journal vet

8/7/2019 journal VET

1/14

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

This article was downloaded by:

On: 23 March 2011

Access details: Access Details: Free Access

Publisher Routledge

Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-

41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Vocational Education & TrainingPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t716100716

Competency-based vocational education: Is this the answer?Anthony Watsonaa Faculty of Adult Education, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia

To cite this Article Watson, Anthony(1991) 'Competency-based vocational education: Is this the answer?', Journal ofVocational Education & Training, 42: 114, 133 145

To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/10408347308003621URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408347308003621

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf

This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial orsystematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply ordistribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contentswill be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug dosesshould be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directlyor indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t716100716http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408347308003621http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdfhttp://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdfhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408347308003621http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t716100716


2/14

The Vocat iona l Asp ect o f Educat ion (Ap r i l 1991) No. 114, pp . 133-145

C o m p e t e n c y - b a s e d V o c a t i o n a lEducat ion : I s Th is The Answer?by ANTHONY WATSONFaculty of Adult Education, Universi ty of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Ab s t r a c tRecent ca l l s for re form of vocational educat ion an d t ra in ing arrangements in Austra l ia have draw nattention to so called competency-based voc ational education (C B V E ) an d sel f-paced methods o f train-ing. Teachers in T echnical a nd F urthe r Edu cation therefore need to kn ow more abou t these methodsan d ho w they operate. The paper outl ines the m ain fea tures o f C B V E an d reviews and compares threecompetency-based prog rams in operation. The progra ms are of fered by voc ational colleges in C ana da,Uni ted S ta tes o f Am erica an d Au stra l ia an d the rev iew concentra tes on processes an d products requiredto implement the competency-based approach successful ly. The review makes i t apparent that CBVEhas a g ood deal of poten tial for training in vocation al education a s well as in industry. The sel f-pac-ing aspects ap pear to develop characterist ics of independence an d sel f-rel iance. Th e r eviczv ma kes i tappa rent th at there are inherent problems an d potentia l pi tfalls. These include the need for consistentlyadequate an d updated resources an d learning mater ia ls as wel l as for the a_ ~_ ~te preparat ion an d ongoing sta f f development o f teachers.I n t r o d u c t i o n

In recent years, there have been repeated calls from Government, unions and employer groupsin Australia for reform o f our vocational education arrangements and methods of skills training(Dawkins, 1989, p. iii). These pressures have been made more immediate and urgent by theneed to underpin the ambitious program of award restructuring already unde r way. The impor-tance of developing a more highly skilled and adaptable workforce is now widely recognized.

Furthermore, these calls for reform have often been expressed in terms which are somewhatnew or unfamiliar. There have been many references to so called competency-based instructionand more flexible self-paced methods of training.

The working party established by the Department of Labour Advisory Committee (DOLAC)to examine competency-based approaches to training for the trades called for the adoption of"competency-based instruction and assessment in all basic trade courses including the incorpo-ration of a broad-based modular curriculum and selfpaced instruction where appropriate"(DOLAC Report, 1988, p. 19).

In his white paper entitled: ' Im prov ing Aus t ra l ia ' s Tra in ing Sys t em ' . John Dawkins argues thatthe award restructuring process currently in train, requires that training systems should provide,amongst other things: an increased emphasis on demonstrated competence rather than time served: and more flexible, broadly-based and modu lar approaches to training. (April 1989, p. iii)

More recendy the Management Review of the NSW Education Portfolio, in its report on'Technical and Furthe r Eductat ion (TAFE) Restructuring', has called for an improved responsefrom TAFE to the "fas t changing industrial training an d competency n eeds '. . , through more f lexibleaccess to course modules, self-paced learn ing an d industry-located courses" (September 1989, p. 8).

133


3/14

1 3 4 Com petency-based Voc ational EducationAll of this represents a considergble challenge to teachers in TA FE as well as trainers in indus-

try charged with the responsibility of implementing these innovations. In order to implementthe changes successfully, those responsible need to know more about the nature and essentialcharacteristics of competency-based instruction and its links with self-paced learning. The y alsoneed to understand the procedures, facilities and resources required for this approach to beeffective. Awareness of the associated problems and potential pitfalls and problems is also desir-able. Teacher educators moreover need to adopt methods which will more adequately prepareteachers and trainers to develop and work with competency-based and self-paced programs.

The objective of this paper then is to clarify the main features and proposed advantages ofcompetency-based vocational education (CBVE) and to extend our understanding of this formof training through an examination of three competency-based programs in operation. The pro-grams are offered by the following colleges. Holl and College, Charlottetown, PEI, Canada. Northeast Metro Technical College, White Bear Lake, MN. USA. Richm ond College of TAFE, Victoria, Australia.The programs are well regarded with long standing reputations and have been in operationsince the 1970's. They were investigated by the author during visits to the colleges in 1988 and1989. The paper will analyse and evaluate each program and endeavour to isolate and identifythe procedures, resources and facilities required to make CBVE successful. The link with self-paced learning will be highlighted. Implications will be drawn for TAFE and training in indus-try as well as for teacher education.W h a t i s C o m p e t e n c y - b a s e d V o c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n ?Competency-based vocational education (CBVE) is similar to performance-based teacher edu-cation which is reasonably well known. As with this approach to teacher education, CBVErequires that the knowledge, skills and attitudes (competencies) to be taught in a vocational pro-gram are those required by workers to perform successfully in the related job or occupation.This usually involves a series of learning experiences th at include background information , prac-tice and performance of the required skills in an actual or simulated work setting.

