and

reduced to absolute poverty. Arlequin complains of their sad

situation and of his meagre diet. Scapin promises that he shall

have everything he wants, and orders him to howl and shout

in front of the house; Flaminia, attracted by Arlequin's cries,

asks him what is the matter; Scapin explains while Arlequin

cries out that he intends to leave her. Flaminia begs him not

to abandon her and appeals to Scapin who proposes a way to

relieve her misery. While Scapin is explaining his plan to

Flaminia, Arlequin interrupts the scene with various lazzi.

He pretends to have cherries in his hat which he eats and

throws the pits at Scapin; he catches a fly, cuts off its wings

and eats it comically. This kind of trick called lazzo invariably

interrupts the theme of Scapin's discourse, but also gives him

an opportunity to renew it with more force.

President de Brosses wrote:

This manner of playing impromptu adds vivacity and reality to

the action. In the theatre the gesture and inflexion of the voice

blend always with the words; the actors come and go, speak and

act as if quite at home. It is this necessity to act on the spot which

makes it so hard to replace a good Italian comedian when unfor

tunately he happens to be absent. . . . Any actor can recite what

he has memorized. A good Italian comedian not only improvises

while he is acting but blends his own actions and words so per

fectly with his fellow player and enters so immediately into the

other actor's part that it would seem as if the whole thing must

have been planned and rehearsed in advance.

In regard to these improvisations of the Commedia dell9

Arte Evariste Gherardi says:

PLOT-seEN ARIO-ZIBALDONI 47

or make jests foreign to the plot of the comed.Y. It is this by· play invented by the actor which the Italian comedians call lazzi." In Arlequin Devaliseur de Maisons Arlequin and Scapin are valets, Flaminia is separated from her parents and reduced to absolute poverty. Arlequin complains of their sad situation and of his meagre diet. Scapin promises that he shall have everything he wants, and orders him to howl and shout in front of the house; Flaminia, attracted by Arlequin's cries, asks him what is the matter; Scapin explains while Arlequin cries out that he intends to leave her. Flaminia begs him not to abandon her and appeals to Scapin who proposes a way to relieve her misery. While Scapin is explaining his plan to Flaminia, Arlequin interrupts the scene with various lazzi. He pretends to have cherries in his hat which he eats and throws the pits at Scapin; he catches a fly, cuts off its wings and eats it comically. This kind of trick called lazzo invariably interrupts the theme of Scapin's discourse, but also gives him an opportunity to renew it with more force.

President de Brosses wrote:

This manner of playing impromptu adds vivacity and reality to the action. In the theatre the gesture and inflexion of the voice blend always with the words; the actors come and go, speak and act as if quite at home. It is this necessity to act on the spot which makes it so hara. to replace a good Italian comedian when un£or· tunately he happens to be absent .... Any actor can recite what he has memorized. A good Italian comedian not only improvises while he is acting but blends his own actions and words so per· £ectly with his fellow player and enters so immediately into the other actor's part that it would seem as if the whole thing must have been planned and rehearsed in advance.

In regard to these improvisations of the Commedia dell' A rte Evariste Gherardi says:


Italian comedians learn nothing by heart; it is sufficient for

them to be informed of the subject just before they begin to act;

and each actor gives his own interpretation to his part. This

requires an actor of the highest ability. For he must not only be

able to interpret his own part but he must so understand the words

and gestures of his fellow actors that they will seem to have re

hearsed their parts together.

Besides these lazzi, the improvised comedy was full of ridic

ulous phrases, gestures, disguises, faux-pas, epigrams and

cudgellings. The ludicrous was often founded on the in

decent; women sometimes appeared naked on the stage. With

the prevailing obscenity of the written comedy lewdness was

inevitable in the Commedia dell'Arte troupe, which was fre

quently composed of mere mountebanks and low comedians.

Of a drama only the outline (the canovaccio or scenario) was

traced; the actors improvised the rest and that rest was every

thing. At each performance the dialogue was improvisedafresh. A word, a gesture of the actor could suggest a repartee;the presence in the theatre of a gentleman friend or of a ladywho was not a lady could inspire them with a piquant allu

sion. Every actor was an extemporary poet.

To succeed in the Commedia dell'Arte the comedian must

have fertile imagination, facility of expression, extensive

learning and his memory stocked with phrases, love speeches,

expressions of despair on which he might draw when occasion

rose; and he must know the language so thoroughly as to

handle it with ease. Niccol6 Barbieri said "Out of ten who tryto recite, nine do not succeed," and Riccoboni writes "that it

is easier to form ten actors for the regular comedy than onefor the improvised comedy/' Plays that are gay gain muchwith improvisation. There is a sparkle and truth in a spontaneous dialogue like the coruscation of fireworks. Each uses


Italian comedians learn nothing by heart; it is sufficient for them to be informed of the subject just before they begin to act; and each actor gives his own interpretation to his part. This requires an actor of the highest ability. For he must not only be able to interpret his own part but he must so understand the words and gestures of his fellow actors that they will seem to have rehearsed their parts together.

Besides these lazzi~ the improvised comedy was full of ridiculous phrases, gestures, disguises, faux-pas~ epigrams and cudgellings. The ludicrous was often founded on the indecent; women sometimes appeared naked on the stage. With the prevailing obscenity of the written comedy lewdness was inevitable in the Commedia dell'Arte troupe, which was frequently composed of mere mountebanks and low comedians. Of a drama only the outline (the canovaccio or scenario) was traced; the actors improvised the rest and that rest was everything. At each performance the dialogue was improvised afresh. A word, a gesture of the actor could suggest a repartee; the presence in the theatre of a gentleman friend or of a lady -who was not a lady-could inspire them with a piquant allusion. Every actor was an extemporary poet.

To succeed in the Commedia dell'Arte the comedian must have fertile imagination, facility of expression, extensive learning and his memory stocked with phrases, love speeches, expressions of despair on which he might draw when occasion rose; and he must know the language so thoroughly as to handle it with ease. N iccolo Barbieri said "Out of ten who try to recite, nine do not succeed," and Riccoboni writes "that it is easier to form ten actors for the regular comedy than one for the improvised comedy." Plays that are gay gain much with improvisation. There is a sparkle and truth in a spontaneous dialogue like the coruscation of fireworks. Each uses

SCAPIN (1716)SCAPIN (1716)


the expressions most natural to him, and if the actor is well

educated his style will be elevated and correct. It is personal

ity which makes for success or failure in improvised comedy;and in order to excel it is necessary to have a vivid and rich

imagination and to express oneself fluently. The best impro-viser will give warmth to his play without forgetting the de

tails and be careful to note what the others are doing or say

ing in order to provoke the reply that he needs.

Impromptu comedy has graces unknown to the written

play. So great is the variety due to the moods and temperaments of the actors that one may see a scenario many times

and each time it will be a different play. The impromptuactor feels more keenly and therefore speaks better what is his

own than what he has borrowed from others through mem

ory. But these advantages in impromptu comedies are limited

by many inconveniences, since the impromptu of the best

actor may be entirely ruined if he fails to receive the proper

support of the one to whom he is speaking.

The Scenari of the Commedia dell'Arte were attached to

the walls behind the wings. Perucci has explained how the

comedians agreed upon the plot. "The Corago, or leader

should decide beforehand on the subject so that the plot and

the limits of the speeches may be known. The leader must

read the plot and explain the characters by name and char

acteristics; expound the argument of the story, the place

where it is staged; fix the entrance houses, interpret the jokes

and all the smallest details, in fact look after all the items

necessary for the comedy." He will, for example, say: "The

comedy to be represented is ... the characters are . . . Then

he will give the argument." "The actors must never forget

the town where they are supposed to be and why they

are there, and never fail to remember their names. It is

PLOT -SCENARIO-ZIBALDONI 49

the expressions most natural to him, and if the actor is well educated his style will be elevated and correct. It is personality which makes for success or failure in improvised comedy; and in order to excel it is necessary to have a vivid and rich imagination and to express oneself fluently. The best improviser will give warmth to his play without forgetting the details and be careful to note what the others are doing or saying in order to provoke the reply that he needs.

Impromptu comedy has graces unknown to the written play. So great is the variety due to the moods and temperaments of the actors that one may see a scenario many times and each time it will be a different play. The impromptu actor feels more keenly and therefore speaks better what is his own than what he has borrowed from others through memory. But these advantages in impromptu comedies are limited by many inconveniences, since the impromptu of the best actor may be entirely ruined if he fails to receive the proper support of the one to whom he is speaking.

The Scenari of the Commedia dell'Arte were attached to the walls behind the wings. Perucci has explained how the comedians agreed upon the plot. "The Corago, or leadt.'J should decide beforehand on the subject so that the plot and the limits of the speeches may be known. The leader must read the plot and explain the characters by name and characteristics; expound the argument of the story, the place where it is staged; fix the entrance houses, interpret the jokes and all the smallest details, in fact look after all the items necessary for the comedy." He will, for example, say: "The comedy to be represented is ... the characters are ... Then he will give the argument." "The actors must never forget the town where they are supposed to be and why they are there, and never fail to remember their names. It is


unpardonable for one to say he is in Rome and for another to

say they are in Naples; that one coming from Spain should say

he comes from Germany; for the father to forget the name of

his son, or the lover that of his sweetheart/'

The Corago interprets the jokes and the plot, saying: "Here

there is to be such a jest, there such an equivocal scene; here

such a metaphor, or bit of irony. He must be ready to remedy

every difficulty that the characters may suggest/' "Do not

wander too far from the subject lest it be too hard to find the

way back, and the audience lose the thread of the plot or fail

to understand it. The actors should all assemble to listen to

the instructions and not trust to their memory or to have

recited the comedy before; for various leaders might agree on

changes in the plot or on different names and places. Every

thing said, whether serious or ridiculous, must be introduced

naturally. If night is to follow some scene be sure to mention

it in the previous scene, saying: It is already night and thus

comes dawn and brings the day/"

Each actor in the Cornmedia dell'Arte had his own zibal-

done (commonplace book) in which were collected hundredsof phrases, jests and speeches which could be adapted to al

most every play. Pantalone had his "Consiglio"; the Doctor,

his "Tirata della Giostra"a. long list of ridiculous names and

ludicrous discoveries; the Capitano, his "Bravura Spagnyola."The more expert actors while drawing phrases from the rich

storehouse of their memory gave their discourses such brio

as to make them appear scenes from real life. Hence it was

natural that each actor should specialize in the interpretationof a definite character, assuming the type and pouring into it

his own spirit. Francesco Andreini became Capitan Spavento;Fabrizio de Fornaris, Capitan Coccodrillo; Silvio Fiorillo,

Capitan Mattamoros; Girolamo Garavini, Capitan Rinoce-


unpardonable for one to say he is in Rome and for another to say they are in Naples; that one coming from Spain should say he comes from Germany;' for the father to forget the name of his son, or the lover that of his sweetheart."

The Corago interprets the jokes and the plot, saying: "Here there is to be such a jest, there such an equivocal scene; here such a metaphor, or bit of irony. He must be ready to remedy every difficulty that the characters may suggest." "Do not wander too far from the subject lest it be too hard to find the way back, and the audience lose the thread of the plot or fail to understand it. The actors should all assemble to listen to the instructions and not trust to their memory or to have recited the comedy before; for various leaders might agree on changes in the plot or on different names and places. Everything said, whether serious or ridiculous, must be introduced naturally. If night is to follow some scene be sure to mention it in the previous scene, saying: 'It is already night and thus comes dawn and brings the day.' "

Each actor in the Commedia dell'Arte had his own zibaldone (commonplace book) in which were collected hundreds of phrases, jests and speeches which could be adapted to almost every play. Pantalone had his H Consiglio"; the Doctor, his "Tirata della Giostra" -a long list of ridiculous names and ludicrous discoveries; the Capitano, his "Bravura Spagnyola." The more expert actors while drawing phrases from the rich storehouse of their memory gave their discourses s-qch brio as to make them appear scenes from real life. Hence it was natural that each actor should specialize in the interpretation of a definite character, assuming the type and pouring into it his own spirit. Francesco Andreini became Capitan Spavento; Fabrizio de Fornaris, Capitan Coccodrillo; Silvio Fiorillo, Capitan Mattamoros; Girolamo Garavini, Capitan Rinoce-


ronte; Giuseppe Bianchi, Capitan Spezzaferoo; Bianchi, Lom-

bardi, Romagnosi are recorded as interpreters of the mask of

the Dottore (Doctor); Benotti, Arrighi, Riccoboni were fa

mous Pantaloni.

The complications of the "scenari" or love-plots of the

Commedia dell'Arte are numberless and constantly changing.

To feign death a sleeping draught is taken. To carry out her

love intrigues a woman pretends to be dumb and possessed

of evil spirits, the lovers and servants also feigning to be mad.

Evil spirits appear on the stage and threaten, cudgel or carry

off someone. In the Commedia dell'Arte the changing of

clothes is a common artifice; Isabella, Franceschina and Fla-

minia dress as men; Fabrizio dresses as a woman; Arlecchino

as a dentist; Flavio as a physician; Flaminio as a gypsy woman.

Scenes of tumult, flight and confusion are a characteristic of

the Commedia dell'Arte. In Fortuna di Flavio

Arlecchino the charlatan arranges the bench on which he is to

mount and sell his goods; the servitori place his chair and valise

on it; his companions come from the inn and stand on the bench.

Turchetto plays and sings; Flaminia comes to the window and

watches the players; Burattino listens; Franceschina looks on;

Pantalone arrives and salutes Orazio. Gratiano praises his goods;

Capitano salutes Flaminia and, recognizing Arlecchino as the manwho has taken his sweetheart, pulls him off the bench; Orazio and

Capitano fight; Arlecchino flees; Capitano flees; and in the midst

of this uproar the bench falls over. Everyone flees into his own

house, Orazio, Pantalone and Pedrolino following.

The Commedia dell'Arte deliberately chose the obscene, the

unusual and the absurd. The unusual is sometimes combined

with the spectacular as when the moon is seen all stained with

blood or a soldier appears with the head of a murdered man

in his hand; or a child riding astride a bear and leading a lion

on a leash; infernal spirits, dwarfs with lighted torches.


ronte; Giuseppe Bianchi, Capitan Spezzaferoo; Bianchi, Lombardi, Romagnosi are recorded as interpreters of the mask of the Dottore (Doctor); Benotti, Arrighi, Riccoboni were famous Pantaloni.

The complications of the "scenari" or love-plots of the Commedia dell'Arte are numberless and constantly changing. To feign death a sleeping draught is taken. To carry out her love intrigues a woman pretends to be dumb and possessed of evil spirits, the lovers and servants also feigning to be mad. Evil spirits appear on the stage and threaten, cudgel or carry off someone. In the Commedia dell'Arte the changing of clothes is a common artifice; Isabella, Franceschina and Flaminia dress as men; Fabrizio dresses as a woman; Arlecchino as a dentist; Flavio as a physician; Flaminio as a gypsy woman. Scenes of tumult, flight and confusion are a characteristic of the Commedia dell' Arte. In Fortuna di Flavio

Arlecchino the charlatan arranges the bench on which he is to mount and sell his goods; the servitori place his chair and valise on it; his companions come from the inn and stand on the bench. Turchetto plays and sings; Flaminia comes to the window and watches the players; Burattino listens; Franceschina looks on; Pantalone arrives and salutes Orazio. Gratiano praises his goods; Capitano salutes Flaminia and, recognizing Arlecchino as the man who has taken his sweetheart, pulls him off the bench; Orazio and Capitano fight; Arlecchino flees; Capitano flees; and in the midst of this uproar the bench falls over. Everyone flees into his own house, Orazio, Pantalone and Pedrolino following.

The Commedia dell'Arte deliberately chose the obscene, the unusual and the absurd. The unusual is sometimes combined with the spectacular as when the moon is seen all stained with blood or a soldier appears with the head of a murdered man in his hand; or a child riding astride a bear and leading a lion on a leash; infernal spirits, dwarfs with lighted torches.


In the Commedia delVArte Isabella is a coquette, an in

trigante, a dangerous woman; near cousin to the Columbine

adventurous type. She says:

The deplorable state of gallantry today requires that some

woman should sustain the cause of her sex; we have too long

waited for an avenger. Women have ceased to please; against cer

tain stupid and brutal pleasures love has not held its own with

the young men. The profanation of our charms in continually

uniting us to imbecile old men has been a great enemy of gal

lantry; for they are a class despised by the whole wide empire of

lovers. This strange alliance between youth and old age which

avarice has suggested to our fathers permits many abuses. It causes

separations and is the opportunity of elegant and dissolute abbs

who are always on the watch for such incompatible marriages.

Girls do not willingly accept the rewards of such marriages; or

when accepted, they hate the austerity demanded by spectacled

husbands. Children and old people make poor soldiers of hymen.

Imagine an old graybeard marching under the banner of lovel

Picture a young girl living with a husband who questions her every

hour, counts her every step, is always contradicting her and boast

ing of his early prowessl A crabbed, surly old man who hates to

see a new ribbon in her hair; who bribes servants to spy on his

wife's most innocent actions. And what shall I say of the legion of

maladies characteristic of old age, those insupportable coughs, the

common music of an old man. It is true that I find somethingheroic in the courageous fidelity of those who support such hus

bands; but for myself I hate an old man who dares to restrain myliberty.

The Doctor role was first played by Lucio (1560). He is the

Pedante of the Erudite Comedy. He is a savant, lawyer, physi

cian, philosopher, rhetorician or diplomat; a chattering, con

ceited ignoramus. He spouts Bolognese dialect interlarded

with Latin quotations and grotesque etymologies. Whether

named Graziano, Prudentio, Hippocrasso or Balanzon, his

learned imbecility matches the Captain's warlike adventures


In the Commedia dell'Arte Isabella is a coquette, an intrigante, a dangerous woman; near cousin to the Columbine adventurous type. She says:

The deplorable state of gallantry today requires that some woman should sustain the cause of her sex; we have too long waited for an avenger. Women have ceased to please; against certain stupid and brutal pleasures love has not held its own with the young men. The profanation of our charms in continually uniting us to imbecile old men has been a great enemy of gallantry; for they are a class despised by the whole wide empire of lovers. This strange alliance between youth and old age which avarice has suggested to our fathers permits many abuses. It causes separations and is the opportunity of elegant and dissolute abbes who are always on the watch for such incompatible marriages.

Girls do not willingly accept the rewards of such marriages; or when accepted, they hate the austerity demanded by spectacled husbands. Children and old people make poor soldiers of hymen. Imagine an old graybeard marching under the banner of love I Picture a young girl living with a husband who questions her every hour, counts her every step, is always contradicting her and boasting of his early prowess I A crabbed, surly old man who hates to see a new ribbon in her hair; who bribes servants to spy on his wife's most innocent actions. And what shall I say of the legion of maladies characteristic of old age, those insupportable coughs, the common music of an old man. It is true that I find something heroic in the courageous fidelity of those who support such husbands; but for myself I hate an old man who dares to restrain my liberty.

The Doctor role was first played by Lucio (1560). He is the Pedante of the Erudite Comedy. He is a savant, lawyer, physician, philosopher, rhetorician or diplomat; a chattering, conceited ignoramus. He spouts Bolognese dialect interlarded with Latin quotations and grotesque etymologies. Whether named Graziano, Prudentio, Hippocrasso or Balanzon, his learned imbecility matches the Captain'S warlike adventures

SCARAMUCCIA (1645)SCARAMUCCIA (1645)


and amorous conquests. Akin to Doctor Graziano is the Bisce-

gliese Pancrazio or Neapolitan Cucuzziello, the Cassandro

from Siena or Facanappa from Venice.

Neapolitan Scaramuccia comes under the class of the Captains. His costume is black. Riccoboni says that this black dress

imitated the Spanish costume used by the magistrates in

Naples. A boaster and coward, he masquerades as a marquis or

lord of various imaginary countries. Like his father the Capi-tan he falls in love promiscuously, boasting of favours, and

slanders the women who refuse him. Pretending enormous

wealth, he is usually the valet of some small lord or poor citi

zen. Scaramuccia is a rascal who delights in making trouble.

Taberio Fiorilli, one of the most celebrated Italian actors

of the seventeenth century, was born at Naples in 1608 and

died in 1696. Angelo Constanti, author of La Vie, amours et

actions de Scaramouche., says that Fiorilli was the creator of

the Scaramouche masque. Nature had miraculously endowed

him with gifts for the part, and he was soon accepted in all

Italy as the most perfect mime of all time. Scaramouche after

putting the room in order sits down in an easy-chair and plays

his guitar. His master Pasquarelli comes in and beats time

over his shoulders. In a scene of pretended fright without ut

tering a word Scaramouche kept the laughter going for a

quarter of an hour. A great prince seeing him play in Rome

said, "Scaramuccio does not speak but he says a great deal/'

and when the comedy was over presented him with a coach

and six horses. In Paris in 1640 Fiorilli equalled his Italian

success. Every evening he came to the royal palace with his

dog, cat, monkey, guitar and parrot to amuse the dauphin,

afterward Louis XIV. He became a favourite of Louis XIV,

and died in 1696 when eighty-eight years old. Molire greatly

admired him.


and amorous conquests. Akin to Doctor Graziano is the Biscegliese Pancrazio or Neapolitan Cucuzziello, the Cassandro from Siena or Facanappa from Venice.

Neapolitan Scaramuccia comes under the class of the Captains. His costume is black. Riccoboni says that this black dress imitated the Spanish costume used by the magistrates in Napl~s. A boaster and coward, he masquerades as a marquis or lord of various imaginary countries. Like his father the Capitan he falls in love promiscuously, boasting of favours, and slanders the women who refuse him. Pretending enormous wealth, he is usually the valet of some small lord or poor citizen. Scaramuccia is a rascal who delights in making trouble.

Taberio Fiorilli, one of the most celebrated Italian actors of the seventeenth century, was born at Naples in 1608 and died in 1696. Angelo Constanti, author of La Vie, amours et actions de Scaramouche, says that Fiorilli was the creator of the Scaramouche masque. Nature had miraculously endowed him with gifts for the part, and he was soon accepted in all Italy as the most perfect mime of all time. Scaramouche after putting the room in order sits down in an easy-chair and plays his guitar. His master Pasquarelli comes in and beats time over his shoulders. In a scene of pretended fright without uttering a word Scaramouche kept the laughter going for a quarter of an hour. A great prince seeing him play in Rome said, "Scaramuccio does not speak but he says a great deal," and when the comedy was over presented him with a coach and six horses. In Paris in 1640 Fiorilli equalled his Italian success. Every evening he came to the royal palace with his dog, cat, monkey, guitar and parrot to amuse the dauphin, afterward Louis XIV. He became a favourite of Louis XIV, and died in 1696 when eighty-eight years old. Moliere greatly admired him.


Pulcinella is the Roman Maccus; the Maccus o crooked

nose, long legs, humpback, big stomach; of absurd gestures,

cries and funny speeches. About 1620 Pulcinella was intro

duced by the Neapolitan Silvio Fiorillo at Naples. Of Fio-

rillo's Pulcinella, Cecchini says: "This delightful man has

introduced disciplined stupidity, at the first appearance of

which melancholy flies away. I call it 'disciplined stupidity'

because much study has been given to show a dolt little bet

ter than a madman, and a madman who frequently comesnear to being wise." He adds that Capitan Mattamoros in

vented this super-stupid part. The name Pulcinella (from

pulcino, an unfledged chicken) well suited this mask with

round eyes, hooked nose and something of the fowl about

him. Riccoboni says "in Neapolitan comedies the Brighellaand Arlecchino parts are taken by two Pulcinelli one sharp,the other stupid. Whether innkeeper, peasant, soldier, thief,

rich man, father or adopted son, according to the part he is

playing, Pulcinella is always a Neapolitan. About 1630 Pul

cinella became a marionette; in 1649 he had his own theatre

in Paris ("Je suis Polichinelle qui fait en sentinelle a la portede Nesle"); and he became a favourite character in the suburban theatres of Paris.

In Rome and Naples, Pulcinella is still a great favourite. In

his long loose white jacket and pantaloons, his beaked maskand whitened face Pulcinella intrigues, brings lovers together,creates imbrogli, laughs at his victims. Married; his wife andmother-in-law always quarrel. In one play Pulcinella while

fighting with the devil fiercely pulls his tail It comes off in his

hands; he is amazed, makes extraordinary grimaces, smells it;

and the odour is uncommonly good. He slices off and eats a

piece. Another slice and another until he has eaten up the

whole tail.


Pulcinella is the Roman Maccus; the Maccus of crooked nose, long legs, humpback, big stomach; of absurd gestures, cries and funny speeches. About 1620 Pulcinella was introduced by the Neapolitan Silvio Fiorillo at Naples. Of Fiorillo's Pulcinella, Cecchini says: "This delightful man has introduced disciplined stupidity, at the first appearance of which melancholy flies away. I call it 'disciplined stupidity' because much study has been given to show a dolt little better than a madman, and a madman who frequently comes near to being wise." He adds that Capitan Mattamoros invented this super-stupid part. The name Pulcinella (from pulcinoJ an unfledged chicken) well suited this mask with round eyes, hooked nose and something of the fowl about him. Riccoboni says "in Neapolitan comedies the Brighella and Arlecchino parts are taken by two Pulcinelli-one sharp, the other stupid. Whether innkeeper, peasant, soldier, thief, rich man, father or adopted son, according to the part he is playing, Pulcinella is always a Neapolitan. About 1630 Pulcinella became a marionette; in 1649 he had his own theatre in Paris ("Je suis Polichinelle qui fait en sentinelle a la porte de Nesle"); and he became a favourite character in the suburban theatres of Paris.

In Rome and Naples, Pulcinella is still a great favourite. In his long loose white jacket and pantaloons, his beaked mask and whitened face Pulcinella intrigues, brings lovers together, creates imbrogliJ laughs at his victims. Married; his wife and mother-in-law always quarrel. In one play Pulcinella while fighting with the devil fiercely pulls his taiL It comes off in his hands; he is amazed, makes extraordinary grimaces, smells it; and the odour is uncommonly good. He slices off and eats a piece. Another slice and another until he has eaten up the whole taiL

BRIGHELLA (1,570)BRIGHELLA (1570)

PLOT-SCENARIO--ZIBALDONI 55

The following passage from Maridazzo di M. Zan Frogno-cola con Madonna Gnigniocola, printed in 1618,

Tognaz dances with Bertolina;

Brighella dances with Franceschina;

The wenches dance with their beloved

And the bride dances with her spouse,

is the earliest record of the Brighella mask. Brighella's first

costume was a coat with large pantaloons of white cloth, a cap

bordered with green stripes and a cloak. The coat and the

pantaloons were striped on the seams with pieces of green

cloth, a sort of livery. He wore a brown mask with a beard.

His modern costume is a white frock coat with three bands, a

vest and pantaloons also white and striped with green. He

preserves his traditional white cap bordered with green, his

brown half-mask, beard and light moustache, and looks some

thing like a negro clothed in an absurd livery.*

Giuseppe Angeleri, a celebrated Brighella, played in Gol-

doni's comedies. Atanasio Zanoni of Ferrara, another famous

Brighella, was one of the best comedians of the eighteenth

century. He joined Antonio Sacchi's company and married

his sister; his pronunciation was beautiful and his repartees

brilliant. He was drowned in Venice in 1792. He said: "One

ought not to say a thief but a clever mathematician who finds

a thing before its owner knows he has lost it." "Things appro

priated are property inherited before the death of the owner/'

Brighella is a liar, drunkard, cheat, daricer, musician, thief; sometimes an

assassin. A scorner of everything that is good and pure and true, he has many needs

and requires much money. With honeyed tongue and prepossessing manners and

fawning politeness, Brighella is an infamous scoundrel. Insolent with women, he is

a braggart and brawler to the old and helpless; yet he grovels and hides before those

who despise him. He fears you and hates you; Brighella gave that stab in the dark.

He prefers to serve those who are in love. When he works for himself God help the

girls who trust him; they are lost forever. Such was the original Brighella. Themodern Brighella has slightly improved; he murders less frequently; is more sly but

less violent. His only desire is to steal.


The following passage from Maridazzo di M. Zan Frogno-cola con Madonna Gnigniocola~ printed in 1618,

Tognaz dances with Bertolina; Brighella dances with Franceschina; The wenches dance with their beloved And the bride dances with her spouse,

is the earliest record of the Brighella mask. Brighella's first costume was a coat with large pantaloons of white cloth, a cap bordered with green stripes and a cloak. The coat and the pantaloons were striped on the seams with pieces of green cloth, a sort of livery. He wore a brown mask with a beard. His modern costume is a white frock coat with three bands, a vest and pantaloons also white and striped with green. He preserves his traditional white cap bordered with green, his brown half-mask, beard and light moustache, and looks something like a negro clothed in an absurd livery. *

Giuseppe Angeleri, a celebrated Brighella, played in Goldoni's comedies. Atanasio Zanoni of Ferrara, another famous Brighella, was one of the best comedians of the eighteenth century. He joined Antonio Sacchi's company and married

his sister; his pronunciation was beautiful and his repartees brilliant. He was drowned in Venice in 1792. He said: "One ought not to say a thief but a clever mathematician who finds

a thing before its owner knows he has lost it." "Things appropriated are property inherited before the death of the owner."

• BrigheUa is a liar, drunkard, cheat, dancer, musician, thief; sometimes an assassin. A scorner of everything that is good and pure and true, he has many needs and requires much money. With honeyed tongue and prepossessing manners and fawning politeness, BrigheUa is an infamous scoundrel. Insolent with women, he is a braggart and brawler to the old and helpless; yet he grovels and hides before those who despise him. He fears you and hates you; Brighella gave that stab in the dark. He prefers to serve those who are in love. When he works for himself God help the girls who trust him; they are lost forever. Such was the original Brighella. The modern Brighella has slightly improved; he murders less frequently; is more sly but less violent. His only desire is to steal.


"To steal properly requires the aid of three devils; one

teaches you how to take things without being found out, an

other shows you how to hide them so that they cannot be

discovered and the third persuades you to never return them."

"When I am forced to travel, that is to say, to fly; I caress the

widowed chickens, adopt their babies and the orphan ducks;

I free the purses and watches from their captivity; I am a

great talker because my father was dumb and has left to mean enormous number of new words which he never used.

Also I am a bastard. My shirt is a romance full of wandering

soldiers; and no one will wash it for fear of soiling the river.

My debts make me a star never seen except at night. I am so

occupied with my affairs that I have not even time to scratch

myself."*

Mezzettino (half measure) originated in the Gelosi Com

pany. He wore the clothes, masks, hat, tabarro and wooden

sword of the ancient zanni as represented by Callot. Angelo

Constantini was born at Verona, came to Paris in 1682 and

first appeared in Harlequin Proteus. He entered the Gelosi

Company in 1682 to take the Harlequin part, the same as

Dominico Biancolelli; but, the Gelosi not having the second

Zanni or Brighella, he took that character, calling himself

Mezzettino and wearing the costume which tradition assigns

to the ancient Sanniones. It is said that Constantini in ex-

* Beltrame is another type of Brighella popular in Milan. The celebrated actor

and author Niccold Barbieri acted this part in France under the name o Beltrame,

He came from Milan to Paris with Flaminio Scala and Isabella Andreini in 1587.After the dispersion of the Gelosi Company, Beltrame returned to Italy and joinedthe Fedeli. He returned to Paris in 1613 with G. B. Andreini and again in 1623. In

1625 he became head of his own company. The Scapino type of Brighella is a

plotter, conspirator, boaster, liar and great favourite with the soubrette. Scapin is

the French name for Brighella and has been made immortal by Moliere. Callot in

his Little Dancers represents the Italian Scapino of his period, clothed in amplerobes like those of Friuellmo, with mask and beard, a cloak, enormous feathered hatand wooden sword.

