Keep ‘Em FlyingLaser Peening Keeps Aircraft Turbine Blades in Action

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Smart Materials

That Sense and Respond

How many times in the past year have I heard the word “syn-ergy”? And of those times, how many were at home with mywife or out at a restaurant? I would guess that the ratio issomething like 10:0, because like so many other manage-ment clichés or buzzwords, “synergy” lives only at the office.Things like “cooperation,” “give-and-take,” and “under-standing” live at home.

Why does this matter? Honestly, it probably doesn’t, butaren’t we all just a little overloaded with how many catch-phrases come along? I recall having lunch with the CEOfrom one of the nation’s largest manufacturers of industrialcarbon products a few years back. He said that there werethree kinds of organizations in business: there were those that

resist change, those that accept change, and those that seekchange. He wanted his company to be the latter. It isassumed in there somewhere that CHANGE… is GOOD,but I digress.

In the early 1900’s, the main use for oil in this countrywas for lighting. This application however, was quickly beingsupplanted by electrically energized lights, and things lookedpretty bleak for the oil industry in the US. But then, out ofthe blue came a new application for oil and refined fuels: theautomobile. Right around the time one application wasdying, another came along and saved an industry. (The riseof the automobile practically wiped out the saddle and horse-shoe businesses of course, as every change has consequences.)

In our business, we see change all the time. Sometimesit is legislative change, such as Acquisition Reform, othertimes it is simply a shift in thinking or technology. Mostchanges are for the better, like when we learned about duc-tile-to-brittle transition temperatures in steels for LibertyShips, or machining larger radius fillets in crankshafts toreduce stress concentration. Like Helmut Panke (currentChairman of BMW A.G.) has said, any organization thatdoes not adhere to the triple-A strategy of adaptivity, agilityand anticipation will not survive long in today’s climate.

Changes in technology, legislation, innovation, and eventhinking will always alter the landscape for materials andtheir applications. As such, change is inherent in all we do,because we are forever pushing our own boundaries withinnovative development of new materials or clever re-appli-cation of existing materials.

Materials engineers, by our very nature, are seekingchange every day. We seek to utilize natural and physical lawsof structure, chemistry, and mechanics to enhance the per-formance of materials around us. And we fight for every lastscrap of strength, ductility, thermal stability, conductance,etc., out of every material we touch.

This brings me to another of Panke’s aphorisms: the fourCs of continuity, consensus, cooperation, and cadre. Our dis-cipline is one of continuously striving to make better materi-als to meet the challenges of tomorrow. We work separatelyon our projects, but together in our mission. From these, wedevelop strength and fraternity in this dynamic world.Materials engineering truly is the building block of all otherengineering disciplines… and that is no cliché.

Wade BabcockEditor in Chief

Materials Technology and Management Seminar Clichés

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About the Cover: An integrally bladed rotor is undergoing the laser shock peening process featured in our lead article. (Red laser beams are added graphics; the actual beams areinvisible.) This technology has increased readiness of B1 bombers significantly. On the back cover, one of the most promising commercial applications of magnetorheological fluids is pictured. Dampers utilizing these adjustable viscosity liquids have found their way into automobile shock absorbers and also vibration reducers for cable-stayed bridges. (Shock absorber image used with permission. Copyright 2003 Lord Corporation, all rights reserved.)

INTRODUCTIONFluids capable of a rapid and dramatic change in their rheo-logical properties (properties associated with the flow of mat-ter) in the presence of an electric or magnetic field are findingmany new applications. They are classified as being elec-trorheological (ER) or magnetorheological (MR) fluidsaccordingly. ER and MR fluids are actuators that have therepetitive ability to react to an applied field. In their liquid-likestate, they exhibit fluid-like properties. In their activated,solid-like state however, they can physically resist an appliedforce much like a solid material (or extremely high viscosityliquid) would.

These special fluids have recently gathered greater attentiondue to their commercial success in state-of-the-art automo-biles. The 2003 Corvette Anniversary Edition and CadillacSeville STS feature a shock absorbing system that incorporatesMR fluids as the primary damping component. (See thisissue’s MaterialEASE for a brief description of the electro- andmagneto-rheological effects, as well as an introduction to othersensor and actuator materials.)

