Jean Piaget:

Changing Education and Psychology by Exploring

Children’s Cognitive Development

Sacia Gilbertson

Junior Division

Historical Paper

Paper Length: 2292 words

The principal goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who

are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done.

­Jean Piaget, 1952 1

In 1923, Jean Piaget published his first book on child psychology: The Language

and Thoughts of the Child. During his lifetime, he published over fifty books and was

credited with numerous theories. The most famous of these theories is widely 2

considered to be his four stages of cognitive development, which, along with his other

theories, all came together to change education as the world knew it. At the time of his

death in 1980, educators understood children’s brains better than ever before. When

Jean Piaget explored the mental development of children, he opened educators’ eyes to

their students’ abilities and limits, promoted reform in schools internationally, and

inspired innumerable psychologists to research children rather than just adults, which led

to more effective education methods and student success, changing education and

psychology altogether.

In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, children were often seen as

miniature adults, expected to function the same way their elders did. When faced with

children’s failure to do so, adults assumed the children to be stupid and incapable. This

notion was prevalent even in education. Adults were the focus of all psychological study, 3

1 Jervis, Kathe, and Arthur Tobier. Education for Democracy: Proceedings from the Cambridge School Conference on Progressive Education, October,1987. Weston, MA: Cambridge School, 1988. Print. 2 Boeree, C. George. "Piaget." Personality Theories. N.p., 2006. Web. 20 Jan. 2016. <http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html>. 3 "Pioneers in Our Field: Jean Piaget ­ Champion of Children's Ideas."Scholastic. Scholastic, Inc., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2016. <http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/pioneers­our­field­jean­piaget­champion­childrens­ideas>.

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simply because people did not fathom that children were any different. According to

author Irving King in 1903, “Psychology… is intimately related to the work of the

teacher… but in main, the psychology (studied by educators) is constructed from adult

life. The assumption has been made that whatever is true of the adult mind is true also of

the child­mind.” Suppositions were made about children and how their intellectual 4

capabilities related to that of adults, and no one had ever really thought to challenge

them. People thought that children’s brains functioned the same way as adults’, so the

fact that teaching methods were devised to meet adults’ needs rather than children’s did

not seem inadequate at the time. Later, Piaget’s observations made it clear that those

approaches were inaccurate.

Psychology itself was a new concept when Piaget began his work. Although

psychological thought is believed to have dated back to ancient Greek times, with

philosophers such as Aristotle and Socrates, it was not until the late nineteenth century

that psychology was recognized as a branch of science rather than a branch of

philosophy. In 1879, the first experimental psychology lab was established in Germany, 5

which helped reinforce the distinction between the two branches. 6

4 King, Irving. "Child Psychology, Its Validity and Aims." The Psychology of the Child. Chicago, Illinois: U of Chicago, 1903. 1­15. Google Scholar. Web. 17 Nov. 2015. <https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=KMUZAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=irving+king+the+psychology+of+the+child&ots=_OeomY_yfP&sig=vTcGQrgm_AQ0xd­­OuaxFLjTWeQ#v=onepage&q=irving%20king%20the%20psychology%20of%20the%20child&f=false>. 5 "History of Psychology." History of Psychology. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. <http://www.mindfocus.net/nc00300.html>. 6 "History of Psychology." History of Psychology. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. <http://www.mindfocus.net/nc00300.html>.

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Child psychology was even newer. In the early twentieth century, psychoanalyst

Melanie Klein developed various behavioral therapy methods specifically for children. 7

This showed the clear distinction between the child’s mind and the adult’s, which helped

to bring awareness to the differences between the two life phases. Sigmund Freud, also

a psychoanalyst, was even more helpful to child psychology. He theorized about 8

children just as Piaget did. The biggest difference between the two was that while Freud

concentrated on why children thought about what they did, Piaget was engrossed in

exploring how children thought. 9

Born in 1896, Piaget entered life when ideas about children's capabilities or lack

thereof were widespread. At the age of ten he began publishing papers of varying

subject matter, and his profound knowledge concerning mollusks earned him an

internship at the Museum of Natural History in Neuchatel, Switzerland. During his teen 10

years, he found a book on philosophy in his father’s home library. As he read it, he made

a realization that sparked his interest in psychology, saying that he “became convinced

very quickly that most of the problems in philosophy were problems of knowledge, and

that most problems of knowledge were problems of biology.” With some help, he 11

learned more about philosophy and its connection to human thought (the study of which

is called “epistemology”). From that moment on, Piaget dedicated his life to the exploring