MASKS AND MARIONETTES

"To steal properly requires the aid of three devils; one teaches you how to take things without being found out, another shows you how to hide them so that they cannot be discovered and the third persuades you to never return them." "When I am forced to travel, that is to say, to fly; I caress the widowed chickens, adopt their babies and the orphan ducks; I free the purses and watches from their captivity; I am a great talker because my father was dumb and has left to me an enormous number of new words which he never used. Also I am a bastard. My shirt is a romance full of wandering soldiers; and no one will wash it for fear of soiling the river. My debts make me a star never seen except at night. I am so occupied with my affairs that I have not even time to scratch myself."'*'

Mezzettino (half measure) originated in the Gelosi Company. He wore the clothes, masks, hat, tabarro and wooden sword of the ancient zanni as represented by Ganot. Angelo Constantini was born at Verona, came to Paris in 1682 and first appeared in Harlequin Proteus. He entered the Gelosi Company in 1682 to take the Harlequin part, the same as Dominico Biancolelli; but, the Gelosi not having the second Zanni or Brighella, he took that character, calling himself Mezzettino and wearing the costume which tradition assigns to the ancient Sanniones. It is said that Constantini in ex-

• Beltrame is another type of Brighella popular in Milan. The celebrated actor and author Niccolo Barbieri acted this part in France under the name of Beltrame. He came from Milan to Paris with Flaminio Scala and Isabella Andreini in 1587. After the dispersion of the Gelosi Company, Deltrame returned to Italy and joined the Fedeli. He returned to Paris in 1613 with G. D. Andreini and again in 1623. In 1625 he became head of his own company. The Scapino type of BrigheUa is a plotter, conspirator, boaster. liar and great favourite with the soubrette. Scapin is the French name for Brighella and has been made immortal by Moliere. Callot in his Little Dancers represents the Italian Scapino of his period. clothed in ample robes like those of Frittellino, with mask and beard, a cloak, enormoll~ feathered hat and wooden sword.


pectation of receiving a large gift, dedicated a play to the

Duke of Saint' Agnan, and went one morning to the house of

the Duke hoping to receive his reward; but the doorkeeper

refused him permission to enter until Mezzettino agreed to

pay him one-third of whatever gift he should receive from the

Master. On the stairway the first footman also demanded one-

third of his reward, and on entering the room, the valet-de-

chambre demanded the last third of his compensation.

Nothing remained for poor Mezzettino, who ran to the

Duke and said: "Ah, monseigneur, here is a play for the

theatre which joyfully I have dedicated to you and for which

I beg you to give me a hundred strokes with your cane." The

amazed Duke asked the reason for this singular request. Mez

zettino replied: "It is, monseigneur, because in order to ap

proach you I have been obliged to promise your door

keeper, your footman and your valet-de-chambre, each one a

third of that which you will be so kind as to give me." The

laughing Duke reprimanded his servants and sent a hundred

louis to Mezzettino's wife, to whom nothing had been promised.*

The Capitano, with his enormous moustache, his plumed

hat, originated in Athens and flourished in Rome under the

Caesars. He has the characteristics of Plautus' Miles. Such are

Rabioso in the Travaglia of Calmo, the Zigantes in the Alchi-

mista of Bernardino Lombardi. In Italy, Spain, France and

England under different names he played a hundred roles.

This Cinquecento character remained popular through most

of the seventeenth century, and was made famous by Fran-

* The Mezzetin of Gherardi's theatre has softened manners but is still the old

rascally Brighella. Sometimes Mezzetin sings, accompanying himself on the guitar.

Watteau has so painted him in the midst of the principal actors of the Comtdie

Ualiennc.

PLOT -SCEN ARIO-ZIBALDONI 57

pectation of receiving a large gift, dedicated a play to the Duke of Saint' Agnan, and went one morning to the house of the Duke hoping to receive his reward; but the doorkeeper refused him permission to enter until Mezzettino agreed to pay him one-third of whatever gift he should receive from the Master. On the stairway the first footman also demanded onethird of his reward, and on entering the room, the valet-dechambre demanded the last third of his compensation.

Nothing remained for poor Mezzettino, who ran to the Duke and said: "Ah, monseigneur, here is a play for the theatre which joyfully I have dedicated to you and for which I beg you to give me a hundred strokes with your cane." The amazed Duke asked the reason for this singular request. Mezzettino replied: "It is, monseigneur, because in order to approach you I have been obliged to promise your doorkeeper, your footman and your valet-de-chambre, each one a third of that which you will be so kind as to give me." The laughing Duke reprimanded his servants and sent a hundred louis to Mezzettino's wife, to whom nothing had been promised. *

The Capitano, with his enormous moustache, his plumed hat, originated in Athens and flourished in Rome under the Caesars. He has the characteristics of Plautus' Miles. Such are Rabioso in the Travaglia of Calmo} the Zigantes in the Alchi

mista of Bernardino Lombardi. In Italy, Spain, France and England under different names he played a hundred roles. This Cinquecento character remained popular through most of the seventeenth century, and was made famous by Fran-

.. The Mezzetin of Gherardi's theatre has softened manners but is still the old rascally Brighella. Sometimes Mezzetin sings, accompanying himself on the guitar. Watteau has so painted him in the midst of the principal actors of the Comedic Italienne.


cesco Andreini's Capitan Spavento dell'Vail' d'Inferno (Captain Frightful from the Valley of Hell).*

Speaking both Spanish and Italian the Capitano is ridicu

lous as a soldier-lover. His bravery is stupendous; innumer

able women love him. Who dares oppose a man who has

armed himself with "the Tower of Nembrotte as Cuirass,

Mount Taurus as helmet/' takes "the rainbow for his cross

bow and the Labyrinth of Crete for his cloak and all the

Pyramids of Egypt for arrows," who has mounted "full of

anger and fury to the top of Mount Olympus, and with his

"crossbowing" has riddled both poles like a sieve? In the

Circus Maximus he killed two thousand Gladiators and four

hundred lions; and seizing the giant Briareo "round the

middle'' threw him down "with such force and fury that the

open earth swallowed him alive and gave him to Pluto for his

Steward/' f

The Capitano is always the bully, the wholesale killer.

Isabella is angry with Flavio; Capitano asks: "Madam Isa

bella, am I to kill this one too?" He strikes right and left

with his sword and flees as soon as he is threatened. WhenPantalone "draws his pistol" he flees headlong, but whenArlecchino reproaches him he replies: "I just went to pre

pare the old man's grave." He thinks that by a glance, a nod,

a word, he can win any woman. He winks at the courtesans,

caresses the slaves, robs the honest woman; but in the end he

is derided and mocked. Giangurgolo is the Calabrian type of

the captains, always a great coward, an enormous liar, always

*GIrolamo Garavani (Capitan Rinoceronte), Fabrizio de Fornaris (CapitanCoccodrillo), Silvio Fiorillo (Capitan Mattamoros) and Tiberio Fiorilli (Scaramuccia)were other famous Captains. In the eighteenth century the Capitano gave place toother masks, and later he reappeared in the Neapolitan Guappo and RomanRogantino.

^Le Bravure del Capitano Spavento, divise in molti ragionamenti in forma di

dialogo, di Francesco Andreini da Pistoia, Comico Geloso, Venice, 1624.


cesco Andreini's Capitan Spavento dell'Vall' d'Inferno (Captain Frightful from the Valley of Hell).*

Speaking both Spanish and Italian the Capitano is ridiculous as a soldier-lover. His bravery is stupendous; innumerable women love him. 'Who dares oppose a man who has armed himself with "the Tower of Nembrotte as Cuirass, Mount Taurus as helmet," takes "the rainbow for his crossbow and the Labyrinth of Crete for his cloak and all the Pyramids of Egypt for arrows," who has mounted "full of anger and fury to the top of Mount Olympus, and with his "crossbowing" has riddled both poles like a sieve? In the Circus Maximus he killed two thousand Gladiators and four hundred lions; and seizing the giant Briareo "round the middle" threw him down "with such force and fury that the open earth swallowed him alive and gave him to Pluto for his Steward." t

The Capitano is always the bully, the wholesale killer. Isabella is angry with Flavio; Capitano asks: "Madam Isabella, am I to kill this one too?" He strikes right and left with his sword and flees as soon as he is threatened. When Pantalone "draws his pistol" he flees headlong, but when Arlecchino reproaches him he replies: "I just went to prepare the old man's grave." He thinks that by a glance, a nod, a word. he can win any woman. He winks at the courtesans, caresses the slaves, robs the honest woman; but in the end he is derided and mocked. Giangurgolo is the Calabrian type of the captains, always a great coward, an enormous liar, always

• Girolamo Garavani (Capitan Rinoceronte), Fabrizio de Fomaris (Capitan Coccodrillo), Silvio Fiorillo (Capitan Mattamoros) and Tiberio FioriIli (Scaramuccia) were other famous Captains. In the eighteenth century the Capitano gave place to other masks, and later he reappeared in the Neapolitan Guappo and Roman Rogantino.

t Le Bravure del Capitano Spavento, divise in molti ragionamenti in forma di dialogo, di Francesco Andreini da Pistoia, Comico Geloso, Venice, 1624-

IL CAPITANO (1668)IL CAPITANO (1668)


penniless, always hungry; yet sometimes he would go days

without eating for fear of receiving a refusal. Like Mattamoros

he is mad after women.

Stenterello was a favourite in Florence and in Rome; and

delighted audiences at the Capranica Theatre. The Tuscan

Stenterello was introduced by the actor and comic writer

Luigi del Buono, at the end of the eighteenth century. With

his emaciated figure, long thin legs, cornered cap with tassel

hanging down the back, with a vulgar and scurrilous wit, a

wealth of coarse and clumsy quips and jokes, he represents the

low-class Florentine. Stenterello's face is painted in streaks; a

front tooth is wanting; he wears a tri-cornered hat, breeches

and long-tailed coat. He derives his name probably from his

excessive parsimony. When Florentines deny themselves food

they live a stento. Hence Stenterello by his ludicrous efforts

at saving convulses the audience. He would marry for moneybut despises love. To his mistress he says: "I would not leave

you and lose the marriage for for for sette crazie" (seven

farthings). Sometimes he has a servant Stoppino (a meagre

thin taper), whom he starves. It has been said that the Sten

terello character is the most difficult mask to depict. "One

becomes a Harlequin by practice, but one must be born

Stenterello/'

Pedrolino, the first Zanni, is an important Commedia dell3

Arte personage. Like the servo of the Latin comedy he is an

accomplice in the love affairs of youth and robs the old. He

has infinite cunning. He invents the fiction of Pantalone's bad

breath; disguises Arlecchino as a dentist and necromancer;

masks the youths as ghosts, derides the Doctor, Pantalone and

Capitano. He laughs at women, scorns his rivals, boasts his

tricks, proudly professes his ruffianism. Sometimes Pedrolino

is a learned servant. Isabella beats him and the others abuse

PLOT -SCENARIO-Z1BALDON1 59

penniless, always hungry; yet sometimes he would go days without eating for fear of receiving a refusal. Like Mattamoros he is mad after women.

Stenterello was a favourite in Florence and in Rome; and delighted audiences at the Capranica Theatre. The Tuscan Stenterello was introduced by the actor and comic writer Luigi del Buono, at the end of the eighteenth century. With his emaciated figure, long thin legs, cornered cap with tassel hanging down the back, with a vulgar and scurrilous wit, a wealth of coarse and clumsy quips and jokes, he represents the low-class Florentine. Stenterello's face is painted in streaks; a front tooth is wanting; he wears a tri-cornered hat, breeches and long-tailed coat. He derives his name probably from hi~ excessive parsimony. When Florentines deny themselves food they live a stento. Hence Stenterello by his ludicrous efforts at saving convulses the audience. He would marry for money but despises love. To his mistress he says: "I would not leave you and lose the marriage for-for-£or-sette crazie" (seven farthings). Sometimes he has a servant Stoppino (a meagre thin taper), whom he starves. It has been said that the Stenterello character is the most difficult mask to depict. "One becomes a Harlequin by practice, but one must be born Stenterello."

Pedrolino, the first Zanni, is an important Commedia dell' A rte personage. Like the servo of the Latin comedy he is an accomplice in the love affairs of youth and robs the old. He has infinite cunning. He invents the fiction of Pantalone's bad breath; disguises Arlecchino as a dentist and necromancer; masks the youths as ghosts, derides the Doctor, Pantalone and Capitano. He laughs at women, scorns his rivals, boasts his tricks, proudly professes his ruffianism. Sometimes Pedrolino is a learned servant. Isabella beats him and the others abuse


him; but always he avenges himself and is the symbol of vic

torious cunning.

Pedrolino, Piero and Pierrot are the same personage; ap

pearing first in the Italian theatre of 1 547 in a comedy called

Pierro Valet, clothed in a long white shirt with a straw hat

and a club in his hand. His master orders him to carry a love

letter to Isabella. He loses this letter but steals one from a

letter carrier and hands it to Isabella, which is the occasion

of a complicated plot. Molire adopted this character in his

Don Juan. In Gherardi's theatrical pieces Pierrot is always a

valet. Peppe Nappa is a Sicilian character, and except for his

manner of dress he is of the same type as Pierrot.

Burattino is a celebrated mask of the Gelosi Company. It

was about 1580 when he appeared in Florence and became so

popular that he passed into the theatre of the marionettes.

Francesco Gattiti in 1658 wrote a piece entitled Le Disgrazie

di Burattino. In Flaminio Scala's scenarios Burattino is always

crying; a glutton, coward and dupe; sometimes he is valet of

Capitan Spavento, sometimes of Isabella, and sometimes of

Pantalone. On the stage he makes lazzi which have no relation

to the plot. In L'Innocente Persiana Burattino as valet of the

Prince of Egypt is perpetually losing and finding his master.

Elsewhere he is a letter carrier who loses his missives or allows

them to be stolen, which discourages him.

Leandro is fresh and youthful, covered with ribbons and

lace; and is the preferred lover of the beautiful Lavinia, of

Isabella or of Beatrice. Corneille, Moli&re and other writers

give him an attractive character. In the Italian theatre in

1694 Charles Romagnesi, renowned for his beautiful figure,

played this part with great success. After the death of Ro

magnesi the role was transformed into a ridiculous personage


him; but always he avenges himself and is the symbol of victorious cunning.

Pedrolino, Piero and Pierrot are the same personage; appearing first in the Italian theatre of 1547 in a comedy called Pierro Valet~ clothed in a long white shirt with a straw hat and a club in his hand. His master orders him to carry a love letter to Isabella. He loses this letter but steals one from a letter carrier and hands it to Isabella, which is the occasion of a complicated plot. Moliere adopted this character in his Don Juan. In Gherardi's theatrical pieces Pierrot is always a valet. Peppe Nappa is a Sicilian character, and except for his manner of dress he is of the same type as Pierrot.

Burattino is a celebrated mask of the Gelosi Company. It was about 1580 when he appeared in Florence and became so popular that he passed into the theatre of the marionettes. Francesco Gattiti in 1628 wrote a piece entitled Le Disgrazie di Burattino. In Flaminio Scala's scenarios Burattino is always crying; a glutton, coward and dupe; sometimes he is valet of Capitan Spavento, sometimes of Isabella, and sometimes of Pantalone. On the stage he makes lazzi which have no relation to the plot. In L'Innocente Persiana Burattino as valet of the Prince of Egypt is perpetually losing a~d finding his master. Elsewhere he is a letter carrier who loses his missives or allows them to be stolen, which discourages him.

Leandro is fresh and youthful, covered with ribbons and lace; and is the preferred lover of the beautiful Lavinia, of Isabella or of Beatrice. Corneille, Moliere and other writers give him an attractive character. In the Italian theatre in 1694 Charles Romagnesi, renowned for hi" beautiful figure, played this part with great success. After the death of Romagnesi the role was transformed into a ridiculous personage

LEANDROLEANDRO


under the name of Leandro il bello. And this is the Leandrowhom we still find in the pantomime plays.

Tartaglia is a Neapolitan mask. A babbler, gossiper, stut

terer and stammerer, he never can express his ideas; which

makes him angry with others and with himself. "Tartaglia/'

says M. Paul de Musset, "is an extremely popular Neapolitan

type. He represents the hot south; is exhausted with the

climate, suffers from chronic ophthalmia, and is in a state

not far from cretinism. Heavy cheeks, long nose surmounted

with enormous blue spectacles, invalid manner and false

pronunciation are his characteristics/' In Carlo Gozzi's com

edy of Roi Cerf; Tartaglia is a stammerer and stupid, but

nevertheless he is Prime Minister in the land of Serendippe.He wishes to marry his daughter to his master the King, but

the King loves beautiful Angela, marries her and becomes

jealous. The imprudent monarch confides in Tartaglia, who

loves the Queen and is furious on account of the King's mar

riage. Hence the play's complications.

The mask of Facca Nappa is a favourite character in mario

nette companies; his popularity at Venice equals that of the

Biscegliese at Naples. Posters announcing the performance of

a play always add, con Facanappa (Pantalone spetier con

Facanappa, etc.). Every time he comes on the stage he is re

ceived with applause. He says whatever he chooses, and makes

many personal allusions, employing popular expressions and

manufacturing others.

Giandujo and Girolamo are the same character. At the

Fiano Theatre in Milan, Girolamo speaking the Lombard

patois plays the same roles of peasant, coward and glutton

that Giandujo plays in Turin and Genoa. In his History of

Marionettes M. Charles Magnin says that Girolamo fills at

Milan an important role in all the farces, parodies and little


under the name of Leandro il bello. And this is the Leandro whom we still find in the pantomime plays.

Tartaglia is a Neapolitan mask. A babbler, gossiper, stutterer and stammerer, he never can express his ideas; which makes him angry with others and with himself. "Tartaglia," says M. Paul de Musset, "is an extremely popular Neapolitan type. He represents the hot south; is exhausted with the climate, suffers from chronic ophthalmia, and is in a state not far from cretinism. Heavy cheeks, long nose surmounted with enormous blue spectacles, invalid manner and false pronunciation are his characteristics." In Carlo Gozzi's comedy of Roi CerfJ Tartaglia is a stammerer and stupid, but nevertheless he is Prime Minister in the land of Serendippe. He wishes to marry his daughter to his master the King, but the King loves beautiful Angela, marries her and becomes jealous. The imprudent monarch confides in Tartaglia, who loves the Queen and is furious on account of the King's marriage. Hence the play's complications.

The mask of Facca Nappa is a favourite character in marionette companies; his popularity at Venice equals that of the Biscegliese at Naples. Posters announcing the performance of a play always add, con Facanappa (Pantalone spetier con FacanappaJ etc.). Every time he comes on the stage he is received with applause. He says whatever he chooses, and makes many personal allusions, employing popular expressions and manufacturing others.

Giandujo and Girolamo are the same character. At the Fiano Theatre in Milan, Girolamo speaking the Lombard patois plays the same roles of peasant, coward and glutton that Giandujo plays in Turin and Genoa. In his History of Marionettes M. Charles Magnin says that Girolamo fills at Milan an important role in all the farces, parodies and little

6s MASKS AND MARIONETTES

satirical pieces. In Turin, in that long and terrible melodrama

The Capture of Delhi, Giandujo as aide-de-camp of an Indian

sheik delights young and old by his Piedmontese reflections,

sallies and jokes.

The Lombard Meneghino in its modern form is of literary

origin; probably invented by Carlo Maria Maggi. Meneghinois a man of the people, impudent and boisterous, but prudent

and shrewd. The personification of the Milanese character, he

has good sense, good-natured irony, a good heart and makes

himself liked. Meneghino (little Dominique) is sometimes

valet, sometimes master. He derives from the Menego of Ruz-

zante, and from the Meneghino of Ariosto's play of Lena.

Spoiled child of the Milanese, the hero of the Stadera Thea

tre, Meneghino's talent consists in crude stupidity. He stum

bles against the walls and furniture, but never falls to the

ground. The Neapolitans have a character resembling the old

men of early Italian comedy; Don Pangrazio the Biscegliese,

so named because he originated in Bisceglie, a little city not

far from Naples where an amusing patois is spoken. Pangrazio

Biscegliese in the tearful intonation of his home-town dialect,

exhibiting the absurdities of provincial capitals, delights the

Neapolitan. Like Pantalone he represents various provincial

types, but always he is a miser and easily deceived.

From the time of Plautus on through the centuries the

Colombina type of soubrette has varied little. Catherine

Biancolelli, daughter of Dominique, was the most famous

Colombina. Highly educated, beautiful, and with a soft and

lovely voice, she had a great success on the stage. Colombina

says to Isabella:

It is not necessary to carry coquetry to excess, but a small pinchof it makes a woman more attractive. How often have I heard mymother say that coquetry is like vinegar: too much of it in a sauce


satirical pieces. In Turin, in that long and terrible melodrama The Capture of Delhi) Giandujo as aide-de-camp of an Indian sheik delights young and old by his Piedmontese reflections, sallies and jokes.

The Lombard Meneghino in its modern form is of literary origin; probably invented by Carlo Maria Maggi. Meneghino is a man of the people, impudent and boisterous, but prudent and shrewd. The personification of the Milanese character, he has good sense, good-natured irony, a good heart and makes himself liked. Meneghino (little Dominique) is sometimes valet, sometimes master. He derives from the Menego of Ruzzante, and from the Meneghino of Ariosto's play of Lena. Spoiled child of the Milanese, the hero of the Stadera Theatre, Meneghino's talent consists in crude stupidity. He stumbles against the walls and furniture, but never falls to the ground. The Neapolitans have a character resembling the old men of early Italian comedy; Don Pangrazio the Biscegliese, so named because he originated in Bisceglie, a little city not far from Naples where an amusing patois is spoken. Pangrazio Biscegliese in the tearful intonation of his home-town dialect, exhibiting the absurdities of provincial capitals, delights the Neapolitan. Like Pantalone he represents various provincial types, but always he is a miser and easily deceived.

From the time of Plautus on through the centuries the Colombina type of soubrette has varied little. Catherine Biancolelli, daughter of Dominique, was the most famous Colombina. Highly educated, beautiful, and with a soft and lovely voice, she had a great success on the stage. Colombina says to Isabella:

It is not necessary to carry coquetry to excess, but a small pinch of it makes a woman more attractive. How often have I heard my mother say that coquetry is like vinegar: too much of it in a sauce

TARTAGLIA (1620)TARTAGLIA (1620)


makes it bitter and when there is too little it is flat; but with just

enough it rouses the appetite. So when a woman is a coquette at

the expense of her honour she goes to the devil; when she has

none at all it is worse.

In the modern pantomime Colombina is the daughter, niece

or pupil o Cassandro. Her loves with Harlequin are contin

ually thwarted; while rich and powerful Leandre is favoured.

But her fairy godmother saves her, and despite the plots of

Cassandre, Pierrot and Leandre she marries her beloved Har

lequin. Moliere's and Gherardi's theatre are contemporary

but the Colombina of Gherardi is far superior to Moliere's

Dorine.

Narcisino comes from the city of Malalbergo between

Bologna and Ferrara. Since the Bolognese Doctor spoke the

educated dialect, in the seventeenth century the actor Ricconi

created another character, who spoke the lower-class patois.

Narcisino was most popular in Bologna. He only came upon

the stage in order to perform various clownish acts which had

no relation to the play itself; wearing a straw hat and long

hair, in imitation of the peasants; clothed in a very large and

striped jacket and breeches. Sometimes he carried a tabarro

on his arm or a basket of fruit in his hand. He came between

the acts and talked freely with the public from the front of the

stage. He criticized the manner of the times and recited his

pleasant adventures in the country suburbs.

The Cassandro character was created about 1580 in the

Gelosi Company, under the name of Cassandro da Sienna. In

this play he is the serious father while Pantalone and the Doc

tor are ridiculous personages. Chapelle was the most cele

brated of Cassandros. He was short, fat; and his eyes which

he continually opened and shut were crowned by heavy eye

brows. His mouth was always half open and he had elephantine

PLOT -SCEN ARIO-ZIBALDONI 63

makes it bitter and when there is too little it is fiat; but with just enough it rouses the appetite. So when a woman is a coquette at the expense of her honour she goes to the devil; when she has none at all it is worse.

In the modern pantomime Colombina is the daughter, niece or pupil of Cassandro. Her loves with Harlequin are continually thwarted; while rich and powerful Leandre is favoured. But her fairy godmother saves her, and despite the plots of Cassandre, Pierrot and Leandre she marries her beloved Harlequin. Moliere's and Gherardi's theatre are contemporary but the Colombina of Gherardi is far superior to Moliere's Dorine.

N arcisino comes from the city of Malalbergo between Bologna and Ferrara. Since the Bolognese Doctor spoke the educated dialect, in the seventeenth century the actor Ricconi created another character, who spoke the lower-class patois. Narcisino was most popular in Bologna. He only came upon the stage in order to perform various clownish acts which had no relation to the play itself; wearing a straw hat and long hair, in imitation of the peasants; clothed in a very large and striped jacket and breeches. Sometimes he carried a tabarro on his arm or a basket of fruit in his hand. He came between the acts and talked freely with the public from the front of the stage. He criticized the manner of the times and recited his pleasant adventures in the country suburbs.

The Cassandro character was created about 1580 in the Gelosi Company, under the name of Cassandro da Sienna. In this play he is the serious father while Pantalone and the Doctor are ridiculous personages. Chapelle was the most celebrated of Cassandros. He was short, fat; and his eyes which he continually opened and shut were crowned by heavy eyebrows. His mouth was always half open and he had elephantine


legs. In the Roman theatre Cassandrino was a respectable

citizen about fifty years old but still young and agile; powdered, with curled hair and elegantly dressed; always having

irreproachable linen, clean stockings and polished shoes with

silver buckles. He carried a light, three-cornered hat and wore

coat and trousers of fine red cloth with a white satin vest. Of

charming character, courteous, educated, elegant, he person

ifies the elegant monsignori and looks something like a car

dinal. He is a favourite figure in the Marionettes.*

In the sixteenth century in Bologna a popular poet, Giulio-

Cesare Croce, used to sing in the public squares of the life and

adventures of Bertoldo. Later he printed his burlesque epic;

and as the enthusiastic public bought his books, he was en

couraged to add to his Life of Bertoldo that of his son Bertol-

dino. After the death of Croce, Camillo Scaligero composed a

third volume containing the life of Cacasenno, son of Bertol-

dino. This series had an enormous success in Italy and these

characters passed into the theatre; every troupe of actors in

Florence, Bologna and Lombardy possessing them. The Ber-

toldino was most popular. It is a mixture of simplicity and

rustic trickery. For three hundred years this character fur

nished many scenes in many plays.

If physicians were turned into ridicule in the Italian theatre

the apothecaries were not spared. In the theatre of Gherardi

they bear the most absurd names (such as Viscautrou, Cus-

siffle, Clistorel) and they usually carry in their arms their

favourite instrument. In the Italian comedies the Apothecary* Cassandrino is a superior Rugantino, with more pretension but less defiant. One

is a satire on the nobility and the other the buffoon of the people. Rugantino (the

growler) is always complaining of his fate, always maltreated, always bearing oppression with patience. He is short, swaggering in a long dress coat, tricornered hat and

wig, carries a sword; is always threatening to do great exploits, but in moments of

danger runs away. Each of these characters speaks in the lowest popular dialect of

his country Stenterello in pure Tuscan patois; Pulcinella in the Lazzaroni Nea

politan; and Cassandrino in the Trastevere Roman dialect.


legs. In the Roman theatre Cassandrino was a respectable citizen about fifty years old but still young and agile; powdered, with curled hair and elegantly dressed; always having irreproachable linen, clean stockings and polished shoes with silver buckles. He carried a light, three-cornered hat and wore coat and trousers of fine red cloth with a white satin vest. Of charming character, courteous, educated, elegant, he personifies the elegant monsignori and looks something like a cardinal. He is a favourite figure in the Marionettes. '*'

In the sixteenth century in Bologna a popular poet, GiulioCesare Croce, used to sing in the public squares of the life and adventures of Bertoldo. Later he printed his burlesque epic; and as the enthusiastic public bought his books, he was encouraged to add to his Life of Bertoldo that of his son Bertoldino. After the death of Croce, Camillo Scaligero composed a third volume containing the life of Cacasenno, son of Bertoldino. This series had an enormous success in Italy and these characters passed into the theatre; every troupe of actors in Florence, Bologna and Lombardy possessing them. The Bertoldino was most popular. It is a mixture of simplicity and rustic trickery. For three hundred years this character furnished many scenes in many plays.

If physicians were turned into ridicule in the Italian theatre the apothecaries were not spared. In the theatre of Gherardi they bear the most absurd names (such as Viscautrou, Cussiffie, Clistorel) and they usually carry in their arms their favourite instrument. In the Italian comedies the Apothecary

" Cassandrino is a superior Rugantino, with more pretension hut less defiant. One is a satire on the nobility and the other the buffoon of the people. Rugantino (the growler) is always complaining of his fate, always maltreated, always bearing oppres· sion with patience. He is short, swaggering in a long dress COat, tricornered hat and wig, carries a sword; is always threatening to do great expl()its, but in moments of danger runs away. Each of these characters speaks in the lowest popular dialect of his country-Stenterello in pure Tuscan patois; Pulcinella in the Lazzl1!roni Nea· politan; and Gassandrino in the Trastevere Roman dialect.


plays a considerable role in the plot and speaks of his art by

metaphors and emblems. In addressing a Doctor whose daugh

ter he asks in marriage, he says: "I am persuaded, sir, that a

chair with holes in it indicates an apothecary better than a

chair in which one is carried/'


plays a considerable role in the plot and speaks of his art by metaphors and emblems. In addressing a Doctor whose daughter he asks in marriage, he says: "I am persuaded, sir, that a chair with holes in it indicates an apothecary better than a chair in which one is carried."

Chapter V

Some Further Scenarios and Masks of the

Commedia delFArte

FLAMINIO SCALA gave the Commedia delVArte "the definite

form with all good rules." Scala also published the first fifty

scenari of the Commedia dell3

Arte; the "teatro delle favole

rappresentative ovvero la ricreatione comico aboscareccia e

tragica divisa in cinquanta giornate." Scala's scenario of the

Dentist is famous in the repertory of the Gelosi. Consider a

few quotations.

Act I. Scene i. Here Pantalone tells Pedrolino of the love hefeels for the widow Isabella, that he suspects that his son Orazio is

his rival, and that, fearing this, he has decided to send him awayto college. Pedrolino reproves him taking the part of Orazio; theyattack each other with words and blows. Pantalone, threatening,

goes away saying he will speak of him to Franceschina the maidservant. Goes off. Pedrolino plans to revenge himself for the bite

that Pantalone has given him.

Scene 2. Here Franceschina searching for Orazio by order of

her mistress learns from Pedrolino the reason of the pain in his

arm; in revenge they agree to pretend that Pantalone's breath

smells bad. Franceschina goes into the house; Pedrolino remains.

Scene 3. Here Flavio (brother of Isabella) confessing his love

affair to Pedrolino knocks against his arm, Pedrolino cries out;

then they agree to pretend that Pantalone's breath smells bad.

Flavio goes out. Pedrolino remains.

Scene 4. ... Here the Doctor to whom Pantalone owes twenty-five ducats takes Pedrolino by the arm, who cries out and makeswith him the same agreement about the bad breath, promising to

66

Chapter V

Some Further Scenarios and Masks of the Commedia dell' Arte

FLAMINIO SCALA gave the Commedia dell'Arte "the definite form with all good rules." Scala also published the first fifty scenari of the Commedia dell' Arte)' the "teatro delle favole

rappresentative ovvero la ricreatione comico aboscareccia e tragica divisa in cinquanta giornate." Scala's scenario of the Dentist is famous in the repertory of the Gelosi. Consider a few quotations.

Act I. Scene 1. Here Pantalone tells Pedrolino of the love he feels for the widow Isabella, that he suspects that his son Orazio is his rival, and that, fearing this, he has decided to send him away to college. Pedrolino reproves him taking the part of Orazio; they attack each other with words and blows. Pantalone, threatening, goes away saying he will speak of him to Franceschina the maid servant. Goes off. Pedrolino plans to revenge himself for the bite that Pantalone has given him.

Scene 2. Here Franceschina searching for Orazio by order of her mistress learns from Pedrolino the reason of the pain in his arm; in revenge they agree to pretend that Pantalone's breath smells bad. Franceschina goes into the house; Pedrolino remains.

Scene 3. Here Flavio (brother of Isabella) confessing his love affair to Pedrolino knocks against his arm. Pedrolino cries out; then they agree to pretend that Pantalone's breath smells bad. Flavio goes out. Pedrolino remains.

Scene 4 .... Here the Doctor to whom Pantalone owes twentyfive ducats takes Pedrolino by the arm, who cries out and makes with him the same agreement about the bad breath, promising to

66

lPRFt)RMKD FOR THE FlWSY TtMRIN l%

COMI'OV BY LQSMF. DF. MONTOllhSS AY

PERFORMED Dl'AING.DK<T.\iMt I%|

FOUR COMEDIESFOUR COMEDIES

FURTHER SCENARIOS AND MASKS 67

get him his twenty-five ducats. Doctor goes out. Pedrolino goes to

find Orazio.

Scene 5. Here enters Captain Spavento, who boasts of his love

for Isabella and his bravery. Here Arlecchino the servant of

Isabella acts a comic scene and goes in to bring Isabella out.