The basic characteristics of CBVE have been defined as follows:i Role-relevant competencies that include standards are identified and stated.ii. Competencies are specified to students prior to instruction.iii. Criterion-referenced measures are used to measure the achievement of compet enc ies .iv. A system exists for docum enting the competencies achieved by each stud ent . (Home, 1982,

pp 3-4)In addition, in order to achieve maximum flexibility. CBVE usually incorporates some form

of i nd iv idua l i sed or self-paced learning.The following characteristics are seen as desirable:

i) Individualised materials and methods are used in instruction.i i) Learning time is flexible.i i i ) Learning is guided by feedback. (Home, 1982, pp 5-6).

One of the questions which often arises about competency-based learning is: "what is a com-petency? Hermann, in his account of competency-based vocational education, defines compe-tency as "a performance cap abili ty needed by workers in a specified occupational ar ea" (1990 p.46).For example, the community expects automotive mechanics to competently repair brakes andengineers to design safe bridges. Hermann also points out that competencies may be cognitive.


4/14

ANTHONY WATSON 125at t~ d/ n ~ and/or psychomotor and makes the important distinction that a c omp eten cy does notimply perfection: " I t impl ies performance a t a s ta ted ~ or cr iterion (w hi ch ) needs to be speci fic foreach occupat ional area" . (1990, p.46).

Hermann goes on to provide a comprehensive account of the rationale for and main featuresof CBVE. One of the features which is highlighted is the rink with selfpaced learning. "T/~ mostcom mo n aspect o f ind i~idual isa t ion in C B V E programs is se l f -pac ing(w hich is) characterise .d by a l lowanceb e in g ma d e fo r s tu d en t s to mo ve th rou g h a co urse a t d i f fe ren t ra tes" ( H er m a r m , 1990 pp. 53-54). Inothe r words, CBVE normally allows students to acquire the specific competencies more or lessat their own pace through the use o f a variety of self-paced learning strategies and materials andwith frequent feedback.

CBVE is very much a reality in the United States of America and Canada. Since the early1970's in these countries many secondary and post-secondary institutions have developed CBVEprograms. Some states have policies requiring the adoption of CBVE curricula in state aidedinstitutions and many state authorities see CBVE as the primary means of providing more effec-tive vocational education and training for youths and adults alike.

Courses offered by the CBVE m ode range f~om standard two year technician level associatedegree and trade level courses to short entry level skills training courses. They also include aca-demic upgrading and basic adult education courses. Students in the courses include schoolleaven seeking vocational qualifications, young unemployed adults seeking job skills as well asolder students seeking updat ing and retraining. Th e courses are generally taug ht wholly or partlythrough the use of flexible selfpaced methods and materials.

The rationale for competency-based learning includes claims that it is more cost effective,more relevant, more flexible and more self-satisfying than traditional forms of vocational edu-cation. It is argued that because competency-based programs are so closely based on specificjob requirements, this ensures that students are taught the relevant and current skills requiredfor employment. This aspect is enhanced when local industry, commerce and advisory bodiesare involved in the development o f curricula.

In addition, it is claimed that the self-paced learning and individualised methods associatedwith mos t CBVE programs t end to to develop habits of self reliance and independence so ben-eficial in gaining and holding employment. These methods also appear more suitable for adultswho bring to the courses widely divergent ability levels and anxieties about learning in tradi-tional class groups. The self-pacing aspect, moreover, allows open-entry, open-exit policies tobe followed by most institutions which in turn allows adults to adjust course requirements tofit their other commitments and allows graduates to move onto the job market at various timesthrough out the year.

Ther e are, of course, some examples of CBVE in Australia. Perhaps the most well known arethe programs offered by the Richmond College of TAFE in Victoria. This college often a widerange of automotive trade related courses as well as community courses which are all compe-tency-based and all taught by the self-paced mode. They have developed a variety of self-pacedforma ts including computer-based learning and employ an effective computer,based student. . . . _~e_,z~__nt a"~ ropnrtil3g ~ystem. Croydon Park College in South Australia has introducedCBVE in panelbeating on a somewhat smaller scale. Reviews of these and o ther programs havebeen provided by Pearson (1983), McDonald (1984), Hams et. al. (1985, 1987), and Hermann(1990).However, competency-based and self-paced learning have not really taken the educationalworld by storm in Australia. Some states have appeared very reluctant to adopt these approaches


5/14

136 Competency-based Vocational Educationin vocational education. This has been particularly true of New South Wales, where the recentreport on T AFE Restructuring observed that "T A F E ( in N S W ) has not addressed s tir-paced learn-ing modes in any comprehensive manner" (1989. p. 27) .

This may of course be due to the fact that many teachers and others responsible for trainingare genuinely uncon vinced about the values and merits of competency based education. Researchfindings after all have so far been ra ther unconvincing (Harris et. al. 1985, 1987). It may alsobe due, in part, to the fact that teachers, trainers and administrators, as well as teacher educa-tors, are somewhat uncertain about the procedures and materials required to make such a sys-tem effective.

Consequent ly an examination of CBVE programs in operation may serve to clarify our think-ing concerning the advantages and disadvantages of this system as well as focussing on the pro-cesses and products required to implement such a system effectively.CBVE at HoU~nd CollegeHolland College was established in 1969 by the Province of Prince Edward Island with a clearmand ate to provide Islanders with alternative programs at the post-secondary level. Th e primarymission of the college has been~"to provide a broad range of educational op portunity in th e fields o fApplied Arts an d T echnology, Vocational Train ing and Adu lt Educa tion" (Holland College Act,1974).