7 PSYCHOTHERAPY­ Melanie Klein. Prod. Mad Adam. The School of Life, 2015. YouTube. Google Inc., 16 Jan. 2015. Web. 31 Jan. 2016. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HU3iSW6WTo8>. 8 Thornton, Stephen F. "Sigmund Freud." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2016. <http://www.iep.utm.edu/freud/>. 9 Pound, Linda. How Children Learn: From Montessori to Vygotsky ­ Educational Theories and Approaches Made Easy. Vol. 1. Leamington Spa: Step Forward Pub., 2005. 39. Print. 10 Boeree, C. George. "Piaget." Personality Theories. N.p., 2006. Web. 20 Jan. 2016. <http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html>. 11Hall, Elizabeth. A Conversation with Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder. Psychology Today, New York, v. 3, N. 12, P. 25­32. May, 1970

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psychology and epistemology, specializing in children during different phases of their

youth.

After graduating college, Piaget worked for Alfred Binet, a French psychologist

responsible for creating one of the first measures of intelligence in a test format. He 12

was tasked with standardizing Binet’s tests for the children of Paris. He admitted, though,

that he did not actually do the work he was supposed to do, saying “I preferred to study

the errors on the test. I became interested in the reasoning behind the children’s wrong

answers.” Essentially, Piaget tried to figure out what children struggled with in the 13

questions they got incorrect. In his exploration, he noticed that children of similar ages

tended to make similar mistakes; this led him to conclude that children went through

different stages of development during their childhoods. The result of this conclusion and

multiple of the other studies which he carried out was his famous theory regarding

cognitive development. This theory, in short, says that throughout ages 0­11, children go

through four developmental stages: sensorimotor (ages 0­2), preoperational (2­7),

concrete operational (7­11), and formal operations (11+). 14

Piaget’s developmental stages described outline how people’s abilities change

throughout their youngest years. Children in the sensorimotor stage, infants to young

toddlers, work on coordination of their senses and motor skills. Preoperational­aged

children, toddlers to school­aged, start to develop the ability to think symbolically and are

12 "Alfred Binet." Human Intelligence. N.p., 7 Nov. 2013. Web. 25 Jan. 2016. <http://www.intelltheory.com/binet.shtml>. 13 Hall, Elizabeth. A Conversation with Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder. Psychology Today, New York, v. 3, N. 12, P. 25­32. May, 1970 14 Dean, Jeremy. "Jean Piaget's Four­Stage Theory: How Children Acquire Knowledge ­ PsyBlog." PsyBlog RSS. N.p., 22 July 2008. Web. 06 Jan. 2016. <http://www.spring.org.uk/2008/07/jean­piagets­four­stage­theory­how.php>.

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able to use proper grammar in order to express full concepts. Children between the ages

of seven and eleven are considered concrete operational and can understand concepts

regarding concrete situations. The final stage, formal operations, applies to children ages

eleven and older. They are capable of more complex and abstract thought, and strategy

is more possible. Piaget points out multiple times that while most children do get 15

through all of the developmental stages, the age ranges are simply a generalization and

that some children may move through them more or less quickly than others. 16

Jean Piaget also focused heavily on exploring how children’s interaction with

physical objects impact the child’s learning. He mentioned continuously throughout his

works that humans’ actions are nothing without the objects they perform them on. He

said in an interview, “Some think I am an empiricist because I talk about objects. But they

forget that objects in themselves mean nothing until we do something with them. My

position is that human knowledge comes from what we do to objects. Others think I am

an innatist because I give importance to our actions. But they forget that our actions are

carried out on objects. There is always an interaction between ourselves and objects. So,

I am neither an empiricist nor an innatist. I am a constructivist. Knowledge is not

ready­made. Each of us is continually creating our own knowledge. We are continually

organizing what we know, structuring and restructuring our knowledge.” He not only 17

believed that objects are key in obtaining information, but he also believed that

15 "Jean Piaget." Simply Psychology. N.p., 17 Sept. 2009. Web. 23 Nov. 2015. <http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html>. 16 Sandwell, J. "Piaget's Stage Theory of Development." Piaget's Stage Theory of Development. N.p., 17 Nov. 1995. Web. 31 Jan. 2016. <http://penta.ufrgs.br/edu/telelab/3/piaget's.htm>. 17 Piaget on Piaget. Dir. Jean William Fritz Piaget. Perf. Jean Piaget. Yale University Media Design Studio, 1977. YouTube. Google, 1 May 2013. Web. 17 Jan. 2016. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XwjIruMI94>.

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knowledge constantly grows. There is really no stopping point in a person’s capability

because it is always possible to keep learning through new encounters.