Captain waits. Flaminia, daughter of Pantalone, from her window

sees the Captain and begs for his love. In this Isabella comes out

expecting to find Orazio. Captain begs her love; she drives him

away and he does the same with Flaminia, making a triangular

duel. In the end Isabella goes into the house repulsing the Captain. He does the same with Flaminia and goes away. She remains

disconsolate.

Scene 6. Here Pedrolino, who has secretly heard all, threatens to

tell her father; then they agree about the matter of her father's

breath. She goes in. Pedrolino, whose arm hurts him more than

ever, wants to revenge himself at all costs.

Scene 7. Here Arlecchino arrives. Pedrolino bribes him with

money to pretend to be a dentist. He sends him to disguise him

self; Arlecchino goes out; Pedrolino remains.

Scene 8. In this Orazio understands from Pedrolino of his father

Pantalone's rivalry for the love of Isabella, and that he intends to

send him away to college; Orazio, sorrowful at the bad news,

appeals to Pedrolino who promises help; and they agree about the

matter of the father's bad breath. Orazio wishes to talk with

Isabella. Pedrolino calls her. Isabella learns of Orazio's love and

of his coming departure. She is distressed by it. Enter Pantalone

talking loudly. Isabella hearing him goes in. Pantalone sees his

son, whom he orders to go and get ready immediately, because he

is sending him to Perugia. Orazio very timidly goes in to get ready,

giving a look to Pedrolino. Pantalone is telling Pedrolino how he

has spoken with Franceschina, when Pedrolino says: "Ohibo,

master, your breath smells outrageously1" Pantalone laughs at him.

Then Franceschina does the same, saying that if his breath had

not smelt Isabella would love him, and she goes in. Pantalone

wonders. Then Flavio passes and at a sign from Pedrolino acts in

the same way to Pantalone and goes off. Pantalone is surprised. In

this scene the Doctor arrives. Pedrolino makes a sign to him about

the breath. The Doctor does the same as the others and goes off.

Pantalone wants to ask his daughter if it is true about this. He


get him his twenty-five ducats. Doctor goes out. Pedrolino goes to find Orazio.

Scene 5. Here enters Captain Spavento, who boasts of his love for Isabella and his bravery. Here Arlecchino the servant of Isabella acts a comic scene and goes in to bring Isabella out. Captain waits. Flaminia, daughter of Pantalone, from her window sees the Captain and begs for his love. In this Isabella comes out expecting to find Orazio. Captain begs her love; she drives him away and he does the same with Flaminia, making a triangular duel. In the end Isabella goes into the house repulsing the Captain. He does the same with Flaminia and goes away. She remains disconsolate.

Scene 6. Here Pedrolino, who has secretly heard all, threatens to tell her father; then they agree about the matter of her father's breath. She goes in. Pedrolino, whose arm hurts him more than ever, wants to revenge himself at all costs.

Scene 7. Here Arlecchino arrives. Pedrolino bribes him with money to pretend to be a dentist. He sends him to disguise himself; Arlecchino goes out; Pedrolino remains.

Scene 8. In this Orazio understands from Pedrolino of his father Pantalone's rivalry for the love of Isabella, and that he intends to send him away to college; Orazio, sorrowful at the bad news, appeals to Pedrolino who promises help; and they agree about the matter of the father's bad breath. Orazio wishes to talk with Isabella. Pedrolino calls her. Isabella learns of Orazio's love and of his coming departure. She is distressed by it. Enter Pantalone talking loudly. Isabella hearing him goes in. Pantalone sees his son, whom he orders to go and get ready immediately, because he is sending him to Perugia. Orazio very timidly goes in to get ready, giving a look to Pedrolino. Pantalone is telling Pedrolino how he has spoken with Franceschina, when Pedrolino says: "Ohibo, master, your breath smells outrageously!" Pantalone laughs at him. Then Franceschina does the same, saying that if his breath had not smelt Isabella would love him, and she goes in. Pantalone wonders. Then Flavio passes and at a sign from Pedrolino acts in the same way to Pantalone and goes off. Pantalone is surprised. In this scene the Doctor arrives. Pedrolino makes a sign to him about the breath. The Doctor does the same as the others and goes off. Pantalone wants to ask his daughter if it is true about this. He

68 MASKS AND MARIONETTEScalls her. Flaminia confesses to her father that his breath smells

vilely and goes in. Pantalone and Pedrolino remain.

Scene 9. Orazio from the house confirms the same thing, thenreturns into the house. Pantalone resolves to have out the tooth

which causes the bad smell. He orders Pedrolino to bring him a

dentist and goes in. Pedrolino remains. Arlecchino appears dressed

as a dentist. Pedrolino orders Arlecchino to pull out all Pantalone's

teeth, telling him that they are decayed. Goes out. Arlecchino

under the window cries, "Who has decayed teeth?'* At that Panta

lone calls him from the window. Then comes out. Arlecchino

pulls out his instruments, which are smith's irons, naming them

ridiculously. He makes Pantalone sit down and with the pincers

pulls out four good teeth. Pantalone owing to the pain, catches

hold of the dentist's beard which, being false, remains in his hand.

Arlecchino runs away. Pantalone throws the chair after him. Then,

bemoaning himself with pain goes into the house. And here the

first act finishes.

Stupid and silly as this may sound to the modern reader,

he should remember that it is but the attenuated plot; the

filmy web of an embroidery which by those who saw it was

extolled for the exquisite variety, vividness and contrast of its

colours. In fact every scenario in comparison with its performance is something less than a skeleton. Where, for example,in another play it simply says, "Captain Spavento boasts of

his love for Isabella and his own bravery/' Francesco Andreini

in his performance began one of those monologues which

were o themselves enough to secure the success of the play

and which the skillful actor developed in writing and gave to

posterity under the title of Le Bravura di Capitano Spaventodivise in molti ragionamenti in forma di dialogo (Venice,

1624). These Bravure are extravagances, exaggerations, blun

ders, devised and fitted together by a vaunting coward whoknocks the bottom out of Hell, yet runs from every dangerand is beaten by Arlecchino. Reading these scenarios todaywe miss many allusions and we are not able to see the tricks


calls her. Flaminia confesses to her father that his breath smells vilely and goes in. Pantalone and Pedrolino remain.

Scene g. Orazio from the house confirms the same thing, then returns into the house. Pantalone resolves to have out the tooth which causes the bad smell. He orders Pedrolino to bring him a dentist and goes in. Pedrolino remains. Arlecchino appears dressed as a dentist. Pedrolino orders Arlecchino to pull out all Pantalone's teeth, telling him that they are decayed. Goes out. Arlecchino under the window cries, "Who has decayed teeth?" At that Pantalone calls him from the window. Then comes out. Arlecchino pulls out his instruments, which are smith's irons, naming them ridiculously. He makes Pantalone sit down and with the pincers pulls out four good teeth. Pantalone owing to the pain, catches hold of the dentist's beard which, being false, remains in his hand. Arlecchino runs away. Pantalone throws the chair after him. Then, bemoaning himself with pain goes into the house. And here the first act finishes.

Stupid and silly as this may sound to the modern reader, he should remember that it is but the attenuated plot; the filmy web of an embroidery which by those who saw it was extolled for the exquisite variety, vividness and contrast of its colours. In fact every scenario in comparison with its performance is something less than a skeleton. Where, for example, in another play it simply says, "Captain Spavento boasts of his love for Isabella and his own bravery," Francesco Andreini in his performance began one of those monologues which were of themselves enough to secure the success of the play and which the skillful actor developed in writing and gave to posterity under the title of Le Bravure di Capitano Spavento divise in molti ragionamenti in forma di dialogo (Venice, 1624). These Bravure are extravagances, exaggerations, blunders, devised and fitted together by a vaunting coward who knocks the bottom out of Hell, yet runs from every danger and is beaten by Arlecchino. Reading these scenarios today we miss many allusions and we are not able to see the tricks


nor hear the voices o those players who were masters of

acting.*

Even in private life actors used the stage appellations, some

times adding their own family names. Whoever wished to

represent the old Venetian, the Bergamese servant, the Bo-

lognese pedant or the Neapolitan peasant, called himself

Pantalone; Brighella> Arlecchino, Doctor Graziano or Pulci-

nella; dressed himself in traditional style; spoke the appro

priate dialect with certain special inflexions of the voice. Thus

the Commedia dell'Arte became static, the actors became

marionettes and finally puppets were substituted.

In the Commedia dell'Arte the "Old Men" are Pantalone

and Doctor Graziano. Pantalone is generally a good devil, fre

quently deceived by his children and servants. He descends

from Senex of Plautus and Terence. Pantalone is often a

glutton and sometimes an adulterer; frequents taverns and

makes himself ridiculous with girls and widows. He is the old

man who forgets his age but has all its defects and weaknesses.

Doctor Graziano, the other old man, also is dissolute; but he

is more ridiculous than Pantalone. The old men of the com

edy rarely adopt habits and thoughts suitable to their age.

Many are avaricious, blind, stupid and childish. They arrange

marriages or prevent marriages. Meanwhile the youths and

* In his History of the Italian Theatre (1723) Riccoboni says: "This same Flaminio

Scala had his Theatre printed. It was not dialogued, but only presented in simplescenarios . . . they explain only what the actor is going to do in the scene, and

the necessary action and no more." The hundred scenarios of Basilio Locatelli and

the scenarios of Domenico Biancolelli belong to the middle of the seventeenth

century.In the Commedia dell'Arte each actor so personalized his part that the r61e became

himself, and other actors subsequently representing this character retained the

original name, dialect, manner of speaking and dress of the actor who first had

made the part famous. Or else they so completely altered these habits and manners

as to strongly contrast the new and the traditional conception. In all Gelosi scenarios

Flavio stands for Flaminio Scala; Capitano Spavento for Francesco Andreini; Orazio

for Orazio Nobili; Isabella for Isabella Andreini; Frittellino for Cecchini, and the

Neapolitan Silvio Fiorillo for the multiform Pulcinella.

FURTHER SCENAR.IOS AND MASKS 69

nor hear the voices of those players who were masters of acting. *

Even in private life actors used the stage appellations, sometimes adding their own family names. Whoever wished to represent the old Venetian, the Bergamese servant, the Bolognese pedant or the Neapolitan peasant, called himself Pantalone" Brighella" Arlecchino" Doctor Graziano or Pulcinella; dressed himself in traditional style; spoke the appropriate dialect with certain special inflexions of the voice. Thus the Commedia dell'Arte became static, the actors became marionettes and finally puppets were substituted.

In the Commedia dell'Arte the "Old Men" are Pantalone and Doctor Graziano. Pantalone is generally a good devil, frequently deceived by his children and servants. He descends from Senex of Plautus and Terence. Pantalone is often a glutton and sometimes an adulterer; frequents taverns and makes himself ridiculous with girls and widows. He is the old man who forgets his age but has all its defects and weaknesses. Doctor Graziano, the other old man, also is dissolute; but he is more ridiculous than Pantalone. The old men of the comedy rarely adopt habits and thoughts suitable to their age. Many are avaricious, blind, stupid and childish. 'They arrange marriages or prevent marriages. Meanwhile the youths and

• In his History of the Italian Theatre (1723) Riccoboni says: "This same Flaminio Scala had his Theatre printed. It was not dialogued, but only presented in simple scenarios .•. they explain only what the actor is going to do in the scene, and the necessary action and no more." The hundred scenarios of Basilio Locatelli and the scenarios of Domenico Biancolelli belong to the middle of the seventeenth century.

In the Commedia dell'Arte each actor so personalized his part that the r6le became himself, and other actors subsequently representing this character retained the original name, dialect, manner of speaking and dress of the actor who first had made the part famous. Or else they so completely altered these habits and manners as to strongly contrast the new and the traditional conception. In all Gelosi scenarios Flavio stands for Flaminio Scala; Capitano Spavento for Francesco Andreini; Orazio for Orazio Nobili; Isabella for Isabella Andreini; Frittellino for Cecchini, and the Neapolitan Silvio Fiorillo for the multiform Pulcinella.


the maidens and servants intrigue around them. Extremely

susceptible and led astray by love, these old men are imposed

upon in a thousand ways. They hurl themselves into desperate

adventures and resort to disguises and stratagems that com

promise their dignity and reputation. Occasionally they rec

ognize in the youth a long lost son, or in the maiden, a daughter long lamented as dead, and leave the field to their youngrivals.

The servants' masks multiplied enormously. Trappolinomakes love to his master's sweetheart and abets the son in

robbing his father; Francatrippa is always famished and fre

quently crippled; Trivellino is a mocker and a cheat; Far-

ganicchio, the small boy who is impertinent with women, a

glutton and idlethe true modern "gamin," who sings:

Tirintina, tirintina

Fusse festa ogni mattina!

Ben da bevere e da mangiare,E poca voglia di lavorare;

Tirilee, tirilay,

If every day were a holiday!We would eat and we would drink

And never work a single wink.

The cunning and stupid servants of the literary comedies

are represented in the Commedia dell'Arte by two zanni or

clowns. Cecchini affirms that "after the part of a shrewd and

clever servant, there should follow another so ignorant that

he fails to understand what is told him; from which pleasing

equivocations arise, ridiculous mistakes and other artificial

stupidities." Barbieri says that "the first servitor draws laughter . . . by his shrewdness; the second by his stupidities/

1 Thezanni mask caricatures the Bergamese valley men who cameto the city searching for work. Pedrolino and Brighella repre-


the maidens and servants intrigue around them. Extremely susceptible and led astray by love, these old men are imposed upon in a thousand ways. They hurl themselves into desperate adventures and resort to disguises and stratagems that compromise their dignity and reputation. Occasionally they recognize in the youth a long lost son, or in the maiden, a daughter long lamented as dead, and leave the field to their young rivals.

The servants' masks multiplied enormously. Trappolino makes love to his master's sweetheart and abets the son in robbing his father; Francatrippa is always famished and frequently crippled; Trivellino is a mocker and a cheat; Farganicchio, the small boy who is impertinent with women, a glutton and idle-the true modern "gamin," who sings:

Tirintina, tirintina Fusse festa ogni mattina! Ben da bevere e da mangiare, E poca voglia di lavorare;

Tirilee, tirilay, If every day were a holiday! We would eat and we would drink And never work a single wink.

The cunning and stupid servants of the literary comedies are represented in the Commedia dell' A rte by two zanni or clowns. Cecchini affirms that "after the part of a shrewd and clever servant, there should follow another so ignorant that he fails to understand what is told him; from which pleasing equivocations arise, ridiculous mistakes and other artificial stupidities." Barbieri says that "the first servitor draws laughter ... by his shrewdness; the second by his stupidities." The zanni mask caricatures the Bergamese valley men who came to the city searching for work. Pedrolino and Brighella repre-


sent the astute type of zanni; stupid lying Arlecchino is the

other type. Burattino is a servant or merchant, half cunning,half foolish, who comes on to the stage with spit and urinal;

Coviello is a Neapolitan mask with moustaches a I'espagnol,

carrying in his hand a stick surmounted by an apple or an

orange. And what shall we say of Mezzettino, Tartaglia, Scara-

muccia, Pulcinella, Scapino and many another mask each of

these preserving the fundamental traits of character which

were perfected by some actor! Traccagnino, Francatrippa, Co

viello and Brighella might please the common public, but

Pantalone, Arlecchino, the Doctor also pleased more serious

people.*

Pantalone is sometimes husband, sometimes widower or old

bachelor. Frequently he is the father of two troublesome

daughters. Clothed in red pantaloons with Indian robe and

cloth cap and Turkish slippers, he represents the old Vene

tian merchant busy with his affairs and mouthing orations, in

the Piazza San Marco. He listens to every discussion and

attempts to mediate when there are quarrels. Sometimes Pan

talone is rich, clothed in velvet, and hopes to be a Doge. Hehas passed through many changes. When the play requires a

virtuous man he is a model of hoary wisdom; when the plot

requires a weak character he personifies the vicious old man

made ridiculous by amorous quests. In the comedy La Vene-

tiana de sior Cocalin del Cocalini Pantalone is shown at his

worst.

Arlecchino, the second zanni, is a liar, a swindler, a vulgar

intermediary, his weapon the staff. He tumbles downstairs,

* In the Venetian Commedia dell'Arte, Tartaglia is the stammerer; Truffaldino,

the Bergamesk caricature; Brighella represents the demagogues in the public

squares and Pantalone is the bourgeois Venetian. Did his name come from pianta-

leone, the "lion-planter" (since the early Venetian merchants who planted their

Lion of San Marco banner on every Mediterranean island were jestingly called

pianta-leoneft Or is Pantalone the San Pantaleone, ancient patron of Venice?


sent the astute type of zanni; stupid lying Arlecchino is the other type. Burattino is a servant or merchant, half cunning, half foolish, who comes on to the stage with spit and urinal; Coviello is a Neapolitan mask with moustaches a l' espagnol} carrying in his hand a stick surmounted by an apple or an orange. And what shall we say of Mezzettino, Tartaglia, Scaramuccia, Pulcinella, Scapino and many another mask-each of these preserving the fundamental traits of character which were perfected by some actor! Traccagnino, Francatrippa, Coviello and Brighella might please the common public, but Pantalone, ArIecchino, the Doctor also pleased more serious people.*

Pantalone is sometimes husband, sometimes widower or old bachelor. Frequently he is the father of two troublesome daughters. Clothed in red pantaloons with Indian robe and cloth cap and Turkish slippers, he represents the old Venetian merchant busy with his affairs and mouthing orations, in the Piazza San Marco. He listens to every discussion and attempts to mediate when there are quarrels. Sometimes Pantalone is rich, clothed in velvet, and hopes to be a Doge. He has passed through many changes. When the play requires a virtuous man he is a model of hoary wisdom; when the plot requires a weak character he personifies the vicious old man made ridiculous by amorous quests. In the comedy La Venetiana de sior Cocalin dei Cocalini Pantalone is shown at his worst.

ArIecchino, the second zanni) is a liar, a swindler, a vulgar intermediary, his weapon the staff. He tumbles downstairs,

• In the Venetian Commedia dell'Arte, Tartaglia is the stammerer; Truffaldino, the Bergamesk caricature; Brighella represents the demagogues in the public squares and Pantalone is the bourgeoiS Venetian. Did his name come from piantaleone, the "lion-planter" (since the early Venetian merchants who planted their Lion of San Marco banner on every Mediterranean island were jestingly called pianta-leone)? Or is Pantalone the San Pantaleone, ancient patron of Venice?


and upstairs, plays the charlatan "mounted on a bench." In

1776 Marmontel wrote:

Arlequin is the most bizarre and most entertaining character o

the theatre. A "Bergamesque" negro is absurd; it is possible that

an African negro served as the first model for this character. . . .

the costume of Arlequin follows that of the Latin mimes. ... I

have found a book which shows the difference between that early

comedy and that of today. This character is a mixture of ignorance, wit, silliness and grace. He is a rough sketch of a man; a bigchild with gleams of reason and intelligence, whose mistakes are

amusing. He has a cat's agility and his coarseness is only superficial. He is the faithful, credulous, greedy valet, always in love,

always in trouble; who grieves, who consoles himself like a child.*

Arlecchino appears frequently in Flaminio Scala's plays.

His frights, beatings, falls reveal stupidity; he is malicious,

corrupt, fond of women, an expert swindler. As a magician he

distracts the Doctor's attention so that hungry Capitano maystealthily eat seven fritters. He scolds Isabella for talking to

the Capitano whom he beats; snatches his beloved Franceschina

from Pedrolino; urges Isabella to dally with Orazio and with

* The etymology of "Arlecchino" is disputed. Some believe a zanni playing inParis in the time of Henry IV was under the patronage of an Achille de Harley andcalled himself "Harlequino." Simone da Bologna was the Arlecchino of the Gelosi.In the ninth century a French count Hernequin fought against the Normans, waswounded and died in horrible agony in the Samer Abbey* Popular imagination was

impressed by his strange death and the desolation which his cruelty had brought tonorthern France, Because of his sins God condemned him to wander with his companions until Judgment Day, Thus arose the Hernequin or Harlequin legend of a

wandering band of soldiers, which was soon fused with that other legend of thecavalcata selvaggia, that ghostly band of lost souls galloping in the air during stormynights amid roll of thunder and noise of rain and wind. These wandering souls of

sinners, the Harlequins, afterwards became devils, and later on when they had lost

their diabolical perversity they became absurd; and in France as early as the twelfth

century they marched to the sound of many bells with a king of their own who wasthe Harlequin or "Devil" par excellence. Later on real men, disguised as Harlequindevils, covered their faces with grotesque masks, played on trumpets and abandonedthemselves to uncouth movements. In the late sixteenth century an Italian actor

performing in Paris assumed the name, donned the costume and presented himselfbefore the spectators as Zanni Harlequin, the Zanni who should surpass all theothers in extravagant buffoonery.


and upstairs, plays the charlatan "mounted on a bench." In 1776 Mannontel wrote:

Arlequin is the most bizarre and most entertaining character of the theatre. A "Bergamesque" negro is absurd; it is possible that an African negro served as the first model for this character. . . . the costume of Arlequin follows that of the Latin mimes. . . . I have found a book which shows the difference between that early comedy and that of today. This character is a mixture of ignorance, wit, silliness and grace. He is a rough sketch of a man; a big child with gleams of reason and intelligence, whose mistakes are amusing. He has a eat's agility and his coarseness is only superficial. He is the faithful, credulous, greedy valet, always in love, always in trouble; who grieves, who consoles himself like a child. *

Arlecchino appears frequently in Flaminio Scala's plays. His frights, beatings, falls reveal stupidity; he is malicious, corrupt, fond of women, an expert swindler. As a magician he distracts the Doctor's attention so that hungry Capitano may stealthily eat seven fritters. He scolds Isabella for talking to the Capitano whom he beats; snatches his beloved Franceschina from Pedrolino; urges Isabella to dally with Orazio and with

• The etymology of "Arlecchino" is disputed. Some believe a zanni playing in Paris in the time of Henry IV was under the patronage of an Achille de Harley and called himself "Harlequino." Simone da Bologna was the Arlecchi110 of the Celosi. In the ninth century a French count Hernequin fought against the Normans, was wounded and died in horrible agony in the Samer Abbey. Popular imagination was impressed by his strange death and the desolation which his cruelty had brought to northern France. Because of his sins God condemned him to wander with his companions until Judgment Day. Thus arose the Hernequin or Harlequin legend of a wandering band of soldiers. which was soon fused with that other legend of the cavalcata selvaggia, that ghostly band of lost souls galloping in the air during stormy nights amid roll of thunder and noise of rain and wind. These wandering souls of sinners. the Harlequins, afterwards became devils, and later on when they had lost their diabolical perversity they became absurd; and in France as early as the twelfth century they marched to the sound of many bells with a king of their own who was the Harlequin or "Devil" par excellence. Later on real men. disguised as Harlequin devils, covered their faces with grotesque maSKS. played on trumpets and abandoned themselves to uncouth movements. In the late sixteenth century an Italian actor performing in Paris assumed the name, donned the costume and presented himself before the spectators as Zanni Harlequin, the Zanni who should surpass all the others in extravagant bUffoonery.

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VICTORIAN HARLEQUINS


"many other noblemen who love her," extolling the life of

courtesans; and then when her husband appears, assures himthat he possesses "the most chaste wife of the town/' He swin

dles the Capitano and steals jewelry from the Doctor. Credu

lous, greedy, always in love, always in trouble, his absurd

gesticulations, quick movements and sudden somersaults

make his audience laugh. Arlecchino is the most disorderlymask of the Commedia dell'Arte and most resembles the

mountebanks.

Joseph-Dominique Biancolelli (Dominique), the greatest

Arlecchino of his time, was born at Bologna in 1640 or 1646.

His father and mother were actors. From his early youthBiancolelli played in comedy with his parents and while still

only a child he had become famous. In 1659 when Biancolelli

was playing in Vienna in the company of Tabarini, Cardinal

Mazarin requested him to join his Italian company of actors

in Paris. Next year young Biancolelli came to France, and for

eight years was the joy of the French court. King Louis XIVheld his son at the baptismal fount. He was given the title of

"King's Officer."

When in a fit of great mental depression Dominique con

sulted a famous French doctor, the physician said: "My pre

scription for your melancholy is to go and hear Dominique."

"Alas/' he replied, "I myself am Dominique and I am a lost

man." Louis XIV's dancing master Sieur Beauchamp had

danced a very singular and much applauded divertissement,

in the presence of His Majesty. Dominique proceeding to

give an imitation of Beauchamp's dance so pleased the King

that he prolonged it until greatly overheated and perspiring.

From this he contracted a cold, died on the 2nd of August

1688 and was buried in the church of Saint-Eustache. At the


"many other noblemen who love her," extolling the life of courtesans; and then when her husband appears, assures him that he possesses "the most chaste wife of the town." He swindles the Capitano and steals jewelry from the Doctor. Credulous, greedy, always in love, always in trouble, his absurd gesticulations, quick movements and sudden somersaults make his audience laugh. Arlecchino is the most disorderly mask of the Commedia dell'Arte and most resembles the mountebanks.

Joseph-Dominique Biancolelli (Dominique), the greatest Arlecchino of his time, was born at Bologna in 1640 or 1646. His father and mother were actors. From his early youth Biancolelli played in comedy with his parents and while still only a child he had become famous. In 1659 when Biancolelli was playing in Vienna in the company of Tabarini, Cardinal Mazarin requested him to join his Italian company of actors in Paris. Next year young Biancolelli came to France, and for eight years was the joy of the French court. King Louis XIV held his son at the baptismal fount. He was given the title of "King's Officer."

When in a fit of great mental depression Dominique consulted a famous French doctor, the physician said: "My prescription for your melancholy is to go and hear Dominique." "Alas," he replied, "I myself am Dominique and I am a lost man." Louis XIV's dancing master Sieur Beauchamp had danced a very singular and much applauded divertissement, in the presence of His Majesty. Dominique proceeding to give an imitation of Beauchamp'S dance so pleased the King that he prolonged it until greatly overheated and perspiring. From this he contracted a cold, died on the 2nd of August 1688 and was buried in the church of Saint-Eustache. At the


bottom of his portrait, painted by Ferdinand and engraved

by Hubert, is written the following quatrain:

Bologna is my homeland and Paris my abode.

I reign there with lustre in the comic theatre;

Arlequin under his mask hides Dominique, whoReforms with a laugh both people and court.

Here is an example of Arlequin's despair, taken from the

play L'Empereur dans la lune:

Oh! unhappy one that I am! the Doctor wishes to give Columbine in marriage to a farmer and I will have to live without

Columbine! No! I wish to die! Ah! Ignorant Doctor! Ah! Columbine so little constant! Ah! fanner much too much of a rascal!

Ah! Arlequin extremely miserable! Let us hasten towards death.

They will write in ancient and modern history, Arlequin died for

Columbine. I will go to my chamber, I will tie a rope to the floor,

I will get up in a chair, I will put the rope around my neck. I

will kick the chair, and there I will be hung! (He takes the posture

of one that has been hanged.} It is all over! nothing can stop me;let us run to the gallows ... to the gallows! Fie, sir, what are you

thinking of? Kill yourself for a girl? That would be great folly. . . .

Yes, sir; but a girl to betray an honest man is great knavery.

Agreed, but when you are hung will you be any the fatter? No,I would be thinner. No! I want to be of fair size!

What have you to say to that? If you want to join in just come

along. Ho! no, indeed, you will not go. ... Ho! I will go. ... Hoi

you will not go. ... I will go, I tell you. (He draws his knife>

strikes himself with it, then says:) Ah! now I am rid of that

importunate fellow. Now that there is no one here, let us go hangourselves. (He pretends to go and stops short.) Why, no! to hangis an ordinary death, a death one sees every day, which would not

honour me. Let us search for an extraordinary death, some heroic

death, a death that is Arlequinesque. (He meditates.) Fve foundit! I will stop up my mouth and nose, the wind cannot come out,

and so I die. Done. (He stops up his nose and mouth with both

hands, and after having stayed in this position for a little while he

says:) No, the wind goes by the bottom that is not worth the devil.

Alas! how laborious it is to die! (Towards the audience:) Sirs, if


bottom of his portrait, painted by Ferdinand and engraved by Hubert, is written the following quatrain:

Bologna is my homeland and Paris my abode. I reign there with lustre in the comic theatre; Arlequin under his mask hides Dominique, who Reforms with a laugh both people and court.

Here is an example of Arlequin's despair, taken from the play L'Empereur dans la lune:

Oh! unhappy one that I amI the Doctor wishes to give Columbine in marriage to a farmer and I will have to live without Columbine I No! I wish to diel Ah! Ignorant Doctor! Ah! Columbine so little constant! Ah! farmer much too much of a rascal! Ahl Arlequin extremely miserable! Let us hasten towards death. They will write in ancient and modern history, Arlequin died for Columbine. I will go to my chamber, I will tie a rope to the floor, I will get up in a chair, I will put the rope around my neck. I will kick the chair, and there I will be hung! (He takes the posture of one that has been hanged.) It is all over! nothing can stop me; let us run to the gallows ... to the gallows! Fie, sir, what are you thinking of? Kill yourself for a girl? That would be great folly .... Yes, sir; but a girl to betray an honest man is great knavery. Agreed, but when you are hung will you be any the fatter? No, I would be thinner. No! I want to be of fair sizel

What have you to say to that? If you want to join in just come along. Ho! no, indeed, you will not go .... Ho! I will go .... HoI you will not go .... I will go, I tell you. (He draws his knife, strikes himself with it, then says:) Ah! now I am rid of that importunate fellow. Now that there is no one here, let us go hang ourselves. (He pretends to go and stops short.) Why, nol to hang is an ordinary death, a death one sees every day, which would not honour me. Let us search for an extraordinary death, some heroic death, a death that is Arlequinesque. (He meditates.) I've found it! I will stop up my mouth and nose, the wind cannot come out, and so I die. Done. (He stops up his nose and mouth with both hands, and after having stayed in this position for a little while he says:) No, the wind goes by the bottom that is not worth the devil. Alas! how laborious it is to die! (Towards the audience:) Sirs, if


someone would die to serve me as a model I would be muchobliged. ... Ah! by faith I have it. We read in stories that some

people have died from laughing a lot. If I could die laughing that

would be a very funny death. I am very sensitive to tickling; if I

were tickled long enough it would make me die of laughter. I'm

going to tickle myself and that way I'll die. (He tickles himself,

laughs, and falls on the floor.}

In 1689, Evariste Gherardi continued the Arlequin roles,

with great success. Constantine was the son of Jean Gherardi

(Flautin) and born at Prato, in Tuscany. He made his first

appearance in the revival of Divorce, in the role of Arlequinthat Dominique had created the year before. His theatre was

closed in 1697. He died suddenly in August 1700. Accordingto his portrait he had a high forehead, large and keen eyes,

aquiline nose, thin mouth and jaw.*

* See also in Chapter III of Marionettes, p. 117.


someone would die to serve me as a model I would be much obliged .... Ahl by faith I have it. We read in stories that some people have died from laughing a lot. If I could die laughing that would be a very funny death. I am very sensitive to tickling; if I were tickled long enough it would make me die of laughter. I'm going to tickle myself and that way I'll die. (He tickles himself) laughs} and falls on the floor.)

In 1689, Evariste Gherardi continued the Arlequin roles, with great success. Constantine was the son of Jean Gherardi (Flautin) and born at Prato, in Tuscany. He made his first appearance in the revival of Divorce, in the role of Arlequin that Dominique had created the year before. His theatre was closed in 1697. He died suddenly in August 1700. According to his portrait he had a high forehead, large and keen eyes, aquiline nose, thin mouth and jaw. *

• See also in Chapter III of Marionettes, p. 117.

Chapter VI

Goldoni and Gozzi

Decay and Death of the

Commedia delFArte

IN THE Piazzetta del Mercanti in Venice, halfway between the

Rialto and the Merceria, close to the Riva where the dailymarket was held, not far from the Piazza San Marco andthe bookshop where his friends and partisans met and but a

few steps farther from the Teatro di San Luca, now Teatro

Goldoni, is a statue of Goldoni slightly stooped as if listeningto the merchants and the shopkeepers discussing the day'sbusiness or engaging in wordy warfare or banter, while

pigeons coo and flap their wings. If Goldoni could step downfrom his pedestal he would find himself at home in this twentieth century, and his comedies still being performed in the

Venetian theatres. Goldoni belongs to these people. Like his

own immortal Pantalone he was the synthesis of past centuries

and the forerunner of a new age.

