Introduction to Political Research

What is Social Research?

It Is NOTAuthorityOverestimate expertiseMay not all agreeNot knowledgeableTraditionCommon SenseMedia MythPersonal ExperienceOvergeneralizeSelective observationPremature closureHalo effectNO MAGAZINES!

Social Research ISTheoryPrinciplesOutlooksIdeas (METHODOLOGY)Along with a collection of specific practices, techniques and strategiesEmpiricalBased on observation or experienceFalsifiable

The Old Reliable Scientific MethodScientific Method is utilized not only in hard science research, but in social research, too.Academic Journals vs. Magazine ArticlesDifference?

Academic Journals vs. MagazinesAcademic JournalDifficult to get publishedPeer ReviewedVery Little MoneyPublishing enhances professional status/career prospectsMagazinesNOT peer reviewedMoney attached for reporters to publishEven credible magazines such as Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report fall into this category

The Research ProcessSelect TopicFocus Your ResearchDesign Your StudyCollect DataAnalyze DataInterpret DataInform Community

Types of ResearchBasic ResearchRefute or support theories

These theories explain the social world and are already establishedApplied ResearchAddress a specific concern or problem

EvaluationsAction ResearchSocial Impact AssessmentExamples???

What is the Purpose of ResearchEXPLORE

DESCRIBE

EXPLAIN

Exploratory ResearchWhat lies did Bill Clinton tell about the Lewinsky Scandal?

What led up to the uncovering of the Lewinsky affair in 1998?

Descriptive ResearchWhat type of relationship ultimately led to the impeachment of Bill Clinton?

What were the circumstances surrounding the trial?

Explanatory ResearchWhat were the ramifications of the Clinton impeachment?

Did the impeachment set a precedent?

In retrospect, should Clinton have been impeached?

Time Dimension in Research

Cross-Sectional Research-one fixed point in time

Longitudinal Research-a moving picture, more at one time (time series)-panel study, cohort study, case study

Which is better?

Data CollectionQuantitative Data Collection-experiments, surveys, content analyses, existing statistics

Qualitative Data Collection-field research, historical-comparative research

Which is better?

The Scientific MethodThe scientific method:Findings are based on objective, systematic observation and verified through public inspection of methods and results.The ultimate goal is to use verifiable results to construct causal theories that explain why phenomena behave the way they do.

The Scientific MethodWhat are the most important components of the scientific method?Empirical verificationFalsifiabilityNon-normative researchTransmissibleEmpirical generalizationExplanatoryPredictionProbabilistic explanationParsimony

The Scientific MethodThe method uses a common structure:Research questionA question that asks why or how a political phenomena behavesTheoryA body of statements that synthesize knowledge of and explain phenomenaHypothesesThe terms to be tested through the collection and analysis of empirical dataEmpirical analysisConfirms or refutes hypotheses and theory and answers research questions

The Scientific MethodMany different approaches to scientific workTwo groups of techniques:DeductiveArguments are proven to be true through the use of several logical statements in which a conclusion is true because the underlying premises are true.InductiveOne draws an inference from a set of propositions and observations.

Is Political Science a Science?There are two general objections to classifying political science as a science: Practical objectionsPhilosophical objections

Is Political Science a Science?Practical objections:Political behavior is extremely complex.People can intentionally mislead researchers.Measurement is often subjective.Data can be difficult or impossible to attain.

Is Political Science a Science?Philosophical objections:The reasoning behind political behavior cannot be measured objectively.The facts of political phenomena are constructed or conditioned by the observers perceptions, experiences, and opinions.