Piaget encountered praise from psychologists internationally for this concept. “His

stress on the interaction of biological functions and the structure of the environment,

elaborated in more than 60 years of research, was, in the opinion of many psychologists

and education specialists, as liberating and revolutionizing as Sigmund Freud’s earlier

insights into the stage development of human emotional life. Many hailed him as one of

the century’s most creative scientific thinkers.” Piaget’s exploration of the human brain 18

impacted psychology in a way that only few people have ever been able to. His

significance to the science earned him much respect, and he undoubtedly earned every

bit of it.

By exchanging these theories with the worlds of psychology and epistemology,

Piaget opened professionals in these fields’ eyes to children’s minds. Although the extent

of his influence is difficult to track, Piaget’s discoveries notably shaped the work of

psychologists including Bärbel Inhelder, whom Piaget himself had worked with on

occasion, and Lawrence Kohlberg, a specialist in children’s ethical motives and 19

development. Both of these psychologists also contributed heavily to psychology on 20

their own, and Piaget’s influence was crucial to their discoveries. Piaget affected

countless others in child­related sciences and will continue to do so for years to come.

18 "Professor Jean Piaget." The Times [London] 18 Sept. 1980: 16. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 8 Jan. 2016. <http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/wr7x1>. 19 "Bärbel Inhelder." Psychology. Net Industries, 2016. Web. 26 Jan. 2016. <http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/335/B­Rbel­Inhelder.html>. 20 Beauchamp, Anne. "Kohlberg, Lawrence 1927­1987." Education.com. Education.com, Inc., 2009. Web. 26 Jan. 2016. <http://www.education.com/reference/article/kohlberg­lawrence­1927­1987/>.

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While he gained lots of positive recognition for his work, Piaget also encountered

criticism, especially for his developmental stages theories. Dr. Tesia Marshik, a professor

at University of Wisconsin­ La Crosse who specializes in developmental and educational

psychology, says that one common criticism was that “a lot of people questioned how

useful the stages were. They tell us in general how people go through these stages, but

they don’t tell us what any one student is capable of because it’s just looking at

averages.” Piaget’s stage theory is helpful if you want to explore how a typical child 21

develops, but it does not account for every individual.

Piaget exchanged his ideas with the world by writing books. In the years after

each of his books were published, the theories they proposed were introduced into the

education world. As a result of the conclusions drawn within these works, educators

began contemplating changes in their teaching methods. People who interacted with

children the most now knew more about how children's brains worked, which in turn led

to education reform. “More importantly, really revolutionary changes in the whole field 22

of education and human relations seems to be a direct consequence of a deeper

understanding of Piaget’s theory. Who dares to guess how our primary education would

change if teachers really took seriously Piaget’s proposition that knowledge is an

operation that constructs its objects?” That quote was from a book written in 1969, and 23

since then, teachers have taken Piaget’s propositions seriously. His theories explored an

21 Marshik, Tesia. "How Piaget Influenced Education." Telephone interview. 10 Mar. 2016. 22 Chhin, Christina. "Program Announcement: Mathematics and Science Education CFDA 84.305A." Program Announcement: Mathematics and Science Education CFDA 84.305A. Institution of Education Sciences, 2016. Web. 30 Jan. 2016. <https://ies.ed.gov/funding/ncer_rfas/mathsci.asp>. 23 Furth, Hans G. "On Asking the Right Question." Piaget and Knowledge; Theoretical Foundations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice­Hall, 1969. 3­11. Print.

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area of the human brain that had never before been studied, and the results were pivotal

in education for children and even teenagers.

All disciplines and age groups have benefitted from a more kinesthetic­based

education, especially math and science. Math departments have reformed their

curriculums starting in primary schools and going all the way to postsecondary levels. Ed

Dubinsky, a math professor at Kent State University said, “Mathematical training should

be prepared, starting at nursery school, by a series of exercises related to logic and

numbers, lengths and surfaces, etc. and this type of concrete activity must be developed

and enriched constantly in a very systematic way during the entire elementary education

into physical and elementary mechanical experiments. On these terms, strictly

mathematical education is grounded in its natural surroundings of equivalency to objects,

and will give full scope to the education which would have remained purely verbal or

graphic.” He asserts that his school could benefit from a more Piagetian approach to 24

mathematics. Because math can have such abstract elements, it can be very difficult for

students to grasp. By exchanging traditional teaching methods with more visual and

hands­on styles, Dubinsky thinks that students will be better able to comprehend new

information. This is a concept that was recognized constantly by Jean Piaget.