This is the Goldoni who proposed to purge of its nastiness

while adding to its wit that degenerate theatre of which, in

the preface to his theatrical works, he writes: "The comictheatre of Italy for more than a century past had so deteriorated that it became a disgusting object for general abhorrence. You saw nothing on public stages but indecent

harlequinades, dirty and scandalous intrigue, foul jests, immodest loves." In attempting this reform, Goldoni followed

76

Chapter VI

Goldoni and GozziDecay and Death of the

Commedia dell' Arte

IN THE Piazzetta dei Mercanti in Venice, halfway between the Rialto and the Merceria, close to the Riva where the daily market was held, not far from the Piazza San Marco and the bookshop where his friends and partisans met and but a few steps farther from the Teatro di San Luca, now Teatro Goldoni, is a statue of Goldoni slightly stooped as if listening to the merchants and the shopkeepers discussing the day's business or engaging in wordy warfare or banter, while pigeons coo and flap their wings. If Goldoni could step down from his pedestal he would find himself at home in this twentieth century, and his comedies still being performed in the Venetian theatres. Goldoni belongs to these people. Like his own immortal Pantalone he was the synthesis of past centuries and the forerunner of a new age.

This is the Goldoni who proposed to purge of its nastiness while adding to its wit that degenerate theatre of which, in the preface to his theatrical works, he writes: "The comic theatre of Italy for more than a century past had so deteriorated that it became a disgusting object for general abhorrence. You saw nothing on public stages but indecent harlequinades, dirty and scandalous intrigue, foul jests, immodest loves." In attempting this reform, Goldoni followed

']5

GOLDONI AND GOZZI 77

the precepts of his time, was in harmony with the moralstandard of his environment, and did not attempt the impossible. His plays are the pride of the Commedia dell'Arte andhave become immortal.

Goldoni's plays glimpse every aspect of life, catch the spirit

of every social rank, show his love for the homely classes andhis condemnation of the Venetian aristocracy; though divert

ing episodes and amusing dialogue obscure sometimes the

courage of these attacks. The misfortunes of the humble are

not exaggerated, but he asks for fair play. Whether dissipated

husband, cavaliere servente, timid lover, spendthrift or gambler, most of his aristocrats are poltroons. The nobleman is

flattered by his wife's conquests, pleased to get rid of her;

but Pantalone, mouthpiece of the common people, abhors

such practices.

Goldoni's middle class are more chaste; wives are more

loyal, husbands more faithful. Goldoni's women are less

wicked than his men. Those modest, industrious young girls,

dainty Lucietta, Felicietta, who come and go so trim and gay

playing their pretty pranks, pleading for their lovers or

plotting to captivate some grumbling old uncle are truly

Goldonian. The wife, the mother are shown bravely protect

ing their family from ruin. When Goldoni's women are bad

their wickedness is an effect and not a cause. The coquettish

wife is the unhappy partner of a dissolute husband; the

peevish house drudge is embittered by long bullying. The

woman contrives and plots because her natural life has been

suppressed.

This thesis of the reform of society through the family and

by female influence was advanced in Venice, where public

opinion and the standard of morality was most unfair towards

women. Goldoni's little world praised feminine charms, wor-

GOLDONI AND GOZZI 77 the precepts of his time, was in harmony with the moral standard of his environment, and did not attempt the impossible. His plays are the pride of the Commedia dell'Arte and have become immortaL

Goldoni's plays glimpse every aspect of life, catch the spirit of every social rank, show his love for the homely classes and his condemnation of the Venetian aristocracy; though diverting episodes and amusing dialogue obscure sometimes the courage of these attacks. The misfortunes of the humble are not exaggerated, but he asks for fair play. Whether dissipated husband, cavaliere servente, timid lover, spendthrift or gambler, most of his aristocrats are poltroons. The nobleman is flattered by his wife's conquests, pleased to get rid of her; but Pantalone, mouthpiece of the common people, abhors such practices.

Goldoni's middle class are more chaste; wives are more loyal, husbands more faithful. Goldoni's women are less wicked than his men. Those modest, industrious young girls, dainty Lucietta, Felicietta, who come and go so trim and gay -playing their pretty pranks, pleading for their lovers or plotting to captivate some grumbling old uncle-are truly Goldonian. The wife, the mother are shown bravely protecting their family from ruin. When Goldoni's women are bad their wickedness is an effect and not a cause. The coquettish wife is the unhappy partner of a dissolute husband; the peevish house drudge is embittered by long bullying. The woman contrives and plots because her natural life has been suppressed.

This thesis of the reform of society through the family and by female influence was advanced in Venice, where public opinion and the standard of morality was most unfair towards women. Goldoni's little world praised feminine charms, wor-


shipped beauty with bows and compliments. But that the one

half of mankind was the equal of the other was too absurd for

discussion. Goldoni's role of the seruetta is also significant.

Goldoni's plays were crowded with healthy suggestions about

the reform and the great influence of the family. He rehabili

tated the most discredited trades and professions. He loved

and understood the feeling and rights of the gondoliers. Gol-

doni defended the actors. He praised those who tried to live

right, he castigated the individual but pleaded for the class.

Goldoni's inspiration, intuition and sincerity in depictingthose humble people of the calli> traghetti and piazzetti, and

in distinguishing their qualities from the aristocratic hand-

kissing Lelios and Florindos, and his use of their vernacular,

are unsurpassed, His Ulmpresario della Smirne gives a pretty

picture of theatrical customs. Admirable is his portrait of the

physician who healed the spirit as well as the body. Lawyershe respected and admired. His Avvocato Veneziano is a hymnto the noblest calling. Most of his merchants are honest. Shopkeepers, tradespeople, even the humble facchino di piazza,

pawnbrokers and money lenders find in him a defender. His

scenes are few, vivacious, swift; but they are sufficient. Thecharacters develop as the play progresses. We see frivolous

girls in search of husbands, extravagant wives, infatuated hus

bands, adventurers, parasites, ignorant doctors.

Goldoni, most noted author of the Commedia ddVArte, is

a true Venetian. It is the intense sunshine and deep shadow,the brio and amor and cortesia of Venice which make the at

mosphere of his plays. Vividly he describes his world. A marvellous observer, he is unable to generalize. He respects

religious appearances. He does not invent his types but completes them through many plays* His female characters are

many and varied; some of them are unsurpassed. He hates


shipped beauty with bows and compliments. But that the one half of mankind was the equal of the other was too absurd for discussion. Coldoni's role of the servetta is also significant. Coldoni's plays were crowded with healthy suggestions about the reform and the great influence of the family. He rehabilitated the most discredited trades and professions. He loved and understood the feeling and rights of the gondoliers. Coldoni defended the actors. He praised those who tried to live right, he castigated the individual but pleaded for the class.

Coldoni's inspiration, intuition and sincerity in depicting those humble people of the calli) traghetti and piazzetti) and in distinguishing their qualities from the aristocratic handkissing Lelios and Florindos, and his use of their vernacular, are unsurpassed. His L'Impresario della Smirne gives a pretty picture of theatrical customs. Admirable is his portrait of the physician who healed the spirit as well as the body. Lawyers he respected and admired. His Avvocato Veneziano is a hymn to the noblest calling. Most of his merchants are honest. Shopkeepers, tradespeople, even the humble facchino di piazza) pawnbrokers and money lenders find in him a defender. His scenes are few, vivacious, swift; but they are sufficient. The characters develop as the play progresses. We see frivolous girls in search of husbands, extravagant wives, infatuated husbands, adventurers, parasites, ignorant doctors.

Coldoni, most noted author of the Commedia dell'Arte~ is a true Venetian. It is the intense sunshine and deep shadow, the brio and am or and cortesia of Venice which make the atmosphere of his plays. Vividly he describes his world. A marvellous observer, he is unable to generalize. He respects religious appearances. He does not invent his types but completes them through many plays. His female characters are many and varied; some of them are unsurpassed. He hates


militarism and loathes war. In his social plan, the family is the

nucleus of society.

In the long gallery of Goldoni's types, "Le Cortesan" is ab

solutely his own. What is a "cortesan"? In his Memoirs Gol-

doni says:

It is not possible to express the word "cortesan" by a French

adjective. The term "cortesan" is derived from courtesy or cour

teous. The real Venetian "cortesan" is honest, obliging, useful,

generous without profusion, gay but not foolish; he loves the

ladies without compromising them. He enjoys pleasure but does

not ruin himself in order to obtain it. He lives a quiet life but

refuses to be swindled. He is affable and is a devoted friend.*

Momolo thus expresses himself:

Moneyl Having it is not important, but knowing how to spendit. A good cortesan gives the same value to his silver as to his gold.

He guards against stinginess, but will not be swindled. He can be

generous and when necessary can draw the purse-strings tight. Heis true with his friends, but with swindlers he meets trickery with

trickery. The world is full of cheating, deception is fashionable;

but I laugh at them for I always have a card for every play.

Momolo is placed in that most difficult position when a wom

an, a young girl, makes advances to him. Eleonora knows the

* This ideal of the Venetian "cortesan" from whence did it come? And why,

before Goldoni, had the Italian comedy ignored it? Did Goldoni remember that

the poets of the dolce stil novo also had considered that amor e cortesia were

identical; that they had defined the laws of love and the code of courtesy and had

taught that honour should regulate pleasure and pleasure should be disciplined?

Always it had avowed that the art of living is the art of being happy, of amusing

and finding amusement, of being satisfied with oneself. The "cortesan" should

possess pleasing and showy accomplishments; should sing, recite, improvise, play

some musical instrument, give a serenade and pay his social obligation with some

thing besides money. To be rich was not indispensable but to make a fine show and

at least appear magnificent and generous was important. Money might be borrowed

or gained by gambling its source was not important; but it must flow freely

between the fingers, dance gaily on the green cloth or slip into the palm of some

pretty woman. Neither beauty nor youth was absolutely requisite, but gaiety and

boldness joined to a lissome body and a supple wit was essential to the "cortesan."

GOLDONI AND GOZZI 79 militarism and loathes war. In his social plan, the family is the nucleus of society.

In the long gallery of Goldoni's types, "Le Cortesan" is absolutely his own. 'What is a "cortesan"? In his Memoirs Goldoni says:

It is not possible to express the word "cortesan" by a French adjective. The term "cortesan" is derived from courtesy or courteous. The real Venetian "cortesan" is honest, obliging, useful, generous without profusion, gay but not foolish; he loves the ladies without compromising them. He enjoys pleasure but does not ruin himself in order to obtain it. He lives a quiet life but refuses to be swindled. He is affable and is a devoted friend. *

Momolo thus expresses himself:

Money! Having it is not important, but knowing how to spend it. A good cortesan gives the same value to his silver as to his gold. He guards against stinginess, but will not be swindled. He can be generous and when necessary can draw the purse-strings tight. He is true with his friends, but with swindlers he meets trickery with trickery. The world is full of cheating, deception is fashionable; but I laugh at them for I always have a card for every play.

Momolo is placed in that most difficult position when a woman, a young girl, makes advances to him. Eleonora knows the

• This ideal of the Venetian "cortesan"-from whence did it come? And why, before Goldoni, had the Italian comedy ignored it? Did Goldoni remember that the poets of the dolce stil novo also bad considered that amor e cortesia were identical; that they had defined the laws of love and the code of courtesy and had taught that honour should regulate pleasure and pleasure should be disciplined? Always it had avowed that the art of living is the art of being happy, of amusing and finding amusement, of being satisfied with oneself. The "cortesan" should possess pleasing and showy accomplishments; should sing, recite, imprOvise, play some musical instrument, give a serenade and pay his social obligation with something besides money. To be rich was not indispensable but to make a fine show and at least appear magnificent and generous was important. Money might be borrowed or gained by gambling-its source was not important; but it must flow freely between the fingers, dance gaily on the green cloth or slip into the palm of some pretty woman. Neither beauty nor youth was absolutely requisite, but gaiety and boldness joined to a lissome body and a supple wit was essential to the "cortesan."

8o MASKS AND MARIONETTES

value of the love she has given to Momolo; and it is just be

cause she is so deliciously pure that she tells him o her love,

and proves it in a manner which will ruin her if she fails to

win him. Of course, in the last act, Momolo accepts the mar

riage-chain and perhaps becomes a good husband. To com

plete the figure of Momolo we have the scene where, sword in

hand, Momolo faces two assassins paid to assault him and per

suades them to beat up their paymaster. It is a scene of reper

toire, one such as the actors of Commedia dell'Arte have in

their zibaldoni; but it is played with brio, gaiety and such

good nature and irony that it would give pleasure today. The

scene between Momolo and Ludro the usurer is delightful.

Momolo's debt increases though he has made many partial

payments. A rascally go-between demands an enormous per

centage; spoiled merchandise is offered him in place of cash;

all the other means familiar to usurers are described; but

indignant Momolo gives the usurer his lesson.

How charming, how artificial, how piquant and naive is

the eighteenth century theatre type of soubrette; elaborated

after ancient comedy traditions and long presented in comic

opera and vaudeville. How gay her laughter, how keen her

repartee, how knowing her smile, how sincerity is disguised

by artifice! With her little cap balanced on black curly hair,

little lace apron and bodice freely open at the neck, when her

little slippers and lace stockings advance on the stage one

realizes that in Colombina alluring youth, good sense, satire

without bitterness, mischief without perversion, skill without

trickery, kindliness without vice have entered upon the scene,

to encourage bashful lovers, make fun of graybeards, sustain

the rights of love and of youth against intriguing old age and

selfishness. That darting repartee will pass over the heads of

the dotards in the play but will reach the audience. Loose


value of the love she has given to Momolo; and it is just because she is so deliciously pure that she tells him of her love, and proves it in a manner which will ruin her if she fails to win him. Of course, in the last act, Momolo accepts the marriage-chain and perhaps becomes a good husband. To complete the figure of Momolo we have the scene where, sword in hand, Momolo faces two assassins paid to assault him and persuades them to beat up their paymaster. It is a scene of repertoire, one such as the actors of Commedia dell' A rte have in their zibaldoni~' but it is played with brio) gaiety and such good nature and irony that it would give pleasure today. The scene between Momolo and Ludro the usurer is delightful. Momolo's debt increases though he has made many partial payments. A rascally go-between demands an enormous percentage; spoiled merchandise is offered him in place of cash; all the other means familiar to usurers are described; but indignant Momolo gives the usurer his lesson.

How charming, how artificial, how piquant and naive is the eighteenth century theatre type of soubrette; elaborated after ancient comedy traditions and long presented in comic opera and vaudeville. How gay her laughter, how keen her repartee, how knowing her smile, how sincerity is disguised by artifice! With her little cap balanced on black curly hair, little lace apron and bodice freely open at the neck, when her little slippers and lace stockings advance on the stage one realizes that in Colombina alluring youth, good sense, satire without bitterness, mischief without perversion, skill without trickery, kindliness without vice have entered upon the scene, to encourage bashful lovers, make fun of graybeards, sustain the rights of love and of youth against intriguing old age and selfishness. That darting repartee will pass over the heads of the dotards in the play but will reach the audience. Loose

COLOMBINA (1683)COLOMBINA (1683)


talk, insinuations, will be exchanged but no actual grossness.

Colombina is never wanton.

She has disappeared, this pert soubrette to whom one says

everything, who understands everything and to whom every

thing is permitted. She has disappeared, this natty, lissome,

pretty soubrette. She who could skim the brink of the abyss

yet escape improprieties; could weave intrigue yet protect

lovers; arrange the rendezvous but prevent the finale appas

sionatoshe has disappeared as all artistic creations disappear

with the changing humour of the public. In the Gommedia

dell'Arte she was always represented by the youngest and

prettiest actress. Born in the mud of ancient cesspools, ele

vated by the pomp of improvised comedy, she illumined the

comedy of masks. Each author transformed this supple figu

rine according to his own ideas. Goldoni found his soubrette

already fashioned by the Commedia dell'Arte, but chiefly he

found her among the comedians who were his first masters.

In his earlier pieces she was Colombina, the scandal-bearer,

sower of discords. Aided by the collaboration of Mme. Bac-

cherini, Goldoni soon evokes a quite different soubrette. In

the Donna di Garbo, a comedy of transformations, the actress

shows the whole range of her talents. A mere change of cos

tume or headdress no longer suffices. In order to conquer an

entire family there must be a metamorphosis of attitude, almost

of character. Playing with the gambler, wise with the learned,

attentive to the old grumbler, coquetting with some, austere

with others, the "sly dog/' the woman di garbo becomes at the

end a sentimentalist. Goldoni never attempted to duplicate

this role. In his other plays he placed Colombina among the

subordinate characters. Realizing that the proverb "Like mas

ter like man" is doubly true in regard to women, he made his

Colombina to fit roles consistent with those of her mistress.


talk, insinuations, will be exchanged but no actual grossness. Colombina is never wanton.

She has disappeared, this pert soubrette to whom one says everything, who understands everything and to whom everything is permitted. She has disappeared, this natty, lissome, pretty soubrette. She who could skim the brink of the abyss yet escape improprieties; could weave intrigue yet protect lovers; arrange the rendezvous but prevent the finale appassionato-she has disappeared as all artistic creations disappear with the changing humour of the public. In the Commedia dell' A rte she was always represented by the youngest and prettiest actress. Born in the mud of ancient cesspools, elevated by the pomp of improvised comedy, she illumined the

,comedy of masks. Each author transformed this supple figurine according to his own ideas. Goldoni found his soubrette already fashioned by the Commedia dell'ArteJ but chiefly he found her among the comedians who were his first masters.

In his earlier pieces she was Colomb ina, the scandal-bearer, sower of discords. Aided by the collaboration of Mme. Baccherini, Goldoni soon evokes a quite different soubrette. In the Donna di GarboJ a comedy of transformations, the actress shows the whole range of her talents. A mere change of costume or headdress no longer suffices. In order to conquer an entire family there must bea metamorphosis of attitude, almost of character. Playing with the gambler, wise with the learned, attentive to the old grumbler, coquetting with some, austere with others, the "sly dog," the woman di garbo becomes at the end a sentimentalist. Goldoni never attempted to duplicate this role. In his other plays he placed Colombina among the subordinate characters. Realizing that the proverb "Like master like man" is doubly true in regard to women, he made his Colomb ina to fit roles consistent with those of her mistress.

8s MASKS AND MARIONETTES

In La Serva amorosa he calls her Corralina and gives her a

Goldonian and Venetian physiognomy. This adjective amo

rosa does not correspond with the French word amoureuse. It

is not a question of love but of tenderness, of devotion, of

active kindness and a chivalric impulse. Goldoni, connoisseur

and interpreter of feminine souls, knew how to divine that

heroism, abnegation, patience and fidelity which was hidden

behind trifling manners or deliberate coldness, especially

where the woman wished to save her little too sensitive heart,

her little too punctilious amour propre. Corralina does not

wear her heart upon her sleeve. She has reticences even from

herself. Under her white purity of devotion there glows a

little flame which, unless repressed, may flare into a conflagra

tion. And it is this something understood, a martyr's aureole,

which adds poignant charm to her person. Here are two Vene

tian bourgeois families, that of Pantalone, father of charming

Rosaura, and that of Ottavio, father of Florindo. Ottavio is

now the husband and slave of Beatrice his second wife, and is

stepfather of Lelio. Florindo is maltreated by his stepmother,

driven from home by old Ottavio; and but for Corralina he

would have starved. It is Corralina who brings about his mar

riage with Rosaura, the recognition of his rights as the heir,

and the banishment of the second wife and stepson. This

denouement complies with theatrical tradition.

Notice the difference between Goldoni's Corralina and

Moli&re's and Marivaux's most famous soubrettes. How nat

ural her introduction! She knits a pair of stockings. The yarn

came from her dead mistress. "Ah, but those were the happy

days. Patience! I have undertaken to help poor Mr. Florindo

and I will never go back until I have finished that which I

have promised to do. Poor Mr. Florindo I I love him as if he

were my brother. My mother nursed him. We have both


In La Serva amorosa he calls her Corral ina and gives her a Goldonian and Venetian physiognomy. This adjective am'orosa does not correspond with the French word amoureuse. It is not a question of love but of tenderness, of devotion, of active kindness and a chivalric impulse. Goldoni, connoisseur and interpreter of feminine souls, knew how to divine that heroism, abnegation, patience and fidelity which was hidden behind trifling manners or deliberate coldness, especially where the woman wished to save her little too sensitive heart, her little too punctilious amour propre. Corralina does not wear her heart upon her sleeve. She has reticences even from herself. Under her white purity of devotion there glows a little flame which, unless repressed, may flare into a conflagration. And it is this something understood, a martyr's aureole, which adds poignant charm to her person. Here are two Venetian bourgeois families, that of Pantalone, father of charming Rosaura, and that of Ottavio, father of Florindo. Ottavio is now the husband and slave of Beatrice his second wife, and is stepfather of Lelio. Florindo is maltreated by his stepmother, driven from home by old Ottavio; and but for Corralina he would have starved. It is Corral ina who brings about his marriage with Rosaura, the recognition of his rights as the heir, and the banishment of the second wife and stepson. This denouement complies with theatrical tradition.

Notice the difference between Goldoni's Corralina and Moliere's and Marivaux's most famous soubrettes. How natural her introduction! She knits a pair of stockings. The yarn came from her dead mistress. "Ah, but those were the happy days. Patience! I have undertaken to help poor Mr. Florindo and I will never go back until I have finished that which I have promised to do. Poor Mr. Florindo! I love him as if he were my brother. My mother nursed him. We have both


drawn milk from the same breast. We have grown up together

and besides I have a very tender heart. When I have become

attached to anyone, I would let myself be cut in pieces for

them." Florindo enters the house weeping. He is penniless.

Corralina gives him kind words and vague promises. She is

only loaning him the money. "Yes, yes, I don't intend to give

you a single thing. I am keeping count of everything. I will

demand payment to the very last penny/' Rosaura buys the

stockings and listens to Corralina's gossip about Florindo's

passion. Florindo is the pearl of young men. He never scolds,

hasn't a vice, doesn't gamble nor run around with wild youngmen or girls, nor does he drink. Corralina also hints at the

great expectations of this the only son of a rich father. She

does not tell the whole truth but overflows with fantastic ex

planations. "Florindo has left home because he wishes to

marry; he stays in this neighbourhood because he loves these

windows, and very well you know why. In love with me?

Don't be so foolish. He is a very serious young man and madly

in love with you."

Having thus started the affair and drawn from Rosaura a

half-confession, Corralina returns home and finds Florindo in

despair. Madame Beatrice has ordered the notary to make

Ottavio's will, entirely in favour of his stepson Lelio and of

herself. Corralina says, "We will begin by having a good

lunch; then I will talk with the notary." Pantalone enters;

ensues a combat between two finished duelists. Two abso

lutely Venetian types are facing each other, and it is a treat to

witness the rapier thrust. "Never enter my house," Pantalone

orders. "I am tired of quarrels on account of Florindo; I am

through with him and his family." Corralina blackguards him,

pretends she has been personally insulted, appeals to his van

ity. A fine manl With wealth and high position to tamely

GOLDONI AND GOZZI

drawn milk from the same breast. We have grown up together and besides 1 have a very tender heart. When 1 have become attached to anyone, 1 would let myself be cut in pieces for them." Florindo enters the house weeping. He is penniless. Corralina gives him kind words and vague promises. She is only loaning him the money. "Yes, yes, 1 don't intend to give you a single thing. I am keeping count of everything. 1 will demand payment to the very last penny." Rosaura buys the stockings and listens to Corralina's gossip about Florindo's passion. Florindo is the pearl of young men. He never scolds, hasn't a vice, doesn't gamble nor run around with wild young men or girls, nor does he drink. Corral ina also hints at the great expectations of this the only son of a rich father. She does not tell the whole truth but overflows with fantastic explanations. "Florindo has left home because he wishes to marry; he stays in this neighbourhood because he loves these windows, and very well you know why. In love with me? Don't be so foolish. He is a very serious young man and madly in love with you."

Having thus started the affair and drawn from Rosaura a half-confession, Corralina returns home and finds Florindo in despair. Madame Beatrice has ordered the notary to make Ottavio's will, entirely in favour of his stepson Lelio and of herself. Corralina says, "We will begin by having a good lunch; then I will talk with the notary." Pantalone enters; ensues a combat between two finished duelists. Two absolutely Venetian types are facing each other, and it is a treat to witness the rapier thrust. "Never enter my house," Pantalone orders. "I am tired of quarrels on account of Florindo; 1 am through with him and his family." Corralina blackguards him, pretends she has been personally insulted, appeals to his vanity. A fine manl With wealth and high position to tamely

84 MASKS AND MARIONETTESallow the insults of Madame Beatrice and of Ottavio to pass

unpunished! Why, he should help Florindo! And what a

splendid thing would be a marriage between Florindo and his

daughter Rosaura! Florindo possesses every desirable quality

himself. Very soon he will return to his family and take his

own rank and he will make a brilliant marriage; probably to

some little simpleton, one of the many coquettes hangingaround, eager to catch such a desirable husband as Florindo

will be.

Rosaura visits Corralina, Florindo being hidden in the

next room. Corralina again discusses the virtues and the bril

liant prospects of Florindo and promises that some day Rosaura shall come to her house to talk with Florindo since

there is no other way to arrive at an understanding. "But if

anyone should find out?" "No one will find out/' "How shall

I know when to come?" "Leave that all to me; only promisethat you will come when I tell you to." The promise is made.

Rosaura calls in Florindo and the classic Commedia dell'Arte

scene is played between timid lovers and encouraging sou-

brette. Then before the powder explodes she intervenes. Howmany such representations are to be found in the canevas of

the Commedia dell'Arte and in the zibaldoni of the actors!

The making of Ottavio's will is amusing. Corralina accom

panies the notary, and when Beatrice goes out with him she

persuades Ottavio to realize his duty to his own son and to

drive Beatrice and his stepson from the house. Corralina is

Goldoni's most perfect soubrette. His others are pathetic andtearful or deceitful and tricky; what they gain in realism, theylose in charm.

Precursor of the moralists and psychologists of the follow

ing century, Goldoni discovers in the soul of Valentina, the

housekeeper, the profound and ancient causes which explain


allow the insults of Madame Beatrice and of Ottavio to pass unpunished! Why, he should help Florindo! And what a splendid thing would be a marriage between Florindo and his daughter Rosaura! Florindo possesses every desirable quality himself. Very soon he will return to his family and take his own rank and he will make a brilliant marriage; probably to some little simpleton, one of the many coquettes hanging around, eager to catch such a desirable husband as Florindo will be.

Rosaura visits Corralina, Florindo being hidden in the next room. Corralina again discusses the virtues and the brilliant prospects of Florindo and promises that some day Rosaura shall come to her house to talk with Florindo since there is no other way to arrive at an understanding. "But if anyone should find out?" "No one will find out." "How shall I know when to come?" "Leave that all to me; only promise that you will come when I tell you to." The promise is made. Rosaura calls in Florindo and the classic Commedia dell' Arte scene is played between timid lovers and encouraging soubrette. Then before the powder explodes she intervenes. How many such representations are to be found in the canevas of the Commedia dell'Arte and in the zibaldoni of the actors! The making of Ottavio's will is amusing. Corral ina accompanies the notary, and when Beatrice goes out with him she persuades Ottavio to realize his duty to his own son and to drive Beatrice and his stepson from the house. Corralina is Goldoni's most perfect soubrette. His others are pathetic and tearful or deceitful and tricky; what they gain in realism, they lose in charm.

Precursor of the moralists and psychologists of the following century, Goldoni discovers in the soul of Valentina, the housekeeper, the profound and ancient causes which explain


the violent reaction against established order. Who before

Goldoni searched for a soul in revolt lodged in the body of a

soubrette? In what play before Goldoni's is there found suchcontrast between vice and greatness of soul as in this house

keeper who manages everything and is herself dominated by a

rapacious sister, and by a lover of the lowest type? Other Corn-

media dell'Arte sketches present a woman trying to win anold man's affection that she may rob him for the benefit of her

lover. But Goldoni shows a woman dominated by a blind passion which overwhelms all prudence, a madness which dis

regards all moral law. Her lover is unworthy but she loves

him; her sister Felicita is a procuress yet she loves her; and

she knows and judges herself for what she is. She is wicked

because life has made her wicked; because "the hatred which

I have breathed in has rendered me hateful, because in escap

ing vengeance I have undertaken to avenge myself." Utterly

spoiled by the indulgent master, she has herself been con

quered by love. Valentina is a milestone along the pathway of

society's development; the servant who has become a thinking

individual; a personality apart from other personalities in

the vast sea of human passion.

Goldoni's personages are not to be found in the medley

of Piazza San Marco; they have their own popular resorts, in

some secluded bottega where they indulge in the sumptuousfeast of a cup of coffee and a few crackers made of insipid

flour paste.

In Le Massere Goldoni sketches an entire group of little

maidservants. La Massera is a maid of all work. She has re

cently come from the country and has not lost the bright

cheeks, the freshness of those gentle valleys. It is the maid

servant of modest Venetian families, whose mistress has no

secrets from her; or whose elderly master is sentimental and

GOLDONI AND GaZZI

the violent reaction against established order. Who before Goldoni searched for a soul in revolt lodged in the body of a soubrette? In what play before Goldoni's is there found such contrast between vice and greatness of soul as in this housekeeper who manages everything and is herself dominated by a rapacious sister, and by a lover of the lowest type? Other Commedia dell' A rte sketches present a woman trying to win an old man's affection that she may rob him for the benefit of her lover. But Goldoni shows a woman dominated by a blind passion which overwhelms all prudence, a madness which disregards all moral law. Her lover is unworthy but she loves him; her sister F elicita is a procuress yet she loves her; and she knows and judges herself for what she is. She is wicked because life has made her wicked; because "the hatred which I have breathed in has rendered me hateful, because in escaping vengeance I have undertaken to avenge myself." Utterly spoiled by the indulgent master, she has herself been conquered by love. Valentina is a milestone along the pathway of society'S development; the servant who has become a thinking individual; a personality apart from other personalities in the vast sea of human passion.

Goldoni's personages are not to be found in the medley of Piazza San Marco; they have their own popular resorts, in some secluded bottega where they indulge in the sumptuous feast of a cup of coffee and a few crackers made of insipid flour paste.

In Le Massere Goldoni sketches an entire group of little maidservants. La Massera is a maid of all work. She has recently come from the country and has not lost the bright cheeks, the freshness of those gentle valleys. It is the maidservant of modest Venetian families, whose mistress has no secrets from her; or whose elderly master is sentimental and


who to his fatherly affection for her adds a different kind o!

love; "but nothing, you understand, in the slightest degree

improper/' In the early morning these maids are on their

doorsteps or their balconies, gossiping, calling or disputing

for the favour of the handsome young fellow who visits the

fountain, and offers to take them all to the coffee house. It is

the last day of the Venetian Carnival and these gay young

girls and even Donna Rosega, from whom age has not taken

the lust of youth, have wandered freely with their beaux.

What a day! What escapades because of their masks! What a

whirlpool of little plots, unexpected meetings, of gaiety! What

peals of laughter; bright sparkles as from a skyrocket!

How amusing the dialogue between old graybeards Biasio

and Zulian -each recounting the charms of devoted servants,

tender, attractive, affectionate, patient. "One who knows how

to put her hand to everything/' says Biasio, "and don't im

agine for a minute that she is old. She is young and pretty

at least I find her so. What more could you want?" Zulian

praises his own maid. "Agnes tells me that I look like a mannot forty years old, and she ought to know/' The other tells

how she sees that he is properly shaved and assures him that

he has cheeks like a rose and is as active as a young boy. Onecan guess what Goldoni would accomplish in bringing to

gether these masked graybeards and servants. Jewels indeed

are these pictures, yet are they rarely played. For where are

the actresses to depict this type of soubrette? Such cleverness

and gaiety! The world is too old, too sad for her.

The Mirandolina type of soubrette is no longer exactly a

servant. She is the locandiera; she presides over a little estab

lishment which admits only well known guests, where service

becomes hospitality and where orders are requests for favours.

It is a little middle-class boarding house with a mingling of


who to his fatherly affection for her adds a different kind of love; "but nothing, you understand, in the slightest degree improper." In the early morning these maids are on their doorsteps or their balconies, gossiping, calling or disputing for the favour of the handsome young fellow who visits the fountain, and offers to take them all to the coffee house. It is the last day of the Venetian Carnival and these gay young girls and even Donna Rosega, from whom age has not taken the lust of youth, have wandered freely with their beaux. What a day! What escapades because of their masks! What a whirlpool of little plots, unexpected meetings, of gaiety! What peals of laughter; bright sparkles as from a skyrocket!