From the outset the faculty adopted certain principles of teaching and learning which wereto lead them to adopt a competency-based approach. These included the following: skills requi red in an occupational field shall be identified by persons in the field; ins truc tio n should reflect the fact tha t learning is a personal and voluntary act and t hat stu-

dents learn at different rates and in diff erentways; studen ts are responsible for their own progress and instructors are accountable for student

progress; programs shall be individua lized (personalized) m the full extent that resources allow; and student s shsll be able to enter and exit from a program at any time. (Holland College, 1983)

The,competency-based approach to instruction developed at Hol lan d College, based on theseprinciples, is called STEP (Self-Training and Evaluation Process) and its objective "/s to helplearners assume responsibility fo r their own d evelopment w h ik acquiring the skills needed to enter zoage-earning em ploymen t" (Holland College Booklet, 1983, p.l). The approach has been in operationsince the early 1970s an d is curr endy used to teach all courses in four major schools and acrossthe twelve campuses o f the college. The college also has its own competency-based program forinsu'uctors called lamming Management which all instructors are expected to complete intheir own time and at their own pace. The comments made in this paper are based on visits tosix of the campuses and observation of the programs in operation and interviews with studentsand staff in a variety of courses. These courses included Business Administration, Accounting,Office Administration, Cookery, Fisheries Technology, Marine Engineering, Construction,Comput er, Automotive and Electronics Technology, Welding, Automotive Mechanics and Moto rVehicle Repair.

The competency-based (STEP) system at Holland College is built around four basic featuresof elements.I . Occulmdomd ?tnntysisEach program is based on a careful analysis of the appropriate career field of occupation. The


6/14

ANTHONY WATSON 137a n a ly s is is u su a l ly c a r ri e d o u t b y m e a n s o f a 2 - 3 d a y w o r k s h o p u s i n g a p ro c e s s s u c h a s D A C U M( D e v e l o p i n g a C u r r i c u l u m ) . T h e o u t c o m e i s a c a r e e r p r o fi le w h i c h s e t s o u t m a j o r a r e a s o f c o m -p e t e n c e w i t h i n a f i el d a n d s p e c i fi c s k il ls o r c o m p e t e n c i e s r e q u i r e d b y e a c h o f t h e s e a r e a s a r r a n g e di n a s e q u e n c e . E a c h p r o f il e i s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a r a t i n g s c al e w h i c h s e ts o u t p e r f o r m a n c e c r it e -r ia f o r e a c h sk ill. T h e s e c o m p e t e n c i e s t h e n b e c o m e t h e b a si s o f e a c h o c c u p a t i o n a l p r o g r a m .2 . P r o g r a m D e v e l o p m e n tT h e p r o g r a m f o r e a c h c o u r s e i s d e v e l o p e d b y c o u r s e i n s tr u c t o r s b a s e d o n t h e c a r e e r p r o fi le s .T h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f i n s t r u c ti o n f o r e a c h c o u r s e a p p e a rs t o b e t h e Learnir~ Guide. O n e o ft h e s e is d e v e l o p e d f o r e a c h c o m p e t e n c y i n t h e c o u r s e a n d i t c o n t a i n s t h e f o l lo w i n g s e g m e n t s. r a t io n a l e f o r t h e c o m p e t e n c y ; s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s c a l l e d e l a b o r a t i o n s ; l e a r n i n g a c t i v i ti e s ; r e s o u r c e s w h i c h c o n s i s t o f p r i n t e d a n d a u d i o - v i s u a l r e s o u r c e s as w e l l a s r e s o u r c e p e r s o n s ; p e r f o r m a n c e a s s e ss m e n t .3 . R e s o u r c e sR e s o u r c e s f o r e a c h p r o g r a m a r e k e p t in p r o g r a m r e s o u r c e r o o m s . W r i t t e n m a t e r ia l s a r e k e p t inv e r t ic a l f il e b o x e s a n d t h e s e a r e s u p p o r t e d b y a u d i o v i s u a l m a t e r i a ls s u c h a s a u d i o a n d v i s u alt a pe s , s l i de s , f i lms e t c .4 . T h e L e a r n i n g M o d e lT h e l e a r n i n g m o d e l o r p r o c e s s i s i n d i v i d u a l i z e d a n d s e l f -p a c e d a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e . F o l l o w i n g a ni n t er v i ew a n d o r i e n t a t io n p r o g r a m e a c h s t u d e n t i s g i v e n a c o p y o f th e a p p r o p r i a t e o c c u p a t i o n a la n a ly s i s i n c h a r t f o r m . I n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h a n i n s t r u c t o r - a d v i s o r t h e s t u d e n t t h e n p l a n s a c a r e e rp r o g r a m ( w h i c h m a y i n c l u d e a ll o r s o m e o f th e c o m p e t e n c i e s i n t h e t o t a l c a r e e r p r o fi le ) . O n c et h is i s e s t a b l is h e d , l e a r n i n g p l a n s o r p l a n s o f a c t i o n ( s im i l a r t o l e a r n i n g c o n t r a c t s ) a r e t h e n w o r k e dou t .