Professions in sciences other than psychology and education were also enthralled

by the theories and concepts in Piaget’s books. Odvard Egril Dyrli, a University of

Pennsylvania professor, wrote, “As a doctoral student, I had been captivated by Piaget’s

theories that children pass through four major intellectual development stages, which

24 Dubinsky, Ed. Applying a Piagetian Perspective to Post­Secondary Mathematics Education. N.p., 18 Nov. 2000. Web. 19 Jan. 2016. <http://www.math.kent.edu/~edd/EducMatArt.pdf>.

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influenced federally funded “lab­centered” curriculum programs of the era­­ particularly in

science and math.” The impact of Piaget’s theories in various sciences has clearly 25

been tremendous. Also, Dyrli is correct in saying that the government has funded

discovery based education; there have been various federal funds for mathematical and

science­related education reforms. When teachers are trained, they are now required to 26

learn about Piaget’s theories. Today, students encounter kinesthetic demonstrations in 27

all classes, although primarily math and sciences.

Students, when exposed to hands­on education, have proven to learn more

effectively, just like Piaget had expected. In 1971, a study conducted on eight to

ten­year­old students found that those who were taught mathematics using concrete

materials performed significantly better than those strictly taught verbally. The students 28

retain information more effectively, and as a result become more erudite adults. In fact,

Northern Arizona University directly credits hands­on learning in elementary through

secondary education as a contributing factor towards success in STEM based fields. 29

Research has indicated that students benefit academically from Piagetian

education approaches. Additionally, students are encountering a more enjoyable learning

25 Dyrli, Odvard Egril. "Teaching/learning Legacy of Piaget: Active Learning Is Essential to Education Success." District Administration May 2013: 10. Research in Context. Web. 18 Jan. 2016. <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A329899184&v=2.1&u=hol40923&it=r&p=MSIC&sw=w&asid=5b016f34586a5c21069d301e40158510>. 26 Chhin, Christina. "Program Announcement: Mathematics and Science Education CFDA 84.305A." Program Announcement: Mathematics and Science Education CFDA 84.305A. Institution of Education Sciences, 2016. Web. 30 Jan. 2016. <https://ies.ed.gov/funding/ncer_rfas/mathsci.asp>. 27 Pound, Linda. How Children Learn: From Montessori to Vygotsky ­ Educational Theories and Approaches Made Easy. Vol. 1. Leamington Spa: Step Forward Pub., 2005. 39. Print. 28 Curry, R. D. Arithmetic Achievement as a Factor of Concrete, Semi Concrete, and Abstract Teaching Methods. Rep. N.p.: n.p., 1971. George Peabody College for Teachers. Web. 2 Apr. 2016. 29 Benford, Russell, and Julie Gess­Newsome. Factors Affecting Student Academic Success in Gateway Courses at Northern Arizona University. Northern Arizona University. Arizona Board of Regents, 24 May 2006. Web. 2 Apr. 2016. <http://www2.nau.edu/~facdev­p/TR/Factors.pdf>.

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experience as a result of these approaches. The National Foundation for Educational

Research says that “there is general agreement that practicals and experiments make

science more enjoyable and more fun. Particular value is to be gained when students are

actively involved in these activities rather than watching demonstrations by the teacher.“

Teaching approaches that involve experiments are much more interesting to students, 30

as opposed to approaches involving rote memorization or passive learning.

Jean Piaget’s goal had always been for schools to teach students to think for

themselves and form their own ideas based upon how they see things. Now, in this 31

world that is constantly evolving in technology, medicine, mathematics, and other fields,

it appears as though they have done just that. Piaget has left a lasting legacy in the fields

of psychology and education. In his exploration of children’s mental development, Jean

Piaget advocated for much needed change in schools internationally by making teachers

aware of what students were capable of, as well as inspiring psychologists to broaden

their studies to include children. As a result, educational success is much more

attainable than it ever was before and students are encountering more engaging classes.

By exploring children’s brains and intellectual ability, Piaget was able to devise his

revolutionary theories about youth cognitive development. When he exchanged his

ideas with others in his fields, the world was changed.

30 Exploring Young People's Views on Science Education. Rep. National Foundation for Educational Research, Sept. 2011. Web. 2 Apr. 2016. <http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/stellent/groups/corporatesite/@msh_peda/documents/web_document/wtvm052732.pdf>. 31 Jervis, Kathe, and Arthur Tobier. Education for Democracy: Proceedings from the Cambridge School Conference on Progressive Education, October,1987. Weston, MA: Cambridge School, 1988. Print.

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Bibliography

Primary Sources

Benford, Russell, and Julie Gess­Newsome. Factors Affecting Student Academic

Success in Gateway Courses at Northern Arizona University. Northern Arizona

University. Arizona Board of Regents, 24 May 2006. Web. 2 Apr. 2016.