Willis M. Winslow discovered the ER effect in 1942, andsince then there has been much struggle first to completelyunderstand the effect, and second to develop ER fluids withproperties that meet the design requirements for practicalapplications. Some of the properties of ER fluids that havehindered them from performing sufficiently for many appli-cations are yield stress, temperature stability, and power consumption.[1]

In the late 1940’s the MR effect was first reported. Theamount of effort that was put forth to study MR fluids was notnearly as significant as that for ER fluids mainly because theyrequire particles with much higher densities, which results insedimentation – a significant complication. Recently, however,there has been a renewed interest in MR fluids primarilybecause they exhibit some superior properties.

ELECTRORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDSGeneral CompositionER fluids basically consist of particles that are held in suspen-sion by a non-conducting liquid. The suspending liquid,which should have a high electrical resistivity, is typically alow-viscosity hydrocarbon or silicone oil. The particles dispersed in this liquid are commonly metal oxides, alumi-nosilicates, silica, organics, or polymers.[2] In particular, the

particles are very small (on the order of a micrometer) and ata concentration low enough to allow the fluid to maintain arelatively low viscosity when the electric field is absent (zero-field viscosity).

One of the more common problems associated with thesefluids is sedimentation. This occurs over time and can some-times be difficult to reverse depending on the particles used.Since the suspending liquid is of a relatively low density, thedispersed particles should have a relatively low density also inorder to maintain the dispersion. This extends the time it takesfor sedimentation to become a significant factor on the prop-erties of the fluid.

A third substance is sometimes used as an activator, and isapplied to the surface of the particles. Amines and organiccompounds that readily form hydrogen bonds are good acti-vators.[3] Water is sometimes used to increase the ER effect,but consequently increases conductivity, power consumption,and corrosion, while limiting the operating temperaturerange.[1]

Finally, surfactants are sometimes used in ER fluids in orderto maintain a uniform dispersion and prevent an agglomera-tion of the particles. Often they are used in ER fluids that havea high concentration of particles. There are also proprietaryadditives used in many fluids that impart specific propertiesand characteristics.

Typical PropertiesThe voltage required to induce rheological changes through agiven thickness of ER fluid is relatively small: approximately 1to 4 kV/mm.[2] Typically, the current densities of ER fluidsare between 10-6 and 10-3 amp/cm2.[4] (Current density meas-urements are used to predict the power consumption of a par-ticular ERF). One of the most important properties of an ERor MR fluid is its dynamic yield stress, which is the minimumstress required to cause the fluid to flow under the appliedfield. Usually, higher dynamic yield stresses are desired and incurrent ER fluids they range from approximately 100 Pa toover 3 kPa.[4]

It is very difficult, however, to compare various ER fluidsand their properties due to the lack of standard testing proce-dures and conditions, as well as the strong dependence of ERproperties on their composition. But in general, for an ERfluid to be used in a practical application it should meet theproperties provided in Table 1.

Benjamin CraigAMPTIAC Technical Staff

Rome, NY

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2 15

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 216

Specific CompositionThe properties of ER fluids can be modified by varying thecomponents and compositions of the particles and liquid. Ingeneral, increasing the concentration of particles in the fluid orincreasing the intensity of the applied field will increase themagnitude of the ER effect. The properties of these fluids alsodepend on particle size and density, carrier fluid properties,additives, and temperature. Figure 1 displays the dynamicyield stress for a few sample compositions of ER fluids.

Silica gel has been one of the more common types of parti-cles used for ER fluids, but despite having high shear stressesand low minimum field strength (to induce the ER effect),these fluids have some serious disadvantages. They have a relatively high conductivity, poor stability, are abrasive and notvery resistant to sedimentation.[1] Aluminosilicates are amongthe particles providing the best ER effect, [1] and metalhydroxides can be activated with water or a polar solvent toexhibit a good ER effect.[1] Poly(lithium methacrylate) and

poly(sodium styrene sulfonate) are polyelectrolytes that arecommonly used as the particulate phase, but water is typicallyadded to the fluid in order to increase the ER effect.[1] An ERfluid containing a non-aqueous, crosslinked polyurethane particle phase does exhibit good properties and is capable ofoperating at higher temperatures mainly because of theabsence of water. These particular fluids also have low viscosities and low conductivities.