S t u d e n t s t h e n w o r k t h r o u g h t h e i r le a r n i n g p l a n s a t t h e i r o w n p a c e f o ll o w i n g l e a rn i n g a c ti v i-t ie s a n d u s i n g r e s o u r c e s s e t o u t i n t h e l e a r n i n g g u i d e s . T h e y w o r k i n r e a li s ti c w o r k s t a t i o n s o rp r a c t i c a l r o o m s ( e .g . a m o d e l o f f i c e f o r S e c r e t a r i a l A r t s ) o r i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e s o u r c e r o o m s .D u r i n g t h i s s t a g e t h e y a r e s u p e r v i s e d a n d p e r h a p s i n t e r v i e w e d b y i n s t r u c t o r s a n d a r e fr e e t o s e e ka s s i s t a n c e f r o m a n y s o u r c e .

W h e n s t u d e n t s f e el c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e y c a n p e r f o r m t h e p e r f o r m a n c e a s s e s s m e n t t a s k s et o u ti n th e l e a r n i n g g u i d e , t h e y ra t e t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e n h a v e t h is r e v i e w e d b y th e i n s t r u c t o r. W h e nt h e s t u d e n t a n d i n s t r u c t o r a g r e e o n a r a ti n g , i t is e n t e r e d o n t h e s t u d e n t ' s r e c o r d c h a r t o r p r o -f i l e o f a c h i e v e m e n t .

S t u d e n t s e n t e r a n d e x i t f r o m t h e p r o g r a m a t a n y t im e ( u p o n f u ll o r p a r ti a l c o m p l e t i o n o f t h ep r o g r a m ) a n d r e c ei v e o n e x i t a ' R e c o r d o f A c h i e v e m e n t ' .O b s e r v a t i o n sI t w a s r e p o r t e d a t H o l l a n d t h a t w h i le m a n y s t u d e n t s a d a p t s u c c e ss f u ll y t o t h e s y s t e m , s o m e d on o t , T h e c ri ti ca l e le m e n t f o r s u c c e s s a p p e a rs t o b e t h e r e a l iz a t io n b y s t u d e n t s t h a t p r o g r e s s o n l yo c c u r s w h e n t h e y d o s o m e t h i n g - th a t f r e e d o m b r i n g s a n e q u a l a m o u n t o f r e sp o n s i b il it y . T h o s ew h o a d a p t t e n d t o p r o c e e d q u i t e q u i c k ly , th o s e w h o d o n o t , t e n d t o f al l b e h i n d .

I t w a s a ls o r e p o r t e d t h a t s o m e i n s t r u c to r s a n d s o m e e m p l o y e r g r o u p s f i n d i t d if fi cu l t t o


7/14

138 Competency-based Voc ational Educa tiona p p re c ia t e a n d a c c e p t t h e s y s te m. S o me i n s t ru c t o r s f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o i n d i v i d u a l i z e t h e i r i n s t ru c -t i o n a n d ma k e i n d i v i d u a l d e c i s io n s a b o u t e a c h s t u d e n t . S o me e m p lo y e r g ro u p s d o n o t r e c o g -n ize the significance of the Record of Achievement.

As observed by this author the system appeared to be working well in some respects. Studentsseemed to be working busily and independent ly while as suming responsibility for their learning.Students interviewed reported that t hey enjoyed the self-paced methods and could answer ques-tions readily about 'wh a t t hey were doing now " 'why they were under tak ing par t icu la r ta sks" and"what they in tended to do next ' . Staff interviewed reported that they also enjoyed the system andthat the job placement rate for students was high. In other words the system appears to beachieving its objective of helping students to assume responsibility for their own developmentwhile acquiring the Skills needed to enter employment.

However, certain problems and difficulties were noted. In the first place, most programsobserved support their self-paced methods with more and more segments of traditional groupteaching. In some cases these segments are continued for several weeks at the beginning of acourse before the self-paced materials are used. In other cases, particularly in manual tradesareas, they are interspersed throughout the course, often to teach the manual skills. It appearsthat the learning guides and the related resources are not always adequate on their own. Thiswas very apparent also with the self-paced teacher preparation course where it was admi tted tha tmore traditional group sessions were necessary.

In addition there is some confusion over the role of theory and theory testing in the learningsequence. While it was claimed that theory was tested, cognitive (as well as attitudinal) out-comes generally did no t feature in the learning guides nor were they apparent in the section onassessment.Related to this is a somewhat clumsy and time-consuming meth od o f testing and record keep-ing. In the opinion of this auth or the system would gain from the introduction of some form ofcomputer-managed learning and record keeping (as well as computer-assisted learning pack-ages). This of course would add considerably to the costs of the system.C B V]E a t N o r t h e a s t M e t r o T e c h n i c a l CollegeNortheast Metro Technical College was also established in 1969 to serve the vocational educa-tion needs o f nine school districts to the north of St Paul in Minnesota. Courses began in 1971under the name 916 Area Vocational Institute by which name the college became well knownin the USA as a provider of quality competency-based and self-paced vocational programs. T hename was changed to the present one in 1989.

From the be~nning this college adopted a competency-based approach now calledPersonalized Competency-Based Instruction. Like the STEP system at Holland Collegethe objective of the personalized system at Northeast Metro is to enable students to acquire rel-evant vocational skills while moving forward at a pace which suits them. The system at Northeas tis also based on similar elements and a similar learning model to those employed at HollandCollege. Courses are composed of units of study which in turn are broken down into tasks orcompetencies ~defined by the relevant industries). These were originally expressed in terms ofhours but recently, with some difficulty, have been converted into credit points to bring the col-lege into line with other institutions offering courses by traditional modes.

In addition, there are learning guides or packages for each task. These comprise the basicset of directions and materials required to complete each task. They contain the followingelements:


8/14

ANTHONY WATSON 139 a rationale statement; a terminal objective (called TPO); enabl ing objectives (called micro performance objectives, or MPOs); learning steps or directions (one for each MPO); lists of resources for each step; criterion exams and products/performance checklists.