How amusing the dialogue between old graybeards Biasio and Zulian-each recounting the charms of devoted servants, tender, attractive, affectionate, patient. "One who knows how to put her hand to everything," says Biasio, "and don't imagine for a minute that she is old. She is young and prettyat least I find her so. What more could you want?" Zulian praises his own maid. "Agnes tells me that I look like a man not forty years old, and she ought to know." The other tells how she sees that he is properly shaved and assures him that he has cheeks like a rose and is as active as a young boy. One can guess what Goldoni would accomplish in bringing together these masked graybeards and servants. Jewels indeed are these pictures, yet are they rarely played. For where are the actresses to depict this type of soubrette? Such cleverness and gaietyl The world is too old, too sad for her.

The Mirandolina type of soubrette is no longer exactly a servant. She is the locandiera; she presides over a little establishment which admits only well known guests, where service becomes hospitality and where orders are requests for favours. It is a little middle-class boarding house with a mingling of


bachelors' rooms. The Chevalier Ripafratta, the Marquis of

Forlinpopoli, the Count of Alba Fiorita are permanently es

tablished here. Two of them already love her. The Marquisof Forlinpopoli, a finished type of the ruined and vain barna-

botti, offers her a title of nobility and the half of his poverty.

"The most excellent seignor Marquis wants to marry me. Ah,

well, there is just one little difficulty/* says Mirandolina. "I

will have nothing to do with him; I like the roast but not the

smoke. If I had accepted all those who wished to marry me I

would have had many husbands. All those who come here

make love to me, and they all end by asking me to marrythem. It is not the same with the Chevalier Ripafratta. He

makes himself out a countryman and acts like a bear; he is

the first stranger who has come here who has not shown any

pleasure in talking to me. He hates women! He can't bother

to even look at them! Ah, the poor little fool! He will soon

find one who knows how to teach him what is what!" Gol-

doni's Mirandolina shows exquisite delicacy; one word more

or less, one gesture a little more bold and she would have

glided into triviality or impudence. Experience has made her

independent; pride keeps her from being too humble; but

she is never a prude.

Pantalone is Goldoni's mouthpiece; he is also the central

figure of the Goldonian comedythe chief Venetian mask

and best representative of the Venetian middle class. Goldoni

found the character already fixed in the popular comedy. It

was the mask the least masked. His tall figure, pointed beard,

dark clothes, big cloak; his slippers, most appropriate for the

few steps separating Rialto from Piazza; his supple gestures,

measured tones, politeness,affable manner, long discourses,

rough scoldings and facile gentlenesses; his cleverness in un

ravelling complicated affairs and his ability to make the best

GOLDONI AND GOZZI

bachelors' rooms. The Chevalier Ripafratta, the Marquis of Forlinpopoli, the Count of Alba Fiorita are permanently established here. Two of them already love her. The Marquis of F orlinpopoli, a finished type of the ruined and vain barna

bottiJ offers her a title of nobility and the half of his poverty. "The most excellent seignor Marquis wants to marry me. Ah, well, there is just one little difficulty," says Mirandolina. "I will have nothing to do with him; I like the roast but not the smoke. If I had accepted all those who wished to marry me I would have had many husbands. All those who come here make love to me, and they all end by asking me to marry them. It is not the same with the Chevalier Ripafratta. He makes himself out a countryman and acts like a bear; he is the first stranger who has come here who has not shown any pleasure in talking to me. He hates womenl He can't bother to even look at them! Ah, the poor little fool! He will soon find one who knows how to teach him what is what I " Goldoni's Mirandolina shows exquisite delicacy; one word more or less, one gesture a little more bold and she would have glided into triviality or impudence. Experience has made her independent; pride keeps her from being too humble; but she is never a prude.

Pantalone is Goldoni's mouthpiece; he is also the central figure of the Goldonian comedy-the chief Venetian mask and best representative of the Venetian middle class. Goldoni found the character already fixed in the popular comedy. It was the mask the least masked. His tall figure, pointed beard, dark clothes, big cloak; his slippers, most appropriate for the few steps separating Rialto from Piazza; his supple gestures, measured tones, politeness, affable manner, long discourses, rough scoldings and facile gentlenesses; his cleverness in unravelling complicated affairs and his ability to make the best


o good opportunities; his amiability to strangers; his com

plaisance toward his superiors-all this was as familiar in the

city as in the theatre. Stationed in the piazzette, seated before

the tables of the caf< Florian or grouped on the Rialto bridge,

or in the evening filling the halls of the Ridotto, there were

plenty of real Pantaloni such as one would see on the stage of

the Commedia dell'Arte.

In the past he has been called "Magnifique," has been more

cheerful If he has aged and become more serious because of

greater difficulties and smaller profits, it is because the magnif

icent Venice of earlier days has now become shut in and her

commerce has dwindled. Life has become more complicated

and it is necessary to be more industrious and clever. He be

comes authoritative and dictates the law, he supplants the

patrician, he becomes banker, lawyer, professor and even min-

ister-of-state, replacing the formerly venerated patrician. Pan-

talone is prudent but not cowardly. He no longer fights duels,

but he faces an insolent and will threaten those who affront

him. In La Putta Onorata he says to Ottavio, "Monsieur the

Marquis, go and give your orders in your marquisat." In later

plays Goldoni's Pantalone becomes more clever and less ag

gressive; he has had more experience. The evolution of this

character through Goldoni's plays and in situations always

slightly different portrays Goldoni's finest art. In Goldoni's

comedies the moral flows with perfect naturalness and spon

taneity, and if there is not always a triumph of virtue there is

always a logical triumph; that logic which regulates so many

things and which explains so many others.

Carlo Gozzi was Goldoni's jealous rival. His La Tartana

degli inftussi is malicious. Even before Goldoni had started

for Paris, Gozzi had won the applause of fickle Venice by

presenting a fantastic drama constructed upon the lines of


of good opportunities; his amiability to strangers; his complaisance toward his superiors-all this was as familiar in the city as in the theatre. Stationed in the piazzette~ seated before the tables of the cafe Florian or grouped on the Rialto bridge, or in the evening filling the halls of the Ridotto, there were plenty of real Pantaloni such as one would see on the stage of the Commedia dell'Arte.

In the past he has been called "Magnifique," has been more cheerful. If he has aged and become more serious because of greater difficulties and smaller profits, it is because the magnificent Venice of earlier days has now become shut in and her commerce has dwindled. Life has become more complicated and it is necessary to be more industrious and clever. He becomes authoritative and dictates the law, he supplants the patrician, he becomes banker, lawyer, professor and even minister-of-state, replacing the formerly venerated patrician. Pantalone is prudent but not cowardly. He no longer fights duels, but he faces an insolent and will threaten those who affront him. In La Putta Onorata he says to Ottavio, "Monsieur the Marquis, go and give your orders in your marquisat." In later plays Goldoni's Pantalone becomes more clever and less aggressive; he has had more experience. The evolution of this character through Goldoni's plays and in situations always slightly different portrays Goldoni's finest art. In Goldoni's comedies the moral flows with perfect naturalness and spontaneity, and if there is not always a triumph of virtue there is always a logical triumph; that logic which regulates so many things and which explains so many others.

Carlo Gozzi was Goldoni's jealous rival. His La Tartana degli influssi is malicious. Even before Goldoni had started for Paris, Gozzi had won the applause of fickle Venice by presenting a fantastic drama constructed upon the lines of

PANTALONE (1550)PANTALONE (1550)

GOLDONI AND GOZZI 80*j

the old Commedia delVArte. On the evening of January 25,

1761, Antonio Sacchi's company with enormous success per

formed Gozzi's play L'Amore delle ire melarance. Once upona time the King of Coppe's son Tartaglia was dying of ennui

and consumption; his only cure was to laugh. A little old

woman Fata Morgana appears and Truffaldino tips her over

in a most humiliating manner. The Prince laughs loudly and

is cured. In revenge Fata Morgana secretly inspires him to

conquer "The Three Oranges." The Prince and Truffaldino

undertake this strange adventure wherein alternate the phan

tasmagoria of the Spanish theatre and the heroics of chivalric

romance. Venetian audiences were pleased that these masks

which had come from the antique Roman mimes, had lived

across the darkest ages, had impersonated Italian regions and

races and had amused so many generations should continue

to live on the Italian stage.

Gozzi writes:

I presented L'Amore delle ire melarance to Sacchi's companyof comic players and the extravaganza was produced in the theatre

of San Samuele at Venice during the Carnival of 1761. Its novelty

seasoned with trenchant parodies of Chiari's and Goldoni's plays

created such a sudden and noisy revolution of taste that these poets

saw in it the sentence of their doom. Who could have imagined

that this twinkling spark of a child's fable should have outshone

the universally applauded illumination of two famous talents,

condemning them to obscurity; while my own dramatized fairy

tales enthralled the public for many years?

In 1765, after having given L'Amore delle tre melarance, II

Corvo (The Raven), II Re Cervo (King Stag) and Turandot,

Sacchi's company removed to the larger theatre of San

Angelo.

In his Fiabe Gozzi employed the four chief masks and the


the old Commedia deU'Arte. On the evening of January 25,

1761, Antonio Sacchi's company with enormous success performed Gozzi's play L'Amore delle tre melarance. Once upon a time the King of Coppe's son Tartaglia was dying of ennui and consumption; his only cure was to laugh. A little old woman Fata Morgana appears and Truffaldino tips her over in a most humiliating manner. The Prince laughs loudly and is cured. In revenge Fata Morgana secretly inspires him to conquer "The Three Oranges." The Prince and Truffaldino undertake this strange adventure wherein alternate the phantasmagoria of the Spanish theatre and the heroics of chivalric romance. Venetian audiences were pleased that these masks which had come from the antique Roman mimes, had lived across the darkest ages, had impersonated Italian regions and races and had amused so many generations should continue to live on the Italian stage.

Gozzi writes:

I presented L' Amore delle tre melarance to Sacchi's company of comic players and the extravaganza was produced in the theatre of San Samuele at Venice during the Carnival of 1761. Its novelty seasoned with trenchant parodies of Chiari's and Goldoni's plays created such a sudden and noisy revolution of taste that these poets saw in it the sentence of their doom. Who could have imagined that this twinkling spark of a child's fable should have outshone the universally applauded illumination of two famous talents, condemning them to obscurity; while my own dramatized fairytales enthralled the public for many years?

In 1762, after having given L' Amore delle tre melarance~ Il Corvo (The Raven), Il Re Cervo (King Stag) and Turandot~ Sacchi's company removed to the larger theatre of San Angelo.

In his Fiabe Gozzi employed the four chief masks and the

go MASKS AND MARIONETTES

Servetta Srneraldina. Because of Sacchi's talent Truffaldino's

role was left to improvisation. Gozzi wrote out the dialogue of

the other masks when he thought them sufficiently important.

Stammering Tartaglia of the Three Oranges is still the Nea

politan glutton and knave. The Tartaglia of the Little Green

Bird is the carnal careless boon-companion. Most of the Fiabe

subordinate the masks, but sometimes they are important. Abook of Neapolitan fairy-tales, II Pentamerone del Cavalier

Giovan Battista Basile, ovvero lo Cunto de li Cunti, largely

inspired Gozzi's Fiabe. The novelty of Gozzi's plays secured

audiences but failed to interest Italian readers; but to Ger

man and English critics Gozzi is the harbinger of Romanti

cism. His fantasy is the product of his surfeited memory. His

plays were vulgar caricatures but they contained valuable

motives.

The Little Green Bird is Gozzi's best play. Ninetta had givenbirth to twins, Renzo and Barbarina. The wicked old Queen-mother, pretending that these are only two spaniel puppies,ordered Pantalone to drown them and imprison her daughter-in-law Ninetta in a dungeon. The twins were not killed but

were brought up by the peasants Smeraldina and her husband

Truffaldino. Truffaldino has lately turned the children out

of his pork shop and they wander in search of a home.

These children have been reading philosophy and they

prattle philosophical maxims with as little comprehension as

did Gozzi's Venetians. Renzo declares that the death of their

parents has destroyed the normal human longing for familyties. Barbarina confesses that she is courted by a pretty little

green bird. To the dungeon where Ninetta is buried alive the

little green bird brings a bottle and a basket of food. To the

audience he tells his own little story and the longer tale of

Ninetta's woes. How Renzo and Barbarina are wandering on


Servetta Smeraldina. Because of Sacchi's talent Truffaldino's role was left to improvisation. Gozzi wrote out the dialogue of the other masks when he thought them sufficiently important. Stammering Tartaglia of the Three Oranges is still the Neapolitan glutton and knave. The Tartaglia of the Little Green Bird is the carnal careless boon-companion. Most of the Fiabe subordinate the masks, but sometimes they are important. A book of Neapolitan fairy-tales, Il Pentamerone del Cavalier Giovan Battista Basile~ ovvero Lo Cunto de li Cunti~ largely inspired Gozzi's Fiabe. The novelty of Gozzi's plays secured audiences but failed to interest Italian readers; but to German and English critics Gozzi is the harbinger of Romanticism. His fantasy is the product of his surfeited memory. His plays were vulgar caricatures but they contained valuable motives_

The Little Green Bird is Gozzi's best play. Ninetta had given birth to twins, Renzo and Barbarina. The wicked old Queenmother, pretending that these are only two spaniel puppies, ordered Pantalone to drown them and imprison her daughterin-law Ninetta in a dungeon. The twins were not killed but were brought up by the peasants Smeraldina and her husband Truffaldino. Truffaldino has lately turned the children out of his pork shop and they wander in search of a home.

These children have been reading philosophy and they prattle philosophical maxims with as little comprehension as did Gozzi's Venetians. Renzo declares that the death of their parents has destroyed the normal human longing for family ties. Barbarina confesses that she is courted by a pretty little green bird. To the dungeon where Ninetta is buried alive the little green bird brings a bottle and a basket of food. To the audience he tells his own little story and the longer tale of Ninetta's woes. How Renzo and Barbarina are wandering on


a desert shore, seeking distraction from their misery by talk

ing of future good times. A speaking statue of Cadmon joins

in the conversation, presenting Gozzi's own philosophical

viewpoint. In the last act, everything comes right. Tartaglia

is transformed into a frog, Brighella into an ass. King Tarta

glia learns that Barbarina, being his daughter, cannot be his

wife. His Ninetta is restored to him after her long captivity

under the sewer. The little green bird becomes a royal Prince

and marries Barbarina.

Turandot, written in verse and prose, has been widely

praised. Its merit lies in the evolution of Turandot's char

acter. When Calaf has won the prize Turandot cries out that

she hates him and will die rather than marry him. Chivalrous

Calaf answers that he will give the Princess another chance. If

she solves his riddle his life will be forfeited. The riddle is to

guess his own name. Adelma loves Calaf and, to prevent the

marriage, discovers the name and tells it to Turandot. Calaf

having lost lifts his dagger to pay the penalty. Turandot's love

conquers her pride. She entreats Calaf to take her for his wife

and obedient slave.

In none of his plays did Gozzi produce a true work of art.

An ultraconservative devoted to the old aristocracy of which

he was a part, all foreign ideas distressed and distorted his

mental balance. Harbinger of Romanticism, reviver of the

Commedia dell'Arte, he personified and agonized in the

crumbling of the old aristocratic Venetian order.

I lay my pen aside just at the moment when I should have had

to describe that vast inundation called the French Revolution,

which swept over Europe, upsetting kingdoms and drowning the

landmarks of immemorial history. This awful typhoon caught

Venice in its gyration, affording a splendidly hideous field for

philosophical reflection. The ululations of the dreamers yelling

GOLDONI AND GOZZI

a desert shore, seeking distraction from their misery by talking of future good times. A speaking statue of Cadmon joins in the conversation, presenting Gozzi's own philosophical viewpoint. In the last act, everything comes right. Tartaglia is transformed into a frog, Brighella into an ass. King Tartaglia learns that Barbarina, being his daughter, cannot be his wife. His Ninetta is restored to him after her long captivity under the sewer. The little green bird becomes a royal Prince and marries Barbarina.

Turandot, written in verse and prose, has been widely praised. Its merit lies in the evolution of Turandot's character. "Wben Calaf has won the prize Turandot cries out that she hates him and will die rather than marry him. Chivalrous Calaf answers that he will give the Princess another chance. If she solves his riddle his life will be forfeited. The riddle is to guess his own name. Adelma loves Calaf and, to prevent the marriage, discovers the name and tells it to Turandot. Calaf having lost lifts his dagger to pay the penalty. Turandot's love conquers her pride. She entreats Calaf to take her for his wife and obedient slave.

In none of his plays did Gozzi produce a true work of art. An ultraconservative devoted to the old aristocracy of which he was a part, all foreign ideas distressed and distorted his mental balance. Harbinger of Romanticism, reviver of the Commedia dell'Arte, he personified and agonized in the crumbling of the old aristocratic Venetian order.

I lay my pen aside just at the moment when I should have had to describe that vast inundation called the French Revolution, which swept over Europe, upsetting kingdoms and drowning the landmarks of immemorial history. This awful typhoon caught Venice in its gyration, affording a splendidly hideous field for philosophical reflection. The ululations of the dreamers yelling

92 MASKS AND MARIONETTESout Liberty, Equality, Fraternity deafened our ears. I alwaysdreaded and predicted a cataclysm as the natural consequence of

those pernicious doctrines. Yet my Cassandra warnings weredoomed to remain as useless as these Memoirs will certainly be.

It was not by accident that Goldoni and Gozzi appeared at

the same time among a people who had not yet given full

measure to their genius in drama, comedy or tragedy. Under

a diversity of temperament and of literary accomplishment,Goldoni and Gozzi have certain traits in common. Each of

them is utterly Venetian. The sum of their personalities and

of their writings presents a remarkable picture of Venice at

the close of the eighteenth century. Gozzi's rabid jealousy of

Goldoni and the enormous excitement which their contro

versy produced in Venice seem almost incredible. It is im

probable that it could have occurred in any other city or in

any other time. Hatred of Goldoni is Gozzi's master passion;it is the inspiration of Gozzi's plays. It was more than a hatred

of personality. Gozzi loved all that Goldoni wished to destroy;

he despised the common people whom Goldoni loved.

In his Memoirs Gozzi writes:

We did not shun the theatres. We were not so unjust as to

refuse his share of merit as a playwright to Goldoni. We did notconfound him with Chiari to whom we conceded little. Yet everywhere tables, writing desks, booksellers' stalls, schools, colleges andconvents were filled with the trivialities and absurdities of both

quill-drivers; and everything these scribblers sent to press wasvalued as a mirror of reform in literature, a model of right think

ing and good writing. I recognized in Goldoni an abundance ofcomic motives, truth and naturalness. Yet I detected a poverty andmeanness of intrigue; nature copied from the fact, not imitated;virtues and vices ill-adjusted, vice too frequently triumphant;plebeian phrases of low double meaning, particularly in hisVenetian plays; surcharged characters; scraps and tags of erudition stolen Heaven knows where and clumsily brought in to im-


out Liberty. Equality, Fraternity deafened our ears. I always dreaded and predicted a cataclysm as the natural consequence of those pernicious doctrines. Yet my Cassandra warnings were doomed to remain as useless as these Memoirs will certainly be.

It was not by accident that Goldoni and Gozzi appeared at the same time among a people who had not yet given full measure to their genius in drama, comedy or tragedy. Under a diversity of temperament and of literary accomplishment, Goldoni and Gozzi have certain traits in common. Each of them is utterly Venetian. The sum of their personalities and of their writings presents a remarkable picture of Venice at the close of the eighteenth century. Gozzi's rabid jealousy of Goldoni and the enormous excitement which their contro· versy produced in Venice seem almost incredible. It is improbable that it could have occurred in any other city or in any other time. Hatred of Goldoni is Gozzi's master passion; it is the inspiration of Gozzi's plays. It was more than a hatred of personality. Gozzi loved all that Goldoni wished to destroy; he despised the common people whom Goldoni loved.

In his Memoirs Gozzi writes:

We did not shun the theatres. We were not so unjust as to refuse his share of merit as a playwright to Goldoni. We did not confound him with Chiari to whom we conceded little. Yet everywhere tables, writing desks, booksellers' stalls, schools, colleges and convents were filled with the trivialities and absurdities of both quill-drivers; and everything these scribblers sent to press was valued as a mirror of reform in literature, a model of right thinking and good writing. I recognized in Goldoni an abundance of comic motives, truth and naturalness. Yet I detected a poverty and meanness of intrigue; nature copied from the fact, not imitated; virtues and vices ill-adjusted, vice too frequently triumphant; plebeian phrases of low double meaning, particularly in his Venetian plays; surcharged characters; scraps and tags of erudition stolen Heaven knows where and clumsily brought in to im-


pose upon the crowd of ignoramuses. Finally, as a writer of Italian,

except in the Venetian dialect, of which he showed himself a

master, he seemed to me among the dullest, basest and least correct

authors who have used our idiom.

In spite of all the praises showered upon Goldoni, paid for or

gratis, by journalists, preface-writers, romancers, apologists, Vol-

taires, with the single exception of his Bourru Bienfaisant he never

produced a perfect dramatic piece. At the same time he never

produced one without some excellent comic trait. In my eyes

always he had the appearance of a man born with innate sense of

how sterling comedies should be composed. He displayed an ex

traordinary ability for interweaving dialogues in the Venetian

dialect taken down verbatim in the houses of the common people,

taverns, gaming halls, traghetti, coffee-houses, places of ill-fame

and the most obscure alleys of our city.

Audiences delighted in the realism of these plays. Never before

had realism been so brilliantly illustrated, illuminated and

adorned as it now was by the ability of actors who faithfully

responded to the spirit of this new and popular type of farce. I

maintained and proved that he had frequently charged the noble

persons of his plays with fraud, absurdity and baseness, reserving

serious and heroic virtues for personages of the lower class. I also

showed that his "Putta Onorata" was not honest, that he had

incited to vice while praising virtue. With regard to this point the

four-mouthed Comic Theatre kept protesting that it wished to

drive the time-honoured masks of improvised comedy off the

stage, accusing them of imposture, immodesty and bad examplefor the public. I, on the other hand, clearly proved that Goldoni's

plays were a hundred times more lascivious, more indecent, and

more injurious to morals.

Gozzi also hated Pietro Chiari the Brescian, who had lived

many years among the Jesuits and was titular poet of Fran

cesco III of Modena. He was an elegant and worldly abbe,

author of academic dissertations and of philosophic and scien

tific letters. The extravagant spectacular plots of his plays

were heightened by abundant plagiarisms. His comedies were

performed by the Sacchi and the Medebac companies. "A hot

GOLDONI AND GOZZI 93 pose upon the crowd of ignoramuses. Finally, as a writer of Italian, except in the Venetian dialect, of which he showed himself a master, he seemed to me among the dullest, basest and least correct authors who have used our idiom.

In spite of all the praises showered upon Goldoni, paid for or gratis, by journalists, preface-writers, romancers, apologists, Voltaires, with the single exception of his Bourru Bien/aisant he never produced a perfect dramatic piece. At the same time he never produced one without some excellent comic trait. In my eyes always he had the appearance of a man born with innate sense of how sterling comedies should be composed. He displayed an extraordinary ability for interweaving dialogues in the Venetian dialect taken down verbatim in the houses of the common people, taverns, gaming halls, traghetti. coffee-houses, places of ill-fame and the most obscure alleys of our city.

Audiences delighted in the realism of these plays. Never before had realism been so brilliantly illustrated, illuminated and adorned as it now was by the ability of actors who faithfully responded to the spirit of this new and popular type of farce. I maintained and proved that he had frequently charged the noble persons of his plays with fraud, absurdity and baseness, reserving serious and heroic virtues for personages of the lower class. I also showed that his "Putta Onorata" was not honest, that he had incited to vice while praising virtue. With regard to this point the four-mouthed Comic Theatre kept protesting that it wished to drive the time-honoured masks of improvised comedy off the stage, accusing them of imposture, immodesty and bad exam1>le for the public. I, on the other hand, clearly proved that Goldoni's plays were a hundred times more lascivious, more indecent, and more injurious to morals.

Gozzi also hated Pietro Chiari the Brescian, who had lived many years among the Jesuits and was titular poet of Francesco III of Modena. He was an elegant and worldly abbe, author of academic dissertations and of philosophic and scientific letters. The extravagant spectacular plots of his plays were heightened by abundant plagiarisms. His comedies were performed by the Sacchi and the Medebac companies. "A hot


brain/' Carlo Gozzi calls him in the Memorie Inutili, "dis

orderly, audacious and pedantic. When he writes for the thea

tre he has an astrologer's obscurity of plot, seven-league boots,

. . some good theatrical surprise, some stupidly happy de

scription, . . . the most inflated and bombastic writer who has

adorned our century/*

The quarrel with Goldoni and Chiari, the alliance with

Sacchi, the composition of the Fiabe and twenty-three plays

on Spanish subjects, the liaison with Teodora Ricci, the epi

sode of Gratarol, and the Memorie Inutili sum up Gozzi's life.

The Republic of San Marco fell. Aristocratic Gozzi bowed to

the French Revolution. His old age was passed in comparativesolitude. When the old Commedia dell'Arte and the old

actors died Gozzi's Fiabe were relegated to the marionette

stage, where some of their scenari are still performed. Italy

has elected to ignore Gozzi and to deify Goldoni.

The Commedia dell'Arte was the special glory of Italian

dramatic genius. Gozzi wrote: "I reckon improvised comedyamong the particular distinctions of our nation. I look uponit as quite a different species from the written and premeditated drama. The able comedians who sustain the masks are

far more praiseworthy than those improvisatory poets whoexcite astonishment in crowds of gaping listeners/' Yet pane

gyrist Gozzi thus ululates against the "able comedians" of the

improvised comedy:

Among all the people to be studied by a philosophical observernone are so difficult to really know as actors and actresses. Educated in deception from the cradle they are such adepts in maskingfalsehood with an air of candour that it is most difficult to knowtheir true heart and character. The chief idol of all actors is their

venal interest. Expressions of politeness, acknowledgments of obli

gation, terms of praise, courteous welcome are parts of a fixed

system of deception which actors consider necessary in the worship


brain," Carlo Gozzi calls him in the Memorie Inutili, "disorderly, audacious and pedantic. When he writes for the theatre he has an astrologer'S obscurity of plot, seven-league boots, ... some good theatrical surprise, some stupidly happy description, ... the most inflated and bombastic writer who has adorned our century."

The quarrel with Goldoni and Chiari, the alliance with Sacchi, the composition of the Fiabe and twenty-three plays on Spanish subjects, the liaison with Teodora Ricci, the episode of Gratarol, and the Memorie Inutili sum up Gozzi's life. The Republic of San Marco fell. Aristocratic Gozzi bowed to the French Revolution. His old age was passed in comparative solitude. When the old Commedia dell'Arte and the old actors died Gozzi's Fiabe were relegated to the marionette stage, where some of their scenari are still performed. Italy has elected to ignore Gozzi and to deify Goldoni.

The Commedia dell' Arte was the special glory of Italian dramatic genius. Gozzi wrote: "I reckon improvised comedy among the particular distinctions of our nation. I look upon it as quite a different species from the written and premeditated drama. The able comedians who sustain the masks are far more praiseworthy than those improvisatory poets who excite astonishment in crowds of gaping listeners." Yet panegyrist Gozzi thus ululates against the "able comedians" of the improvised comedy:

Among all the people to be studied by a philosophical observer none are so difficult to really know as actors and actresses. Educated in deception from the cradle they are such adepts in masking falsehood with an air of candour that it is most difficult to know their true heart and character. The chief idol of all actors is their venal interest. Expressions of politeness, acknowledgments of obligation, terms of praise, courteous welcome are parts of a fixed system of deception which actors consider necessary in the worship


of this Idol. Barefaced boldness is the chief stock in trade, the

very bone and marrow of these artists. There is no sort of impropriety, pretence, injustice, swindling, tyranny which they do not

gladly employ.Let no man suppose that it is possible to converse with actresses

without making love. You must make it or pretend to make it.

This is the only way to guide them to their own advantage. Lovemoulds and kneads them in flesh, bones and marrow. Love is their

guiding star from the age of five or six. In this respect, I soon

discovered that the austerity of Sacchi's company was a barren

formula. How many actresses lay siege deliberately and in cold

blood to their lovers, despoil them of their property and suck them

dry! They worship wickedness and abhor good living. Thoughthey cloak their baseness with the veil of verbal decency, and preserve external decorum, in their souls they trample on shame and

sing this verse:

"Colla vergogna io gia mi sono awezza."

(With infamy I long have been at home.)

In what concerned myself I looked upon their love-intrigues as

duels of wit and comic passages which furnished me amusement.

They would have done anything to gain my heart. Meanwhile,

their attentions, protests, fits of rage, jealousies and tears on myaccount had all the scenic illusion of an overwhelming passion.

Self-love is so ingrained in human frailty that men always fancy

themselves preferred by the woman on whose very faults they putan indulgent interpretation. This was my case with the Ricci.

Gozzi's pride restrains his giving a true revelation of his

love for Teodora Ricci. It was probably the only real ro

mance in his long, lonely and arid life. In a play by Renato

Simoni, Gozzi is shown already tormented by his sour temper,

jealous disposition and falling a facile prey to the intrigues of

Sacchi and of his pupil Teodora Ricci. Ricci is a typical Vene

tian actress, puerile and fickle rather than wicked, who man

ages to love Sacchi, Gozzi and Gratarol at the same time. In

the last act of Simoni's play Gozzi is a lonely old man. His

GOLDONI AND GOZZI 95 of this idol. Barefaced boldness is the chief stock in trade, the very bone and marrow of these artists. There is no sort of impropriety, pretence, injustice, swindling, tyranny which they do not gladly employ.

Let no man suppose that it is possible to converse with actresses without making love. You must make it or pretend to make it. This is the only way to guide them to their own advantage. Love moulds and kneads them in flesh, bones and marrow. Love is their guiding star from the age of five or six. In this respect, I soon discovered that the austerity of Sacchi's company was a barren formula. How many actresses lay siege deliberately and in cold blood to their lovers, despoil them of their property and suck them dryl They worship wickedness and abhor good living. Though they cloak their baseness with the veil of verbal decency, and preserve external decorum, in their souls they trample on shame and sing this verse:

"Colla vergogna io gia mi sono avvezza." (With infamy I long have been at home.)

In what concerned myself I looked upon their love-intrigues as duels of wit and comic passages which furnished me amusement. They would have done anything to gain my heart. Meanwhile, their attentions, protests, fits of rage, jealousies and tears on my account had all the scenic illusion of an overwhelming passion. Self-love is so ingrained in human frailty that men always fancy themselves preferred by the woman on whose very faults they put an indulgent interpretation. This was my case with the Ricci.

Gozzi's pride restrains his giving a true revelation of his love for Teodora Ricci. It was probably the only real romance in his long, lonely and arid life. In a play by Renato Simoni, Gozzi is shown already tormented by his sour temper, jealous disposition and falling a facile prey to the intrigues of Sacchi and of his pupil Teodora Ricci. Ricci is a typical Venetian actress, puerile and fickle rather than wicked, who manages to love Sacchi, Gozzi and Gratarol at the same time. In the last act of Simoni's play Gozzi is a lonely old man. His


elderly housekeeper and old-fashioned servants make a com

fortless home for the man who has outlived his fame. Sacchi

comes in to say good-bye and their meeting is pathetic. Gozzi

sits surrounded by his servants and Sacchi, straightening his

stooping form, commences one of his traditional scenes. His

jokes fall flat, his lazzi stir not even a smile. When the worn-

out actor throws down his cap, his sobs of despair are echoed

by his aged and forlorn patron. They fall into each other's

arms, and Gozzi's parting word is a name which now trembles

on his lips:"Teodora?"


elderly housekeeper and old-fashioned servants make a comfortless home for the man who has outlived his fame. Sacchi comes in to say good-bye and their meeting is pathetic. Gozzi sits surrounded by his servants and Sacchi, straightening his stooping form, commences one of his traditional scenes. His jokes fall fiat, his lazzi stir not even a smile. When the wornout actor throws down his cap, his sobs of despair are echoed by his aged and forlorn patron. They fall into each other's arms, and Gozzi's parting word is a name which now trembles on his lips: "Teodora?"