Silicone oils have some very desirable properties, whichoften makes them the easy choice for the suspending liquid.They have a high stability and low temperature coefficient of viscosity, as well as a reasonable shear stress performancecapability.[1]

Influence of Particle ConcentrationThe volume fraction of the dispersed particulate phase canhave a very significant effect on the properties of an ER fluid.A higher concentration can give the fluid a much higher EReffect, but at the same time can cause problems.Sedimentation is a major factor, since higher concentrations ofsolid particles increases the amount of settling that will occur.The other potential problem associated with an increase in thevolume fraction of particles is an increase in the zero-field vis-cosity. The effect of the concentration of particles on thedynamic yield stress is given in Figure 2 for cellulose particles(6% water) in mineral oil as a function of electric field.

Influence of TemperatureTemperature has an affect on the properties exhibited by ERand MR fluids. The most obvious property affected by tem-perature is viscosity, which decreases as temperature increases.The dynamic yield strength also decreases with an increase intemperature, but this effect is greater in ER fluids than in MRfluids. The more extensive change in dynamic yield strengthfor ER fluids is due primarily to changes in conductivity andrelative permittivity of the particle and oil components of thefluid over the temperature range. For MR fluids, though, thereason for the decrease in strength is that the yield stress is

Table 1. Minimum Properties Needed by an ER Material to beUtilized in a Variety of Applications[4]

Property Description Suggested Value

Dynamic yield stress at 4.0 kV/mm < 3.0 kPaCurrent density at 4.0 kV/mm (DC) < 10 µA/cm2

Zero-field viscosity 0.1 – 0.3 Pa⋅s (1 – 3 Poise)Operating temperature range -40 to +200 °CDielectric breakdown strength > 5.0 kV/mmParticle size ~10 µmStability Low sedimentation

No dynamic separation No electrophoresis No chemical changes Low volatility

Miscellaneous properties Non-abrasiveNon-toxicNon-corrosiveNon-Flammable

Figure 1. Comparison of Dynamic Yield Stress vs. Electric Field for Two Groups of ER Fluids[4]

34 wt. % Zeolite inSilicone Oil

3.16 wt. % Silica inSilicone Oil

35% Polyvinyl Alcohol inVaseline Oil

0 1 2 3 4 5Electric Field, kV/mm

Dyn

amic

Yie

ld S

tress

,kPa

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0

Polyelectrolyte Dispersed in anOil

100 Parts Lithium HydraziniumSulfate in 59 Parts Silicone Oil

16g Sodium Aluminosilicate(4A) in 20 mL RTEMPHydrocarbon Oil

50 wt. % Aliphatic Starch inSilicone Oil

19.2 wt. % SemiconductingPolymer, 6.5 wt. % Water inSilicone Oil

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Electric Field, kV/mm

Dyn

amic

Yie

ld S

tress

, kPa

5

4.06

3.12

2.18

1.24

0.3

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2 17

directly proportional to the volume fraction of particles in thefluid, and since the carrier liquid volume expands with theincrease of temperature, the volume fraction of the particlesdecreases.

Other properties affected by temperature include conduc-tivity and current density. The overall conductivity of the fluidincreases with increasing temperature, as does current densi-ty.[1] Figure 3 shows the temperature dependence of the ERresponse and the conductivity of a fluid having a polyurethanedispersed particulate phase in a silicone oil.

ER fluids that contain waterhave an ER effect that is strong-ly dependent on temperature.These ER fluids experience asignificant change in their EReffect above 100°C and below0°C, which limits their use toapplications that have operatingtemperatures within this range.Thus, much effort has beenmade to create ER fluids thatexhibit a strong ER effect with-out requiring water. These arecalled anhydrous ER fluids; anexample of which ispoly(anthracene quinone radi-cal) particles in silicone oil(PAnQR/silicone).[1]

ER fluids that can operate atvery low temperatures are also of interest. Cryogenic ER fluidshave been investigated in the form of aluminum powders (20-vol.%) in liquid nitrogen. Strong, solid particle, columnarstructures form when an AC field of 10.7 kV/cm is applied.[1]

MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDSThe key difference between electrorheology and magnetorhe-ology is in the application of the stimulating field.Electrorheology uses low current, high voltage to generate anelectric field, whereas magnetorheology uses low voltage, highcurrent through a coil to generate a magnetic field.

The MR effect is also similar to the ER effect, but obvious-ly, instead of an electric field, a magnetic field is applied topolarize the particles. The polarized particles interact and formchains and columnar structures, and the rheological propertiesare changed dramatically. These events also take place over anextremely short period of time: on the order of a millisecond.Upon removing the magnetic field, the particles lose theirpolarization and return to their freely roaming state.