Resources such as written materials, audio-visual media and flip charts are generally kept inlearning resource centres. As at Holland, students work at their own pace in practical rooms orwork stations or in the resource centres moving freely from place to place and seekin~ assis-tance as required. The criterion exam is a written theory exam obtained in the LRC. The prod-uct/performance checklists provide the basis of performance assessment for each task. Instructorsare responsible for all testing and recording.

This system is currently used to teach over 50 vocational programs in a variety of occupa-tional areas. The student body is made up of high school students, post-high students and adultextension students, who form the majority. The comments made here are based on observationof the program in action, examination of the learning materials, and interviews with studentsand staff in a variety of subject areas which included Upholstery, Welding, Graphic Arts, Fashion,Secretarial Studies, Electronics, AV/TV Production and Cosmetology.

There is also a personalized Lea rn in g Sy st em for teacher training. This is made up of a setof self-paced instructional booklets especially designed to train new teachers to work with anddevelop the competency-based learning materials used at the college. This system is supple-ment ed however by a traditional teacher education program for technical College teachers offeredby the University of Mhmesota.O b s e r v a t i o n sAs at Holland College, the CBVE system at Northeast Metro seems to be working well in mostrespects. Students observed were working independently and with enthusiasm and those inter-viewed reported that they enjoy the system. Staff also reported that they enjoy the system andthat placement rate for students is good. As at Holland the system appears to be achieving theobjective of developing responsible students ready for the job market.Furthermore , some improvements on the Holland system were noted. In the first place, learn-ing packages are more detailed. Terminal objectives are expressed in detail setting out condi-tions and standards. Theory test and performance test requirements are clear. Enabling objectivesand related learning steps are set ou t in full with resources detailed for each one. T hese gener-ally involve reading something (text or information sheet), viewing something (video cassettes,nip charts etc) and doing something (activity sheets). Often many of these learning resourcesare contained within the package.

In addition, efforts are being made to reorganize the formats of the learning guides to makethem easier to follow, especially for poor readers and students with learning disabilities. It wasrecognized, also, that the learning guides would have to be re-written to incorporate, moreclearly, cognitive and affective as well as psychomotor outcomes.

Nevertheless, certa in dii~ficulties and problems were noted. As at Holland, most programs a tNortheast Metro are supporting their self-paced methods with segments of traditional teach-ing.This is clearly related to the lack of quality control over the learning packages. The cur-riculum consultants admitted that because their section had been drastically reduced in staffnumbers and in resources, they are forced to concentrate on such aspects of the packages as


9/14

140 Competency-based Vocational Educationthe appropriateness o f objectives and the mat ch bet ween objectives and assessment. Th ey donot have time to check the quality of the bulk of the learning package including the self-pacedlearning techniques employed.

This has led to a number of weaknesses in the learning packages. In the first place there isno real guarantee that the learning resources (printed or audio-visual) do in fact teach the cur-rent and often modified objectives. The curriculum consultan ts simply do no t have time to checkthrough all resources. This problem has been exaggerated by the current move to rewrite learn-ing guides to incorporate cognitive, affective and psych omoto r outcomes.

In addition, there appears to be an over-reliance on very long information sheets (3-5 pagessometimes) and Iong video cassettes. There is not enough evidence of basic self-paced learningprinciples such as the use of small chunks of information or activity accompanied by frequentfeedback and self checks. As at Holland, the system at Northeast would probably gain from theintroduction of some computer-assisted learning and computer managed testing and record keep-ing. These improvements, of course, would add considerably to the costs of the venture.C B V E a t R i c h m o n d CollegeRichmond College of TA FE in Victoria has become well known for its pioneering work in com-petency-based educat ion an d self-paced learning. The system of training in this college is basedon individualised self-paced methods, mastery learning, combined with criterion assessment.

Beginning in a modest way in 1975 with the Panelbeating Trade Course, the college nowoffers the following courses by the self-paced mode.a. Apprenticeship/Post Apprenticeship Courses and Hobby Courses

Moto r mechanics Panel Beating Sheetmetal Motor Painting Light Engines Automotive machining Auto Parts Interpreter

b. Comm uni ty Courses Aural Rehabil itation Notetakers for the Hearing Impaired Interpreters for the Hearing Impaired Adult Migran t Skills CourseThe comments made here are based on observation of the programs in operation in the auto-

motive trade related areas, examination of resources, interviews with staff and students anddescriptions of various aspects o f the system contained in unpub lished papers generally writtenby college s t a f f .Each Course syllabus is developed in co-operation with the corresponding industry and inaccordance with the systems model. This commences with job description which is further bro-ken down into the sub-skills, knowledge, and attitudes (competencies) required to perform thejob successfully.


10/14

ANTHONY WATSON 141T h e s y ll ab u s is f in a ll y w r i t t e n u p i n t e r m s o f p e r f o r m a n c e o b j e c t iv e s i n w h i c h t h e r e a r e t h r e e

e l e m e n t s :i . t h e t a s k t o b e p e r f o r m e d ;i i t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e w i ll b e m e a s u r e d ;i ii . t h e l e ve l o f c o m p e t e n c y t o b e a c h i e v e d , i. e. t h e c r i t e r io n s t a n d a r d .