I3<

Q

MARIONETTESMARIONETTES

Chapter I

Origin of the Italian Marionettes

BEFORE history began there were marionettes; and so long as

there are children and grown-ups with the hearts o children

still there will be marionettes. A complete history of mario

nettes would require a vast volume; for their production has

been wider and is more ancient than civilization. The Orien

tal marionettes, the Javanese "Shadows" and "Rounded mar

ionettes/' half mythical and religious, half heroic and na

tional, depicting gods, princes and giants; the Siamese

"Nang," moving transparent pictures on illuminated screens;

the elaborate popular performances of Burmese temple pup

pets; the high art of the Chinese "Shadow Play," perhaps

without equal in its vast range of subjects; the Japanese pup

pets; the Indian marionette plays, in one of which the god

Siva falls in love with a puppet of Parvati, his wife; and the

modern marionettes, so popular in the United States; all

these specialized subjects have been amply considered by

other writers.

Our own inquiry begins with Herodotus who, writing in

the fifth century B.C., says that the origin of mechanical dolls

dates from remotest antiquity. He saw Egyptian women carry

ing statuettes in religious processions;the head and body

being moved by strings. The monstrous figures of Egyptian

gods were marionettes which the priests moved by hidden

mechanism. In the Vatican cemetery in 1544 there were found

99

Chapter I

Origin of the Italian Marionettes

BEFORE history began there were marionettes; and so long as there are children and grown-ups with the hearts of children still there will be marionettes. A complete history of marionettes would require a vast volume; for their production has been wider and is more ancient than civilization. The Oriental marionettes, the Javanese "Shadows" and "Rounded marionettes," half mythical and religious, half heroic and national, depicting gods, princes and giants; the Siamese "Nang," moving transparent pictures on illuminated screens; the elaborate popular performances of Burmese temple puppets; the high art of the Chinese "Shadow Play," perhaps without equal in its vast range of subjects; the Japanese puppets; the Indian marionette plays, in one of which the god Siva falls in love with a puppet of Parvati, his wife; and the modern marionettes, so popular in the United States; all these specialized subjects have been amply considered by other writers.

Our own inquiry begins with Herodotus who, writing in the fifth century B.C., says that the origin of mechanical dolls dates from remotest antiquity. He saw Egyptian women carrying statuettes in religious processions; the head and body being moved by strings. The monstrous figures of Egyptian gods were marionettes which the priests moved by hidden mechanism. In the Vatican cemetery in 1544 there were found

99

ICQ MASKS AND MARIONETTES

many marionettes which had been buried for more than a

thousand years; and in the tombs of Thebes and Memphis in

Egypt there have been found ivory and wood painted figures

of beasts and men which could be moved by pulling strings,

and were probably marionettes, and within the last few weeks

(1935) several small lifelike ivory mechanical figures esti

mated to be two thousand years old have been discovered in

an Egyptian tomb.

From the Egyptians the Greeks borrowed marionettes for

their religious ceremonies and also for use in the Theatre;

some of the manipulators called Neurospastomena were cele

brated. Many Greek and Roman writers mention them. At

Callia's famous banquet, as described by Xenophon, mario

nettes performed for his guests. To illustrate his discourses

Socrates drew lessons from these puppets. The marionette

theatre of Antiochus of Cyzicus was furnished with complicated mechanism, the King himself operating large carved

figures painted from life. The Athenian Archons allowed a

famous Neurospasta to erect his puppet-stall in the great

theatre of Bacchus, that had witnessed the plays of Euripides;

and he spoke through the same masks that had been used bythe great tragedians.

Holding up a marionette Plato says: "Friends, let us con

sider ourselves as living figures sent out from the workshopof the gods . . . our passions are wires or strings pulling us by

opposite movements to contradictory actions. Good sense sug

gests that we should obey one only of these wires resisting all

the others. That one wire is the golden wire of reason and

law. That one alone is suitable for all movements, because it

is of gold, and is stable in form. All the other strings must be

subject to that one thread of law . , . because reason would


many marionettes which had been buried for more than a thousand years; and in the tombs of Thebes and Memphis in Egypt there have been found ivory and wood painted figures of beasts and men which could be moved by pulling strings, and were probably marionettes, and within the last few weeks (1935) several small lifelike ivory mechanical figures estimated to be two thousand years old have been discovered in an Egyptian tomb.

From the Egyptians the Greeks borrowed marionettes for their religious ceremonies and also for use in the Theatre; some of the manipulators called N eurospastomena were celebrated. Many Greek and Roman writers mention them. At Callia's famous banquet, as described by Xenophon, marionettes performed for his guests. To illustrate his discourses Socrates drew lessons from these puppets. The marionette theatre of Antiochus of Cyzicus was furnished with complicated mechanism, the King himself operating large carved figures painted from life. The Athenian Archons allowed a famous Neurospasta to erect his puppet-stall in the great theatre of Bacchus, that had witnessed the plays of Euripides; and he spoke through the same masks that had been used by the great tragedians.

Holding up a marionette Plato says: "Friends, let us consider ourselves as living figures sent out from the workshop of the gods ... our passions are wires or strings pulling us by opposite movements to contradictory actions. Good sense suggests that we should obey one only of these wires resisting all the others. That one wire is the golden wire of reason and law. That one alone is suitable for all movements, because it is of gold, and is stable in form. All the other strings must be subject to that one thread of law ... because reason would

ORIGIN OF ITALIAN MARIONETTES 101

be weak did not law reinforce the composition of the gold

wire destined to govern all the others/'

In Rome during the religious ceremonies preceding gamesin the circus wooden statues were carried which moved their

heads and pretended to attack one another. As Rogantino

makes modern Italian children tremble, so in Juvenal's time

the little Romans trembled at sight of the Lamioe (African

ghouls) and Manducus "the child eater/' a sharp-toothed

monster with human head, prototype of the French Mache-

croute and the Croque-mitaine who, said Rabelais in Panta-

gruelj "opened large and horrible jaws well lined with teeth

top and bottom which, with the help of a small hidden cord,

were made to clack terribly against each other/' From the

Roman religious marionettes were derived the marionettes of

the Roman secular theatre, the players being called neuros-

pastes. The actors of the Atellanae borrowed the Manducus

from the earlier figure of religious ceremonies. "In this man

ner was established in Rome an exchange between the living

actors of the Atellanae and the wooden ones of the marionette

theatre."*

Whether living actors or marionettes first appeared on the

Greek and Roman stage is uncertain. Probably both acted at

the same time and often on the same stage and before the

same audience. They dealt with the same social, moral and

political problems; praised or ridiculed the same personages.

Among the properties of the Roman marionette theatre were

fauns with goats' hoofs, hairy satyrs, fat Sileni, enormous

priapuses and other personages of the bacchanalia and luper-

calia, marionettes that spoke dialogues (diverbia) suggested by

the licentious performances and other marionettes as perfect

and as wanton as the living dancers they imitated. The mar-

* Charles Magnin.


be weak did not law reinforce the composition of the gold wire destined to govern all the others."

In Rome during the religious ceremonies preceding games in the circus wooden statues were carried which moved their heads and pretended to attack one another. As Rogantino makes modern Italian children tremble, so in Juvenal's time the little Romans trembled at sight of the Lamioe (African ghouls) and Manducus "the child eater," a sharp-toothed monster with human head, prototype of the French Machecroute and the Croque-mitaine who, said Rabelais in Pantagruel} "opened large and horrible jaws well lined with teeth top and bottom which, with the help of a small hidden cord, were made to clack terribly against each other." From the Roman religious marionettes were derived the marionettes of the Roman secular theatre, the players being called neurospastes. The actors of the Atellanae borrowed the Manducus from the earlier figure of religious ceremonies. "In this manner was established in Rome an exchange between the living actors of the A tellanae and the wooden ones of the marionette theatre." ""

Whether living actors or marionettes first appeared on the Greek and Roman stage is uncertain. Probably both acted at the same time and often on the same stage and before the same audience. They dealt with the same social, moral and political problems; praised or ridiculed the same personages. Among the properties of the Roman marionette theatre were fauns with goats' hoofs, hairy satyrs, fat Sileni, enormous priapuses and other personages of the bacchanalia and lupercalia} marionettes that spoke dialogues (diverbia) suggested by the licentious performances and other marionettes as perfect and as wanton as the living dancers they imitated. The mar-

• Charles Magnin.

io* MASKS AND MARIONETTES

vellous perfection of the marionettes has been attested by

Aristotle in the treatise De mundo. The author speaks of the

omnipotence of God, who has no need of many means and

instruments to move men and all created things "like those

mechanics who, by a single device, obtain many varied effects;

or like those puppet operators appropriately called Neuro-

spasti, who manipulate figures by pulling strings, making the

doll move its head and hands, its shoulders and eyes, and

sometimes all its members, not without grace and modera

tion."*

Apuleius, translating the treatise, added the following:

"The one directing the movements of the little wooden fig

ures has but to pull the string of the little puppet they wish to

put into action and at once the neck bends, the head nods,

the eyes move, the hands adapt themselves to all offices and

the little figure moves exactly as though living/'

In Rome marionettes assumed many forms and were

dressed in many ways. There were marionettes for the com

mon people and those for the higher classes; marionettes of

the crossroads, porticoes and squares and those of the baths,

gymnasia and theatre. Puppets were threaded on a string

stretched from knee to knee of the operator who played a

musical instrument and moved his legs to the rhythm, the

figures wildly throwing their arms and legs in all directions.

Other figures danced on the table during banquets. In port

able stalls marionettes performed improvised farces; and

others performed in their own theatre. So popular were

*"Non secus atque illi Machinatores solent, qui instrumento uno demittendo,

multos atque varios effectus edunt; aut ut illi faciunt quos Neurospastas ob id

appellant, quod imagunculas animatas esse, fidiculis ductitandis ementiuntur; qui

cum funiculum ipsi aut neruum adduxerunt, cieri cervicem et manumf quasi

animantis simulacri, humerumque itidem et oculos faciunt interdum etiam omnia

membra; atque quadam cum venustate et aequabilitate motus." Pseud. Aristot.: De

mundo, cap. vi. Oper. torn. iii. p. 376.


vellous perfection of the marionettes has been attested by Aristotle in the treatise De mundo. The author speaks of the omnipotence of God, who has no need of many means and instruments to move men and all created things "like those mechanics who, by a single device, obtain many varied effects; or like those puppet operators appropriately called N eurospasti, who manipulate figures by pulling strings, making the doll move its head and hands, its shoulders and eyes, and sometimes all its members, not without grace and moderation." :11=

Apuleius, translating the treatise, added the following: "The one directing the movements of the little wooden figures has but to pull the string of the little puppet they wish to put into action and at once the neck bends, the head nods, the eyes move, the hands adapt themselves to all offices and the little figure moves exactly as though living."

In Rome marionettes assumed many forms and were dressed in many ways. There were marionettes for the common people and those for the higher classes; marionettes of the crossroads, porticoes and squares and those of the baths, gymnasia and theatre. Puppets were threaded on a string stretched from knee to knee of the operator who played a musical instrument and moved his legs to the rhythm, the figures wildly throwing their arms and legs in all directions. Other figures danced on the table during banquets. In portable stalls marionettes performed improvised farces; and others performed in their own theatre. So popular were

• "Non secus atque illi Machinatores solent, qui instrumento uno demittendo, multos atque varios effectus edunt; aut ut illi faciunt quos Neurospastas ob id appellant, quod imagunculas animatas esse, fidiculis ductitandis ementiuntur; qui cum funiculum ipsi aut nervum adduxerunt, cieri cervicem et manum, quasi animantis simulacri, humerumque itidem et oculos faciunt interdum etiam omnia membra; atque quadam cum venustate et aequabilitate motus." Pseudo Aristot.: De mundo, cap. vi. Oper. tom. iii. p. 376.


marionettes with the ancient Romans that many writers mention them. In De se ipso the Emperor Marcus Aurelius says:

"Remember it is your vices that control you as strings con

trol the wooden marionettes. Learn that within you there is

something more sublime than puppet-strings . . . death,

separating your soul from the tyranny of the senses, will end

the wretched state of a marionette in which you are now

living."

The repertoire of the Greek and Roman marionette theatre

was largely composed of'parodies of popular tragedies, and of

satiric dialogue aimed at the government and at fashionable

vices. The marionettes of Fotino the Greek even parodied the

gods. The Maccus, a marionette with hunchback and pro

truding stomach, might be a Pulcinella. The Roman mario

nettes Pappus, Buccus and Casnar depicting the parasite, glut

ton, simpleton and rake were transferred to the Atella scenes,

creating a popular type of impromptu farce, obscene in word

and gesture.

In the early Church Christian priests used marionettes

parading monsters and colossal figures; and giant Goliaths and

St. Christophers moving their arms and legs were continued

during the Middle Ages, in sacred representations, liturgical

dramas, mysteries and morality plays. Wild beasts and giants

appeared in the episodes of the sacred dramas, serpents hiss

ing and devils rushing round the open door of hell, lions de

vouring the ministers of the King but sparing Daniel.

St. Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian and Synesius drew

moral comparisons and reflexions from the marionette the

atres. Medieval churches and monasteries erected wooden

stages in the chapels and naves where dramatic episodes of

the Passion, the life of the Virgin and of Saints were per

formed by gorgeously dressed marionettes sometimes covered


marionettes with the ancient Romans that many writers mention them. In De se ipso the Emperor Marcus Aurelius says: "Remember it is your vices that control you as strings control the wooden marionettes. Learn that within you there is something more sublime than puppet-strings ... death, separating your soul from the tyranny of the senses, will end the wretched state of a marionette in which you are now living."

The repertoire of the Greek and Roman marionette theatre was largely composed of "parodies of popular tragedies, and of satiric dialogue aimed at the government and at fashionable vices. The marionettes of Fotino the Greek even parodied the gods. The Maccus, a marionette with hunchback and protruding stomach, might be a Pulcinella. The Roman marionettes Pappus, Buccus and Casnar depicting the parasite, glutton, simpleton and rake were transferred to the Atella scenes, creating a popular type of impromptu farce, obscene in word and gesture.

In the early Church Christian priests used marionettes parading monsters and colossal figures; and giant Goliaths and St. Christophers moving their arms and legs were continued during the Middle Ages, in sacred representations, liturgical dramas, mysteries and morality plays. Wild beasts and giants appeared in the episodes of the sacred dramas, serpents hissing and devils rushing round the open door of hell, lions devouring the ministers of the King but sparing Daniel.

St. Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian and Synesius drew moral comparisons and reflexions from the marionette theatres. Medieval churches and monasteries erected wooden stages in the chapels and naves where dramatic episodes of the Passion, the life of the Virgin and of Saints were performed by gorgeously dressed marionettes sometimes covered


with jewels and gold. Marionette performances in Italian

churches were so prevalent during the early Middle Ages that

Innocent III took strong action against their abuse. In course

of time these puppet-shows in churches developed into elab

orate theatrical performances. When the Council of Trent

endeavoured to restrain the abuse of religious marionettes the

puppets evaded proscription by passing from the church to

the secular theatre.


with jewels and gold. Marionette performances III Italian churches were so prevalent during the early Middle Ages that Innocent III took strong action against their abuse. In course of time these puppet-shows in churches developed into elaborate theatrical performances. VVhen the Council of Trent endeavoured to restrain the abuse of religious marionettes the puppets evaded proscription by passing from the church to the secular theatre.

OTHELLO AND DESDEMONA, MARIONETTESOTHELLO AND DESDEMONA, MARIONETTES

Chapter II

Italian Marionettes Go Abroad

IT is said the word "Marionette*'

may come from m&xia* ma-

riola, diminutives given to small figures of the Virgin, exposedin churches and crossroads. Marote, mariotte and marionette

were pet names given to young girls and from this jugglers

may have given the name marionette to their wooden dolls.

There is another story which relates that in the tenth century

at the time of the Festa delle Marie ten beautiful Venetian

girls gorgeously dressed and wearing rich jewels were walkingin procession to the Church of Santa Maria della Salute where

they were to be married. Suddenly barbarian pirates rushed in

from the sea and dragged the girls to their galleys. The Vene

tians pursued the infidels, slew the abductors and brought

back the brides. From that day, at the Festa delle Marie twelve

of the most beautiful and most virtuous Venetian girls were

superbly dressed at the expense of the Republic and were

then married with a dowry from the public treasury. The ex

pense was great, the choice of the girls caused quarrels which

were ended by substituting twelve mechanical figures brought

forth each year from the storerooms of the Signoria. Of these

life-size figures the street venders sold small copies for chil

dren to carry about which were called "Marionettes" or little

Maries.

In 1550 in Italy, they were called bagattelli and magatelli;

but Burattino, one of the characters in the Italian comedy,105

Chapter II

Italian Marionettes Go Abroad

IT IS said the word "Marionette" may come from maa:ia,. 77J.ariola~ dimin_utives given to small figures of the Virgin, exposed in churches and crossroads. Marote, mariotte and marionette were. pe.t names given to young girls and from this jugglers may have given the name marionette to their wooden dolls. There is another story which relates that in the tenth century at the time of the Festa delle Marie ten beautiful Venetian girls gorgeously dressed and wearing rich jewels were walking in procession to the Church of Santa Maria della Salute where they were to be married. Suddenly barbarian pirates rushed in from the sea and dragged the girls to their galleys. The Venetians pursued the infidels, slew the abductors and brought back the brides. From that day, at the Festa delle Marie twelve of the most beautiful and most virtuous Venetian girls were superbly dressed at the expense of the Republic and were then married with a dowry from the public treasury. The expense was great, the choice of the girls caused quarrels which were ended by substituting twelve mechanical figures brought forth each year from the storerooms of the Signoria. Of these life-size figures the street venders sold small copies for children to carry about which were called "Marionettes" or little Maries.

In 1550 in Italy, they were called bagattelli and magatelli; but Burattino, one of the characters in the Italian comedy,

105

io6 MASKS AND MARIONETTES

became famous in the marionette theatre, gave them his

name; and, from the end of the sixteenth century generally,

they were called burattini. Burattini and -fantoccini are those

articulated and moved by wires; bamboccie, those which are

operated by a horizontal string tied to a stick and to the knee

of the one who moves them; pupi, pupazzi are those which

have head and hands in wood, the body being a cloth pocket

in which the thumb and middle finger move the arms and the

forefinger moves the head. Spanish marionettes are named

literes or bonijrates because they always represent saints or

hermits.

The first efforts of dramatic art in France associated living

actors with marionettes in the representation of the Mysteries.

At Dieppe in the square in front of the church of St. James,

for the festival of the Assumption on August ist, a companyof clergy and laity "supported by marionettes set in motion

by means of strings and counterweights"represented the Mys

tery of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, in which four

hundred personaggi took part. At Christmas and Easter and

at Corpus Domini festival at Lyons, Paris and Marseilles sim

ilar dramatic performances were held. The Birth and Passion

of our Lord, the Creation of the World, the Fall of Man,Samson and Delilah, the heroism of Judith, the Prodigal Son,

and the Rich Man and Lazarus were represented. In Paris

this custom was continued into the seventeenth century. Thefathers of the religious order of Theatines constructed a splen

did presepio in front of their Convent and peopled it with

movable wooden figures that greatly delighted the badauds

and women. Sixteenth century Florentine memoirs mention

the use of marionettes and the emigration of Italian puppetsto foreign countries in the company of charlatans, surgeons,

dentists and venders of quack medicine.


became famous in the marionette theatre, gave them his name; and, from the end of the sixteenth century generally, they were called burattini. Burattini and fantoccini are those articulated and moved by wires; bam boccie) those which are operated by a horizontal string tied to a stick and to the knee of the one who moves them; PUPil pupazzi are those which have head and hands in wood, the body being a cloth pocket in which the thumb and middle finger move the arms and the forefinger moves the head. Spanish marionettes are named literes or bonifrates because they always represent saints or hermits.

The first efforts of dramatic art in France associated living actors with marionettes in the representation of the Mysteries. At Dieppe in the square in front of the church of St. James, for the festival of the Assumption on August 1st, a company of clergy and laity "supported by marionettes set in motion by means of strings and counterweights" represented the Mystery of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, in which four hundred personaggi took part. At Christmas and Easter and at Corpus Domini festival at Lyons, Paris and Marseilles similar dramatic performances were held. The Birth and Passion of our Lord, the Creation of the World, the Fall of Man, Samson and Delilah, the heroism of Judith, the Prodigal Son, and the Rich Man and Lazarus were represented. In Paris this custom was continued into the seventeenth century. The fathers of the religious order of Theatines constructed a splendid presepio in front of their Convent and peopled it with movable wooden figures that greatly delighted the badauds and women. Sixteenth century Florentine memoirs mention the use of marionettes and the emigration of Italian puppets to foreign countries in the company of charlatans, surgeons, dentists and venders of quack medicine.

ITALIAN MARIONETTES GO ABROAD 107

The Serees of Guillaume Bouchet, lord of Brocourt, the old

est French book that gives an account of the plays of theatri

cal burattini (1584), mentions Francatrippa. The Italian Pul-

cinella, Arlecchino, Pantalone and Colombina are familiar

names in French theatres; and in 1649 ^ first permanentmarionette stage was erected in Paris by the side of the Porte

de Nesle. The proprietors of that jeu de marionettes were

Giovanni and Francesco Briocci of Bologna. Francesco carved

the little figurines; Giovanni made them speak in French,

Italian and Latin to the delight of the Parisians. In a letter

addressed to the Princess Mary, daughter of James II of Eng

land, Hamilton praises the Pulcinella of Briocci, who was

then at the Fair of Saint-Germain in Laye.*

Briocci's ape Fagottino gained celebrity by its tragic death.

One day Cyrano de Bergerac saw the ape strolling round the

marionette booth and making grimaces. He thought that it

was poking fun at his nose "qu'il avait tout defigure/' as

M6nage relates, "et a cause duquel il avait tue plus de dix

personnes." Angry Cyrano moved towards the ape, where

upon Fagottino drew his tiny wooden sword and put himself

on guard. Cyrano rushed at the ape and killed him. This event

was celebrated in a pamphlet entitled "Combat de Cyrano

de Bergerac contre le singe de Brioche" (Paris, 1655).

Four years afterwards Giovanni Briocci was summoned

with his marionettes to the French Court to amuse the

* "La le fameux Polichinelle,

Qui du theatre est le hros,

Quoi qu'un peu libre en ses propos,

Ne fait point rougir la donzelle,

Qu'il divertit par ses propos."

In his peau d'arre Perrault the academician writes:

"Pour moi j'ose poser en fait,

Qu'en de certains moments Tesprit le plus parfait,

Peut aimer, sans rougir, jusqu'aux marionettes."


The Serees of Guillaume Bouchet, lord of Brocourt, the oldest French book that gives an account of the plays of theatrical burattini (1584), mentions Francatrippa. The Italian Pulcinella, Arlecchino, Pantalone and Colombina are familiar names in French theatres; and in 1649 the first pennanent marionette stage was erected in Paris by the side of the Porte de Nesle. The proprietors of that jeu de marionettes were Giovanni and Francesco Briocci of Bologna. Francesco carved the little figurines; Giovanni made them speak in French, Italian and Latin to the delight of the Parisians. In a letter addressed to the Princess Mary, daughter of James II of England, Hamilton praises the Pulcinella of Briocci, who was then at the Fair of Saint-Germain in Laye.:II<

Briocci's ape Fagottino gained celebrity by its tragic death. One day Cyrano de Bergerac saw the ape strolling round the marionette booth and making grimaces. He thought that it was poking fun at his nose "qu'il avait tout defigure," as Menage relates, "et a cause duquel il avait tue plus de dix personnes." Angry Cyrano moved towards the ape, whereupon Fagottino drew his tiny wooden sword and put himself on guard. Cyrano rushed at the ape and killed him. This event was celebrated in a pamphlet entitled "Combat de Cyrano de Bergerac contre Ie singe de Brioche" (Paris, 1655).

Four years afterwards Giovanni Briocci was summoned with his marionettes to the French Court to amuse the

• "La Ie fameux Polichinelle, Qui du the~tre est Ie heros, Quoi qu'un peu libre en ses propos, Ne fait point rougir Ia donzelle, Qu'il divertit par ses propos."

In his peau d'arre Perrault the academician writes:

"Pour moi rose poser en fait, Qu'en de certains moments l'esprit Ie plus parfait, Peut aimer, sans rougir, jusqu'aux marionettes."

io8 MASKS AND MARIONETTES

Dauphin, son of Louis XIV. The account of expenses of the

Royal family in the year 1669, page 44, records as follows:

A Brioche, joueur de marionettes, pour le s6jour qu'l a fait k

Saint-Germain-en-Laye, pendant les mois de septembre, octobre et

novembre, pour divertir les Enfants de France, 1365 livres.

After the death of Giovanni, Francesco Briocci took over the

management of the burattini and gained the honour of Bos-

suet's persecution. But the French King defended the Italian

marionettes; and the Minister Colbert enjoined all police

agents to respect and protect Francesco Briocci and his little

wooden figures. The letter is dated 16 October 1676 and ap

pears in the second volume of the Correspondence Admi

nistrative sous Louis XIV published by Depping. Towards the

end of the seventeenth century when both the Brioccis were

dead and had been succeeded by the Frenchman Bertrand,

marionettes began to meddle with politics and religion. Pul-

cinella on his stage laughed to scorn the hypocrisy of bigots

and the libertinism of reformers, regarding both Catholics

and Protestants as equally wicked and ridiculous. Pantalone

and Arlecchino fought in opposite factions and Pulcinella

effected their reconciliation by means of heavy legnate, or

blows.* On 7 February 1686 Achille de Harlay, procura-

*In one of the many pamphlets published during the Fronde, 1608-1652, the

Cardinal Mazarin is thus apostrophized:

Adieu, pere aux marionettes;

Adieu, 1'auteur des Thatins.

And in another entitled Lettre au Cardinal burlesque:

Et votre troupe thatine

Ne voyant pas de surete

En notre ville et vicomt6

A fait Flandre, et dans ses cachettes

A serr les marionettes

Qu'elle faisait voir ci-devant.


Dauphin, son of Louis XIV. The account of expenses of the Royal family in the year 1669, page 44, records as follows:

A Brioche, joueur de marionettes, pour Ie sejour qu'l a fait a Saint-Germain-en-Laye, pendant les mois de septembre, octobre et novembre, pour divertir les Enfants de France, 1365 livres.

After the death of Giovanni, Francesco Briocci took over the management of the burattini and gained the honour of Bossuet's persecution. But the French King defended the Italian marionettes; and the Minister Colbert enjoined all police agents to respect and protect Francesco Briocci and his little wooden figures. The letter is dated 16 October 1676 and appears in the second volume of the Correspondance Administrative sous Louis XIV published by Depping. Towards the end of the seventeenth century when both the Brioccis were dead and had been succeeded by the Frenchman Bertrand, marionettes began to meddle with politics and religion. Pulcinella on his stage laughed to scorn the hypocrisy of bigots and the libertinism of reformers, regarding both Catholics and Protestants as equally wicked and ridiculous. Pantalone and Arlecchino fought in opposite factions and Pulcinella effected their reconciliation by means of heavy legnate~ or blows.:I(: On 7 February 1686 Achille de Harlay, procura-

• In one of the many pamphlets published during the Fronde, 1608-1652, the Cardinal Mazarin is thus apostrophized:

Adieu, pere aux marionettes; Adieu, l'auteur des Theatins.

And in another entitled Lettre au Cardinal burlesque:

Et votre troupe theatine Ne voyant pas de sfirete En notre ville et vicomte A fait Flandre, et dans ses cachettes A serre les marionettes Qu'elle faisait voir ci-devant.


tore generate to the parliaments of Paris, wrote the Lieuten

ant of Police "To Monsieur de la Reynie, counsellor of the

King in Council" that the marionettes at the Fair of Saint-

Germain were representing the destruction of the Huguenots,

"serious matter for the Marionettes." Accordingly M. de la

Reynie silenced them temporarily. Then began a long and

bitter struggle with the actors of the "Theatre fran^ais" and

the "Comedie Italienne" and the passion for marionette plays

increased daily.

After the Renaissance puppets acquired great importance,

and in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries competed

with living actors and singers. In Rome during the Carnival

of 1668 marionettes acted the melodrama La Comica del cielo

or La Baltasara, by Giulio Rospigliosi, and in 1671 Carlo

Leone asked permission to perform "certain moral puppet

operette" as he had done for many years "in a room in Piazza

Navona without scandal or uproar."

Girolamo Cardano, in his book De Subtilitate says:

Were I to enumerate all the wonders the little jointed and

weighted figures of wood are made to do by means of wires, a

whole day would not suffice for it. They fight, hunt, dance, gam

ble, blow the trumpet and cook.*

Of the puppets threaded through the upper part of the body

with a string he says:

There was no dance, however difficult, that these marionettes

were not able to imitate making the most surprising gestures with

their feet, legs, arms, head and body and striking many extraor

dinary attitudes. The incomprehensible consists in the singleness

of the string and in its state of continued perfect tension Often I

have seen puppets put into motion by several strings alternately

tightened and slackened in which there is nothing wonderful.

* Hieron. Cardano: Mediolanensis medici. Opera, torn. III. p. 636.


tore generale to the parliaments of Paris, wrote the Lieutenant of Police-"To Monsieur de la Reynie, counsellor of the King in Council" -that the marionettes at the Fair of SaintGermain were representing the destruction of the Huguenots, "serious matter for the Marionettes." Accordingly M. de la Reynie silenced them temporarily. Then began a long and bitter struggle with the actors of the "Theatre fran~ais" and the "Comedie Italienne" and the passion for marionette plays increased daily.

After the Renaissance puppets acquired great importance, and in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries competed with living actors and singers. In Rome during the Carnival of 1668 marionettes acted the melodrama La Gamica del cielo or La Baltasara) by Giulio Rospigliosi, and in 1671 Carlo Leone asked permission to perform "certain moral puppet operette" as he had done for many years "in a room in Piazza Navona without scandal or uproar."

Girolamo Cardano, in his book De Subtilitate says:

Were I to enumerate all the wonders the little jointed and weighted figures of wood are made to do by means of wires, a whole day would not suffice for it. They fight, hunt, dance, gamble, blow the trumpet and cook. '*

Of the puppets threaded through the upper part of the body with a string he says:

There was no dance, however difficult, that these marionettes were not able to imitate making the most surprising gestures with their feet, legs, arms, head and body and striking many extraordinary attitudes. The incomprehen~ible consists in t~e singleness of the string and in its state of contmued perfect t~nslOn. Often I have seen puppets put i~to m?tion by ~everal ~trlngs alternately tightened and slackened m whIch there IS nothmg wonderful.

• Hieron. Cardano: Mediolanensis medici. Opera. tom. III. p. 636•

no MASKS AND MARIONETTES

Lorenzo de' Medici, son of Grand Duke Ferdinando I, provided his friends with marionette performances in the elegant

theatre of Palazzo Ardinghelli in Parione.

Piero lacopo Martelli of Bologna (born 1666, died 1727)man of letters and famous statesman, wrote farces for mario

nettes which he called Bambocdate, and of these Lo Starnuto

di Ercole was perhaps the most perfect sample. Goldoni writes

in his Memorie:

The author's lively imagination sent Ercole to the land of the

Pigmies. These little people, appalled at the sight of an animatedmountain with arms and legs, hid themselves in their holes. Plan,

development, plot, catastrophes and accidents, all are there; the

style is good and well maintained, the thoughts and sentiments all

in proportion to the bodies of the personages; the lines too are

short, everything announces Pigmies. A gigantic marionette hadto be made for the personage of Ercole; but everything made a

good effect and it was a very agreeable amusement.

Marionettes also used old Florentine sacred representations,

dramas by Cecchi, Chiari, Ildegonda, Roti, Cicognini and

many other famous writers, and all Gozzfs fantastic inven

tions.*

Developing contemporaneously with the real theatre and

on parallel lines the marionette theatre reproduced the same

characters, variety of dialects and masks as in the Commediadell'Arte. When the latter became extinct the marionettes

*In 1681 Francesco Mazzetti, called Arlecchino, boasted that his marionettetheatre possessed "a great wealth of figures, scenes and very good reciters." InBologna many puppet shows were given from 1694 to the end of the eighteenthcentury, both comedies and melodramas. In 1753, performances were suspended byorder of the Legate because these lively puppets "were too dissolute in speech." InVenice in 1679 marionettes performed a melodrama by Camillo Badoer; and in 1680and 1681 by Filippo Acciaioli. Here too in 1746 Antonio Labia, a rich abbot, had"a little wooden theatre" for marionettes "the exact reproduction in miniature ofS. Giovanni Grisostomo," the largest theatre in Venice. During the last years of theVenetian Republic there were given numerous puppet shows presenting completedramas.


Lorenzo de' Medici, son of Grand Duke Ferdinanda I, provided his friends with marionette performances in the elegant theatre of Palazzo Ardinghelli in Parione.