<http://www2.nau.edu/~facdev­p/TR/Factors.pdf>.

This PDF was written by two Northern Arizona University professors about what

they felt adequately prepared students for STEM based fields in college. They

said that hands­on education was one of the biggest contributors towards

success, which is exactly what Piaget advocated for. This is helpful to my project

because it shows that Piaget’s theories were correct and that students do benefit

from exploration based education.

Chhin, Christina. "Program Announcement: Mathematics and Science Education CFDA

84.305A." Program Announcement: Mathematics and Science Education CFDA

84.305A. Institution of Education Sciences, 2016. Web. 30 Jan. 2016.

<https://ies.ed.gov/funding/ncer_rfas/mathsci.asp>.

This web page is about a government funded program regarding math and

sciences in schools. Much of the current views on math and science teaching

comes from what Piaget once suggested, so it helps me see how influential Piaget

is, even still, forty years later.

12

Dubinsky, Ed. Applying a Piagetian Perspective to Post­Secondary Mathematics

Education. N.p., 18 Nov. 2000. Web. 19 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.math.kent.edu/~edd/EducMatArt.pdf>.

This paper, written by a math professor at Georgia State University, talked about

how the theories of Jean Piaget remain applicable throughout even college level

math. As it was written in 2000, it shows how Piaget's work is still used by very

high level people even decades after his death, which certainly helps me to show

the long­term importance of my topic, as well as providing an extensive list of the

sources the author used, which I can use to further my own research.

Einstein, Albert. Albert Einstein on Jean Piaget. N.d. Quote.

This Albert Einstein quote about Jean Piaget's work discussed how Einstein felt

about Piaget's theories. He quite obviously loved what Piaget had come up with,

saying that he was a "genius." Coming from THE genius himself, it helped me see

how well­received his theories were.

Hall, Elizabeth. A Conversation with Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder. Psychology Today,

New York, v. 3, N. 12, P. 25­32. May, 1970.

This interview with Jean Piaget discussed Piaget's start as a psychologist, and his

views on the work he had done at the time. He spent a lot of time further

explaining what he meant in his books, which gave me lots of insight into his mind

and theories. I obtained a lot of great quotes from this interview and it will be very

helpful in my project.

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Jervis, Kathe, and Arthur Tobier. Education for Democracy: Proceedings from the

Cambridge School Conference on Progressive Education, October,1987. Weston,

MA: Cambridge School, 1988. Print.

This book is about a conference at Cambridge college about education. This

book includes quotes by Jean Piaget that basically summarize his goals in

researching child psychology. These quotes helped me see how passionate

Piaget was about his work.

King, Irving. "Child Psychology, Its Validity and Aims." The Psychology of the Child.

Chicago, Illinois: U of Chicago, 1903. 1­15. Google Scholar. Web. 17 Nov. 2015.

<https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=KMUZAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=P

R1&dq=irving+king+the+psychology+of+the+child&ots=_OeomY_yfP&sig=vTcGQ

rgm_AQ0xd­­OuaxFLjTWeQ#v=onepage&q=irving%20king%20the%20psycholog

y%20of%20the%20child&f=false>.

This book, published in 1903, discussed the author's feelings towards primary

education and how people looked at child psychology as compared to adult

psychology. It was incredibly helpful in that it gave me an abundance of insight

into the education and view of children's abilities during the time it was written.

The book is great to use for comparison to more recent psychological views,

which helps me to see just how drastically psychology has changed in the last

century or so.

Marshik, Tesia. "How Piaget Influenced Education." Telephone interview. 10 Mar. 2016.

14

This interview was extremely helpful to my project. Dr. Marshik is an expert on

Piaget's work and impact on education and psychology, and getting to speak with

her gave me the chance to ask specific questions that I could not find answers to

in books or online. I learned a great deal about Piaget, which helped me make my

project more informational.

Piaget, Jean. The Origins of Intelligence in Children. New York: International

Universities, 1952. University of Pittsburgh. University of Pittsburgh. Web. 20 Jan.

2016. <http://www.pitt.edu/~strauss/origins_r.pdf>.

This book written by Piaget himself talks about intelligence in children and how it

changes throughout different developmental stages and ages. I obtained lots of

great quotes and information from this book that will most definitely help my

project.

Piaget, Jean. To Understand Is To Invent: The Future of Education. New York, New

York: Viking, 1972. UNESDOC. Web. 18 Jan. 2016.

<http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0000/000061/006133eo.pdf>.

This book, written by Jean Piaget himself, talks a lot about the educational

implications of his theories, particularly in mathematics. It helped me to see more

clearly his view on the education at the time that he was alive and how his

publications could change that, at least in his opinion.