T h e s t u d e n t s p r o g r e s s t h r o u g h t h e i r c o u r s e s a t t h e ir o w n p a c e a s t h e y r e ce i v e t h e i r in s t r u c -t i o n b y m e a n s o f s e l f- p a c e d le a r n i n g p a c k a g e s. T h e s e u n i ts a r e d e s i g n e d i n a v a r ie t y o f m e d i as u c h a s s li d e /t a p e, f l ip c a r d , c o m p u t e r - b a s e d l e a r n i n g p r o g r a m , p r i n t e d t e x t o r v i d e o , s o t h a tl e a r n e r s c a n s e l e c t t h e f o r m a t w h i c h b e s t s u i t s t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g s t y l e s . T h e s e l f - p a c e dl e a r n i n g u n i t s a r e d e s i g n e d t o e n s u r e t h a t l e a r n e r s a r e a c t i v e ly i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a lm a t e r i al s a n d a r e g iv e n f e e d b a c k o n t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e ir re s p o n s e s . G o o d u s e i s m a d e o f m i n i -t e s t s a n d s e l f -c h e c k s t o t e s t t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o r e t i c a l m a t e r i a l . T h e p a c k a g e s a r e g e n e r -a l ly k e p t i n r e s o u r c e o r f a c i l it y r o o m s a d j a c e n t t o t h e p r a c t i c a l a r ea s .

O n t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f e a c h s e lf - p a c ed l e a rn i n g u n i t, s t u d e n t s a r e a s s e ss e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e rt h e y h a v e a c h i e v e d t h e c r i t e r io n s t a n d a r d s t a te d i n t h e o b j ec t iv e . I f t h e s t a n d a r d h a s b e e n r e a c h e d ,t h e y r e c e iv e a p a s s a n d p r o c e e d t o t h e n e x t o b j ec t iv e . I f t h e s t a n d a r d h a s n o t b e e n a c h i ev e d ,t h e s t u d e n t i s a b l e to u n d e r t a k e a d i f f e r e n t l e a r n i n g s e q u e n c e a n d a g a i n t a k e t h e c r i t e r i o n te s t.

I t w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i ty o f s t u d e n t s c o m p l e t e t h e i r tr a i n i n g i n th i s s e l f - p ac e d l ea r n -i n g s y s t e m t o t h e n e c e s s a r y s t a n d a r d i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y tw o t h i r d s o f t h e t i m e t a k e n i n t h e t r a-d i t i o n a l s y s t e m w i t h i ts g r o u p b a s e d i n s t r u c t i o n . H o w e v e r s o m e s t u d e n t s r e q u i r e s i g n i f ic a n t lyl o n g e r t h a n t h e p r e s c r i b e d t i m e . S t u d e n t s w h o c o m p l e t e t h e i r c o u r s e s in b e l o w a v e r a g e t i m em a y r e t u r n t o t h e i r j o b s o r b e g in a d v a n c e d o r o t h e r r e l a t e d c o u rs e s .

T h e c o ll e ge c la i m s t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h is s y s t e m t h e y h a v e b e e n a b le t o a c h i e v e a 2 5 % i n c re a s ei n a p p r e n t i c e c o m p l e t i o n r a t e . T h e y h a v e a ls o b e e n a b le t o i n t r o d u c e f l e x ib l e a t t e n d a n c e p a t -t e r n s a n d a r o l li n g e n r o l m e n t s y s t e m w i t h n e w e n r o l e e s f il li n g v a c a n c i e s a s s o o n a s o t h e r s t u -d e n t s l e a v e o r c o m p l e t e c o u r s e s .Ob s e r v a t i o n sA s i n o t h e r c o ll e ge s e m p l o y i n g t h is m o d e o f i n s t r u c ti o n , s t u d e n t s o b s e r v e d a t R i c h m o n d a p p e a r e dt o b e w o r k i n g b u s il y a n d w i t h p u r p o s e . M o s t s t a ff a ls o r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y w e r e e n t h u s i a s t ic a b o u tt h e s y s t e m . T h e r e w e r e s o m e e x c e p t i o n s t o th i s a n d t h i s w il l b e t a k e n u p l a t e r .

O n e o f th e m o s t i m p r e s si v e fe a tu r e s o f th e s y s te m a t R i c h m o n d is t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a ne f fe c ti v e c o m p u t e r i s e d s t u d e n t m a n a g e m e n t a n d r e p o r t i n g s y s t em a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e f fe c -t iv e c o m p u t e r - b a s e d l e a rn i n g m a te r ia ls . T h e s t u d e n t m a n a g e m e n t a n d r e p o r t i n g s y st e m ( S M R S )s u p p o r t s u p t o 1 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s a n d a m a x i m u m o f 4 6 8 o b j ec t iv e s . I t h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d t o a ss is ti n s t r u c t o r s to m a n a g e i n d iv i d u a ls o r g r o u p s o f s t u d e n t s t h r o u g h a c o u r se . T h e s y s t e m a ll ow ss t u d e n t s t o r e c o r d t h e s t a r t a n d f i ni s h o f m o d u l e s w h i le d i s p la y i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e irp r o g r e s s t h r o u g h t h e c o u r s e . I t m a k e s e x t e n s i v e u s e o f c o l o u r a n d t h e ' p o i n t a t a n d c h o o s em e t h o d ' o f in t e r a c ti n g w i t h u s er s .