Piero Iacopo Martelli of Bologna (born 1666, died 1727) man of letters and famous statesman, wrote farces for marionettes which he called Bambocciate> and of these La Starnuto di Ercole was perhaps the most perfect sample. Goldoni writes in his Memorie:

The author's lively imagination sent Ercole to the land of the Pigmies. These little people, appalled at the sight of an animated mountain with arms and legs, hid themselves in their holes. Plan, development, plot, catastrophes and accidents, all are there; the style is good and well maintained, the thoughts and sentiments all in proportion to the bodies of the personages; the lines too are short, everything announces Pigmies. A gigantic marionette had to be made for the personage of Ercole; but everything made a good effect and it was a very agreeable amusement.

Marionettes also used old Florentine sacred representations, dramas by Cecchi, Chiari, Ildegonda, Roti, Cicognini and many other famous writers, and all Gozzi's fantastic inventions.*

Developing contemporaneously with the real theatre and on parallel lines the marionette theatre reproduced the same characters, variety of dialects and masks as in the Commedia

dell' Arte. When the latter became extinct the marionettes

• In 1681 Francesco Mazzetti, called Arlecchino, boasted that his marionette theatre possessed "a great wealth of figures, scenes and very good reciters." In Bologna many puppet shows were given from 1694 to the end of the eighteenth century, both comedies and melodramas. In 1753. performances were suspended by order of the Legate because these lively puppets "were too dissolute in speech." In Venice in 1679 marionettes performed a melodrama by Camillo Badoer; and in 1680 and 1681 by Filippo Acciaioli. Here too in 1746 Antonio Labia, a rich abbot, had "a little wooden theatre" for marionettes "the exact reproduction in miniature of s. Giovanni Grisostomo," the largest theatre in Venice. During the last years of the Venetian Republic there were given numerous puppet shows presenting complete dramas.


perpetuated Pantaloni, Arlecchini, Pulcinelli and Dottori and

invented the Roman Cassandrino, an elderly man "nimble,

strong, white-haired, well powdered, well groomed" who reg

ularly fell in love with all the pretty women; according to

Stendhal, the Romans recognized the caricature of a Mon-

signor or Cardinal. The Venetian Facanapa is short of stature

with big comic face. Insensible to love he takes the world as

he finds it and does not try "to straighten dogs' legs" but "pre

serves his belly for figs as long as possible."

From the year 1697 the Italian comedians in Paris con

ducted their productions in the French language. They cari

catured the Royal favourite Madame de Maintenon in a com

edy called La Fausse Prude. Their theatre was promptly

closed by the police,"His Majesty not finding it convenient

to avail himself any longer of their services." Bertrand, who

was conducting a puppet theatre at San Lorenzo, immediately

declared that he was the legitimate heir of the Italian co

medians and installed himself on that stage which had once

witnessed the triumphs of Corneille and Racine. But the King

ordered the marionettes to quit the Hotel de Bourgogne and

to occupy a small theatre opposite the Rue du Paradis. Thus

in France in the eighteenth century began a new life for

the little wooden figures,a life of dispute which lasted for

fifty years. On the one side were the burattini entrenched at

the Fairs of Saint-Laurent and Saint-Germain; on the other

side were the opera singers, the actors of the Commedia Ital-

iana and of the Theatre francais, each defending his art

against all invasions.

Only the three greatertheatres had the right to represent

musical Opera, tragediesand commedie nobili. To the pup

pets at fairs permissionwas granted to perform a certain num

ber of farces for two personaggi speaking something like the


perpetuated Pantaloni, Arlecchini, Pulcinelli and Dottori and invented the Roman Cassandrino, an elderly man "nimble, strong, white-haired, well powdered, well groomed" who regularly fell in love with all the pretty women; according to Stendhal, the Romans recognized the caricature of a Monsignor or Cardinal. The Venetian Facanapa is short of stature with big comic face. Insensible to love he takes the world as he finds it and does not try "to straighten dogs' legs" but "preserves his belly for figs as long as possible."

From the year 1697 the Italian comedians in Paris conducted their productions in the French language. They caricatured the Royal favourite Madame de Maintenon in a comedy called La Fausse Prude. Their theatre was promptly closed by the police, "His Majesty not finding it convenient to avail himself any longer of their services." Bertrand, who was conducting a puppet theatre at San Lorenzo, immediately declared that he was the legitimate heir of the Italian comedians and installed himself on that stage which had once witnessed the triumphs of Corneille and Racine. But the King ordered the marionettes to quit the Hotel de Bourgogne and to occupy a small theatre opposite the Rue du Paradis. Thus in France in the eighteenth century began a new life for the little wooden figures, a life of dispute which lasted for fifty years. On the one side were the burattini entrenched at the Fairs of Saint-Laurent and Saint-Germain; on the other side were the opera singers, the actors of the Commedia Italiana and of the Theatre fran«;rais, each defending his art against all invasions.

Only the three greater theatres had the right to represent musical Opera, tragedies and commedie nobili. To the puppets at fairs permission was granted to perform a certain number of farces for two personaggi speaking something like the

ii2 MASKS AND MARIONETTES

old diverbia, with the additional stipulation that Pulcinella

was always to speak par le sifflet de la pratique, that is to say

with the pivetta which gives a metallic and shrieking sound.

The law, however, was continually broken. Marionettes in

vaded the camp of the privileged theatres and plundered its

vast repertory; the quarrel became so bitter that parliament

was called to settle matters. One day Fuzelier would put dumb

personages on the stage acting by mimic art, the next dayBertrand would revive the custom of intermezzi with vio

lin accompaniment. In 1720 a friendly settlement was made

whereby marionettes were licensed to sing, dance and recite

"six or seven at a time."

Then it was that the famous showman Francisque, the poets

Fuzelier, Lesage and Carneval began their work with a colpo

di maestro by inventing the Opera comique, that soon be

came a formidable competitor of the privileged melodrama.

Art had gained a new form of scenic action in the Opera co-

mique invented for marionettes.

A year later, for the puppets of the Fair of San Lorenzo,

Piron wrote an opera buffa in three acts; Le Mariage de

Momus ou la Gigantomachie. La Place provided Pierrot Romulus a parody of the Romulus of La Motte, and there were

many others.

The age of gold for burattini had arrived. Favart beganwith them his dramatic career, and composed Polichinelle

comte de Paonfier, a parody of the Glorieux of Destouches. In

1743 the burattini ridiculed Voltaire with parodies of his

Merope and Oreste. The poet's wrath only increased the suc

cess of the plays. The glory of the burattini at the two Fairs

lasted until 1790 when the Fairs themselves were suppressed,and the burattini were dispersed among the towns and vil

lages. The whole of France was overrun by Italian bagatelliers


old diverbia, with the additional stipulation that Pulcinella was always to speak par le sifflet de la pratique, that is to say with the pivetta which gives a metallic and shrieking sound. The law, however, was continually broken. Marionettes invaded the camp of the privileged theatres and plundered its vast repertory; the quarrel became so bitter that parliament was called to settle matters. One day Fuzelier would put dumb personages on the stage acting by mimic art, the next day Bertrand would revive the custom of intermezzi with violin accompaniment. In 1720 a friendly settlement was made whereby marionettes were licensed to sing, dance and recite "six or seven at a time."

Then it was that the famous showman Francisque, the poets Fuzelier, Lesage and Carneval began their work with a colpo di maestro by inventing the Opera comique, that soon became a formidable competitor of the privileged melodrama. Art had gained a new form of scenic action in the Opera comique invented for marionettes.

A year later, for the puppets of the Fair of San Lorenzo, Piron wrote an opera buffa in three acts; Le Mariage de Momus ou la Gigantomachie. La Place provided Pierrot Romulus a parody of the Romulus of La Motte, and there were many others.

The age of gold for burattini had arrived. Favart began with them his dramatic career, and composed Polichinelle comte de Paonfier, a parody of the Glorieux of Destouches. In 1743 the burattini ridiculed Voltaire with parodies of his Merope and Oreste. The poet's wrath only increased the success of the plays. The glory of the burattini at the two Fairs lasted until 1790 when the Fairs themselves were suppressed, and the burattini were dispersed among the towns and villages. The whole of France was overrun by Italian bagatelliers


who brought with them, together with farces and scenari, all

the personaggi and maschere of the smaller Italian theatres.

The eighteenth century was the golden period also for the

Italian fantoccini aided by Carlo Goldoni's dramatic reforms.

The fight between Gozzi and Goldoni, and Goldoni's attempt

to lead the Italian theatre back to ancient traditions, was meat

indeed to the marionette stage. The new comedies were paro

died; the authors and actors, caricatured. When Goldoni's

reform had triumphed the marionette theatre inherited the

ancient comedies a soggetto. The masks took refuge on the

narrow platform of the puppets, thus returning after cen

turies to the place of their birth.


who brought with them, together with farces and scenari, all the personaggi and maschere of the smaller Italian theatres.

The eighteenth century was the golden period also for the Italian fantoccini aided by Carlo Goldoni's dramatic reforms. The fight between Gozzi and Goldoni, and Goldoni's attempt to lead the Italian theatre back to ancient traditions, was meat indeed to the marionette stage. The new comedies were parodied; the authors and actors, caricatured. When Goldoni's reform had triumphed the marionette theatre inherited the ancient comedies a soggetto. The masks took refuge on the narrow platform of the puppets, thus returning after centuries to the place of their birth.

Chapter III

The Puppet Theatre and Its Repertoire

IT WOULD be impossible to compile a comprehensive list of all

the plays acted by Italian marionettes. The burattini reper

toire during the last three hundred years would rival that of

the best prose theatres. To the old figures and repertoire of

sacred dramas, saintly legends and miracles were added comic

and vulgar elements, episodes borrowed from books of chiv

alry, legends, ancient Latin comedies as well as impromptu

popular personages and local types. At this time the opera

tors of marionettes improvised most of their dialogue as

the actors of the Commedia dell'Arte did later, many of

whom had been marionette operators before becoming actors;

this was the case with Ruzzante, Cherea and Calmo, who by

such humble, modest improvisations became trained in the

play of words and gesticulations ex, abrupto or improvvisa-

mente in which they later became experts.

The space is narrow behind the stage of a puppet theatre;

dark and crowded. Colossal crouching phantoms standing on

a wooden step back of the curtain, leaning against a wooden

beam, with outstretched hands work the puppets while by the

light of a tallow candle they read the part from a copy book

placed on a plank in front of them. The marionette operator

is proud of his theatre, scenes and actors; well understands

the humour of his public and which of the comedies will give

most pleasure. Fifty or sixty puppets hang from greasy walls

114

Chapter III

The Puppet Theatre and Its Repertoire

IT WOULD be impossible to compile a comprehensive list of all the plays acted by Italian marionettes. The burattini repertoire during the last three hundred years would rival that of the best prose theatres. To the old figures and repertoire of sacred dramas, saintly legends and miracles were added comic and vulgar elements, episodes borrowed from books of chivalry. legends. ancient Latin comedies as well as impromptu popular personages and local types. At this time the operators of marionettes improvised most of their dialogue as the actors of the Commedia dell'Arte did later, many of whom had been marionette operators before becoming actors; this was the case with Ruzzante, Cherea and Calmo, who by such humble, modest improvisations became trained in the play of words and gesticulations ex abrupto or improvvisamente in which they later became experts.

The space is narrow behind the stage of a puppet theatre; dark and crowded. Colossal crouching phantoms standing on a wooden step back of the curtain, leaning against a wooden beam, with outstretched hands work the puppets while by the light of a tallow candle they read the part from a copy book placed on a plank in front of them. The marionette operator is proud of his theatre, scenes and actors; well understands the humour of his public and which of the comedies will give most pleasure. Fifty or sixty puppets hang from greasy walls

114

OTHELLO AND BRABANTIO, MARIONETTESOTHELLO AND BRABANTIO, MARIONETTES

THE PUPPET REPERTOIRE 115

with expressions of terror; some have contorted arms and

twisted legs; the caved-in bodies of others show internal dis

placements; all have died in spasmodic convulsions.

An ordinary marionette is composed of a head, forearms,

hands, legs and body, all carved from wood and about two

feet tall. A wire loop joins the neck and body. The arms from

elbow to shoulder and the legs from knee to hip are of cloth.

A ring in the head receives the crook of an iron rod from

which the puppet hangs when not in use. Two threads are

attached to the wrists and two other threads to the ankles or

knees. Some marionettes move their eyes, mouths and fingers.

Tartaglia twists his lips; Rogantino shows his teeth; Sten-

terello scratches his nose with his finger; Carciofo eats and

drinks and moves his fingers as if playing a violin. A mario

nette company may comprise a hundred puppets. The wooden

actresses are respectable. The prima donna's joints are intact,

her head steady. The young girl lover is overworked but still

is chaste. The serving maid never allows familiarity off stage.

The men are bachelors, true Bayards, chevaliers without fear

and without reproach.

Tonight the burattini are to play: La Grandiosa opera

intitolata il Belisario, ossia le avventure di Oreste, Ersilia,

Falsierone Selinguerro ed il terribil Gobbo. To this audience

the actors are not fantoccini, but* heroes. The grandiosa opera

of Belisario is sempre battaglie. Two puppets dressed in

armour speak loudly and flourish gigantic swords while Fan-

toccino goes into convulsions with every movement; his sword

thrashing the air dislocates the opposing warrior's anatomy.

When he ceases speaking his arms collapse, his head drops

drunkenly, his eyes glaze, his sword points to the ceiling, his

legs hang in the air as he awaits the answer of his opponent.

Save by way of emphasis the feet of these warriors never touch

THE PUPPET REPERTOIRE

with expressions of terror; some have contorted arms and twisted legs; the caved-in bodies of others show internal displacements; all have died in spasmodic convulsions.

An ordinary marionette is composed of a head, forearms, hands, legs and body, all carved from wood and about two feet tall. A wire loop joins the neck and body. The arms from elbow to shoulder and the legs from knee to hip are of cloth. A ring in the head receives the crook of an iron rod from which the puppet hangs when not in use. Two threads are attached to the wrists and two other threads to the ankles or knees. Some marionettes move their eyes, mouths and fingers. Tartaglia twists his lips; Rogantino shows his teeth; Stenterello scratches his nose with his finger; Carciofo eats and drinks and moves his fingers as if playing a violin. A marionette company may comprise a hundred puppets. The wooden actresses are respectable. The prima donna's joints are intact, her head steady. The young girl lover is overworked but still is chaste. The serving maid never allows familiarity off stage. The men are bachelors, true Bayards, chevaliers without fear and without reproach.

Tonight the burattini are to play: La Grandiosa opera intitolata il BeIisarioJ ossia Ie avventure di Oreste) ErsiliaJ

Falsierone Selinguerro ed il terribil Gobbo. To this audience the actors are not fantoccini, but· heroes. The grandiosa opera of Belisario is sempre battaglie. Two puppets dressed in armour speak loudly and flourish gigantic swords while Fantoccino goes into convulsions with every movement; his sword thrashing the air dislocates the opposing warrior's anatomy. When he ceases speaking his arms collapse, his head drops drunkenly, his eyes glaze, his sword points to the ceiling, his legs hang in the air as he awaits the answer of his opponent. Save by way of emphasis the feet of these warriors never touch


the floor. Ferocious Selinguerra shouts "Chi sei tu che osi!".

With a wild spasm of sword and dangling of arms his opponent roars "Trema! che son il figlio del terribil Gobbo" and

then collapses into silence. "Ah, ah!" the other shouts. "Male

hai fatto a palesarlonon passo piu contenere il mio immense*

juror. Preparati a morir!" And with a galvanic twitch, his

heels striking the floor, he defies the bold youth. But the son

of the terrible Gobbo rouses from his collapse, waves a chal

lenge.

Now ensues a terrible battle. Salinguerra and his lieutenant

attack the son of Gobbo. In their excitement all three rise

from the floor; swords clash furiously, legs beat the air while

a drum behind the scenes rolls rapidly. Despite terrible blows

the son of Gobbo holds his own, his expression unchanged, a

supernatural glare in his unwinking eyes. Finally he is struck

down still shaking the "fragments of his blade." "Preparati a

morir!" thunders Selinguerra; all is over with him. Suddenly,clad in complete steel, the terribil Gobbo rushes on the stage;

striking the floor, waving his sword, he annihilates Selinguerraand his lieutenant. Then the whole army attack Gobbo.

Madly they swing the length of the stage, smashing and cut

ting each other. They fall before the terrible Gobbo, who

shaking with spasms hovers above the heaps of slain.

The Fantoccini ballet is extraordinary. After the wooden-

headed court have seated themselves on the stage and the

corps de ballet has advanced and retreated, with a tremen

dous leap the prima ballerina appears, knocks her woodenknees together, jerks her head about, salutes the audience with

a smile, bounds forward and pausing on her pointed toe turns

endless pirouettes in the air; then throwing her wooden hands

forward she stops to receive your applause. She surpasses her

mortal sister as the ideal surpasses the real. The fantoccina is


the floor. Ferocious Selinguerra shouts "Chi sei tu ehe osi!". With a wild spasm of sword and dangling of arms his opponent roars teTrema! ehe son il figlio del terribil Gobbo" and then collapses into silence. teAh, ah!" the other shouts. "Male hai fatto a palesarlo-non passo piu eon tenere il mio immenso furor. Preparati a morir!" And with a galvanic twitch, his heels striking the floor, he defies the bold youth. But the son of the terrible Gobbo rouses from his collapse, waves a challenge.

N ow ensues a terrible battle. Salinguerra and his lieutenant attack the son of Gobbo. In their excitement all three rise from the floor; swords clash furiously, legs beat the air while a drum behind the scenes rolls rapidly. Despite terrible blows the son of Gobbo holds his own, his expression unchanged, a supernatural glare in his unwinking eyes. Finally he is struck down still shaking the "fragments of his blade." «Preparati a morir!" thunders Selinguerra; all is over with him. Suddenly, clad in complete steel, the terribil Gobbo rushes on the stage; striking the floor, waving his sword, he annihilates Selinguerra and his lieutenant. Then the whole army attack Gobbo. Madly they swing the length of the stage, smashing and cutting each other. They fall before the terrible Gobbo, who shaking with spasms hovers above the heaps of slain.

The Fantoccini ballet is extraordinary. After the woodenheaded court have seated themselves on the stage and the corps de ballet has advanced and retreated, with a tremendous leap the prima ballerina appears, knocks her wooden knees together, jerks her head about, salutes the audience with a smile, bounds forward and pausing on her pointed toe turns endless pirouettes in the air; then throwing her wooden hands forward she stops to receive your applause. She surpasses her mortal sister as the ideal surpasses the real. The fantoccina is


troubled by no jealousies, pricked by no vain ambition,haunted by no remorse; without envy, sorrow, hunger or fear

of old age, her youth is perennial and her smile perpetual.How much better a wooden fantoccina than a living bal

lerina!

Most popular of marionettes, Arlecchino was born amongthe valleys of Bergamo. He speaks Venetian because his

hearers would not understand the Bergamo jargon. With his

dress of red, blue, violet and yellow cloth cut in triangles

and pieced together from top to bottom, a little cap covering

his shaven head, he wears slippers without soles and a black

mask with tiny holes to see through. That black mask is the

ancient face covered with soot. The hiding of his hair beneath

his cap is the shaven head obligatory to the Planipedes.

Arlecchino is a mixture of ignorance, ingenuity, wit, stupidity

and grace. A rough sketch of a man, a grown-up baby; in all of

whose stupidities there is mingled cunning. He is a patient, faith

ful, credulous servant; always in love, always embarrassed about

himself, and about his master; as easily afflicted and consoled as

a child, his sorrow is as exhilarating as his joy.*

Listen to Arlecchino seeking service:

Sior Florindo, I know you are in need of a serving man. I do

everything; eat, drink, sleep, love the maids and dislike work. I

will be more faithful than a thief, as secret as an earthquake, and

as attentive as a cat.f

Infamous Brighella also hails from Bergamo. Bold with

women, cringing with men, overbearing with the weak, cow

ardly with the strong, relentless when in fear, he handles the

knife treacherously; but he has some virtues. Hear his own

account of his life:

* Marmontel.

fFor further description of Arlecchino see Chapter V of Masks, pp. 72 et seq.


troubled by no jealousies, pricked by no vain ambition, haunted by no remorse; without envy, sorrow, hunger or fear of old age, her youth is perennial and her smile perpetual. How much better a wooden fantoccina than a living ballerina!

Most popular of marionettes, Arlecchino was born among the valleys of Bergamo. He speaks Venetian because his hearers would not understand the Bergamo jargon. With his dress of red, blue, violet and yellow cloth cut in triangles and pieced together from top to bottoni, a little cap covering his shaven head, he wears slippers without soles and a black mask with tiny holes to see through. That black mask is the ancient face covered with soot. The hiding of his hair beneath his cap is the shaven head obligatory to the Planipedes.

Arlecchino is a mixture of ignorance, ingenuity, wit, stupidity and grace. A rough sketch of a man, a grown-up baby; in all of whose stupidities there is mingled cunning. He is a patient, faith· ful, credulous servant; always in love, always embarrassed about himself, and about his master; as easily afflicted and consoled as a child, his sorrow is as exhilarating as his joy.·

Listen to Arlecchino seeking service:

Sior Florinda, I know you are in need of a serving man. I do everything; eat, drink, sleep, love the maids and dislike work. I will be more faithful than a thief, as secret as an earthquake, and as attentive as a cat-t "

Infamous BrigheUa also hails from Bergamo. Bold with women, cringing with men, overbearing with the weak, cowardly with the strong, relentless when in fear, he handles the knife treacherously; but he has some virtues. Hear his own account of his life:

• Marmontel. t For further description of Arlecchino see Chapter V of Masks. pp. 72 et seq.


Oh, I make no bones about itl . . . at twelve years old I went to

prison, at fifteen in the pillory, at twenty to the whipping post,

at twenty-five to the galleys. Grammar, the humanities, rhetoric

and philosophy; I have put zeal into all my studies. It is thus I

have served my Prince on land and sea. Now I am a hunter andlive by what I kill; but none may call me a thief a clever mathe

matician rather, who finds things before the owners have lost

them. Dear Sior Florindo, by engaging me you will surely wineven the most desperate cases. In intrigue I surpass all women; in

humbugging, the world's greatest impostors; in evasion, all the

gypsies of Egypt; in wrangling, all the lawyers; in business, all the

charlatans; in finding expedients, all the musical opera impresarios, and for lies, all of Europe's gazetteers.*

Today, Brighella is more prudent. He rarely assassinates,

he steals less, deceives women in love rather than men in busi

ness. He strings tender words together. To the charmingSmeraldina he declares: "Siora, inspecting my interior I find

that your pickpocket eyes have stolen my heart. Restore to methis precious entrail I beg you, generously adding a portionof your own heart, in order that I may avoid suing you in

Cupid's court/' Brighella also is a serving man, and wears a

dark half-mask and black moustaches. He dresses in doublet,

pantaloons and a white cloak with green frogs.

The third marionette mask, the Dottore, is from Bologna.He dresses in black with chocolate-coloured half-mask and has

red cheeks. He knows everything by halves from hearsay and

pours forth ridiculous nonsense on every subject. He pretends to be an Academician of the Crusca, a doctor, notary,

lawyer or astrologer.

Rogantino is a direct descendant of that Pyrgo-polinices to

whom Plautus has given immortality with the nickname of

Miles Gloriosus. He is a braggart, threatening to eat his ene

mies alive. He draws his sword only to be ignominiously* Generici Birghelleschi. Novara. Grotti. 1870.

l1S MASKS AND MARIONETTES

Oh, I make no bones about it! ... at twelve years old I went to prison, at fifteen in the pillory, at twenty to the whipping post, at twenty-five to the galleys. Grammar, the humanities, rhetoric and philosophy; I have put zeal into all my studies. It is thus I have served my Prince on land and sea. Now I am a hunter and live by what I kill; but none may call me a thief-a clever mathematician rather, who finds things before the owners have lost them. Dear Sior Florindo, by engaging me you will surely win even the most desperate cases. In intrigue I surpass all women; in humbugging, the world's greatest impostors; in evasion, all the gypsies of Egypt; in wrangling, all the lawyers; in business, all the charlatans; in finding expedients, all the musical opera impresarios, and for lies, all of Europe's gazetteers. ""

Today, Brighella is more prudent. He rarely assassinates, he steals less, deceives women in love rather than men in business. He strings tender words together. To the charming Smeraldina he declares: "Siora, Inspecting my interior I find that your pickpocket eyes have stolen my heart. Restore to me this precious entrail I beg you, generously adding a portion of your own heart, in order that I may avoid suing you in Cupid's court." Brighella also is a serving man, and wears a dark half-mask and black moustaches. He dresses in doublet, pantaloons and a white cloak with green frogs.

The third marionette mask, the Dottore~ is from Bologna. He dresses in black with chocolate-coloured half-mask and has red cheeks. He knows everything by halves from hearsay and pours forth ridiculous nonsense on every subject. He pretends to be an Academician of the Crusca, a doctor, notary, lawyer or astrologer.

Rogantino is a direct descendant of that Pyrgo-polinices to whom Plautus has given immortality with the nickname of Miles Gloriosus. He is a braggart, threatening to eat his enemies alive. He draws his sword only to be ignominiously

• Generici Birghelleschi. Novara. Grotti. 1870.


cudgelled. He walks by leaps and bounds and turns his head

to see who dares to open his mouth while he is near. Rogan-tino was born in Rome in the Pope's army, but he leaps

through the centuries to hang his wire on the hook of ancient

tradition. His body is dwarfed, but he swears, beats his heels

upon the pavement. When he shakes himself he makes his

cartridge-box, bayonet, sword and spurs rattle.

Carciofo is a Neapolitan puppet; big of head, lean of body;

ruddy, reckless and stupid. Born at Pisa in the Belle Torri

theatre, his father was the eldest son of a marionette operator

famed throughout Tuscany and Romagna. One evening as

the performance was about to begin, this Tertulliano stood at

the door urging people to enter when an artilleryman el

bowed his way forward dragging his reluctant companion.

The embarrassed recruit came zigzagging along, lamenting

the few pence of expenditure. Tertulliano looked at the re

cruit and Carciofo was born. Carciofo is an astonishing per

sonage. His body sways as he walks with bent knees, his head,

mouth, eyes and shoulders, moving. He drinks, smokes, eats

macaroni, takes the candle from the table to light his pipe.

A very ancient marionette is the Diavolo with all the attri

butes and characteristics of his infernal nature. At the end of

the eighteenth century the Devil-marionette was so popular

that he married and peopled the stage with numerous off

spring, Mago, Fata, Genio and Mostro, indispensable person

ages in the marionette repertoire. On the stage of the wooden

dolls the diabolic offspring still is honoured, but papa Diavolo

though living now plays a very secondary role. His shrunken

head is bald and roughly tinted with red and black; his bat's

wings are worn, his horns nibbled, his tail rat-eaten. The

other masks of the puppet theatre, Stenterello, Meneghino,


cudgelled. He walks by leaps and bounds and turns his head to see who dares to open his mouth while he is near. Rogantino was born in Rome in the Pope's army, but he leaps through the centuries to hang his wire on the hook of ancient tradition. His body is dwarfed, but he swears, beats his heels upon the pavement. When he shakes himself he makes his cartridge-box, bayonet, sword and spurs rattle.

Carciofo is a Neapolitan puppet; big of head, lean of body; ruddy, reckless and stupid. Born at Pisa in the Belle Torri theatre, his father was the eldest son of a marionette operator famed throughout Tuscany and Romagna. One evening as the performance was about to begin, this Tertulliano stood at the door urging people to enter when an artilleryman elbowed his way forward dragging his reluctant companion. The embarrassed recruit came zigzagging along, lamenting the few pence of expenditure. Tertulliano looked at the recruit and Carciofo was born. Carciofo is an astonishing personage. His body sways as he walks with bent knees, his head, mouth, eyes and shoulders, moving. He drinks, smokes, eats macaroni, takes the candle from the table to light his pipe.

A very ancient marionette is the Diavolo with all the attributes and characteristics of his infernal nature. At the end of the eighteenth century the Devil-marionette was so popular that he married and peopled the stage with numerous offspring, Mago, Fata, Genio and Mostro, indispensable personages in the marionette repertoire. On the stage of the wooden dolls the diabolic offspring still is honoured, but papa Diavolo

though living now plays a very secondary rOle. His shrunken head is bald and roughly tinted with red and black; his bat's wings are worn, his horns nibbled, his tail rat-eaten. The other masks of the puppet theatre, Stenterello, Meneghino,


Gianduja, Gerolamo and Tartaglia, are the same as the living

actors of the big theatres.

Always Pulcinella has been the life and soul of the mario

nette theatre. He was called Pullicinella in Rome and Naples,

Pulcinella in the rest of Italy, Polichinelle in France, Punch

in England, Hans-Wurst in Germany and Don Christ6val

Pulichinelo in Spain. His figure is represented in the bronze

statuette of Museo Gapponi, dressed in a wide sack of white

with a narrow leather belt at the waist, a soft conical hat on

his head; his face covered with a black half-mask, his nose is

hooked and there is a large mole on his cheek. This head and

sack form the perfect type of primitive marionette, easily

worked with three fingers by an able operator. Today Pul

cinella is in service, sharp or stupid according to circum

stances, temperate or jealous, talkative or taciturn, lively, sar

castic, always quarrelsome. Pulcinella in Naples, Gerolamo in

Milan, Gianduja in Turin, Stenterello in Florence, Brighella

and Arlecchino in Venice and the Dottore in Bologna, as

marionettes, have kept alive the memory of the Commediadell'Arte.

The wooden dolls of the Fiando theatre in Milan were ex

tremely popular during the early nineteenth century. AFrench newspaper wrote:

The head, arms and body of these little figures move with so

much grace and in such perfect accord with the sentiment ex

pressed by the voice, that except for proportions one could well

have imagined he was witnessing a performance of actors of theComddie Frangaise. The classic tragedy Ndbuccodonosor was giventhat evening and an Anacreontic ballet entitled La Delizie di

Flora. The dancers and sylphids of the Paris Opera, so proud of

their fine legs and smiling faces, might well envy these charmingwooden people who easily overcome the most terrific difficulties

of choreographic art.


Gianduja, Gerolamo and Tartaglia, are the same as the living actors of the big theatres.

Always Pulcinella has been the life and soul of the marionette theatre. He was called Pullicinella in Rome and Naples, Pulcinella in the rest of Italy, Polichinelle in France, Punch in England, Hans-Wurst in Germany and Don Christoval Pulichinelo in Spain. His figure is represented in the bronze statuette of Museo Capponi, dressed in a wide sack of white with a narrow leather belt at the waist, a soft conical hat on his head; his face covered with a black half-mask, his nose is hooked and there is a large mole on his cheek. This head and sack form the perfect type of primitive marionette, easily worked with three fingers by an able operator. Today Pulcinella is in service, sharp or stupid according to circumstances, temperate or jealous, talkative or taciturn, lively, sarcastic, always quarrelsome. Pulcinella in Naples, Gerolamo in Milan, Gianduja in Turin, Stenterello in Florence, Brighella and Arlecchino in Venice and the Dottore in Bologna, as marionettes, have kept alive the memory of the Commedia dell' Arte.

The wooden dolls of the Fiando theatre in Milan were extremely popular during the early nineteenth century. A French newspaper wrote:

The head, arms and body of these little figures move with so much grace and in such perfect accord with the sentiment expressed by the voice, that except for proportions one could well have imagined he was witnessing a performance of actors of the Comedie Franfaise. The classic tragedy Nabuccodonosor was given that evening and an Anacreontic ballet entitled La Delizie di Flora. The dancers and sylphids of the Paris Opera, so proud of their fine legs and smiling faces, might well envy these charming wooden people who easily overcome the most terrific difficulties of choreographic art.

THE PUPPET REPERTOIRE isu

In his book De Paris a Naples M. Jal speaks in the same wayof the Milanese puppets.

In his Roba di Roma William Story tells us o the Romanburattini he saw in Piazza Navona:

The love for the acting of puppets is universal among the

lower classes throughout Italy and in some cities, especially in

Genoa, no pains are spared in their costume, construction andmovement to render them life-like. . . . The audience listen with

grave and profound interest. Every evening there are two performances. We arrived at the Teatro Emiliano just too late for

the first. ''What is that great noise of drums inside?" we asked.

"Battaglie" said the ticket-seller. "Shall we see a battle in the

next piece?*' "Eh, sempre battaglia" always battle was the re

proving answer.

In Rome the marionette theatre was established in Palazzo

Fiano and obtained the privilege of remaining open the whole

year.