MR fluids have a similar composition to ER fluids in thatthey typically contain a dispersed, polarizable, particulatephase suspended in a carrier fluid. Unlike the ER fluidsthough, the MR fluids use ferromagnetic or paramagneticsolid particles. These particles are usually within an order ofmagnitude of a micrometer in diameter. It is common forthem also to contain surfactants and other additives.

MR fluids usually have greater yield strengths than do ERfluids. The yield stress of an ER fluid is typically around 10

kPa, while that of MR fluids is about 100 kPa.[5] The MR flu-ids are also much more efficient in that they require a low volt-age, whereas the ER fluids require a high voltage. This powerconsumption aspect translates into a lower cost for MR fluidsas well as a safer system. In addition, the MR fluids are muchless sensitive to contaminants, and can effectively operate overa broad temperature range: -40 to 150°C.[5] One major dis-advantage of MR fluids is the strong tendency of sedimenta-tion, in that once a significant amount of the particles coagu-late, it is difficult to redisperse them. A disadvantage in both

ER and MR fluids is that thecarrier fluid is usually organic.Organic fluids have problemswith degradation, polymeriza-tion, flammability, bacterialgrowth, and can also be incom-patible with other componentsin systems where they areused.[6]

The yield strength of MR fluids can be increased byincreasing the concentration ofparticles or by increasing theintensity of the magnetic field.The higher concentration ofparticles, though, correspondsto a higher viscosity when themagnetic field is absent, whichis not usually a desired property.

A comparison of the typical properties of ER and MR fluids isgiven in Table 2.

MR fluids are not ferrofluids, which also have a rheologicalresponse to a magnetic field (although to a lesser extent thanMR fluids). Hence, ferrofluids are not considered actuatorsbut they are colloidal fluids that have particles much smallerthan in the non-colloidal MR fluids (approximately one tothree orders of magnitude smaller.) They also do not formchain-like structures of the same magnitude as MR fluids inthe presence of a magnetic field. Moreover, ferrofluids do not

Figure 2. Effect of the Volume Fraction of Cellulose on theDynamic Yield Stress as a Function of Electric Field[1]

Figure 3. ER-Behavior of a Polyurethane Based ERF[1]

Cellulose/Mineral OilT=26°C

0 10 100Volume Fraction, %

Dyn

amic

Yie

ld S

tress

, Pa

1000

100

10

5 kV/mm

4 kV/mm

3 kV/mm

2 kV/mm

1 kV/mm

-20 0 20 40 60 80Temperature, °C

Shea

r Stre

ss, P

a

2000

1500

1000

500

10

0

0 kV/mm

3 kV/mm

Conductivity

5

4

3

2

1

0

Conductivity(nS/cm

)

DC Couette Viscometry @ 1000 s-1

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 218

experience changes in their rheological properties as extensive-ly as do MR fluids.

APPLICATIONSER and MR fluids have the very attractive ability to undergo adramatic change in their viscosity, and thus their physical andmechanical properties, in less than a millisecond through theapplication of an electric or magnetic field, respectively. Thiscombination of a fast response time with a significant alter-ation of properties translates into a great capability for damp-ing and other applications.

These smart fluids can be used in exercise equipment, valve,braking and clutch systems, as well as in vibration control andshock absorbing systems. Such systems can be used forabsorbing shock and vibrations in buildings, and dampingout vibrations in rotorcraft. One of the main advantages ofusing these smart fluid components is that typically few or nomechanical parts are necessary, and therefore can reduce thecomplexity of a system.

An application that has been the subject of considerablestudy is smart beams, which are structural components incor-porating smart fluids. Smart beams have the ability to damp-en out inherent vibrations within the structure or vibrationsresulting from external activity such as natural seismic activity.This can assist in eliminating vibrations that could potentiallydamage the structure. Smart beams modify their natural fre-quencies with the application of an electric field and thus theirdamping properties.

The fundamentals of conventional shock absorbers have notchanged significantly since they were first introduced to auto-mobiles, but there is a new system employing MR fluids andis a major advancement in this technology. MR fluid shockabsorbers, deployed on some 2003 GM model automobiles,provide a more stable and smooth ride by continuously vary-ing their dampening rate. The new system is about 5 timesfaster responding to road bumps than conventional shockabsorbing systems.