T h e c o m p u t e r - b a s e d l e ar n in g m a t e ri a ls a r e b as e d o n t h e A U T H O R S y s t em . T h i s b a s ic a ll y isa s e t o f p r o g r a m s w h i c h a l l ow : t h e w r i t i n g , s t o r i n g , r e t r i e v i n g a n d a m e n d i n g o f l e ss o n s ; t h e c r e a t i o n o f g r a p h i cs a n d d ia g r a m s ; t h e u s e o f c o l o u r t e x t s c re e n s w i t h h i g h l i g h t i n g o f t e x t ; t h e t e s t in g o f l e s s o n s a n d r e c o r d i n g o f r e s u l ts .

I n t h e o p i n i o n o f t hi s a u t h o r th e a d o p t i o n o f s o m e f o r m o f c o m p u t e r b a s e d m a n a g e m e n t a n d


11/14

142 Com petency-based Vocational Educationlearning system is probably now essential for the implementation and continued developmentof training systems involving competency-based and self-paced learning.

Another impressive feature of the system at Richmond, is the careful approach to testing.Testing is based on mastery learning and the standards specified in advance are high. On com-pletion of the related instruction or theory module by the chosen media, students attempt a the-ory test which is computer managed. If successful, they report to an instructor to attempt theperformance test. If the specified standard is achieved a pass is recorded. If not, students tryagain later after relearning. Th e system acknowledges no failures - only incompleted work andthere is no provision for 50 percent pass marks. In addition, if students believe that they arecompe tent in a particular skill they can elect to do the performance test without working throughthe related instruction.

One of the worrying aspects and potential problems of the system has been referred to already.This is the impression gained at Richmond as well as at the other two colleges reviewed, thatsome instructors are no t entirely happy and confident working with competency-based and self-paced learning. The environment of such a system does indeed change the traditional role ofthe teacher. Inst ead of being a presenter of knowledge with a captive group of students regardedas 'theirs', teachers have to become facilitators able to individualise their instruction and dealwith a variety of students all at different stages on a one to one basis. In addition, traditionalcourse development and administration duties change considerably. All of this can cause someteachers to feel stressed, insecure, frustrated and threatened. Tension within the staff resultingfrom these concerns has been reported as one of the 'growing pains ' as the system developedat Richmond (Bird. 1982, p.20). It is not absolutely clear that the pain has entirelydissipated.I m p l i c a t i o n s a n d C o n c l u s i o nIn summary it would appear from the review of the three programs in operation that compe-tency-based instruction has a good deal of potential for training in both industry and TAFE ina variety of occupational areas. The CBVE approach appears especially useful in training situ-ations where trainees have to attain a small number of specific and, job related competencies.The approach is doubly useful where trainees are widely divergent with regard to ability andprevious and concurrent industrial experience. The self-pacing aspect, moreover, appears todevelop characteristics of independence and self-reliance which trainees appreciate and gener-ally enjoy and allows the introduction of flexible attendance and enrolment patterns whichemployers and mature students appreciate.

The review makes it apparent, however, that the CBVE approach, has a number of inherentproblems and potential pitfalls and the indications are that it will only fulfil its potential in train-ing and vocational education if it is carefully and effectively implemented. A nu mber of impli-cations can therefore be d rawn for TAFE and other training institutions thinking of implementingsuch a system.

First and foremost is the need for an initial and ongoing commitmen t to the provision of ade-quate resources and learning materials. Given the central position allotted to these materials inCBVE, written materials need to be clear and comprehensible for the majority of readers andaudio-visual materials need to be properly co-ordinated and related to the written materials. Inaddition, the learning materials should incorporate the well established principles of self-pacedlearning, such as: the need for small steps;


12/14

ANTHONY WATSON 143 the need to match learning activities and objectives; the need for continuous student responding; and the need for immediate and regular feedback.

It has been noted that a failure to properly observe all of these principles led to some break-ing down of the system at Holland and Northeast Metro Colleges. In addition, Harris et.aI., intheir review of a CBVE program in Sou th Australia from 1983 to 1985, noted tha t student com-plaints about learning materials and audio-visual resources had become comm on by 1985 (1987,ch. 4). These authors concluded that for the system to improve, learning materials and espe-cially audio-visual materials would need to be " p o l i s h e d a n d m o r e a d e q u a t e l y c o o r d i n a t e d t o en s u r ec l a r i t y , a n d i n c r e a s e s t u d e n t i n t e r e s t a n d c h a l l e n g e " . (1987, p.124). This is an observation whichshould be kept in mind by any system or institution intending to introduce CBVE programs.

A second implication is the need for adequate preparation and on going staff developmentfor teachers. The difficulties and frustrations which some teachers experience working with CBVEhave been noted. In relation to the ' g ro w i n g p a i n s ' experienced at Richmond, Bird reports thatsome teachers experienced feelings of insecurity because they felt that their roles were jeopar-dised by the new system and they did not have the capacity to examine the system objectively(1982 p.20). Harris et.al, observed that by early 1986 many teachers working in the SouthAustralian program reported that they were not personally satisfied teaching in CBVE (1987,p. 79 ). The y reported feelings of "powerlessness" " frustra t ion ' a n d "dissat isfact ion" (1987 ,pp. 79-81).These authors concluded that " c o n t i n u i n g s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t a n d t e a m b u i l d in g a c t i vi ti e s b e u n d e r -t a k e n w i t h b o t h t e a c h in g s t a f f a n d a d m i n i s t r a to r s t o im p r o v e . m o r a l e a n d m o t i v a t i o n " (1987, p.124).

In relation to initial teacher preparation, it is clear tha t if teachers are to work successfully ina CBVE program they will need a thorough course in the principles which underlie CBVE anda good understanding of the procedures necessary for its effective implementation. This wouldinclude an understanding of occupational analysis procedures such as DACUM, the nature andscope of competencies in a range of occupational areas as well as an understanding of theaccepted principles of self-paced learning.