Piaget on Piaget. Dir. Jean William Fritz Piaget. Perf. Jean Piaget. Yale University Media

Design Studio, 1977. YouTube. Google, 1 May 2013. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XwjIruMI94>.

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This is a film created by Piaget on his thoughts regarding his works. It helped me

better understand what he meant in his theories, and I obtained some really good

quotes to use in my project.

"Professor Jean Piaget." The Times [London] 18 Sept. 1980: 16. The Times Digital

Archive. Web. 8 Jan. 2016. <http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/wr7x1>.

This was an obituary for Jean Piaget. Since it, as obituaries tend to, highlighted

Piaget's life and his finest moments and accomplishments, it helped me see what

the common people thought of Piaget's work. I obtained some good quotes from

this obituary that I will hopefully be able to use in my project.

Secondary Sources

"Alfred Binet." Human Intelligence. N.p., 7 Nov. 2013. Web. 25 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.intelltheory.com/binet.shtml>.

This web page discussed Alfred Binet, one of the people responsible for creating

a test to measure human intellect (the IQ test). Piaget was employed by Binet,

which helped Piaget to find resources to further his own research as a

psychologist. This helped me understand Binet's work, which then helped me see

how Piaget obtained his start with psychology.

Atherton, J S. " Assimilation and Accommodation." Learning, Teaching. N.p., 2013. Web.

31 Jan. 2016. <http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/assimacc.htm>.

This web page talked about accommodation and assimilation, two of the areas of

psychology that Jean Piaget focused most seriously on. Understanding what

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Piaget meant when he talked about those two concepts helps me to make more

sense of what Piaget said in his works.

"Average SAT Math Scores in the Period of 1986­2013." Breaking News Blast. N.p., n.d.

Web. 27 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.breakingnewsblast.com/category/race­and­intelligence/>.

This chart shows the average SAT math scores every year since 1986. There has

been improvement overall, which shows that lab based education reforms have

helped students. I will use it in my project to show how much Piaget has positively

influenced education.

Beauchamp, Anne. "Kohlberg, Lawrence 1927­1987." Education.com. Education.com,

Inc., 2009. Web. 26 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.education.com/reference/article/kohlberg­lawrence­1927­1987/>.

This web page talked about Lawrence Kohlberg, a child psychologist who was

influenced by Jean Piaget. Kohlberg was very successful on his own, and much of

his work was dependent upon the work that Piaget did. It helped me to see how

much of an influence Piaget had on psychology.

Boeree, C. George. "Piaget." Personality Theories. N.p., 2006. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.

<http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html>.

This web page explains the different stages of Piaget's four stages of cognitive

development, as well as Piaget himself and his lifetime accomplishments. It

helped me to understand what his theories really meant and how successful he

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was throughout his life. I will be using this information in my project to explain and

introduce Piaget's accomplishments more.

"BäRbel Inhelder." Psychology. Net Industries, 2016. Web. 26 Jan. 2016.

<http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/335/B­Rbel­Inhelder.html>.

This website talked about Barbel Inhelder, a successful child psychologist. Her

work was influenced tremendously by Jean Piaget. This helped me see just how

much Piaget was responsible for in the psychology world.

Curry, R. D. Arithmetic Achievement as a Factor of Concrete, Semi Concrete, and

Abstract Teaching Methods. Rep. N.p.: n.p., 1971. George Peabody College for

Teachers. Web. 2 Apr. 2016.

This study was conducted on eight to ten year old students to determine whether

concrete objects used to assist teaching students math had any effect on their

performance. Piaget’s theories suggested that they would, and the study found

that they did cause students to perform better. This is helpful because it shows

just how accurate and helpful Piaget’s work was in education.

Dean, Jeremy. "Jean Piaget's Four­Stage Theory: How Children Acquire Knowledge ­

PsyBlog." PsyBlog RSS. N.p., 22 July 2008. Web. 06 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.spring.org.uk/2008/07/jean­piagets­four­stage­theory­how.php>.

This online article was a summary of Piaget's theories and the immediate reaction

of the people. It helped me to see the short term impact, and I found many good

quotes that will be helpful in my project.

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Dubinsky, Ed. Applying a Piagetian Perspective to Post­Secondary Mathematics

Education. N.p., 18 Nov. 2000. Web. 19 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.math.kent.edu/~edd/EducMatArt.pdf>.

This paper, written by a math professor at Georgia State University, talked about

how the theories of Jean Piaget remain applicable throughout even college level

math. As it was written in 2000, it shows how Piaget's work is still used by very

high level people even decades after his death, which certainly helps me to show

the long­term importance of my topic, as well as providing an extensive list of the

sources the author used, which I can use to further my own research.