Henri Beyle, better known as Stendhal, described these

Roman puppets:

It was nine o'clock in the evening when I entered Palazzo Fiano.

At the door an individual was shrieking: "This way, this way,

gentlemen. The performance is about to begin." I paid my half a

paolo and entered fearful of fleas and bad company, but I was

soon reassured. My neighbours were the fattest bourgeois of Rome.

And no people better understand and appreciate subtle satire.

Laughter has fled to the marionettes who by improvisation flout

censorship. The fashionable marionette Cassandrino is a sprightly

man of fifty or sixty; as active, upright, powdered, clean and alert

as a Cardinal. Expert in business, able conversationalist, Cassan

drino would be all virtue did he not fall madly in love with all

the women. Cassandrino is of all times and Rome is full of

Messeigneurs like him.

The comedy performed that evening was Cassandrino al-

lievo d'un pittore. A Roman artist has a sister, beautiful,


In his book De Paris a Naples M. Jal speaks in the same way of the Milanese puppets.

In his Roba di Roma William Story tells us of the Roman burattini he saw in Piazza N avona:

The love for the acting of puppets is universal among the lower classes throughout Italy and in some cities, especially in Genoa, no pains are spared in their costume, construction and movement to render them life-like .... The audience listen with grave and profound interest. Every evening there are two performances. We arrived at the Teatro Emiliano just too late for the first. "What is that great noise of drums inside?" we asked. UBattaglie," said the ticket-seller. "Shall we see a battle in the next piece?" uEh, sempre battaglia" -always battle-was the reproving answer.

In Rome the marionette theatre was established in Palazzo Fiano and obtained the privilege of remaining open the whole year.

Henri Beyle, better known as Stendhal, described these Roman puppets:

It was nine o'clock in the evening when I entered Palazzo Fiano. At the door an individual was shrieking: "This way, this way, gentlemen. The performance is about to begin." I paid my half a paolo and entered fearful of fleas and bad company, but I was soon reassured. My neighbours were the fattest bourgeois of Rome. And no people better understand and appreciate subtle satire. Laughter has fled to the marionettes who by improvisation flout censorship. The fashionable marionette Cassandrino is a sprightly man of fifty or sixty; as active, upright, powdered, clean and alert as a Cardinal. Expert in business, able conversationalist, Cassandrino would be all virtue did he not fall madly in love with all the women. Cassandrino is of all times and Rome is full of Messeigneurs like him.

The comedy performed that evening was Cassandrino allievo d'un pittore. A Roman artist has a sister, beautiful,


young and honourable. Cassandrino enters the house under

pretence of protecting the artist; he falls in love with the

beautiful girL On account of his age and position he does not

dare to make an open declaration of his love. He talks about

music and sings a cavatina he has heard in a concert. Thecdvatina by Paesiello was exquisitely sung behind the scenes

by a girl of the "company/5

a cobbler's daughter. But while

the old man is warbling the artist arrives and reproves his

sister and turns Cassandrino out for making love to a girl

without being able to marry her.

In the following act the lover reappears disguised as a stu

dent with dyed hair and false moustache. He offers the girl

much money and a house in the country where they can pass

happy days together. Cassandrino is caught by the artist's

aunt, a crazy old maid who once was intimate with him and

who claims that he must now marry her. After many absurd

adventures Cassandrino takes the old maid as his housekeeperand thus becomes in a way the giiTs "protector."

Stendhal also describes the Florentine marionettes he saw

at the house of a rich merchant. Upon a stage barely five feet

wide twenty-four beautifully made puppets eight inches highacted Machiavelli's Mandragora. He also mentions Neapolitan marionettes who performed political satires in a privatetheatre. Of these plays the most applauded was called Si fardv no un Segretario di Stato?

In Genoa no pains are spared to render the burattini life

like. They are made of wood, generally from two to three feet

tall with large heads, glaring eyes, and clad in tinsel, velvet

and steel. Though the largest are only about half the heightof a man, the stage and all the appointments and scenery are

in the same proportion and the eye soon accepts them as life

size. But if a hand or arm of one of the wire pullers appears its


young and honourable. Cassandrino enters the house under pretence of protecting the artist; he falls in love with the beautiful girl. On account of his age and position he does not dare to make an open declaration of his love. He talks about music and sings a cavatina he has heard in a concert. The cavatina by Paesiello was exquisitely sung behind the scenes by a girl of the "company," a cobbler's daughter. But while the old man is warbling the artist arrives and reproves his sister and turns Cassandrino out for making love to a girl without being able to marry her.

In the following act the lover reappears disguised as a student with dyed hair and false moustache. He offers the girl much money and a house in the country where they can pass happy days together. Cassandrino is caught by the artist's aunt, a crazy old maid who once was intimate with him and who claims that he must now marry her. After many absurd adventures Cassandrino takes the old maid as his housekeeper and thus becomes in a way the girl's "protector."

Stendhal also describes the Florentine marionettes he saw at the house of a rich merchant. Upon a stage barely five feet wide twenty-four beautifully made puppets eight inches high acted Machiavelli's Mandragora. He also mentions Neapolitan marionettes who performed political satires in a private theatre. Of these plays the most applauded was called Si tara o no un Segretario di Stato?

In Genoa no pains are spared to render the burattini lifelike. They are made of wood, generally from two to three feet tall with large heads, glaring eyes, and clad in tinsel, velvet and steel. Though the largest are only about half the height of a man, the stage and all the appointments and scenery are in the same proportion and the eye soon accepts them as life size. But if a hand or arm of one of the wire pullers appears its


size is startling. The plays are mostly heroic, romantic and

historical, startling in incident, imposing in style and grandi

ose in movement; wars of the Paladins, adventures of knights

and ladies, tragedies of the Middle Ages, prodigies of the

melodramatic world. Doughty warriors continue to battle

until the stage is covered with corpses; they rescue injured

damsels, express themselves in boastful language and are

equally admirable in love and war.

It has been estimated that there are about forty thousand

theatrical puppets in Italy. In the southern provinces of the

peninsula puppets are highly esteemed. Large towns hardly

know other dramatic performances than those of the mario

nettes. In Naples, Gaeta, Salerno, Aquila and Caserta, me

chanical theatres compete with the larger stages. Marionettes

wander all over Italy. The comedies, drama, pantomimes and

grand ballets presented by Nocchi in his little Leghorn thea

tre once competed with celebrated theatrical performances.

Before the World War, in Milan and the Lombardy prov

inces there were many companies of fantoccini. Those of the

Prandi brothers of Brescia made the round of Tuscany, meet

ing with applause at Florence, Sienna and Pisa. The ballets

became regular choreographic performances with elaborate

scenic effects and good orchestral music. Placards announced

the names of the scene-painter, producer, theatrical costumer

and orchestral conductor, with "thirty professorswho will not

long remain anonymous."

To the ballet dancers have been added gymnasts, acrobats

and jugglers; burattini who do rope dancing and trapeze

swinging without visible thread to support them; puppets

who juggle with balls, bottles and swords, who let off guns,

fence, leap through hoops, play the violin with full orchestral


size is startling. The plays are mostly heroic, romantic and historical, startling in incident, imposing in style and grandi. ose in movement; wars of the Paladins, adventures of knights and ladies, tragedies of the Middle Ages, prodigies of the melodramatic world. Doughty warriors continue to battle until the stage is covered with corpses; they rescue injured damsels, express themselves in boastful language and are equally admirable in love and war.

It has been estimated that there are about forty thousand theatrical puppets in Italy. In the southern provinces of the peninsula puppets are highly esteemed. Large towns hardly know other dramatic performances than those of the marionettes. In Naples, Gaeta, Salerno, Aquila and Caserta, mechanical theatres compete with the larger stages. Marionettes wander all over Italy. The comedies, drama, pantomimes and grand ballets presented by N occhi in his little Leghorn theatre once competed with celebrated theatrical performances.

Before the World War, in Milan and the Lombardy provinces there were many companies of fantoccini. Those of the Prandi brothers of Brescia made the round of Tuscany, meeting with applause at Florence, Sienna and Pisa. The ballets became regular choreographic performances with elaborate scenic effects and good orchestral music. Placards announced the names of the scene-painter, producer, theatrical costumer and orchestral conductor, with "thirty professors who will not long remain anonymous."

To the ballet dancers have been added gymnasts, acrobats and jugglers; burattini who do rope dancing and trapeze swinging without visible thread to support them; puppets who juggle with balls, bottles and swords, who let off guns, fence, leap through hoops, play the violin with full orchestral

1*4 MASKS AND MARIONETTES

accompaniment. It is no longer the simple ingenuous mario

nette play of former times.

The burattini theatre has shown the contemporary tend

encies of philosophy and criticism. Great men and popular

personages, the heroes of religion and of atheism, Beelzebub,

Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi, Rinaldo di Montalbano,

Joan of Arc, the Nun of Cracow all of them have found

among the marionettes an hour of resurrection. The present-

day repertoire is still more eclectic. The use of dances has en

larged the field of marionette scenes.

Hear how Giovan Battiste Fagiuoli speaks to Consiglier

Magalotti of the fetes given by Cardinal de' Medici in his

Lappeggi villa:

But that which outweighed all other pleasuresAnd where the money was spent well by all, amusing ears and eyes,

Was the turret of the marionettes.

Oh, what a joy, how fine a thing, to see those puppets fight.

Above all the rest, that Pulcinella.

Has ever man been seen more pleasing in dress, in action, and in

speech?And he, poor thing, how unfortunate is he,

Subjected to oppression every minute, or else belaboured all the

time,

And yet with courage ne'ertheless,

"Victory/* he cries, and rings his bell, passing it off in fun.

For no embarrassments for great minds

Have misfortunes, and under the blows of destiny moustaches

must be kept upturned.

The public of the wooden dolls has changed. The mario

nette was the most ancient actor, so the marionette theatre is

the most modern. Just as the puppets were transformed when

ancient society became modern society and pagans became

Christians, and from being ecclesiastical and ritual they be-


accompaniment. It is no longer the simple ingenuous marionette play of former times.

The burattini theatre has shown the contemporary tendencies of philosophy and criticism. Great men and popular personages, the heroes of religion and of atheism, Beelzebub, Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi, Rinaldo di Montalbano, Joan of Are, the Nun of Cracow-all of them have found among the marionettes an hour of resurrection. The presentday repertoire is still more eclectic. The use of dances has enlarged the field of marionette scenes.

Hear how Giovan Battiste Fagiuoli speaks to Consiglier Magalotti of the fetes given by Cardinal de' Medici in his Lappeggi villa:

But that which outweighed all other pleasures And where the money was spent well by all, amusing ears and eyes, Was the turret of the marionettes. Oh, what a joy, how fine a thing, to see those puppets fight. Above all the rest, that Pulcinella. Has ever man been seen more pleasing in dress, in action, and in

speech? And he, poor thing, how unfortunate is he, Subjected to oppression every minute, or else belaboured all the

time, And yet with courage ne'ertheless, "Victory," he cries, and rings his bell, passing it off in fun. For no embarrassments for great minds Have misfortunes, and under the blows of destiny moustaches

must be kept upturned.

The public of the wooden dolls has changed. The marionette was the most ancient actor, so the marionette theatre is the most modern. Just as the puppets were transformed when ancient society became modern society and pagans became Christians, and from being ecclesiastical and ritual they be-


came laymen and artistic; just as Macco and Centunculo first

became the Almighty and the prophet Daniel and Pulcinella

and Arlecchino, so now they tend to become political min

isters and deputies. In all ages the marionettes have closely

followed the transformations of the theatre and of society.


came laymen and artistic; just as Maceo and Centunculo first became the Almighty and the prophet Daniel and Pulcinella and Arlecchino, so now they tend to become political ministers and deputies. In all ages the marionettes have closely followed the transformations of the theatre and of society.

INDEX

Accesi Company, 31

Acting, becomes a profession, 9Amorous plots, 8

Amours of Commedia dell'Arts players,41, 42

Andreini, Francesco, actor, 16-17, 23-25,

30; enacts Capitan Spavento, 50, 58;his Bravure di Capitano Spavento, 68

Andreini, Giambattista, actor and writer,

24, 25-27, 30; his influence over Milton's Paradise Lost, 30; amours of, 41;his borrowings, 46

Andreini, Isabella, 24-25, 26, 40Andreini, Virginia (Ramponi), 26, 41Andreini, Virginia (Rotari), 26

Apothecaries, in Commedia dell'Arte, 64-

65^

d'Arbes, Cesare, actor, 37Ariosto, on his Suppositi, 12; his Cas-

saria and La Lena, 13Aristotle, on perfection of marionettes,

102

Arlecchino, suggested by the Planipedes,

4; the Roman Mimus centunculus, 7;

in Scala's plays, 67-68, 72-73; a type of

zanni, 71-73; Biancolelli a great, 73;

in L'Empereur dans la lune, 74"75>Gherardi famous as, 75

Armani, Vincenza, poet-actress, 27-28Art Theatre. See Commedia dell'Arte

Assiuolo, play by Cecchi, 11

Atellana, ancient plays, 4

Bagattelli, one name for marionettes,

105Baletti, Eleanor Virginia ("Flaminia"), 29

Ballet, marionette, 116-117, 123Balli di Sfessania, resembled Atellance, 6

Bamboccie, a kind of marionettes, 106

Bathyllus, famous Roman pantomimist,

5Belora, monologue by Ruzzante, 19

Beltrame, a type of Brighella, 5672.

Beolco. See Ruzzante

Bergerac, Cyrano de, his duel with an

ape, 107Bertoldino, a popular character, 64

Bertoldo, burlesque epic of, 64Bianchi, Aurelia, actress, 27

Biancolelli, Catherine, the most famousColombina, 62

Biancolelli, Domenico, honored by LouisXIV, 40

Bouchet, Guillaume, first to describemarionettes in France, 107

Brighella, a basic type, 55-56Briocci brothers, their marionette thea

tre, 107-108; their ape made famous

by Cyrano de Bergerac, 107Burattini, marionettes moved by wires,

106

Burattino, celebrated Gelosi mask, 60;

passes into marionette theatre, 60, 105-106

Cacasenno, Scaligero's life of, 64Calderoni's Company, 31Callot, his Balli di Sfessania, 6

Capitano, and Plautus' Miles Gloriosus,

11, 57; character, 50-51, 57-58

Capriria, play by Giancarli, 21

Casnar, in the Atellance, 4Cassandrino, character of, 64Cassandro, created in the Gelosi Company, 63

Cassaria, play by Ariosto, 13, 14.

Cecchi, his Assiuolo, 11

Chapelle, the most famous Cassandro, 63Chiari, Pietro, 93-94Church, its attitude toward dramatic art,

6; its use of marionettes, 103-104Clement, St., of Alexandria, reference to

marionettes, 103Colombina, of adventurous type, 52;

character of, 62-63; in Goldoni's plays,

80-4Comedians, praised by scholars, 40; ec

clesiastical and civil attacks on, 42Come'die Italienne, in Paris, 32-34; in

spired Moliere, 3371,

Commedia dell'Arte, origin of, 3-17;

femous players in, 16-17, 18-21, 23-29;

famous companies, 16, 22-37; Jovs an/*

sorrows of the players, 38-45J scenario

and improvisation in, 46-5 5 I;B

'&*-

donif 50; characters and actors in, 50-

65 69-75; scenarios of, 66-68; Goldoni's

work in, 76-88; Gozzi's work in, 88-96

127

INDEX

Accesi Company, 31 Acting, becomes a profession, 9 Amorous plots, 8 Amours of Commedia dell'Arte players,

41, 411 Andreini, Francesco, actor, 16-17, 113-115,

30; enacts Capitan Spavento, 50, 58; his Bravure di Capitano Spavento, 68

Andreini, Giambattista, actor and writer, 24, 25-117, 30; his influence over Milton's Paradise Lost, 30; amours of, 41; his borrowings, 46

Andreini, Isabella, 114-25, 26, 40 Andreini, Virginia (Ramponi), 26, 41 Andreini, Virginia (Rotari), 116 Apothecaries, in Commedia dell'Arte, 64-

65 ~ d'Arbes, Cesare, actor, 37 Ariosto, on his Suppositi, 1lI: his Cas

saria and La Lena, 13 Aristotle, on perfection of marionettes,

102 Arlecchino, suggested by the Planipedes,

4: the Roman Mimus centuncu[us, 7; in Scala's plays, 67-68, 72-73: a type of zanni, 71-73; Biancolelli a great, 73: in L'Empereur dans la lune, 74-75: Gherardi famous as, 75

Armani, Vincenza, poet-actress, 27-28 Art Theatre. See Commedia dell'Arte Assiuolo, play by Cecchi, 11 Atellante, ancient plays, 4

Bagattelli, one name for marionettes, 105

Baletti, Eleanor Virginia (UFlaminia"), 119 Ballet, marionette, 116-117, 123 Balli di Stessania, resembled Atellante, 6 Bamboccie, a kind of marionettes, 106 Bathyllus, famous Roxnan pantomimist,

)5 Belora, monologue by Ruzzante, 19 Beltrame, a type of BrighelIa, 56n. Beolco. See Ruzzante Bergerac, Cyrano de, his duel with an

ape, 107 Bertoldino, a popular character, 64 Bertoldo, burlesque epic of, 64 Bianchi, Aurelia, actress, 27

127

BiancoleIli, Catherine, the most famous Colombina, 611

BiancoleIli, Domenico, honored by Louis XIV, 40

Bouchet, GuilIauxne, mt to describe xnarionettes in France, 107

Brighella, a basic type, 55-56 Briocci brothers, their marionette thea

tre, 107-108; their ape made famous by Cyrano de Bergerac, 107

Burattini, marionettes moved by wires. 106

Burattino, celebrated Gelosi mask, 60; passes into xnarionette theatre, 50, 105-106

Cacasenno, Scaligero's life of, 64 Calderoni's Coxnpany, 31 CaUot, his Balli di Sfessania, 6 Capitano, and Plautus' Miles Gloriosus,

11, 57; character, 50-51, 57-58 Capriria, play by Giancarli, 21 Casnar, in the Atellance, 4 Cassandrino, character of, 64 Cassandro, created in the Gelosi Com-

pany,63 Cassaria, play by Ariosto, 13, 14 Cecchi, his Assiuolo, 11 ChapeIle, the most famous Cassandro, 63 Chiari, Pietro, 93-94 Church, its attitude toward dramatic art,

6; its use of marionettes, 103-104 Clement, St., of Alexandria, reference to

marionettes, 103 Colomhina, of adventurous type, 5~;

character of, 62-63; in Goldoni's plays, 80-4

Comedians, praised by scholars, 40; ecclesiastical and civil attacks on, 42

Comedie Italienne, in Paris, 82-34; inspired Moliere, 33n-

Commedia dell'Arte, origin of, 3-17; famous players in, 16-17, 18-21, 23-29; faxnous companies, 16, 22-37; joys and sorrows of the players, 38-45; scenario and ixnprovisation in, 46-50, 51; zibaldoni, 50; characters and actors in, 50-65, 69-75; scenarios of, 66-68; Goldoni's work in, 76-88; Cozzi's work in, 88-96

INDEX

Companies of Commedia dell'Arte, 9, 16, Greece, Commedia dell'Arte in, 3

2i-3 . Q

Composition of dramatic companies, 30

Consiglio, Pantalone's, 50

Constantini, Angelo, a famous Mezzet-

tino, 56-57 .

Corago, leader in impromptu comedy,

49-50Corralina, Goldoni's, 82-84

Cortesan, Goldoni's, 79

Coviello, 39 ,.

Covilelo, a mask of ancient Commeaia

dell'Arte, 6

Deburau, Gaspard, a great Pierrot, 34

Dentist, Scala's play, 66-68

Desiosi Company, 31-32Dialects spoken in both Roman ana

Italian Commedia dell'Arte, 7

Doctor, r61e of, described, 52-53

Dossennus, resembled by Doctor, 7

Egypt, religious marionettes in, 99-100

England, Commedia dell'Arte in, 34-36

Facca Nappa, a favorite marionette char

acter, 61

Fantoccini, a kind of marionettes, 106

Fiorilli, Tiberio, royal gift to, 40; creator

of Scaramuccio, 53

Fiorillo, Silvio, as Pulcinella, 54

Florinda, 26

Ganassa, famous Commedia dell'Arte

player, 17; leader of Gelosi Company,

Gelosi Company, most famous in Commedia dell'Arte, 16-17; travels of, 22-

25; temporarily unites with Confidenti,

23; Scala's scenario of the Dentist for,

66-68; identification of actors in, with

their r61es, 6gn.Genoa, marionettes made in, 122-123

Giancarli, Gigio Artemio, author and

actor, 21

Giandujo (Girolamo), a favorite mario

nette character, 61-62

Goldoni, Carlo, director and poet of

Comedie Italienne, 33; on Medebac's

company, 37; his plays and characters,

61, 77-88; reformed the theatre of his

time, 76-77; Gozzi's jealousy of, 88, 92-

93; Gozzi compared with, 92; and the

marionette stage, 113

Gozzi, Carlo, plays of, 88-91; despised the

common people, 91-92; his hatred of

Goldoni and Chiari, 92-94; his opinionof actors and actresses, 94-95? ^is

liaison with Teodora Ricci, 94, 95-96

Graziano, Doctor, character, 69

Helmet mask, ancient, 4

Herodotus, on Egyptian religious mari

onettes, 99Hdtel de Bourbon, Gelosi at, 24

Immorality of Commedia dell'Arte

actors, 41-44

Improvised Comedy. See Commediadell'Arte

Indecency, of Commedia dell'Arte stage,

8, 45

Lasca, II, 9; quoted, 10, 11, 13, 14-16

Lazzi, 46-47 48Leandro, character, 60-61

Lelio. See Andreini, Giambattista; Ricco-

boni, Louis

"Little Green Bird," Gozzi's, 90-91

Living the part, a common practice, 69

Louis XIV, godfather of Biancolelli's

child, 40

Maccus, like modern Pulcinella, 4

Maeatelli, a name for marionettes, 105

Marcus Aurelius, draws illustration

from marionettes, 103

Marionettes, origin of, 69, 99-104, 105-

106; in France, 106-109, 111-112; grow

ing importance of, 109-110; dramas

for, no and n.; their reproduction of

Commedia dell'Arte, 110-111; golden

age of, 112-113; performance by, 114-

117, 121-123; characters, 117-120; pop

ularity of, 120-122; present-day trend

in, 122-125

Martinelli, Tristino and Drusiano, royal

gifts to, 40Masks, ancient Roman use of, 4

Massere, Le, play by Goldoni, 85-86

Medebac's company, in Venice, 37

Meneghino, a Lombard character, 62

Mezzettino, character, 56-57

Milan, marionette theatre in, 120-121,

123Miles Gloriosus, a Capitan Spavento

type, 11

Mimi, ancient Roman, 4Mirandolina, type of soubrette, 86-87

Moliere, inspired by Commedia delV

Artef 33n.

Moschetta, play by Ruzzante, 19

Nakedness, in Commedia dell'Arte plays,

8

Narcisino, popular type in Bologna, 63

Nobles, their interference with performances, 44, 45

128 INDEX

Companies of Commedia dell'Arte, 9,16, 21-37, 38

Composition of dramatic companies, 38 Consiglio, Pantalone's, 50 Constantini, Angelo, a famous Mezzet

tino, 56-57 Corago, leader in impromptu comedy,

49-50 Corralina, Goldoni's, 82-84 Cortesan, Goldoni's, 79 Coviello, 39 Covilelo, a mask of ancient Commedia

dell'Arte, 6

Deburau, Gaspard, a great Pierrot, 34 Dentist, Scala's play, 66-68 Desiosi Company, 31-32 Dialects spoken in both Roman and

Italian Commedia deWArte, 7 Doctor, r6le of, described, 52-53 Dossennus, resembled by Doctor, 7

Egypt, religious marionettes in, 99-100 England, Commedia dell'Arte in, 34-36

Facca Nappa, a favorite marionette character, 61

Fantoccini, a kind of marionettes, 106 Fiorilli, Tiberio, royal gift to, 40; creator

of Scaramuccio, 53 Fiorillo, Silvio, as Pulcinella, 54 Florinda, 26

Ganassa, famous Commedia dell'Arte player, 17; leader of Gelosi Company, 22

Gelosi Company, most famous in Commedia dell'Arte, 16-17; travels of, 22-25; temporarily unites with Confidenti, 23; Scala's scenario of the Dentist for, 66-68; identification of actors in, with their r6les, 69n-

Genoa, marionettes made in, 122-123 Giancarli, Gigio Artemio, author and

actor, 21 Giandujo (Girolamo), a favorite mario

nette character, 61-62 Goldoni, Carlo, director and poet of

Comedie Italienne, 33; on Medebac's company, 37; his plays and characters, 61, 77-88; reformed the theatre of his time, 76-77; Gozzi's jealousy of, 88, 92-93; Gozzi compared with, 92; and the marionette stage, 113

Gozzi, Carlo, plays of, 88-91; despised the common people, 91-92; his hatred of Goldoni and Chiari, 92-94; his opinion of actors and actresses, 94-95; his liaison with Teodora Ricci, 940 95-96

Graziano, Doctor, character, 69

Greece, Commedia dell'Arte in, 3

Helmet mask, ancient, 4 Herodotus, on Egyptian religious mari

onettes, 99 Hotel de Bourbon, Gelosi at, 24

Immorality of Com media dell'Arte actors, 41-44

Improvised Comedy. See Commedia dell'Arte

Indecency, of Commedia dell'Arte stage, 8, 45

Lasca, II, 9; quoted, 10, 11, 13, 14-16 Lazzi, 46-47, 48 Leandro, character, 60-61 Lelio. See Andreini, Giambattista; Ricco-

boni, Louis "Little Green Bird," Gozzi's, 90-91 Living the part, a common practice, 69 Louis XIV, godfather of BiancoleIli's

child, 40

Maccus, like modem Pulcinella, 4 Magatelli, a name for marionettes, 105 Marcus Aurelius, draws iIIustration

from marionettes, 103 Marionettes, origin of, 69, 99-104, 105-

106; in France, 106-109, 111-112; growing importance of, 10g-110; dramas for, 110 and n.; their reproduction of Commedia dell'Arte, 110-111; golden age of, 112-113; performance by, 114-117, 121-123; characters, 117-120; popularity of, 120-122; present-day trend in, 122-125

Martinelli, Tristino and Drusiano, royal gifts to, 40

Masks, ancient Roman use of, 4 Massere, Le, play by Goldoni, 85-86 Medebac's company, in Venice, 37 Meneghino, a Lombard character, 62 Mezzettino, character, 56-57 Milan, marionette theatre in, 120-121,

123 Miles Gloriosus, a Capitan Spavento

type, 11 Mimi, ancient Roman, 4 Mirandolina, type of soubrette, 86-87 Moliere, inspired by Commedia dell'

Arte, 33n-Moschetta, play by Ruzzante, 19

Nakedness, in Commedia dell'Arte plays, 8

Narcisino, popular type in Bologna, 63 Nobles, their interference with perform

ances, 44, 45

INDEX 129

Optra comique, invented for mario

nettes, 112

Pagan comedy, 6

Pantalone, in scenario of the Dentist,

66-68; character, 69, 71; in Goldoni's

plays, 87-88

Pantomimi, ancient Roman, 4

Paris, coming of Italian companies to,

21-22; Gelosi Company in, 22-24; Ital

ian comedy in, 31-34; marionettes in,

107-109

Pasquati, a great Pantalone, 23

Pedrolino, character, 59-60

Persecution, ecclesiastical and civil, of

comedians, 42

Persona, ancient Roman masks called, 4

Pierrot, the same personage as Pedrolino,

60

Planipedes, ancient Roman harlequin, 4

Plato, his illustration from marionettes,

100-101

Players, called strumpets and scamps, 42

Plot, in Commedia dell'Arte plays, 46

Pulcinella, like ancient Roman Maccus,

4, 7, 54; character, 54

Pupi (or Pupazzi), a kind of marionettes,

106

Realism, of Commedia dell'Arte, 7

Religious drama, 6

Renaissance comedy, in Italy, 12-13

Ricci, Teodora, actress, her associations

with Sacchi and Gozzi, 37, 94, 95-96

Riccoboni, Flaminia, actress, 27

Riccoboni, Luigi, actor and author, 27,

36; his company, 32

Rome, theatrical art in ancient, 4-5;

marionette theatres in, 121-122

Ruzzante, actor and author, 18-20

Sacchi, Antonio, actor and director, 37;

association with Gozzi, 37, 89, 94, 95

Salviati, Lionardo, 9, 10

Sanniones, ancient Roman downs, 4, 7

Scala, Flaminio, the Magnifico Panta

lone, 17; director of Gelosi Company,24; collects and publishes Gelosi sce

narios, 24, 66; his scenario of the

Dentist, 66-68

Scapin, in Arlequin Dfoaliseur de

Maisons^ 47Scaramuccia, character, 53Scenario, 46, 48, 49, 51

Shakespeare, William, his debt to Com*media dell'Arte, 35-36

Simoni, Renato, his play Gozzi, 95-96

Socrates, drew lessons from marionettes,

100

Soubrette, eighteenth century type of,

80-87

Spain, Gelosi Company in, 22

Stage names, used in private life, 69

Stenterello, character, 59

Suppositi, play by Ariosto, 12, 46

Synesius, reference to marionettes, 103

Tabarino (Tabarin), his farces, 32-33

Tartaglia, character, 61

Terence, characters of, in Commedia

dell'Arte, 8

Tertullian, reference to marionettes, 103

Tirata della Giostra, 50

Turandot, play by Gozzi, 91

Valentina, type of soubrette, 84-85

Varchi, quoted, 9

Zanni, the, 70-73

Zibaldoni (commonplace books), actors

use of, 50

Zingana, play by Giancarh, 21

INDEX 129 opera comique, invented for mario

nettes, 112

Pagan comedy. 6 Pantalone, in scenario of the Dentist,

66-68; character, 69, 71; in Goldoni's plays, 87-88

Pantomimi, ancient Roman, 4 Paris, coming of Italian companies to,

21-22; Gelosi Company in. 22-24; Italian comedy in, 31-34; marionettes in, 107-109

Pasquati, a great Pantalone, 23 Pedrolino, character, 59-60 Persecution, ecclesiastical and civil, of

comedians, 42 Personce, ancient Roman masks called, 4 Pierrot, the same personage as Pedrolino,

60 Planipedes, ancient Roman harlequin, 4 Plato, his illustration from marionettes,

100-101

Players, called strumpets and scamps, 42 Plot, in Commedia delZ'Arte plays, 46 Pulcinella, like ancient Roman Maccus.

4, 7, 54; character. 54 Pupi (or Pupazzi), a kind of marionettes,

106

Realism, of Commedia dell'Arte, 7 Religious drama, 6 Renaissance comedy, in Italy, 12-13 Ricci, Teodora, actress, her associations

with Sacchi and Gozzi, 37, 94, 95-96 Riccoboni, Flaminia, actress, 27 Riccoboni, Luigi, actor and author. 27,

36; his company, 32 Rome, theatrical art in ancient. 4-5;

marionette theatres in, 121-122 Ruzzante, actor and author. 18-20

Sacchi, Antonio, actor and director, 1m association with Gozzi. 37, ag, 94, 95

Salviati, Lionardo. 9, 10 Sanniones, ancient Roman clowns, 4, 7 Scala, Flaminio, the Magnifico Panta-

lone, 17; director of Gelosi Company, 24; collects and publishes Gelosi scenarios, 24. 66; his scenario of the Dentist, 66-68

Scapin. in A.rlequin Divaliseur de Maisons,47

Scaramuccia, character, 53 Scenario. 46, 48, 49, 51 Shakespeare, William, his debt to Com

medIa dell'Ane, 35-36 Simoni, Renato, his play Gozzi, 95-96 Socrates, drew lessons from marionettes,

100 Soubrette, eighteenth century type of,

80-87 Spain, Gelosi Company in, 22 Stage names, used in private life, 6g Stenterello, character, 59 Suppositi, play by Ariosto, 12. 46 Synesius, reference to marionettes, 103

Tabarino (Tabarin). his farces, 32-33 Tartaglia, character, 61 Terence, characters of. in Commedia

dell'Arte, 8 Tertullian, reference to marionettes. 103 Tirata della Giostra, 50 Turandot, play by Gozzi, 91

Valentina, type of soubrette, 84-85 Varchi, quoted. 9

Zanni, the, 70-73 Zibaldoni (commonplace books), actors'

use of, 50 Zingana, play by Giancarli. 21

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