The US Army’s Manufacturing Technology Program hassponsored the development of a finishing technique utilizingMR fluids to polish precision optics.[9] This technique uses aMR fluid with polishing abrasives added to the compositionand is known as Magnetorheological Finishing. The fluid’sshape and stiffness can be adjusted and controlled in real timethrough the precise application of a magnetic field that is gov-erned by computer algorithms. This allows for the formationof a pressure spot, which polishes any optical surface shape

(including spheres, aspheres, and flats). This technique canreduce the typical cost of processing spherical optics by up to40%, and can reduce system weight by 30%.[10]

A number of other MR and ER fluid applications arealready being developed. Some of these applications includeautomobile passenger protection systems, prosthetics, anddampers for washing machines.

SUMMARYDecades of research have gone intodeveloping ER and MR fluid composi-tions suitable for military and commer-cial applications. Great advances havebeen made and these “smart” materialsoffer some of the most promising andintriguing properties when compared toother sensor and actuator materials.

MR and ER fluids are currently beingcommercialized in automobile shockabsorbers. This application willundoubtedly transform this fledglingtechnology into a viable competitor inthe global marketplace. Although MRfluids have recently taken the lead overER fluids in commercial development,both types provide significant potentialfor future applications. With further commercialization, usageexperience, and development, the knowledge of how to makebetter ER and MR fluids and how to use them can only grow.

REFERENCES[1] Electrorheological Fluids: Mechanisms, Properties,Technology, and Applications, edited by R. Tao and G.D. Roy,World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., New Jersey, 1994[2] S. Ramamurthy, M.V. Gandhi, and B.S. Thompson, SmartMaterials for Army Structures, Quantum Consultants, Inc.,Michigan 1992; DTIC Doc. AD-A300 215[3] E. V. Korobko, “Some Aspects of Electrorheology,”Advances in Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 2:Advances in Electrorheological Fluids, edited by M.A Kohudic,Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., Pennsylvania, 1994,pp. 16-29[4] K.D. Weiss, J.D. Carlson, and J.P. Coulter, “MaterialAspects of Electrorheological Systems”, Advances in IntelligentMaterial Systems and Structures, Vol. 2: Advances in Electro-rheological Fluids, edited by M.A. Kohudic, Technomic

Table 2. Comparison of the Typical Properties of ER and MR Fluids[7, 8]Property ER fluids MR fluids

Density (g/cm3) 1 – 2 3 – 4Operable temperature range (˚C) 10 – 90 -40 – 150 (limited by carrier fluid)Response time ~milliseconds < millisecondsPower supply (typical) 2000 – 5000 V @ 1–10 mA 2 – 25 V @ 1 – 2 A (2-50 watts)Maximum field ~4 kV/mm ~250 kA/mMaximum energy density (J/cm3) 0.001 0.1Plastic viscosity, ηp (Pa·s) 0.1 – 1.0 0.1 – 10Maximum yield strength, τ2

y (kPa) 2 – 5 50 – 100ηp/τ2

y (s/Pa) 10-8 – 10-10 10-10 – 10-11

Contaminants Cannot tolerate impurities Unaffected by most impurities

Figure 4. Cutaway of MRFluid-based AutomobileShock Absorber. (Usedwith Permission. Copyright2003 Lord Corporation. Allrights reserved.)

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2 19

Publishing Company, Inc., Pennsylvania, 1994, pp. 30-52[5] J.M. Ginder, L.D. Elie, L.C. Davis, “Magnetic Fluid-BasedMagnetorheological Fluids,” US Patent #5,549,837, 1996[6] D.J. Carlson, “Aqueous Magnetorheological Material,” USPatent #6,132,633, 2000[7] M.R. Jolly, “Properties and Applications of Magneto-rheological Fluids,” Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.: Materials forSmart Systems III, Vol. 604, Materials Research Society, 2000,pp. 167-176; DTIC Doc. AD-A381 141[8] G. Yang, “Large Magnetorheological Fluid Damper for

Vibration Mitigation: Modeling, Testing, and Control,”Department of Civil Engineering and Geological Sciences,Notre Dame, December 2001. Available at http://cee.uiuc.edu/sstl/gyang2/Ch2.pdf[9] “Finishing Precision Optics,” Army Research Office,http://www.aro.army.mil/arowash/rt/sbir/01ph3/qed.htm[10] “Defense Honors Manufacturing Technology Achieve-ments,” US Department of Defense, November 29, 2000,http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Nov2000/b11292000_bt712-00.html

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