Dyrli, Odvard Egril. "Teaching/learning Legacy of Piaget: Active Learning Is Essential to

Education Success." District Administration May 2013: 10. Research in Context.

Web. 18 Jan. 2016.

<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A329899184&v=2.1&u=hol40923&it=r

&p=MSIC&sw=w&asid=5b016f34586a5c21069d301e40158510>.

This magazine article talks about the author’s admiration for Piaget and his

theories and how they influenced education. It helped me see how highly

esteemed Piaget really is in the education world, and I obtained some good

quotes and references to other articles and papers that I will be able to use in my

project.

Exploring Young People's Views on Science Education. Rep. National Foundation for

Educational Research, Sept. 2011. Web. 2 Apr. 2016.

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<http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/stellent/groups/corporatesite/@msh_peda/documents/

web_document/wtvm052732.pdf>.

This report is on how students feel about labs in science classes. It shows how

much more students enjoy learning when they explore things themselves. This is

helpful for my project because it demonstrates students’ willingness to learn when

schools apply Piagetian concepts to their curriculum.

Flavell, John H. "Other Studies." The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget.

Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1963. 366. Print.

This book gives an in­depth explanation of Piaget's theories, and features a

foreword written by Jean Piaget himself. It really helped me understand all of the

implications and deeper meanings that were in the admittedly hard to understand

theories of Piaget's.

Furth, Hans G. "On Asking the Right Question." Piaget and Knowledge; Theoretical

Foundations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice­Hall, 1969. 3­11. Print.

This book was a very in­depth review of Piaget's theories and their implications,

both in psychology in general and education. The pages I used talked a lot about

what good would happen if people in leadership roles in educations were to put

into consideration the theories of Jean Piaget. This was written many years ago,

before his theories may have been really put to use, so it helped me to see how

obscure primary education really was before people paid attention to the theories.

Gordon, Kimberly A. "Early Childhood Education Constructivists." Early Childhood

Education: Becoming a Professional. N.p.: Sage Publications, 2014. 41. Google

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Books. Google, Incorporated. Web. 26 Jan. 2016.

<https://books.google.com/books?id=fcEgAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=e

arly+childhood+education&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjIxaqIjcjKAhUnmYMKHXo

oB4wQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=early%20childhood%20education&f=false>.

This recently published book is aimed towards educators, specifically educators

specializing in young children. The section of the book that I used talked about

Jean Piaget and his theories, and how they relate to primary education. This helps

me see how Piaget has influenced things, even all the way to nowadays.

Harré, Rom. "The Developmentalists: Jean Piaget." Key Thinkers in Psychology.

London: SAGE, 2006. 34­44. Print.

This book gave an overview of many of the most influential psychologists of all

time, which included Piaget. It helped me in that it gave me a compressed but to

the point summary of all that Piaget accomplished, as well as the effects of and

public reactions to his work.

"History of Psychology." History of Psychology. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.

<http://www.mindfocus.net/nc00300.html>.

This online article gave a brief summary of psychology through the decades. It

helped me find a lot of historical context, and it also talked a bit about Piaget and

his impact as well.

Hopkins, J. Roy. "The Enduring Influence of Jean Piaget." Association for Psychological

Science RSS. N.p., Dec. 2011. Web. 10 Jan. 2016.

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<http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/2011/dece

mber­11/jean­piaget.html>.

This website is about the influence that Jean Piaget had on psychology. It helped

me to see more concretely how much Piaget helped his science through statistics

and quotations.

Hynes, Mary Ellen, Michael Hynes, Marcella L. Kysilka, and Douglas Brumbaugh.

"Mathematics Laboratories: What Does Research Say?" Association of

Supervision and Curriculum Development (1973): n. pag. ASCD. ASCD, 1973.

Web. 2 Apr. 2016.

<http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_197312_hynes.pdf>.

This article talks about how exploration­based education affects student

performance. I learned just how much Piaget’s concepts benefit students and how

much better students respond to those teaching styles. It helped me see how

Piaget has positively influenced education long­term and how his theories are still

used today.

Jax, Christine. "How Piaget's Theory Influenced Child Development Research." Everyday

Life. Demand Media, 2016. Web. 26 Jan. 2016.

<http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/piagets­theory­influenced­child­development­r

esearch­15902.html>.

This web page was about Piaget's influence on psychology and education. It

talked a lot about how other people reacted to his work, whether by reforming their

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areas of expertise or by lending criticism. It helped me see how Piaget's theories

influenced all areas of social sciences, which helps me a lot in my project.