In addition, requires on the part of teacher, a real commitment to the values and worth ofthe competency-based approach. Th is objective might be achieved by having the teachers developcompetence in the development of CBVE programs and materials. It might also be achievedthrough the use of videos and films showing CBVE in action. It might be more effectivelyachieved however, by having the teacher education programs themselves, or parts thereof, taughtusing the competency-based mode. Performance-Based Teacher Education modules have beendeveloped by the National Center for Research in Education (1982) and by Holland and NortheastColleges. A more sophisticated way may be through computer-assisted instruction using pro-grams like the one on Performance-Based Instructional Design developed by David Pucell (1989)at the University of Minnesota.

A third implication concerns the preparation of the learners for the new system. Hermannsuggests the incorporation of a " t r a n si t io n p e r i o d w i t h e ff e ct iv e t u t o r in g f o r t h e m o v e m e n t o f l e a r n -e rs f r o m a t r a d it io n a l ap p r o a ch t o a C B V E a p p r o a c h " (1990, p.60) In addition, the benefits andadvantages of the system should be continually made clear to both students and employers alike.

Harris et. al. (1987) report tha t studen t satisfaction with most aspects of the system remainedhigh in South Australia over the three years, especially with the self-paced learning aspects.However, the general level of enjoyment declined over the three years (1987, p.75). The mostfrequent complaints concerned the unavailability of staff for guidance and testing and inconsis-tency in marking. (1987, ch 4). All of this strengthens the impression that some investment in


13/14

144 Com petency-based Vocational Edu cationcomputer-based learning, as well as computer managed testing and recording, along the linesof the system developed at Richmond, is now almost essential for the successful introductionand continued improvement of any significant CBVE program.

Perhaps the most telling point concerning CBVE can be drawn from a conclusion alreadydrawn about performance=based teacher education. Phyllis Caldwell, following a review of com=petency=based teacher education programs for adult educators, concluded that while "i t is rela=t i v e l y e a s y t o d e v e lo p l is t s o f c o m p e t e n c i e s, ( i t i s) v e r y t i m e c o n s u m i n g a n d e x p e n s i v e t o d e v e l o p t h et r a i n i n g a n d e v a l u a t i o n p a c k a g e s b a s e d o n t h e se co m p e te n ci es . " ( i n Grabowski, et.al., 1981. p.7). Thisconclusion is just as valid and just as significant for competency-based vocational education.R e f e r e n c e s a n d F u r t h e r R e a d i n gBlank, W E. (1982). Handbook for Developing Competency-Based Training Programs. NewJersey: Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.Bird, M. (1982). The Quiet Revolution: Self-Paced Apprentice Training' . Training and

Development in Australia. Vol 9, No. 2.Dawkins, J.S. (April 1989). Improving Australia's Training System. Canberra: AustralianGovernment Publishing Service.Grabowski, S.M.. et.al. (1981) Preparing Educators of Adults. San Fransisco. Jossey-Bass.Harris, R., Barnes, G., Haines, B., and Hobart , B. (1985). Competency-Based VocationalEducation: An Evaluation. Payneham, SA: TAFE National Centre for Research andDevelopment.Harris, R., Barnes, G., Haines, B., Hobart, B., Candy, P. (1987). Competency-Based VocationalEducation: A Continuing Evaluation - Payneham. S.A.: TAFE national Centre for Researchand Development.Hermarm, G. (1990) Developing Occupational Courses. Sydney. Australia: Macquarie University.Centre for Research in Education and Work.Home, R. (1982). Guide for Implementing Competency-Based Education in VocationalPrograms. Vocational Curriculum Center. Glenn Allen Virginia.In STEP: An Approach to Performance-Based Learning al Holland College (1983). HollandCollege, Third Edition.Kasworm, Carol (1980). Competency=Based Adult Education a Challenge for the 80s. ERICClearing house for Adult, Career and Vocational Education. The Center for Research inVocational Education, Columbus, Ohio, Information Series No. 208.Knaak, W. C. (1977). Competency=Based Vocational Education: A Review. ERIC Clearinghouse on Career Education, The Centre for Vocational Education, Columbus, Ohio,Information Series No. 115.MacDonald, C. (1984). Self=Learning. Payneh.am. SA: TAFE National Centre for Research andDevelopment.National Center for Research in Vocational Education (1982). Performance-Based TeacherEducation Modules. Category K. 'Implementing Competency-Based Education' (CBE) K! toK6, Columbus, Ohio.Pearson, M. (1983). Approaches to Individualizing Instruction - A Review. Higher EducationResearch and Development 2, 155=181 .Pucell, D. J. (1989). Performance-Based Instructional Design. New York: McGraw Hill .Pucell, D.J. (1989). Performance-Based Instructional Design. CAI Program. IBM Version,Performance Training Systems Inc., St. Paul, MN.


14/14

ANTHONY WATSON 145R e p o r t o f t h e D O L A C W o r k i n g P a r t y o n C o m p e t e n c y - B a s e d T r a d e T r a i n in g . ( Ju ly 1 98 8 ).Ca n b e r r a : Au s t r al i an Go v e r n m e n t P u b l i s h in g S e rv i ce .T A F E R e s t r u c tu r i n g ( S e p t e m b e r 1 9 89 ). T h e M a n a g e m e n t R e v ie w : N S W E d u c a t i o n P o rt fo l io ,

M i l s o n s P o in t , N S W .

journal vet

Documents