Political Science DisciplineThe discipline has changed over time.Traditional approach:Period between 1930 and 1960primarily described the practice of governmentEmpirical approach:Followed early survey work in the 1950sled to the widespread application of statistical methodsexplanatory research

Political Science DisciplineThe discipline has changed over time.Normative pushback:In response to empiricismfocused on questions of morality and policy issues that are relevant to real- world political discussionsDebate between empirical and normative research has cooled since the 1980s

Social TheorySocial Theory is carefully constructed and debated and organizes knowledge into a compact, manageable framework.Seeks more than to pass blame, but rather, to explain.Explains recurring patternsExplains for aggregatesState a probability, chance, or tendency for events to occur

TheoryTheory is broken down into conceptsAn idea expressed as a symbol or in wordsExamplesGender rolesSexismUrban Sprawl

Concept ClustersIn research, concept clusters help to group together like topics.Example: In developing a study to determine why certain people obtain higher education, concepts like race, income, social environment, etc. are utilized.

Concepts: Concrete vs. AbstractConcrete Concepts can be felt and are often times tangible. (casting a ballot)Abstract Concepts are not tangible and often more complex. (size)

Theory1. Direction of Reasoning

2. Social Reality

3. Forms of Explanation

4. Overall Framework (Assumptions)

Theoretical ApproachesDeductive ApproachGeneral to a specific caseTheory to Empirical Findings

Problems?

Inductive ApproachEmpirical Patterns to a Theory

Could be referred to as grounded theory

Problems?

Grounded TheoryBuilding a theory from the ground upInductive Approach--More Qualitative in NatureTries to make sense of evidence

Ranges of TheoryEmpirical Generalization -summarizes a pattern of behavior-least abstract, very narrow range-More men then women pick engineering as a college majorMiddle-Range Theory -more abstract as it builds an explanation Theoretical Frameworks (Paradigms) -very abstract; develop ways for looking at the social world

Levels of TheoryMicro-Level Theory -small slices of time, space, numbers ex. A particular election, a select groupMeso-Level Theory -intermediate level; ex. A movementMacro-Level Theory -larger aggregates; ex. An entire society

Prediction and ExplanationEvery time I call my mother, the Chicago Cubs win their game that day.

Can this possibly be an acceptable explanation for the Cubs winning?

Causal Explanations1. Temporal Order: Cause Before Effect -Does the call cause the Cubs to win or does the fact that the Cubs won cause me to call my mother?2. Association: A patterned way or an appearance of a pattern.

Causal Explanation3. Elimination of other Alternatives: Also known as spuriousness. Perhaps I only call my mom on days when I know the Cubs have a weak opponent (only the Reds) or are playing well (which is never).Control Variables are utilized to help eliminate spuriousness.

Positive-NegativePositive relationship: higher value on cause variable leads to higher value on effect variableNegative relationship: higher value on cause variable leads to lower value on effect variable, and vice versa

Positive and Negative RelationshipsPositive: The more you study for Political Research, the more points you will earn on the exam.Negative: The more you party, the less points you will earn on your Political Research exam.

Structural ExplanationsA sequence of phrases or parts that comprises the wholeExample: Various social networks combining to form a wholeUsed in network, sequence, and functional theory

Interpretive ExplanationsJust as it soundsInterpretive explanations seek to understand different attributes and characteristics of the social environment.Overall, interpretive explanations seek to get a feel for what occurs and why it occurs.

Major Approaches1. Positivist Approach

2. Interpretive Approach

3. Critical Approach

4. Thank Goodness we are almost through with Theory.

Positivist ApproachHard Facts

A very natural sciences approach

Logical

Nomothetic

Replication (REMEMBER) is essential.

Interpretive ApproachHuman social life is qualitatively different than the natural science/hard facts approach.

Ideas, beliefs, perceptions should be taken into account.

Ideographicspecific description

Critical ApproachPuts knowledge into action.

Research is not value free; an agenda or a political or moral obligation often exists.

Common Pitfalls1) Begging the Question2) Circular Argument3) Post Hoc Explanation

Review

AspectType of Social Theory DirectionInductive or DeductiveLevelMicro, Meso, or MacroExplanationCausal, Interpretive, or StructuralAbstractionEmpirical Generalization, Middle Range, Framework, or Paradigm