"Jean Piaget." New World Encyclopedia. MediaWiki, 16 Feb. 2015. Web. 22 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Jean_Piaget>.

This web page talks about Jean Piaget's influence on different areas of science. It

helped me see just how much Piaget changed the world, even outside of

psychology and epistemology.

"Jean Piaget." Simply Psychology. N.p., 17 Sept. 2009. Web. 23 Nov. 2015.

<http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html>.

This website gave an in­depth summary of Jean Piaget's most famous theories

and their effects on psychology, including how the public reacted and what

differentiated his work from what was previously thought about children's minds. It

really helped me to pin down a topic for my NHD project and find a strong

background so I knew what to look for in the future.

Klein, David. "A Brief History of American K­12 Mathematics Education in the 20th

Century." A Brief History of American K­12 Mathematics Education in the 20th

Century. Information Age Publishing, 2003. Web. 06 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.csun.edu/~vcmth00m/AHistory.html>.

This online article was written by a school, and it talked about the changes it was

making to its curriculum. It cited Piaget as a reason for some of those changes,

which was huge for me in establishing a long term impact of Piaget's theories.

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Lepton, Kevin. "Jean Piaget and His Contributions to Early Childhood Cognitive

Development." Sciography. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.sciography.com/jean­piaget.htm>.

This web page gave a brief overview of Piaget's accomplishments and

contributions to psychology. It helped me find a better understanding of how much

Piaget was able to impact what people knew about children’s brains, which will

help me know a lot more general information about my topic to help me in my

project.

Piaget's Developmental Theory: An Overview. Perf. David Elkind. Davidson Films Inc.,

1989. Online Video.

This video, as the title may suggest, gave a summary of Piaget's works,

specifically his cognitive development theory. It helped me to better understand

exactly what Piaget did, which helps explain to me why his theories were so

influential in education.

"Pioneers in Our Field: Jean Piaget ­ Champion of Children's Ideas." Scholastic.

Scholastic, Inc., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/pioneers­our­field­jean­piaget­champi

on­childrens­ideas>.

This online article talked about how Piaget's studies influenced education and how

teachers taught young children. It was very helpful to me in that it was very

specific about how education itself was affected, because Scholastic is an

education company.

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Posner, George J., Kenneth A. Strike, Peter W. Hewson, and William Gertzog. Ithaca,

New York: Cornell University, 21 Sept. 1981. PDF.

This PDF of a college essay talks about the significance of various psychologists

and each of their effects on education. It was incredibly helpful in establishing the

long term impact of my topic, Jean Piaget, and I was also able to find a few good

quotes.

Pound, Linda. How Children Learn: From Montessori to Vygotsky ­ Educational Theories

and Approaches Made Easy. Vol. 1. Leamington Spa: Step Forward Pub., 2005.

39. Print.

This book was about various influences in child psychology and epistemology. I

learned about exactly why Piaget was influential to his field, which helps me to

see the long­term impact of Piaget's studies.

PSYCHOTHERAPY­ Melanie Klein. Prod. Mad Adam. The School of Life, 2015.

YouTube. Google Inc., 16 Jan. 2015. Web. 31 Jan. 2016.

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HU3iSW6WTo8>.

This video was about Melanie Klein, a renowned psychoanalyst. She is famous for

creating many behavioral therapy methods that were effective for children, and in

doing that she helped people start to see the differences between adults and

children. This all helps me to see the history of child psychology, before Piaget

had anything to do with it.

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Sandwell, J. "Piaget's Stage Theory of Development." Piaget's Stage Theory of

Development. N.p., 17 Nov. 1995. Web. 31 Jan. 2016.

<http://penta.ufrgs.br/edu/telelab/3/piaget's.htm>.

This web page talked about what is perhaps Piaget's most famous work, his

theory of stage development for children's brains. I learned about how Piaget

thought children's brains developed, which helps my project because I understand

Piaget's thoughts better.

Thornton, Stephen F. "Sigmund Freud." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Internet

Encyclopedia of Philosophy, n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.iep.utm.edu/freud/>.

This web page talked about Sigmund Freud, a famous twentieth century child

psychoanalyst. He is often recognized as the most influential child

psychologist/psychoanalyst from the twentieth century. By reading this, I learned

more about the history of psychology and what people thought about children's

brains.

Whitman, Alden. "Jean Piaget Dies in Geneva at 84." New York Times. New York Times

Company, 17 Sept. 1980. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

<http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0809.html>.

This was an obituary for Jean Piaget on the New York Times' website. It was a

great overview of Piaget's biggest successes and influence on psychology, and it

helped me to see exactly what Piaget did in his time.

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